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^u 


& 


MANUAL 


"^T^^^jJltA^^ 


OP 


MODERN     GEOGRAPHY 


MATHEMATICAL,  PHYSICAL,  AND  POUTICAL 


ON    A    NEW    PLAN  "  r 

EMBRACING  A  COMPLETE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  RIVER 
8TSTEMS  OF  THE  GLOBE 


BY    THE 

EEV.  ALEXf^CKAY,  LL.D.  RRG.S. 

AUTHOR  OF 

'  FACTS  AND  DATES  ; '  *  ELEMENTS  OF  MODERN  OEOORAPHT  ; '  '  OUTLINES  OF 
MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  ; '  *  FIRST  STEPS  IN  GEOGRAPHY ; '  *  PHYSIO- 
GRAPHY AND  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY,'  ETC. 


TENTH  THOUSAND,  REVISED  TO  DATE  OF  PUBLICATION 


WILLIAM   BLACKWOOD   AND    SONS 

EDINBURGH    AND    LONDON 

MDCCCLXXXI 


^7/) 


PEEFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


I 


Tma  edition  of  the  Manual  of  Modem  Geography  has  been 
tborooghly  revised  throughout,  and  in  numerous  sections 
entirely  rewritten.  The  Manual  was  the  Author's  literary 
firstborn,  and  on  it  were  fondly  lavished  all  the  privileges 
and  affections  inseparable  from  primogeniture.  Many  long 
years  were  cheerfully  devoted  to  ita  first  production,  when 
the  Author  bad  to  labour  single-banded,  in  a  remote  cornel 
of  the  land,  with  few  hooks  and  still  fewer  friends  to  con- 
sult. He  had  hia  reward,  however,  in  the  emphatic  ver- 
dict of  the  public  prese,  and  the  unqualified  approbation 
of  eminent  educationists  from  all  parte  of  the  Dritish 
Empire. 

As  the  First  Edition,  however,  consisted  of  a  very  laige 
impression,  wellnigh  a  decade  of  years  has  elapsed  since 
ita  preparation,  and  in  that  decade  numerous  changes  have 
taken  place  in  all  departments  of  Geography,  as  also  in  all 
the  sciences  with  which  it  stands  most  closely  connected. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  place  the  work  a  second  time  wholly 
abreast  of  the  progress  of  events,  no  less  than  an  entire 
interrupted  labour  has  been  devoted  to  this 
Edition, 

A  large  portion  of  the  Political  Geography  had  to  be 
recast,  especially  the  sections  relating  to  the  British  Isles, 
North  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Russia,  India,  the  United 
States,  and  the  Eritiah  Colonies ;  while  those  bearing  on 
Astronomy,  Geology,  Meteorology,  Commerce,  Manufac- 
tures, and  Inland  Communication,  had  to  be  rewritten. 


33V917, 


iy  PREFACE. 

In  this  Edition,  a  brief  Historical  Sketcli  has  been  added 
to  the  Political  Geography  of  all  European  countries,  as 
also  several  new  Diagrams  illustrative  of  the  Seasons,  the 
Tides,  and  the  Succession  of  Life  in  the  pre- Adamite  ages 
of  our  Planet's  history.  It  is  hoped  that  the  work  will  be 
found  increasingly  useful  to  Teachers,  Advanced  Classes, 
Candidates  for  the  Civil  Service  (Home  and  Foreign),  and 
especially  as  a  work  of  reference. 

Edinburgh,  15ih  May  1870. 


PREFACE  TO  SEVENTH  THOUSAND. 

In  preparing  this  edition  for  press,  the  entire  work  has 
been  subjected  to  another  thorough  revision.  All  political 
changes  are  represented;  the  social,  commercial,  and  in- 
dustrial statistics  of  all  countries  are  brought  down  to  the 
latest  dates ;  the  rapid  progress  of  geographical  discovery, 
especi^y  in  Africa  and  the  Polar  regions,  is  duly  notified ; 
while  the  splendid  contributions  made  to  the  Physical 
Greography  of  the  Sea  by  the  Challenger  and  other  expedi- 
tions have  been  carefully  epitomised. 


NOTE  TO  TENTH  THOUSAND. 

In  this  edition,  besides  very  many  corrections  through- 
out the  work,  effect  has  been  given  to  the  numerous  poli- 
tical changes  caused  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  in 
South  Eastern  Europe  and  Armenia;  while  the  articles 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  indeed  all  Oceania,  have 
been  extensively  corrected. 

A.  M. 
Peospeot  House,  Ventnor,  I.  W., 
March  1881. 


PEEFACE   TO   FIEST  ZDITIOK. 

CoKBroEBisQ  the  improred  methods  now  gtmeranj  Hdoptad  in 
teaching  Qeogrojihy,  the  ever-ezpandiiig  dimensioiiB  of  our  ovra 
eigandc  cmpirti,  tlie  uameTons  additiuns  recent!;  made  to  dui 
cnowledge  m  foreign  countrieH,  and,  oe  a  caneegnence  of  tiiesfe, 
the  innreaaing  intereHt  fdt  ty  Educated  poTBons  in  every  de- 
portment of  the  science,  the  Author  deems  i1  saperflDouB  to  offur 
any  apology  for  iraidng  the  preBent  Manual-  Am  it  differa,  how- 
ever, somewhat  widely,  lioth  in  matter  and  armnpement,  from 
ail  il«  predecflBHora,  it  may  he  neteaBBry  here  to  describe  its 
more  prominent  cluiracteriatics. 

The  work  commencea  with  a  hnef  acconnt  of  the  relatjon  of 
the  Earth  U<  the  Solar  Byatem,  and  of  tlie  latter  to  the  other 
worlds  which  people  space. 

The  form  and  matenals  of  the  glohe,  the  conflguration  of  its 
HUT&ce,  its  dimaie,  mineralogy,  geology,  liotuiy,  zoology,  and 
ethnograjihy,  are  next  diECUBeed  ;  and  thue  a  foimdation  is  laid 
for  the  Bubfleuuent  details  in  Physical  and  Political  Geograjiliy. 

""     "    liTidus'         -"■      '-■'■■         ■-■■...       -  ., 


The  individual  continents  and  minor  diviGiona  of  the  earth's 
anrface  then  pane  socoeaBively  under  review.  Each  of  these  i» 
viewed  from  many  mdefi,  and  the  refulte  presented  to  the  learner 
in  u  cDrre!i]ioudinf;  seriea  of  lirief  hut  pmntad  aectiaiiB. 

The  preciae  order  m  wldch  the  different  sections  should  stand 
was  a  subject  of  maoh  careful  reflection.  While  in  moat  other 
works  on  geography  the  phyBtcul  and  political  etand  'widely 
apart,  they  are  here  intentionally  combined,  and  bo  made,  not 
only  to  reflect  mutual  light  on  each  othtir,  but  also  to  correspond 
more  cLosely  with  the  manner  in  which  the  realities  lo  wiiich 
tfaer  refer  interpenetrate  one  another  in  nature. 

Without  adverting  to  the  contenta  of  each  of  the  sections  indi- 
vidually, the  Author  can  here  only  notice  tiose  of  them  in  whieli 
he  ha£  departed  most  widelT  from  the  usual  routine.  The  first 
departure  occura  under  the  heading  PoBmoN  and  Eocs'DABnsB. 
It  IS  aingulor  what  confused  notdons  prevail,  even  among  otlier- 
wise  accurate  geogia^ers,  regarding  the  relative  position  of  llie 
beat-known  places.  Tor  example,  how  few  ordinary  students  of 
geography  could  eay,  without  consulting  globe  or  map,  what 
other  impm-tant  places  have  tlie  same  latitude  and  longitude  as 
London,  Edinburgh,  or  Madrid !  To  remedy  this,  a  single  sen- 
bmoe  is  oniformly  added  to  this  paxagmpk,  mentjoning  aU  the 
most  imi'ortant  places  on  the  globe  lying  on  the  some  parallel 
uid  mendion  with  the  capital  of  the  oountry  under  review,  or 
witb  tlie  central  point  of  the  latter,  should  the  capital  happen  to 
be  sitoated  at  some  dietauce  torn  it«  centre.  In  addition  to  the 
Y  ffeatei  fiuniliority  with  the  relative  positian  of  places  whicli  ie 


vi  PREFACE  TO   FIRST   EDITION. 


thus  commtmicated,  these  brief  notices,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found 
serviceable  to  the  student  when  comparing  the  cliinates,  botany, 
and  zoology  of  different  countries. 

Under  the  Area  of  each  country,  in  addition  to  the  informa- 
tion usuaUy  given,  its  magnitude  is  invariably  compared  with 
that  of  the  British  Isles  collectively,  or  with  one  or  other  of  the 
kingdoms  composing  them ;  and  a  similar  comparison  is  drawn 
regarding  its  roPULATiON,  which  in  every  instance  embodies 
the  resuUs  of  the  most  recent  census  or  estimate. 

The  artiicles  entitled  "  Political  Divisions  "  have  been 
thoroughly  elaborated,  in  accordance  with  the  best  maps,  and  a 
liew  prmciple  of  arrangement  adopted.  Instead  of  adhering  to 
the  prevaihng  custom  of  giving  under  each  province  or  county 
a  dry  list  of  cities  and  towns  wholly  unconnected  by  any  system 
of  arrangement,  the  writer  had  no  nesitation  in  availing  himself 
of  a  principle  egnally  simple  and  beautiful  with  which  nature 
supplied  hmL  He  refers  to  that  great  axiom  in  geography,  that 
all  the  cities  and  towns  on  the  eartKs  surface,  whMer  ancient 
or  modern^  stand  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-coast. 
This  principle  is  universally  vaHd,  notwithstanding  a  few  ap- 
parent instances  to  the  contrary. 

Till  very  recently,  when  the  canal  and  the  railroad  have 
to  some  extent  supplied  their  place,  rivers  have  in  all  ages 
formed  the  great  mghways  of  commerce.  In  every  land  the 
banks  of  rivers  present  the  most  fertile  portions  of  tne  country, 
as  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris,  the  Euphrates,  the  Nile,  and  the 
Jordan ;  and  have  formea  the  earliest  seats  of  civilisation — as, 
for  example,  Nineveh,  Babylon,  HeliopoHs,  Damascus  —  the 
origin  of  which  dates  back  to  the  dawn  of  history.  So  close,  in 
short,  is  the  connection  between  the  rivers  of  a  country  and  its 
towns,  that  there  is  no  exaggeration  in  saying  that  the  rivers  have 
created  the  towns  ;  or  that,  without  the  rivers,  the  towns  would 
have  had  no  existence.  In  no  system  of  geography  founded  on 
natural  principles  can  this  connection  oe  overlooked.  The 
political  Doundaries  of  a  country  will  vary  from  time  to  time 
with  the  varying  fortunes  of  its  rulers,  but  its  rivers  will  con- 
tinue to  flow  in  their  wonted  channels,  and  the  cities  that  grace 
their  banks  will  continue  to  pay  them  their  wonted  homage. 
Eivers  are  majestic  trees  that  have  their  roots  fixed  in  the  ocean, 
and  their  tops  reaching  the  clouds ;  the  great  cities  of  the  world 
hang  around  their  stems  ;  while  the  towns  and  villages  cluster 
like  fruit  on  their  branches. 

Hence,  though  the  Manual  embraces  some  other  original 
features,  it  was  the  intimate  connection  subsisting  between 
rivers  and  towns  that  led  to  its  production,  and  that  forms  the 
principal  basis  on  which  it  rests.    While  the  influence  of  this 


•^ 


PREFACE   TO   FIRST   EDITION.  Til 

connection  can  be  traced  in  almost  every  page,  tluee  of  the 
twenty-four  Heetiona  usually  duvoted  to  eooii  country  nre  eu- 
tirelr  occupied  with  its  elucidation — viz.,  those  entitled  "  Prin- 
eipel  BJTer-Basins,"  "  Political  Divisions,"  and  "  Table  of  Rivera 
and  Towns."  The  first  of  theae  shows  the  dimensions  of  all  the 
laiger  river-basins,  and  indicates  at  a  glance  how  niaiiy  provinces 
or  counties  theymnbtace  either  wholly  orinpart.  In  the  second 
it  necessarily  occupies  a  somewhat  snbordinate  place  ;  for  not 
only  must  the  towns  with  their  population  be  placed  in  the 
foreground — the  name  of  the  river  being  placed  after  them 
witEn  parentheses — but  the  boundaries  of  the  provinces  con- 
tinualiy  iutemipt  tie  continuity  of  tho  rivers.  The  capital  of  ft 
province  is, moreover,  placed  iii'st,  even  though  itahould  not  stand 
nearest  to  the  river's  mouth ;  and,  finally,  only  the  larger  towns 
ia  each  province  have  the  rivers  on  which  they  stand  indicated 
lest  the  learner  should  be  overburdened  with  their  multiplicity. 
AH  the  towns,  however,  whose  population  ranges  between  50W>. 
and  10,000  are  immediately  subjomed,  hut  in  a  snialler  type,  to 
indicate  that  they  may  be  omitted  in  a  firatpernsal.  The  only 
departure  from  this  ia  in  the  cose  of  the  United  Kingdom,  in 
treating  of  which  it  was  considered  necessary  to  embrace  towns 
of  a  much  smaller  population. 

But  the  third  ot  these  pan^^phs,  or  those  denominated 
"  Tables  of  Eivers  and  Towns,"  are  those  to  which  the  Author 
would  direct  most  special  attention,  as  presenting  at  once  the 
most  original  portion  of  his  Manual,  and  the  fullest  exhibition 
of  his  peculiar  method.  Animmeuse  amount  of  time  and  labour 
has  been  expended  on  these  tables ;  but,  judging  from  experience, 
the  Author  is  convinced  that  their  importance  to  the  student, 
and  the  labour  and  time  they  will  save  to  the  teacher,  fully 
justified  the  sacrifice ;  for  he  is  aware  that  many  of  the  most 
successful  teachers  of  geography  ore  in  thedaily  habit  of  drilling 
their  classes  more  or  less  in  accordance  with  the  method  here  so 
fully  developed,  but  having  no  reliable  guide  to  direct  them, 
each  of  them  is  obliged  to  draw  out  a  scheme  for  himself,  from 
euch  materials  as  he  may  have  at  command. 

Having  said  so  much  on  the  "  River  System,"  properly  no 
called,  space  will  not  allow  an  eqnally  minute  description  of  tho 
other  paragraphs.  Sul£ce  it  to  say,  that  similar  care  and  patience 
hare  been  bestowed  on  all  of  them.  Thc  Modhtais-K4Kge3 
and  the  Lakes  are  more  systematically  arranged,  and  their 
connection  with  the  river-basiQfl  more  closely  eihibited,  than  in 
any  other  existing  Geography. 

llie  sections  describmg  the  Cliuate,  Geologt,  Mihgsal!*, 
Botany,  and  Zooloot  of  the  different  countries,  have  been 
drawn  up  with  the  greatest  core,  and  from  the  most  recent  and 


*  1 


iiz'.v*.'!:   I**    ~j 


'aurr-iiuni^.L  ii'-a  i:.\'>  i—zi  •ii-:i:ir«u  i.v  "lir-tii.  tav.  ?w^'n.Ti« 
laniinui    uiiiniius:.  i-itii    ■:   jn^-mn.-iiT.   .ill   -imsciiii   if  "ais 

.L  "jiWH  ^  117 wi"  ue«.r:i»r*.u  ji.l   ts-  y^((nv7i  0  rjitr"  nrnpuoftn 

-Jiii  ■iii:r*   I  m.urw  j^nrtti    "aul    ;vi.«m    Ub    iii-inniOT  if  p»i^ 

i'*!»T'."^niim»  if  "Hilt  JLm"  uiu  y.;'*^  7iiniL.  iH.ir.  lif^^^utfriaa 
Zlr^itinL^ir-?.  r.iramisr:!*.  IViOiun.i.r.xr'-s  iizTt^'xr^  nm.  Zbrriara, 
T'.LTti  ,.:nn]'in.i:'tdiii>  miL  Jir^,»iri  7'i>«.-T^uns-  "f  bit  ifiM 
Tirj:«T»  iiLL::i&  n  tut  ^rtiiiimtiini  a  y-ul:i  iiu  mrec  tsssbe:  «■»- 

IiTUL-iiiA.  trt  iwoiRiairuii:'"  iiur*  iimu'rm:&  iiu*i  »  ansr-inttzy  an 
VTTiif  :i  lit  Zcjiuio.  Iziji^   Li»L  1*1   ;iu«tr  "jilt^  if  "sxii 


*ic  ?2 :  yrmi-T: :  y  :•:  ^^vittimiu-.  il«ji»4*  j*  a.'T2aE-:'-y  a 


i:iiw*cT  :-  IttiT  Ii:.iriiSL  1 tt  i..   :.::u::Iii«  unTirru^ 


.'<;«< 


The  Author  ciimDi  c.;i.:l~ir  ilt«-  i-risitrrijr::^.*  '^rfiihiat  ei- 
prensin^  Ms  deep  ob!irai:;r^  i:  iij."e»r  vilzei  frl=£Di5  who  sO 
j^enerously  assist^  him  in  his  s>elf-ii::Ti.i=eI  i&si.  His  lies:  ihanks 
are  due  to  the  Rev.  M.  M&:kar.  Foriv;?*.  f;r  iis  &id  in  connec- 
tion Tilth  the  tojio^naphical  sc-crlcna.  tie  minuieneas  and  accu- 
racy of  which  are  in  a  gircat  measure  tLr  rerft  of  his  unwearied 
labours :  and  to  A.  Keith  Johnston.  Esq..  LL.D..  Her  Majesty's 
(geographer  for  Scotland,  for  the  many  valuaLle  items  of  recent 
information  with  which  he  favoured  the  Author  during  the  com- 
l)08iti()n  of  his  l^lanual,  and  for  his  great  kindness  in  volunteer- 
ing the  final  revision  of  the  proof-sheets.  Above  all,  I  have  the 
Jiiost  unfeigned  pleasure  in  expressing  my  deepest  obligations 
to  another  (who  for  the  present  must  be  nameless),  without 
whoso  constant  companionship  and  unwearied  assistance  this 
^f  anual  could  never  have  attained  that  degree  of  minute  accu- 
racy which,  I  believe,  every  page  will  be  found  to  exhibit. 


CONTENTS. 


DETINITIOXa,  .  .  i  . 

Mathematical  GEoaRAPHT, 
Physical  Geoorapht,    . 

Materials,  Density,  and  Attractive  Power 
Earth,     .... 

Configuration  op  the  Surface,  . 

The  Ocean,    .... 

The  Atmosphere,     . 

v^LIMATE,  •  .  ■  • 

Mineralogy,  .... 
Geology,  .... 
Botany,  .... 

Zoology,        .... 
Ethnography, 
Political  Geography,    .  .  ♦ 


OF  the 


PAGE 

1 

2 
16 

16 
17 
21 
26 
32 
36 
38 
52 
65 
58 
63 


EUROPE, 

The  British  Empire, 
General  View  of  the  British  Isles, 
England  and  Wales,  . 
Scotland, 
Ireland,  .... 


63 
93 

95 
113 
144 
162 


<!»■<>«<»  tmvMt^ 


-.  uk  A':iaMMi-IKu,W4i«:iL>  Eani?. 


tUIWHa  'Ik  'SUIUtll'i,. 


>tN)U4  ■^^tl^J^^HI'^»«>^^^. 


libit..    |I|II>1>UI 


CONTI 

SNTS. 

XI 

SiBEBIA-  AND  CENTRAL  ASIA, 

428 

Japan, 

433 

AFRICA,    .... 

437 

TriE  Egyptian  Empire, 

450 

Abyssinia, 

458 

Barbart  States, 

462 

Sahara,  or  Great  Desert, 

467 

Senegambia,  . 

469 

SOUUAN,   OR  NIGRITIA, 

472 

Guinea, 

476 

Country  op  the  Hottentots, 

482 

South  Africa, 

484 

South  Central  Africa,     . 

490 

East  Africa, 

495 

Region  op  the  Great  Lakks, 

498 

NORTH  AMERICA, 

• 

502 

British  North  America,    . 

516 

Dominion  of  Canada, 

518 

Eastern  Provinces,      . 

518 

British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island. 

526 

North- West  Territory, 

•                         •                         •                         • 

529 

Manitoba  and  Labrador, 

•                         «                         •                         • 

530 

Greenland,  or  Danish  America, 

531 

The  United  States, 

•                         •                          •                         • 

532 

Mexico, 

•                         •                         •                         • 

550 

Central  America,   . 

•    '                    •                         •                         » 

557 

West  Indies  and  Bermudas, 

• 
•                         •                                                    • 

561 

SOUTH  AMERICA, 

•                         •                         •                         • 

567 

Colombia  (U.S.  of  Colombia, 

ECQADOR,   AND  VENEZUELA), 

575 

Guiana, 

•                             •                             ■                             • 

579 

Brazil, 

•                             •                            •                            m 

680 

X  ERU,   .                •                •                • 

•                             •                             •                             • 

685 

XU                                                  CONTENTS. 

Bolivia,        ....... 

5«8 

\^nIL£^                   ■•••*« 

591 

Patagoma  and  Tierra  del  Fuego, 

595 

Argentine  Confederation,  or  La  Plata, 

595 

Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  .... 

598 

OCEANIA, 

602 

Australasia,            ..... 

602 

Australia,         ...... 

603 

Tasbcania,          ...... 

614 

New  Zealand,    ...... 

615 

Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  etc.. 

620 

Malaysia,      ....... 

622 

Micronesia,  ....... 

627 

Polynesia,  or  South  Sea  Islands, 

629 

ANTARCTICA, 

631 

Index,       ••.••••, 

633 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  Circle  and  Sphere, 

Parallels  and  Meridians, 

Zones  and  Circles, 

The  Tides, 

Attractive  Energy  op  the  Earth, 

Geological  Succession  of  Life, 


10 
12 
14 
15 
17 
51 


Geogkapht  ls  that  science  whick  has  for  its  object  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  Earth,  or  of  that  member  of  the  Sokr 
Systeitt  which  forma  the  abode  of  Jlan. 

Though  in  regard  to  practical  importance  it  occupies  thefore- 
moBt  place  amoog  the  physical  HcienceH,  it  has  been  the  lost  to 
receive  the  attention  which  is  due  to  it.  It  consists  of  two 
principal  blanches — viz.,  Ancient  Get^raphy,  which  embraces 
the  lengthened  period  intervening  between  tie  earliest  dawn  of 
history  and  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;  and  Modem  Geo- 
^aphy,  which  extends  from  that  event  to  the  present  time. 
The  latter  is  subdivided  into  four  departments — viz.,  Mathe- 
matical, Physical,  Political,  and  Historical. 

Mi^himaiieaZ  Geo^raphi/ tnati  of  the  Earth  in  its  relations  to  other 
cdostial  bodies ;  of  its  motiooa,  form,  and  magnitude  ;  and  of  the 
troB  position  pf  piaces  oa  its  surface. 

Phytiixil  Orography  treats  of  the  configuration  of  tba  Earth's  crust ; 
the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed ;  3ia  soil  and  climate  that  pre- 
vail at  different  parts  of  the  surface  ;  and  the  effect  of  the  latter  on 
ita  living  inhabitonts — plants,  animals,  and  man. 

FoUtKol  Oeography — the  only  branch  of  the  science  which  re. 
reived  adequate  attention  in  the  schools  of  this  conntry  till  of  late 
years — treats  of  the  artificial  or  political  divisions  of  the  sarface  into 
empires  and  states  ;  their  extent,  population,  and  material  icsoarcea ; 
their  government,  people,  religion,  language,  and  eiviUsation. 

Historical  Oeography  endeavours  to  establish  when  and  by  whom 
the  different  countries  were  first  peopled ;  the  political  changes  whicli 
they  have  snhseqnently  undet^ona;  and  especially  the  progress  of 
geographical  discovery  in  modem  times. 

Vba  first  and  second  of  these  branches  require  separate  considera- 
tion ;  the  third  and  fourth  will  be  treated  of  in  connection  with  the 
individual  ct 


PART    I. 

MATHEMATICAL  GEOaRAPHY. 

.1.  Position  op  the  Earth  and  its  Relation  to  other 
Worlds. — The  earth  on  which  we  live  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
an  isolated,  independent  body,  having  no  relations  to  other 
worlds  ;  but  as  one  of  the  members  of  a  large  family  of  similar 
bodies  collectively  called  the  Solar  System,  all  the  parts  of 
which  are  united  in  one  beautiful  and  harmonious  whole  by 
the  mysterious  power  of  gravitation. 

The  Solar  System. — This  system  is  so  named  from  the  fact  that 
the  sun  (Lat.  sol)  is  by  far  the  largest  body  belonging  to  it — that  he 
is  placed  in  the  centre,  all  the  other  members  of  the  system  revolving 
around  him,  either  directly  or  indirectly — and  especially  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  numberless  other  systems  that  are  located  around 
it  in  universal  space,  each  of  which  has  probably  its  own  sun  or  star 
as  the  immediate  centre  of  its  light,  heat,  and  gravitating  power.     So 
far  as  presently  known,  the  solar  system  consists  of  174  distinct 
bodies — viz.,  the  sun  ;  9  large  planets  revolving  around  him  in  nearly 
circular  orbits ;   147  planetoids,   or  smaller  planets,   between  the 
orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  fragments 
of  a  large  disrupted  planet ;  18  satellites  or  moons,  one  of  which 
belongs  to  the  earth,  and  aXL  the  others  to  the  four  most  distant 
planets ;  besides  a  host  of  comets,  which  move  in  extremely  elliptical 
orbits,  and  myriads  of  meteorites.     Only  a  very  few  of  this  large 
number  were  known  to  the  ancients — viz.,  the  Sun,  Earth,  Moon, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Satmii,  and  a  few  of  the  more 
remarkable  comets.     All  the  remainder  have  been  discovered  since 
the  invention  of  the  telescope  by  Gkdileo  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.     The  centre  of  this  wonderful  piece  of  mechan- 
ism is  occupied  by  the  sun,  a  huge  mass  of  opaque  matter,  1,245,000 
times  the  size  of  the  earth,  but  surrounded  by  aluminous  atmosphere. 
Though  stationary  in  relation  to  the  other  members  of  the  sjrstem, 
he  is  m  reality  advancing  through  space — carrying  in  his  titdn  his 
numerous  retinue  of  phmets,  sateUites,  comets — ^with  a  velocity  of 
17,680  miles  per  hour.      This  velocity,  however  inconceivable,  is 
exceeded  nearly  fourfold  by  that  of  the  earth  in  her  annual  circuit 
round  the  sun.     The  planets  move  around  the  sun  in  elliptical,  but 
nearly  circular,  orbits,  and  in  the  same  general  direction,  though  at 
various  distances,  veloeities,  and  periods  of  revolution,  as  shown  in 
the  following  tables  (p.  6,  7).    The  satellites  perform  similar  elliptic 


IIATIIEIIATICAL   UliOCKAPHY.  3 

cal  otbita  round  th«ir  primariPS  ;  while  the  paths  <j!  the  tomcts  are 
highly  ocoentric,  eouaistrng  fur  tlie  moat  part  of  extremely  elongnteil 
eUxpsea. 

OftMM  oT  EllipUciI  UoUon. — This  cHiptical  motion  is  the  result 
of  the  compositiun  of  two  forces  acting  on  the  planet  simultaneously, 
but  ia  difTeient  ilirections.  The  first  of  these  is  called  the  etntri/ugal 
or  iangerUial  force,  and  is  that  which  the  planet  received  troia  the 
hand  of  the  Creator  when  originallj  lauuched  into  space.  TMb 
force,  ^  anrestraiiifd  by  any  opposing  one,  would  carry  lie  planet 
I  whoDy  away  from  the  eun,  and  project  it  into  the  depths  of  inJinite 
L  OTafiH.  But  it  is  opposed  or  counteracted  by  the  ixatriptUd  force,  a 
B^rce  always  acting  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  directed  towu'ds  the 
I  anil,  or  rather  towards  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  entire  system — a 
}  point  situated  within  that  body,  though  at  a  great  distance  from  it£ 
centre.  Thn  latter  force,  again,  if  acting  alone,  would  oause  tlie 
planet  to  move  towards  the  sun  in  a  straight  line,  and  with  continu- 
tdly  accelerated  speciL  But  as  both  forces  are  incessantly  operating, 
the  plaaet  must,  in  giving  obedience  to  each  of  them,  describe  & 
cnrviliiiear  path.  The  cuiTe  so  described  will,  in  every  case,  he  one 
of  the  conic  secliona — that  is  to  say,  it  will  be  one  or  other  of  the 
various  curves  obtained  by  cutting  a  cone  in  all  the  possible  direc- 
tions. It  will  depend,  however,  on  the  rarticnlat  circumstaaces  of 
the  case — viz.,  direction,  distance,  and  velocity- — which  of  the  curves 
■hall  be  described — i.e.,  whether  a  circle,  an  ellipse,  a  parabola,  or 
an  hyperbola.  Thus,  Uie  orbit  will  lie  a  circle,  when  the  square  ol' 
the  tangential  velocity  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  multiplied 
by  the  centripetal  velocity ;  it  will  be  an  ell^iae  when  the  former 
product  is  greater  than  the  latter;  aparaiola,  when  the  former  pro- 
duct is  eiactly  twice  as  great  as  the  latter ;  an  hyperbola,  when  more 
than  twice  as  great ;  and,  in  every  case,  the  angiilar  velocity  of  the 
raditw-oerfor  mast  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
mutoal  itotance  of  the  two  bodies. 

The  "Cause  of  Elliptical  Motion,"  aa  above  desuribeil,  cannot  be  easily 
cOQtprehsDded  without  some  inquiry  into  the  cauae  of  all  motion,  or,  In 
oCbto'  words,  without  an  inquiry  into  the  relation  subsisting  between  the 
Creator  and  the  material  univerae.  That  relation,  though  no  doubt  pro- 
foundly mystaiioue,  is  not  one  regarding  which  wo  are  left  wholly  in  the 
(lark ;  for  what  human  pbiloaophy,  left  ti>  its  own  unaided  resources, 
roiriit  never  succeed  in  diiamenag,  the-Creator  has  been  plesiad  to  n- 
veal.  Since  the  auuouucement  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation, 
physical  science  has  made  unparaUeleil  progress  in  all  directiooa,  yet  to 
this  day  the  most  incoherent  theories  regiuding  the  cause  of  motion, 
and  the  ulticaate  source  of  the  mighty  energies  everywhere  observable  in 
IhB  material  world,  have  been  propounded.  Many  pbilOHopliara  appear 
to  i«gard  the  attractive  power  of  gravitation  as  a  mere  propeiiy  of  mat- 
tar.  It  is  either,  they  maintain,  a  property  e^entlal  to  the  verii  scij/enee 
of  natter,  or  which,  thoi^li  not  originally  belonging  to  matter,  has  been 
Dammnnicated  to  it  by  the  Ci«ator,  and  which  isnow  bo  indelibly  stamped 
thereon  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  inherent  in  it,  so  as  to  form  part  and 
parcel  of  Its  being.  And  not  only,  it  la  argued,  does  thia  bold  good  of 
gravitation  itself  (as  eiiatiug  betveen  the  orbs  of  space),  but  atsg  of  &U 


4  MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

its  varieties  and  modifications,  as  magnetic  attraction,  chemical  affinity, 
electric  attraction,  cohesion,  and  adhesion — all  are  mere  properties  of 
matter,  a  conclusion  beyond  which  it  would  be  in  vain  to  push  our  re- 
searches. Now,  if  this  result  is  to  be  accepted,  all  the  so-called  laws  of 
nature  are  merely  the  necessary  and  inevitaole  consequences  of  these  un- 
changing and  unchangeable  properties  of  matter.  According  to  this  view  it 
follows,  that  the  physical  universe,  though  abandoned  by  its  Maker — ^whose 
sustaining  hand,  indeed,  is  no  longer  required — will  not  only  continue  in 
existence,  but  will  for  ever  carry  on,  without  interruption  or  dmiinution,  its 
present  multiform  activities.  In  our  opinion,  no  view  could  possibly  be 
more  perverse,  however  eminent  in  science  some  of  its  propounders.  It 
wholly  fails  in  satisfying  the  cravings  of  every  earnest  inquirer  who  searches 
for  truth  as  for  hidden  treasure.  We  cannot  suppose  it  possible  that  the 
Creator  should  abandon  the  universe  to  the  play  of  its  own  activities. 
He  cannot  take  up  the  position  of  a  mere  spectator,  and  contemplate 
from  a  distance  the  mighty  machine  He  has  set  in  motion.  To  do  this 
would  be  to  insure  its  instant  destruction.  For  He  not  only  created  the 
worlds  by  His  fiat,  but  "  in  Him  all  thmgs  consist,"  and  He  "upholdeth 
all  things  by  the  word  of  His  power."  According  to  these  divine  utter- 
ances, the  forces  that  are  at  work  in  nature  are  not  inherent  in  matter,  but 
in  that  Almighty  Being  who  not  only  summoned  matter  into  existence, 
but  who  continues  to  sustain  it  in  being  and  in  the  possession  of  aU  its 
properties.  In  short,  we  arrive  at  the  grand  and  fundamental  principle, 
tfuit  material  objects  can  never  become  the  uUimaie  fountains  of  any  species  of 
potoer,  and  that  miiid  is  the  true  source  of  all  power  and  of  all  motion. 

It  will  greatly  aid  us  in  forming  a  right  conception  of  the  relation 
subsisting  between  the  Divine  Mind  and  the  universe,  if  we  carefully 
consider  the  relation  that  subsists  between  the  human  mind  and  body. 
This  relation  is  easily  discovered,  and  is  profoundly  instructive.  It 
differs  greatly  from  the  relation  in  which  the  mind  stands  to  objects 
external  to  the  body.  Over  these  the  mind  has  no  immediate  control : 
they  cannot  hear  any  voice  nor  obey  any  command.  Even  the  members 
of  our  own  bodies  give  no  obedience  to  commands  audibly  expressed, 
unless  such  commands  are  accompanied  by  acts  of  volition;  but  no  sooner 
does  the  mind  toill  that  the  hana  or  the  foot  shall  perform  any  motion, 
than  it  is  responded  to  by  an  act  of  ii^stant  obedience.  So  brief,  indeed. 
Is  the  interval  between  the  mental  volition  and  the  resulting  motion,  that 
human  science  cannot  measure  it.  The  will,  however,  has  no  such  con- 
trol over  objects  foreign  to  the  body — acts  of  volition  have  no  effect  upon 
these.  The  direct  power  of  the  mind  is  limited,  in  every  case,  to  the  or- 
ganised body  which  it  animates.  Now,  there  must  be  a  close  analogy 
between  this  relation  of  the  mind  and  body  of  man  and  the  relation  sub- 
sisting between  the  Divine  Mind  and  the  physical  universe,  for  *'  God 
created  man  in  His  own  image,  after  His  likeness."  This  inspired  utter- 
ance, like  a  pure  and  perfect  crystal,  has  many  sides ;  and  the  side 
nearest  our  present  point  of  view  undoubtedly  teaches,  that  the  Almighty 
exercises  over  the  material  universe  a  control  closely  analogous  to  that 
which  the  human  mind  exercises  over  its  own  corporeal  organism.  Anal- 
ogy, however,  is  not  identity,  and  the  material  universe  is  not  an 
organised  body  which  the  Divine  Mind  animates.  He  is  not  ''the  soul 
of  the  universe,"  and  still  less  is  He  that  impersonal  abstraction  about 
which  the  Pantheist  dreams,  but  a  gracious  and  loving  Father,  who  ever 
feels  the  deepest  interest  in  the  wellbeing  of  His  children.  Analogy  is 
not  identity,  but  even  analogy  is  of  importance  where  the  aids  are  so 
£bw,  and  where  the  lights  bum  so  dimly.    And  that  there  is  an  analogy 


MiTHEilATICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  D 

li  lieyond  all  doubt ;  for,  on  tho  one  liand,  tlie  iiiiiid  of  man  eiereises  it 
snpremB  control  over  the  membara  of  hia  own  body;  while  on  the  other, 
the  Divine  Being  boa  ever  contmned  from  the  morning  of  creation  to 
maint^n,  br  the  allent  fortb^iuttiTigs  of  His  will,  the  most  absolute  con- 
trol over  all  Hid  creatures.     Sun  and  moon  and  stars,  tbeniuds  and 
WBTo  and  raging  stonoa — all  are  Hia  Eervants,  and  aU  are  obedient  to 
'    Hii  wilL     The  laws  of  nature— general) jregardEd  as  so  mysterions,  and 
R  to  wbich  aome  would  assign  a  position  due  to  the  Lavgirer  alone — find 
V  hen  tbeic  true  explanation :  they  are  simply  a  conveaient  name  for  the 
p  inoBBsant  volitioua  of  an  nncbangeablB  God.     He  can  suspend  these  laws 
I    st  pleasure,  and  He  has,  in  fact,  suspended  tbeni  once  and  asntin.     But 
from  the  point  of  \iew  from  which  we  are  conleinplatinK  the  Creator  and 
fTis  works,  there  is  no  mora  of  mystery  in  tbe  SD-caUad  miraclB  than  in 
the  T^ular  course  of  nature. 

ProgreBi  oT  DlBCorery. — The  trne  ajstem  of  the  naiverse  was  not 
nnilerstood  till  near  the  middle  of  the  eisteenth  centnry,  when  the 
in  Prussia,  1473)  began  the 
g  that  the  sun  is  the  centre 
ofonr  system;  thai  the  planets  moTearoand  him  in  circular  orbits; 
and  that  tbe  dailj  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  only  apparent, 
and  canaed  by  tbe  rotatioo  of  tbe  earth  on  its  axis.  Several  pheno- 
mena, however,  icmaiueil  inexplicable  ander  this  theory,  such  as  the 
chiULge  of  planetary  velocity  in  different  parte  of  their  orbits,  and 
the  coDBaiiueQt  alteration  of  their  apparent  magnitudes. — appear- 
aneea  inconsistent  with  tbe  assumMion  of  tbeir  moving  in  perfectly 
circular  orbits.  A  century  after  Copernioaa,  the  immortal  Kepler 
appeared  (born  at  Weil,  in  Wurtembeig,  in  1571),  and  devoted  his 
life  to  the  Hiplicntioa  of  these  difficulties.  The  result  was  tbe  three 
fiunooa  "laws"  which  will  ever  retnin  his  name,  and  which  may  bo 
ranked  among  the  most  brilliant  discoveries  ever  made  in  science. 
They  are  as  follow:— 

1.  The  orbits  of  the  planets  are  fllipm,  which  have  all  a  common 
focos,  and  in  this  focua  the  sun  is  situated. 

2.  If  aline  be  drawn  connecting  any  planet  with  the  centre  of  the  sun. 
that  line — called  the  radiiu-vtelar — will  describe  equal  areas  in  equ^l 
times,  in  whatever  port  of  the  orbit  the  planet  may  be  moving. 

3.  Tbe  ai^narcs  of  the  times  of  revolution  of  acy  two  planefs  are  to 
each  other  m  tbe  same  proportion  as  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances 
fram  lite  sun. 

Finally,  the  world.ren owned  Uewton  (bom  at  "Woidstlioriie  iu 
Lincolnshire,  in  1613)  placed  the  keystone  in  the  might}'  arch  ei-ected 
by  Ms  predecessors,  by  discovering  the  law  of  uuiveraal  gravitation, 
and  thus  com]itctta^  tbe  theoretic  view  of  tbe  planetary  Bystem. 
"Hie  satellites  of  Jnpiter  were  discovered  by  Galileo  in  the  beginning 
of  tbe  aeventeentli  century;  those  of  Saturn,  by  Enygbeas  and 
Cnsaini,  in  tbe  latter  half  of  that  century;  Urllnus,  by  Herscbel, 
in  1781 ;  Neptune,  by  Adams  and  Leverrier  simultaneoualy,  m  1816 ; 
Vulcan,  hy  Lescarbault,  »  French  physician,  in  186B;  snrl  all  tbe 
planetoids  during  the  present  century.  Every  year,  indeed,  is  addinR 
new  members  to  the  aystem,  as  inatmments  are  improvsl  and  tliJe 
nnmbsr  of  abservets  multiplied. 


6 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 


Astronomical  Tables. — ^The  following  tables,— originally  construct- 
ed by  Professor  C.  Piazzi  Smyth,  Astronomer -Hoyal  for  Scotland, 
and  subsequently  revised  by  him  and  brought  down  to  the  present 
state  of  astronomical  science, — ^give  in  detail  all  the  most  import- 
ant of  the  numerous  interesting  facts  hitherto  ascertained  regarding 
the  different  members  of  the  solar  system.  On  comparing  these 
tables  with  those  published  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  it  will 
be  seen  that  astronomers  have  not  been  idle  during  the  last  ton 
years — that  numerous  corrections  and  rectifications  have  been  made 
in  almost  every  column ;  and  that,  in  particular,  the  great  physical 
problem  of  the  age — the  true  mean  distance  of  the  sun  from  the 
earth — ^has  made  rapid  progress  towards  a  satisfactory  solution. 
This  problem  is  fully  discussed  in  the  author's  recently-published 
work,  *  Facts  and  Dates*  (Edinburgh,  Blackwood  &  Sons),  and  need 
not  be  repeated  here.  That  distance,  it  may  now  be  confidently 
assumed,  is  92,093,000  miles ;  for  that  is  at  once  the  grand  mean  of 
all  recent  researches,  as  also  the  number  clearly  indicated  by  that 
marvel  of  architecture,  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Jeezeh,  now  shown  to 
have  been  erected  B.C.  2170.  In  accordance  with  the  third  law  of 
Kepler,  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun  determines  the  distances 
of  all  the  other  planets,  the  proper  numbers  for  which  have  been 
drawn  up  by  the  indefatigable  W.  Petrie,  civil  engineer,  whose  la- 
bours have  had  no  small  share  in  solving  the  great  problem  referred 
to:  — 

THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


Names  and  Order 
of  the 

Mean  Distance 
from  the  Sun 

Periodic 

Time  of 

Revolution 

Velocity 
in  orbit 

Time  of 
Rotation  on 

• 

Is 

.Plauets. 

.    in  Miles.* 

lumean 
Solar  Days. 

per  hour 
biMUes. 

Axis  in 
Solar  Days. 

Days,  ho.  m. 

Sun 

17,583 

25    7  48 

Vulcan 

13,082,000 

19.70 

174,000 

Mercuiy 

35,649,000 

87.97 

105,330 

10    5 

6.656 

0 

Venus 

66,614,000 

224.70 

77,050 

28  21 

1.932 

0 

Earth 

92,093,000 

365.25 

65,533 

1    0    0 

1.000 

1 

Mars 

140,322,000 

686.98 

63,090 

1    0  37 

.436 

0 

Minor       > 
planets  j 

269,000,000 

1,684.74 

39,882 

.130 

0 

Jupiter 

479,141,098 

4,332.62 

28,744 

9  55 

.036 

4 

Saturn 

878,461,000 

10,759.30 

21,221 

10  29 

.011 

8 

Uranus 

1,766,566,000 

30,686.82 

14,963 

9  30 

.003 

4 

Neptune 

2,766,133,000 

60,126.71 

11,958 

.001 

1 

*  Profesor  Bode,  of  Berlin,  in  1778  pointed  out  the  following  remarkable  em« 
pirical  law,  relative  to  the  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun  and  from  each 
other  :  **  The  distance  between  the  orbits  of  any  two  planets  is  nearly  twice  as 
great  as  that  between  the  orbits  of  the  next  two  nearer  the  sun."  Thus  suppose 
the  distance  of  Mercury  from  the  Sun  to  be  represented  by  4 ;  then,  Venus  will 
be  4 -t- 3,  or  7  such  distances ;  the  Earth  4 -f  twice  3,  or  10  such  distances,  dec 


MATIIESIATICAI 


^. 

li. 

'■Sir- 

S'ri 

jii- 

nil 

1 

^aS 

llll 

So. 

S9°3S0 

8SI,B84 

1,»U,130.COT 

314,TM,«I 

.» 

ST.ao 

VulUn 

Tser 

TMt 

B,9sa 

s.m 

T.BIO 

7,810 

-SSI 

t;8m 

33  27  24 

3Un 

4i»S0 

.»e 

Mloor    > 

pltorti/ 

mo" 

Jopltet 

BS,1  1 

Ba,«o 

Bitnni 

I1.9M 

7111.  B9a 

90.0:1 

38  48   0 

Cnoni 

UM 

n  0  0 

"Ijr' 

sal  820! 

iiM 

.024 

,013 

.63 

.17 

I 


2.  Helation  op  the  Solak  System  to  the  Univehse. — 
The  Solar  System,  or  the  bud  witli  ins  nccompanyitig  train  of 
planets,  BBtellites,  and  comets,  constitutes  but  a  small  pordon 
of  the  material  universe.  When  we  aurvej  the  heavens  at 
night,  we  behold  a  multitude  of  luniinons  objects  called  stars ; 
and,  by  the  iwaiBtance  of  a  good  telescope,  myriadfl  more  liecome 
risible.  Their  apparent  magnitudes  are  very  different,  and 
this  difference  has  been  made  the  basis  of  classiB cation  in  form- 
ing some  estimate  of  their  number.  Those  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  are  divided  into  six  classes :  the  brightest  stars  are  said  to 
be  of  the  first  magnitude;  those  of  an  inferior  ilegree  of  bright- 
ness, of  the  second  magnitude  ;  and  bo  on,  down  to  the  sixth, 
which  comprises  the  smallest  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in 
the  clearest  moonless  night.  The  telescope  vastly  extends  the 
power  of  vision,  and  astronomers  are  familiar  with  staw  of 
the  sixteenth  degree  of  magnitude  ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  this  is  the  Hiait  to  the  progression,  as  every  in- 
crease in  the  dimensions  and  power  of  the  instroment  brinos 
into  view  myriads  of  stars  that  were  invisible  before. 

Nnmtwr  of  Uu  Stan.— Ths  total  trnmber  of  sUrs  visible  to  thu 
naked  eve  in  the  most  fnvoared  localities  is  about  SOOO,  It  is  only 
at  the  equator,  however,  that  so  large  a  number  can  be  seen ;  fnr 
there  only  the  spectator  hai  the  opportnnity  of  seeing  the  wholo 
heavens,  withoat  altering  his  position.  Shoiud  he  take  np  his  posi- 
titrn  at  cither  of  the  poles,  no  more  than  half  the  stsny  flrmometit 
can  ever  pass  in  review  before  him  ;  while  at  all  intermedinte  posi- 
tions, the  number  of  stars  visible  in  any  one  night  will  depenil  on 
the  latitude  of  the  place.  ArgeUnder  of  Bonn  hai  ctsMzlied  the 
*  r^iUu  tiiF  uiseic  of  tA^io. 


8  MATHEMATICAL   GEOGBAPHY. 

number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  as  follows :  Stars  of  the 
first  magnitude,  20  ;  second  magnitude,  65  ;  third  magnitude,  190 ; 
fourth  magnitude,  425;  fifth  magnitude,  1100;  sixth  magnitude, 
8200.  Total  number  visible  at  equator,  5000.  It  thus  appears 
that  each  inferior  class  is  about  tnree  times  as  numerous  as  the 
one  preceding  it.  The  whole  number  of  stars  already  registered, 
down  to  the  seventh  magnitude,  is  about  18,000;  and  some  astrono* 
mers  have  estimated  the  total  number  of  stars  visible  by  means 
of  the  best  telescopes,  down  to  the  sixteenth  degree  of  magnitude,  at 
500,000,000,000  !  On  the  other  hand,  such  is  the  extreme  tenuity 
of  matter  that  5,000,000,000  molecules  placed  side  by  side  do  not 
occupy  more  than  one  lineal  inch,  while  the  number  of  molecules 
in  a  solid  inch  is  the  cube  of  that  number  I  * 

Distance  of  the  Siaxs. — ^The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  from  our 
sun  is  as  inconceivable  as  their  number ;  but,  until  recently,  there 
were  no  data  from  which  any  probable  calculation  could  be  made. 
In  the  year  1838,  however,  the  parallax  (or  angle  subtended  by  the 
diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  as  seen  from  a  star)  was  measured  in 
the  case  of  three  of  them.  The  parallax  of  a  Centauri  was  ascer- 
tained by  Professor  Henderson  of  Edinburgh  to  be  0''.9128,  or  nearly 
one  second;  that  of  61  Cygni,  by  Professor  Bessel  of  Konigsberg, 
who  found  it  to  be  0''.3483 ;  and  that  of  a  Lyrce,  by  Otto  Struve, 
who  found  it  to  be  about  0".25,  or  a  quarter  of  a  second.  The  major 
diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit  being  about  185,000,000  of  miles,  a 
parallax  of  one  second  will  give  a  distance  of  20,000,000,000,000 
(twenty  billions)  of  miles,  which  is  probably  the  distance  from  our 
sun  of  the  nearest  fixed  star ; — ^a  distance  so  great  that  light,  which 
travels  at  the  rate  of  185,000  miles  per  second,  would  require  34 
years  to  traverse  it.  The  distance  of  the  star  61  Cygni,  its  parallax 
Deing  only  i  of  a  second,  will  be  three  times  this  number ;  and  of 
a  Lyras,  whose  parallax  is  }  of  a  second,  will  be  four  times  twenty 
billions  !  The  distance  of  twelve  fixed  stars  is  now  approximately 
determined. 

Magnitude  of  the  Stars. — In  the  present  state  of  astronomical 
science,  the  magnitude  of  even  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars  cannot 
be  given  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  It  is  certain,  however,  that, 
in  general,  they  are  greatly  larger  than  our  sun ;  for  were  the  sun 
to  be  removed  from  his  present  position,  where  he  has  an  apparent 
diameter  of  32^  3",  and  made  to  occupy  the  place  of  a  Centauri, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars,  his  diameter 
would  be  reduced  to  0\0093,  or  less  than  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
second.  Here  he  would  fail  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  and  no 
telescope  ever  invented  could  give  us  any  idea  of  his  size.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  Centauri  were  removed  from  his  actual  position, 
and  made  to  occupy  the  place  of  our  sun,  it  is  calculated  that  the 
light  which  he  emits  would  be  2^  times  greater  than  that  of  the  sun ; 
and  hence,  it  is  argued,  his  magnitude  must  be  correspondingly 
greater.  The  intrinsic  'splendour  of  Sirius  is  63  times  greater  than 
that  of  a  Centauri,  and  192  times  greater  than  that  of  the  sun  ;  and 
hence  it  is  supposed  the  magnitude  of  Sirius  is  2688  times  greater 
than  that  of  our  luminary.     Considerable  uncertainty,  however, 

*  'The  New  Chemistry,'  by  J.  P.  Cooke,  1874,  p.  34. 


• 


MATHEMATICAL   CEOCRAPHV. 


nttachea  to  this  mode  of  eatknating  the  maguitiiile  of  tlioBe  ilietnut 
Lodies.  The  light  of  the  eun  ia  so  immensely  saperior  in  iitten^itj 
to  thnt  of  any  star  that  it  is  impractieablo  to  obtain  any  dirsi^t 
comparison  between  them,  and  it  la  only  by  usinc  the  moon  ea  KB 
intermsdiats  term  of  comparisoo  that  any  appioximation  to  occu' 
Tacy  can  be  mads.  Wollaston,  in  1829,  rouuii  the  proportion  of  the 
sntfs  light  to  that  of  the  full  moon  to  be  aa  801,072  to  1 ;  while  , 
the  light  of  the  full  moon  exceeds  that  of  o  CetttaaH  in  the  propor- 
tion of  S7,40S  to  1.  Comhining  these  resalts,  he  Dalculated  the 
light  of  the  Bun  as  exceeding  that  of  the  star  21,956,000,000  times. 
Hence,  from  the  parallax  above  assigned  to  the  alar,  it  is  eaay  to 
conclude  that  its  intrinsie  splendour  is  2.3247  times  that  of  the  auu. 
Proper  Hotlou  of  the  Son  aod  Stars.  —  The  ao-called  "hjied 
stois  "  are,  in  reality,  all  in  motion  :  and  no  fixoi  point — no  ohject 
absolutely  at  rest — is  to  be  met  with  in  the  whole  uniTcrae.  The 
power  of  gravitation,  wliich  binds  together  the  numerous  memhers 
of  the  solar  system,  appears  to  he  equally  operative  among  the  most 
distant  objects  in  space.  The  relative  distances  of  the  hzed  stars, 
and  even  the  conGguration  of  the  constellations,  are  imperceptibly 
altering.  Of  all  the  bright  stara  observed  by  the  ancients,  not  one 
has  Itept  ita  place  unchangEd.  In  the  case  of  Aretiirus,  for  example, 
of  n  Cassiopeite,  and  of  a  double  star  in  Oi/gnw,  this  chaoge  of  posi- 
tioE  baa,  in  2000  years,  amounted  to  ^,  SJ,  and  8  moon's  diameters, 
Teapectively.  While  some  vary  only  the  twentieth  part  of  a  secoai) 
linnnully,  others  vary  7.7  seconds, — showing  a  ratio  in  their  proper 
motions  of  1 :  151.  The  Southern  Cross  will  not  always  shine  iu 
the  heavens  in  its  present  form,  for  the  four  atars  of  which  it  con- 
eiats  are  moving  in  different  directions.  Even  our  own  sun,  go  lonj; 
regarded  as  stationary  in  the  centra  of  the  aystem,  ia  found  to  be  in 
rapid  motion  through  space,  and  daily  traversing  a  distance  of 
432,000  miles, — a  apace  exceeding  his  own  radius.  Sir  W.  Herschel 
arrived  at  the  conclaaion,  three  quarters  of  a  century  ago,  that  hu 
was  moving  in  the  direction  of  A  ileTciilis,—a  point  in  right  ascen- 
sion 280°  34',  and  north  polar  distance  63*  43',  for  the  year  1790. 
Otto  Strove,  from  a  very  elaborate  discussion  of  the  proper  motion 
of  3B2  stars,  detenninad  the  point,  for  1850,  to  ha  in  right  ascension 
281"  32' ;  declination  37°  33'.  It  will  probably,  however,  be  a  long 
time  yet  before  astronomers  are  in  a  position  to  detemiiue  whether 
this  motion  of  our  system  through  spaco  is  in  a  right  line  or  curvi- 
linear j  and,  if  the  letter,  what  that  point  ia  aronud  which  it  is  re- 
volving. Dr  Madlei  of  Dorpat  haa,  indeed,  hazarded  the  conjectaro 
that  our  sun  is  only  one  of  the  millions  of  stars  of  the  well-known 
lilky-Way,  which  consistB  of  a  mighW  ring,  or  wheel  of  stars, 
preatly  crowded  together  at  the  oircumference,  bat  comparatively 
few  towards  the  centre.  The  central  group  of  thia  grand  ayatom. 
[  which  eamposeB  om;  finnainent,  is,  ha  thinks,  the  FleiaileB,  which 
revolves  round  Alcyme,  the  brightest  orb  of  that  beautiful  couatel- 
iBtion.  The  distance  of  our  sun  from  that  centre  of  force  he  calcu- 
lates at  31,500,000  times  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,— n 
distance  so  great  that  light  could  not  traverse  it  in  less  tluin  600 
yeaa,  and  reiiuiring  18,200,000  years  for  our  sun  to  com^lel*  qbb 


10  MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

revolution  !    But  however  lofty  such  conceptions  of  genius  may  bo, 
they  are  not,  as  yet,  to  be  regarded  as  established  scientific  truths. 

3.  Form,  Size,  and  Motions  op  the  Earth. — Having  thus 
traced  the  relation  of  the  earth  to  surrounding  worlds,  we  now 
return  to  examine  itself  more  minutely.    Its /orm  is  that  which 
a  perfect  sphere*  of  fluid  consistency  would  assume,  were  it  made 
to  rotate  around  its  axis  with  the  same  rapidity  as  the  earth 
does.     Such  a  form  is  called  an  oblate-sphisroidyf — ^that  is,  a 
sphere  somewhat  flattened  or  compressed  at  the  poles,  like  an 
orange.     The  larger  or  equatorial  diameter  exceeds  the  polar 
<liameter  by  26  miles — ^the  former  being  7925,  and  the  latter 
7899  nules.     In  round  numbers,  the  diameter  may  be  stated  at 
8000  miles ;  the  radius,  or  semi-diameter,  at  4000  ;  the  circum- 
ference at  25,000 ;  the  area,  or  superficial  content,  at  197,310,000 
sq.  m. ;  the  volume,  or  solid  content,  at  260,613,000,000  cubic 
miles  ;  and  the  weight  at  6000  trillions  of  tons.  J 

Motions  of  the  Earth. — The  earth  has  three  motions  :  first,  that 
referred  to  above,  in  accompanying  the  snn  through  space  {see  p.  2) ; 
second,  an  annual  or  orhitual  motion  round  the  sun,  which  it  per- 

*  Among  the  numerous  proofs  of  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  the  followinj; 
may  be  mentioned  : — 

1.  A  much  greater  extent  of  the  earth's  surface  is  visible  from  the  top  of  a 
mountain  than  from  a  plain  near  the  level  of  the  sea. 

2.  As  the  mariner  nears  the  land,  he  first  sees  the  tops  of  the  mountains ;  and 
on  approaching  nearer,  the  lower  grounds  become  visible. 

3.  In  cutting  for  a  canal,  it  is  found  that  allowance  must  be  made  for  a  dip  of 
about  8  inches  per  mile.  In  order  to  keep  the  water  at  a  uniform  level. 

4.  In  travelling  to  any  considerable  distance,  either  north  or  south,  new  stars 
come  to  view  in  the  direction  in  which  the  traveller  is  advancing,  while  others 
disappear  in  the  direction  from  which  he  is  receding. 

ft.  Many  navigators,  who  have  sailed  constantly  in  one  direction,  whether  due 
east  or  due  west,  have  returned  to  the  jwrt  from  which  they  set  out. 

6.  The  shadow  which  the  earth  casts  on  the  moon,  during  an  eclipse,  is  always 
circular. 

7.  All  the  other  members  of  the  solar  system  are  spherical 

f  A  prolate  spheroid,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  sphere  somewhat  elongated  in  the 
direction  of  its  poles,  forming  a  body  shaped  like  a  lemon. 

X  IjTOS  in  mathematics  may  be  reminded  of  the  following  facts  :— 
1.  The  circumference  of  a  circle,  or  sphere,  whose  diameter  is  1,  is  =  3.1416, 
or  S}  nfearly.    Hence,  to  find  the  circumference  of  any  other  circle,  or  sphere, 
multiply  its  diameter  by  8^. 

D  2.  The  area  of  a  circle  is  found  by  multi« 

plying  its  radius  by  half  its  circumference. 
Th'is  the  area  of  the  circle  ^  D  is  equal 

C,. ]  to  the  area  of  the  triangle  A  B  C^  the 

base  of  wliich,  AB,iB  =  the  circumference 

rad.x  cira 
B  of  the  circle.  More  briefly,  area  = 5 — 


8 


jy  3.  The  area  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  the  convex  area  of  the 
circumscribing cylinder^A  BCD;  and  its  solid  content, S, is  equal 
to  {  of  the  solid  content  of  the  circumscribing  cylinder.    Or, 

Area  =  i>2    x  3.1416;  5  =  ?^^l-|_H2*;  Weight  ^10"  X 
S  weight  of  Great  Pyramid  =  10'*'  x  6,000,000  tons. 


I 
I 


M  A  THEMATIC  A  r.   GBUGRAPIFY.  11 

fui'ina  in  3'>3.2f>fl  moen  sdIbt  dayn  ;  nnd  tlte  thii'J,  culled  its  iliunmt 
motion,  ronnd  its  owa  niis,  in  1  clny,  or  24  solar  hours.*  The  nxis 
is  an  imaginaiT  line  passing  throagi  tlie  earth's  centre,  and  inclined 
to  the  plana  of  its  orbit  at  an  angla  of  66°  32'.  This  imaginary  line 
remains  nlwHys  parallel  to  itself ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing  its  ex- 
tremities, irbicli  are  called  its  poles,  always  point  In  the  Eame  fixed 
stara,  and  present  tbemsetTes  alternately  to  the  sun, — thus  giving 
rise  to  the  variety  of  the  seasons,  as  the  diurnal  motion,  wliich  is 
l¥om  vest  to  east,  causes  the  alternations  of  day  and  niglU,  and  of 
the  riaing,  southing,  and  setting  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  If  the  axin 
ua  which  the  earth  performs  her  daily  rotation  ware  eKaotiy  perpen- 
ilicular  to  the  plana  of  her  patli  ronnd  the  sun,  one  constant  climate 
Wonld  characterise  the  some  parallel  of  latitude  at  all  times  of  the 
year,  and  all  the  benefits  which  resalt  to  maiUcind  from  the  regu- 
lar lucoession  of  the  seasons  would  have  been  wanting ;  hnt  by  the 
simple  arrangement  of  the  aiia  being  inclined  234°  ffom  the  perpen- 
dicolor,  the  All-Wise  Creator  has  made  perpetual  provision  for  the 
regular  recurrence  of  summer  and  winter,  of  aeed- time  and  harvest. 

4.  MathemSlTICAL  Divisons  op  the  Eailth. — In  order  to 
describe  with  precision  the  position  of  pinces  on  the  earth's 
snrface,  end  the  effects  that  result  from  ita  orbitual  and  dinmnl 
motioni,  certain  imarinaiy  lines  are  drawn  round  it,  which  are 
called  great  circles  when  they  divide  it  into  two  eqnal  hemi- 
Hpheres,  and  small  circles  when  they  divide  it  nneqiiaUy. 

The  Great  Oirclea  are  tha  Equator,  Horizon,  Meridians, 
Ecliptic,  and  tlie  two  Colures. 

The  E(piator,  a  large  circle,  equidistant  (rora  the  poles,  divides 
the  earth  into  a  Northern  and  a  Southern  Hemisphere.  The  lati- 
tude of  places  is  measured /rom  it,  north  and  south;  and  their  longi- 
tude, on  it,  east  and  west. 

The  Hoiliaii  separates  the  visible  half  of  the  celestial  concave 
/rom  the  half  that  is  invisible,  and  is  either  nUioiiai  or  sensHle, 
The  rational,  or  true  horizon,  by  which  the  risina  and  setting  of 
all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  determined,  is  an  imaginary  plane 
passing  tliroogh  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  prolonKed  in  imagina- 
tion till  it  attains  the  region  of  the  stars.  Parallel  to  it,  and  co- 
extensive with  it,  is  the  sensible  horizon,  whose  plane  is  a  tangent  to 
the  surfaee  at  the  point  on  which  the  spectator  is  placed.    These  t«'o 

5 lanes,  although  se[>arated  throughout  their  whole  extent  by  a  semi- 
iameter  of  the  earth,  will  yet,  on  sccount  of  the  vest  distance  at 
which  that  interval  is  seen,  he  confounded  together,  and  appear  as  one 
line  in  the  heavens.  As  applied  to  the  earth,  however,  the  sensible  or 
apparent  horison  is  the  small  circle  which  terminates  oar  view  of 
the  surface,  where  earth  and  sky  appear  to  meet  It  enlarges  or 
contracts,  according  as  the  spectators  eye  is  elevated  or  depressed  : 
thus,  if  the  eye  be  elevated  6  feet  above  the  sea,  the  ulrcular  expense 
nf  water  visible  to  it  will  be  3  miles  in  diameter.  The  Oaiiuiial 
Foluta  of  the  horizon  are  north,  south,  east,  and  west ;  the  Zenith  is 
the  upper  pole  of  onr  horizon,  and  the  KoiUr  the  lower  pole. 


12  HATHEUATICM. 

Ths  Heildl&ns,  or  lines  of  longitude,  are  gnat  circles  passin)! 
through  the  polea,  and  cQtting  the  equ&tor  at  nght  angles.  Each  of 
them  divides  the  earth  into  two  hemiapheros  which,  in  respect  to 
each  other,  may  be  termed  east  and  west.  There  are- 12  meridians 
commonly  drawn  on  globes,  each  15°  apart,  eqnal  to  a  difference  in 

^■_. ......  1  ..._     __•!  ,a !j.-_^_  (.nmspg  of  the  world,  each  10° 

apart,  corresponding  to  a  dif- 
ference itt  time  of  40  minutes. 
Bat  every  place  is  supposed 
to  hsTO  A  meridiaa  passing 
through  it ;  and  when  the 
sun  comes  to  that  meridian,  it 
is  noon  or  mid-day  at  that 
place.  The  lonsltude  of  a 
place  is  its  distance  east  or 
west  from  the  first  meridiaa, 
or  that  one  from  which  we 
Rgres  to  count  This  has  varied 
with  different  nations :  thus 
the  French  reckon  from  Paris  ; 
the  Spaniards,  from  Cadiz ;  and 
the  English,  from  Greenwich. 
Bat  there  is  one  meridan  which 
has  a  claim  above  all  others  to 
be  regarded  as  the  Grst — viz.,  that  passing  through  the  Great  ^ramid 
of  Jeezeh.*  When  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  place  are  known, 
its  exact  position  on  the  globe  may  at  once  he  pointed  out.  The 
value  of  a,  degree  of  longitude  varies  according  to  the  latitude,  and 
is  nowhere  equal  to  a  decree  of  latitude,  except  on  the  equator.  At 
60°  lat.  a  degree  of  longitude  is  equal  to  SO  geographical  miles,  or 
just  the  half  of  its  length  on  the  equator ;  while  at  the  polea  it 
vanishes  to  nothing. 


uE&ade 

aeog.  KLIe.. 

Bug.  MDm. 

^S.1. 

Oeog.U11es 

EDg-Milt* 

0 

60.00 

69.07 

BO 

38.57 

44.35 

10 

69.09 

87.95 

60 

B0.OO 

34.53 

IS 

67.9a 

06.05 

85 

2S,36 

29.15 

70 

20.52 

25 

G4,3S 

62.53 

16.53 

17.88 

30 

61. 9S 

69.75 

SO 

10.42 

40 

4S.9a 

62.85 

0.00 

0.00 

45 

42.34 

48-78 

I 


I 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOCRAPJIY.  13 

The  Ecliptic  is  a  (^eat  tirc^Io,  nhtch  rcpresottta  Iho  suit's  apparent 
snnuat  track  amoug  the  fixed  gtars.  It  derives  its  name  tvota  being 
the  cirula  on  or  near  which  the  moon  muat  be  in  the  case  of  an 
edUwa.  Its  plane  makes  an  angle  of  231°  '"th  t^a  pl«i»  "f  'lie 
et]iiatAr.  Tlie  snnia  in  the  north,  or  highest  point  of  the  Ecliptic, 
on  21at  June  ;  and  he  is  then  vertical  at  the  tropic  of  Cancer ;  he  ia 
in  the  HOUth,  or  lowest  point,  on  21at  December,  nud  ia  then  vertical 
at  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  Ecliptic  is  divided  into  twelve  equnl 
parts,  called  atgnt,  of  S0°  each,  named  from  the  coDstellattons  or 
sTonps  of  stars  throngh  which  the  aun  appears  succeadvely  to  pass. 
These,  with  the  days  on  which  the  sun  enters  them,  are  as  fallows  : — 


Arto,  Unn 
Tarmu,  April  II 


\SpHns. 


Llbn,  Sep.  23. 


f'U. 


Scorpio,  Oct.  I 
Bigittulas,  Sov.  ii.  I 
CKprloomiu,  Dec  SS. ) 
AquorlDB,  »n.  30.       [Wlntir. 
t  n^Tt,  Aug.  ».    ;  PUces,  Feb.  ID.  i 

The  OOlnraa  are  two  meridians  which  divide  the  Ecliptic  into  four 
equal  parts,  making  the  four  Seaaons  of  the  year.  One  of  them  in- 
tersect the  eqainoctial  pointy  Aries  and  Libra,  and  is  thence  called 
the  Equinoctial  Colure  ;  the  other  intersects  the  solstitial  points, 
Cimcer  and  Capricorn,  and  is  called  the  Solstitial  Colure. 

The  Small  ClrcleB  are  the  Tropica,  the  Parallels  of  Latitude, 
and  the  Polar  Circles. 

The  Troidoi  are  two  small  circles  parallel  ta  the  equator,  and  at 
the  distance  of  23t°,  north  and  aouth.  They  are  so  named  becansu 
the  aun,  arrived  at  them  in  his  apparent  annual  course,  seems  ta 
turn  atcay,  either  northward  or  southward,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
northern  ia  called  the  Tropie  of  Cancer,  and  the  southern  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn,  because  they  touch  the  ecliptic  in  the  beginning  of  thoBS 

The  Parallels  of  Latitude  are  small  circles  parallel  to  the  equator, 
tlie  abject  of  which  is  to  indicate  the  latitude  of  places,  and  to  eun- 
uect  together  alt  places  on  the  globe  having  Uie  same  latitude. 
Though  on  globes  and  maps  of  the  world  tliey  an:  nsually  drawn  at 
intervals  of  10°,  every  place  is  supposed  to  have  a  parallel  of  latitude 
passing  throngh  it. 

The  Pol&r  (ardes  are  two  small  circles,  drawn  aronnd  the  North 
and  South  Pole  respectively — the  former  being  called  the  Arctic, 
and  the  latter  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Their  distance  from  the  Pales 
is  234°,  that  being  the  angle  formed  by  the  earth's  axis  and  a  line 
drawl)  perpendicular  to  the  earth's  orbit.  When  the  sun  is  vertical 
to  places  situated  an  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  his  rays  ext«nd  beyond 
the  Pole  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  all  countries  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle  are  then  in  darkneSB. 

Zones-— The  Tropics  and  Polar  Circles  divide  the  surface  o( 
tlie  eartk  into  iive  great  Climatal  Zones  or  Bella — viz.: 

1.  One  Tonld  Zons,  17°  in  breadth,  or  231°  "■>  either  side  of  the 
Equator,  and  bounded  by  the  Tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn. 


14 


MATHEMATICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


WORTH  POLE 


WEST 


EitST 


SOUTH   POLE 

Zones  and  Circles. 


Every  place  in  this  wide  region  has  the  sun  vertical  to  it  twice 
a-year  ;  and  as  the  sun's  rays  never  fall  very  obliquely  on  any  part 
of  it,  the  temperature  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  here  always  very 
high. 

2.  Two  Temperate  Zones,  one  northern  and  the  other  southern, 
each  43°  in  breadth,  lying  between  the  Tropics  and  the  Polar 
Circles.      Never  having  the  sun   vertical,   they  are  characterised 

by  a  lower  temperature 
than  tropical  regions  ; 
the  fruits  of  the  earth 
are  less  luxuriant  and 
spontaneous;  and  man, 
compelled  to  exercise 
his  corporeal  and  thinl^- 
ing  powers,  attains  to  a 
higher  degree  of  intel- 
ligence and  civilisation 
than  in  those  regions 
where  his  wants  are  sup- 
plied without  any  exer- 
tion on  his  part. 

3.  The  Two  Frigid 
Zones,  each  234°  in 
radius,  are  included 
within  the  Polar  Circles. 
They  are  deprived  of  the  influence  of  the  sun  for  long  inter- 
vals in  winter,  and  have  a  correspondingly  greater  length  of 
day  in  summer,  when  his  rays  fall  very  obliquely  on  the  sur- 
lace.  These  conditions,  coupled  with  the  extreme  cold  of  the  long 
winters,  are  so  unfavourable  to  human  culture  and  human  happiness, 
that  the  tribes  who  inhabit  the  frigid  zone  have  not  been  able  to 
attain  to  any  considerable  degree  of  civilisation. 

The  Moon,  or  the  Earth's  Satellite. — The  earth,  on  her  annual 
journey  round  the  sun,  is  attended  by  a  nioon  or  satellite,  which  re- 
volves round  her  in  the  same  way  as  the  former  does  round  the  cen- 
tral luminary.  Of  the  five  planets  and  numerous  planetoids  situated 
between  the  centre  of  the  system  and  the  orbit  of  Jupiter,  the  earth 
alone  enjoys  the  advantage  of  such  a  companion  ;  while  all  the  other 
planets  possessed  of  satellites  are  not  only  of  vastly  greater  dimen- 
sions, but  also  greatly  farther  from  the  sun.  The  mean  distance  of 
the  moon  from  the  earth  is  239,840  miles,  or  little  more  than  half 
the  sun's  radius,  and  she  performs  her  revolution  round  her  primary 
in  one  lunar  month  of  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes.  It  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  this  is  also  the  precise  time  in  which  she  rotates 
round  her  own  axis.  Hence,  at  all  times,  the  moon  presents  very 
nearly  the  same  face  to  the  earth.  The  time  of  her  rotation  is 
much  longer  than  that  of  any  of  the  planets ;  but,  so  far  as  yet  ascer- 
tained, all  the  other  satellites  belonging  to  our  system  follow  the 
same  law — that  is,  they  rotate  on  their  axes  in  the  same  time  as  they 
revolve  around  their  primaries.     Unlike  the  sun  and  fixed  stars. 


ilATilEMATlCAl,   GEOGRAPIIV.  15 

wliicli  are  aiiU-lumiuoUB,  the  moon,  in  coTTirami  witli  all  tlie  iilniiets 
Hud  satelliteH,  sliinBs  by  reflected  Ustt  derived  from  the  centnll  lu- 
minaiy.  Her  urbit  is  incliiied  to  that  of  tbe  earlii  at  an  angle  of 
5°  S*,  bnt  for  wliicli  we  ahoald  Iiave  iul  eclipse  of  the  bud  and  moon 
^ilternatelf  every  fortnight.  There  is  a  total  eclipse  of  the  snn  vrhen 
the  moon  ia  near  the  eiuth,  aud  the  sun,  earth,  and  moon  in  the 
soma  straigbt  line ;  and  an  amailar  eolipse  wheu,  being  more  remoto 
from  the  earth,  her  apparent  diameter  is  leta  than  that  of  the  sun. 
The  BorfEice  of  the  moon  presenta  the  aspect  of  a  voluaniu  wildar- 
oesa,  beinj;  interaperaed  irith  enormona  crateriibrm  monntuius, 
dykea,  and  lara  streams,  while  no  diversities  of  eea  and  land  are 


diacamible. 


—Them 


y  (aided  by  that  of  the  sun  at 

f  the  0i3ean  into  a  great  tidal 

a  her  path  through  the 


new  and  full  n 

vrave,  whidt  seems  to  follow  the  s 

heavens.  This  attraction,  howevot,  directly  aooounta  for  only  o 
high  tide  ot  any  place  every  lunar  day  of  24  hours,  60  miaittea  ; 
whereaa,  in  raahty,  there  are  two  high  tides,  occnmng  at  intervala 
of  12  bouts,  26  minutes.  The  other  takes  place  at  the  same  instant, 
hut  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth's  surface,  aud  is  caused  by  the 
1  drawing  towards  hot  the  nearer  or  aolid  part  of  the  planet 
with  greater  foroe  than  the  more  distant  iraters. 


When  the  moon  ia  in  the  position  M  [aea  moon],  or  nt  m(ftiU  m 
It  acta  in  conjunclion  with  the  sun.  The  tides  on  both  sides  of  the 
earth  are  then  at  the  highest,  and  are  called  Spring  Tides.  Bnt 
when  the  moon  is  at  M'  (first  ijuarler),  or  at  m'  {Imt  gaarler],  the 
waters  rise  the  least,  as  the  attraction  of  the  sun,  acting  at  right 
anglea  to  that  of  the  moon,  considerably  neutraiisas  the  effect  of  die 
latter,  and  produces  what  are  known  as  Nenp  Tides. 


16 


PAKT   II. 

PHYSICAL    GEOGSAPHT. 


1. — Materials,  Density,  and  Attractive  Power  op  the 
Earth. — Of  the  interior  of  the  planet  which  we  inhabit  we 
know  almost  nothing,  our  observation  being  confined  to  a  por- 
tion of  its  external  crust,  or  rind,  rarely  exceeding  14  miles  in 
depth,  or  ^l^  of  the  distance  from  the  surface  to  the  centre. 
Even  this  insignificant  distance  is  attained  by  adding  the  height 
of  the  loftiest  mown  mountain  to  the  depth  below  3ie  sea-level 
of  the  deepest  ocean  sounding  (p.  22).  The  Geologist,  however, 
without  penetrating  beneath  tne  siirface,  but  by  carefully  ex- 
amining the  order  of  superposition  of  the  stratified  rocks,  has 
made  us  more  or  less  ac(}uainted  with  a  depth  of  about  25  miles. 
Small  as  this  portion  is,  when  compared  with  the  immense 
volume  enclosed  by  it,  it  presents  to  our  view  a  vast  variety  of 
substances,  each  of  which  has  a  character  peculiar  to  itself.  On 
examination,  they  are  nearly  all  foimd  to  be  compound  bodies, 
which,  on  being  analysed,  are  reducible  to  65  constituent  ele- 
ments. 

ConstitaeiitB  of  the  Earth's  Crust.— These  65  elements  tbe  chemist 
divides  into  two  groups,— the  Metallic  and  the  Non-metaUic  The 
metals  are  52  in  number,  the  best  known  of  them  being  gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  mercury ;  while  the  metalloids,  or 
non-metallic  class,  consists  of  only  13,  the  principal  of  which  are 
oxycen,  hydrogen,*  nitrogen,  carbon,  sulphur,  and  pnosphorus.  Each 
of  these  elementary  substances  has  properties  peculiar  to  itself ;  and, 
what  is  more  remarkable,  on  each  of  taeifi  the  Creator  has  stamped, 
in  deep  and  indelible  characters,  a  particular  number,  which  forms, 
as  it  were,  the  law  of  its  being,  and  determines  in  what  proportions 
it  shall  combine  with  other  substances.  This  law  of  definite  pro- 
portions serves  in  the  mineral  kingdom  the  same  end  as  the  laws 
which  regulate  the  propagation  of  species  in  the  vegetable  and  animal 
kingdoms  ;  the  identity  of  species  is  rigidly  preserved,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  prodigious  number  of  combinations,  all  confusion  is 
avoided. 

Density  of  the  Earth.— Each  of  the  65  elementary  substances  has 
a  density  or  specific  gravity  peculiar  to  itself,  ranging  from  hydrogen, 
which  is  the  lightest,  to  platinum,  which  is  the  heaviest ;  but  the 
resulting  mean  densi^  of  the  Earth  is  5.7  the  weight  of  its  own 

*  From  recent  experiments  by  the  late  Professor  Graham  of  London  University, 
it  would  appear  that  hydrogen  must  now  be  regarded  as  a  metaL 


COSFiaOEATION    OF   TUE   EARTH  9    BtTRFACE. 


17 


—2S 


Tralk  oEdistiUed  water  at  the  temperatnra  of  63°.  Thus,  wliilo  tho 
BpeciSo  gravity  of  Mercury  is  n«arly  a  foarth.  greater,  that  of  Tenua 
nni  Mara  ia  aearlr  equal,  while  that  of  the  San  and  Jupiter  is  four, 
TTrllDiia  five,  and  Neptune  six  times  leaa.  As  the  snecinc  gravity  of 
the  substances  fonniog  the  cruat  of  tha  Earth  rorely  exceeds  3,  ths 
obWons  iaference  seems  to  be,  that  the  interior  of  the  planet  oaaDot 
be  llollow,  bnt^  on  the  eontrary,  most  consisl;  of  metalB,  or  of  othet 
materials  in  a  highly  condensed  and  incandescent  state. 

The  AttractlTe  EnsTEy  wliich  the  Earth  exercises  on  all  material 
substances  near  its  surface  is  such  that,  when  freely  Buspendad,  they 
■re  drawn  towards  it  with  a  Telocity  of  16  feet  in  the  Hrst  second  of 
time ;  three  times  16  feet  the  next  second ;  /ve  times  16  feet  tha 
third  second  ;  and  so  on,  following  the  order  of  the  odd  numbers  of 
the  scale.  Comparing  the  Earth,  in  this  particular,  with  the  other 
]ilanets,  we  find  that  bodies  fitlling  towards  the 
surface  of  Mars  desr^nd  with  only  a  fonrth  of 
this  Telocity ;  while  in  Jupiter  the  Telocity  ia 
two  and  a  half  times  greater.  At  great  eleva- 
tions  ahore  the  surface  the  intensity  of  the  force 
of  gravitation  decreases  in  the  inverse  ratio  ijf 
thx  »guaTt  of  tM  dielaiice.  Thus,  a  body  which 
(in  a  spring  baknl^e)  weighs  16  ounces  at  tha 
surface,  wui  weigh  only  i  ounces  at  the  dis- 
tance of  two  semi-diameters  from  the  centre,  or 
one  serai-diaraeter  above  the  anrfece  ;  while  at 
the  diatanoo  of  four  semi-diaiaetera  it  will  weigh 
iinly  1  oaneo.  Under  the  surface  the  law  of 
decrease  is  very  different,  it  heinK  there  di- 
rectly Of  the  dialanix  from  the  centre.  Thua, 
at  one  thousand  miles  below  the  surface  the 
body  will  weigh  12  oonces  ;  half-way  towards  I 
the  centre,  8  ounces  ;  at  the  distance  of  a  thon- 
sand  miles  from  the  centre,  i  ounces ;  while  at 
the  centre  the  pressure  on  the  balance  will  bo 
nothing.  The  accompanying  diagram  will 
render  these  obBervations  more  intelligible  to  the  pupiL 

2.  CosFTQUHATioi'  OF  THE  SuBFAOE. — The  terraqueons  globe 
must  be  aiijjposed  to  haTa  assumed  ita  present  epheroidal  form 
when  rotftting  in  its  primitive  incandescent  state.  This  form 
the  vast  collection  of  waters  now  on  its  surface  powerfully  tends 
to  peipetnnte— ;S''»'f  ^Y  the'''  capacity  of  yielding  to  the  centri- 
fugal force  arising  from  the  planera  rotatory  motion  j  and, 
ewondly,  by  their  filling  up  inmimerable  depreaaiona  in  its 
crust — depressions  whiet  it  is  now  certain,  exceed  in  depth 
the  highest  elevations  of  the  land.  These  elevations  very 
larely  amount  to  the  ,i,  part  of  the  radius,  and,  therefore, 
L  BCMcely  interfere  with  the  re^ilar  form  of  the  planet  In  fact, 
"■^  "   n-cbains  on  the  globe  produce  no  greater  deviation 


18  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPUY. 

from  its  spheroidal  shape  than  the  small  protuberances  on  the 
rind  of  an  orange  do  on  its  general  form. 

Diilsion  into  Land  and  Water. — ^The  surface  of  the  earth,  which, 
as  we  have  akeady  seen,  comprises  an  area  of  197,000,000  square 
miles,  is  very  unequally  divided  into  land  and  water.  The  total 
area  of  the  land  is  estimated  at  £2,000,000  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  more 
than  i  of  the  entire  surface ;  while  the  waters  cover  144,712,850  sq. 
m.,  or  nearly  |  of  the  whole.*  The  land  is,  moreover,  very  unequally 
distributed  over  the  surface  :  thus,  the  northern  hemisphere  contains 
three  times  as  much  land  as  the  southern ;  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
or  Old  World,  contains  twice  as  much  as  the  western  ;  and  if  a  great 
circle  be  drawn  roimd  the  globe,  having  London  as  its  centre,  it  will 
divide  the  surface  in  such  a  way  as  that  nearly  all  the  land  will  be 
in  one  hemisphere — ^which  may  therefore  be  called  the  contmenkU 
hemisphere;  while  the  other,  or  that  which  has  Antipodes  IsiLand* 
near  New  Zealand,  as  its  centre,  will  be  nearly  all  water,  and  may 
therefore  be  called  the  oceanic  hemisphere — only  that  it  contains 
Australia  and  a  portion  of  South  America.  If  we  regard  the  earth 
as  divided  into  zones  instead  of  hemispheres,  we  find  uiat  the  North 
Temperate  Zone,  or  that  in  which  the  continent  of  £urope  is  situated, 
is  the  one  which  contains  the  greatest  proportion  of  land. 

Ck>ntinents. — The  land  surface  of  the  globe  is  further  broken  up 
into  huge  masses,  called  continents,  which  are  six  in  number — viz., 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  North  America,  South  America,  and  Australia, 
but  should  Antarctica  turn  out  to  be  a  continent,  the  number  will  be 
seven.  These,  however,  are  not  always  detached  from  each  other, 
but  collected  into  groups,  the  members  of  which  are  generally  united 
by  isthmuses.  Properly  speaking,  there  are  only  three  continents — 
viz.,  first,  the  Old  World,  containing  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ; 
second,  the  New  World,  embracing  North  and  South  America  ;  and 
thirdy  the  Australian  continent — ^ue  only  important  mass  of  land  in 
the  oceanic  hemisphere,  with  the  exception  of  the  recently-discovered 
countries  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  {see  p.  26).  Of  these  grand 
continents  the  eastern  or  Old  World  is  by  far  the  largest  and  most 
important,  having  an  area  of  32,500,000  sq.  m.,  a  maritime  coast- 
line of  60,000  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,312,000,000.  The  area  of  tlie 
western  continent,  or  New  World,  is  16,000,000  sq.  m.,  being  almost 
exactly  \  of  the  former ;  its  pop.  80,000,000,  or  4z  of  the  Old 
World ;  while  its  coast-line  is  only  32,000  m.,  or  but  little  more  than 
^  of  the  Old  World.  Australia  has  an  area  estimated  at  3,000,000 
Sq.  m.,  being  \  of  the  western  continent,  and  a  population  of  1,600,000, 
or  /^  of  America. 

Contour  and  EleYation.— The  following  are  some  of  the  compari- 
sons, equally  interesting  and  curious,  that  have  been  drawn  by  Cm-I 
Ritter  and  other  geographers  between  the  two  great  continents,  in 
respect  to  their  forms  of  contour  and  reli^: — 

1.  The  greatest  length  of  the  Old  World  is  from  east  to  west,  while 
that  of  the  New  is  from  north  to  south ;  in  other  words,  the  eastern  con- 
tinent has  its  greatest  extension  in  the  direction  of  the  paralUlt,  while 

*  The  exact  ratio  of  land  to  water  is  as  1 :  2.85L 


CONFIGUEATIOK  OF  THE  EAKTH'b  SUKFACE.      19 

the  western  has  its  greatest  exteDsion  in  the  direction  of  the  mendians. 
2.  The  greatest  extension  of  both  continents  towards  the  north  and  south 
is  nearl}'  iinder  the  same  meridianB.  Thus,  the  Cape  of*  Good  Hope  is 
nearly  in  the  same  meridian  with  Gape  Nordkyn  in  Norway ;  the  penin- 
Buk  of  Malacca  with  Cape  Bevero  in  Siberia ;  and  Cape  Horn  with  the 
north-west  angle  of  Greenland.  The  last-mentioned  country,  however, 
is  now  known  to  be  detached  from  the  North  American  continent.  8. 
Both  continents  attain  their  greatest  extension  from  west  to  east  along 
the  same  parallel — viz.,  that  of  50"  N.  4.  Both  continents  spread  out 
widely  towards  the  nortii,  where  they  closely  approach  each  other ;  both 
are  abruptly  terminated  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  nearly  the  same  latitude 
— viz.,  that  of  72° ;  whereas  toward  the  south  they  widely  diverge,  and 
narrow  down  to  single  promontories.  5.  In  either  continent  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  area  is  nearly  detached  from  its  prindpal  mass  :  thus  Africa  is 
nearly  severed  from  the  one  continent,  and  South  America  from  the  other. 
C.  Ail  the  great  pQiinsulas  of  both  continents  follow  a  southerly  direc- 
tion ;  as  the  Scandinavian,  Spamsh,  Italian,  Hellenic  peninsulas,  Africa, 
Arabia,  Hindostan,  Further  India,  Coi«a,  and  Kamtschatka,  in  the  one  ; 
and  Caiifomia,  South  Ajnerica,  Florida,  and  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  other. 
The  only  important  exceptions  to  this  generalisation  are  Jutland  in  the 
Old  World,  with  Yucatan  and  Boothia  Felix  in  the  New,  all  of  which 
stretch  noHh/ioard ;  and  Anatolia  in  the  former,  and  Alaska  in  the 
latter,  wliich  project  towards  the  west.  7.  The  opposite  coasts  of  the  two 
grand  continents  are  strikingly  conformable  to  each  other,  the  projections 
of  the  one  being  opposite  to  the  indentations  of  the  other,  though  separ- 
ated by  the  breadth  of  the  Atlantic :  thus  Brazil  stands  opposite  to  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea ;  Western  Africa  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  Nova  Scotia  to 
the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  while  the  opposite  coasts  of  Greenland  and  Norway 
are  nearly  parallel  6.  Looking  at  the  two  continents  in  another  way,  we 
tind  that  Africa  with  Madagascar  has  its  counterpart  in  South  America 
with  the  Falkland  Isles ;  while  Florida  and  the  West  Indies  have  a  simi- 
lar correspondence  with  Malacca  and  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  9. 
Taking  the  six  separate  continents,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  with  the 
exception  of  Africa,  they  all  present  to  the  ocean  on  their  nortiiem  sides 
broad  flats  of  low-l3ring  land ;  while  their  southern  extremities  are  rocky, 
pointed,  and  elevated.  Again,  while  Africa,  South  America,  and,  we 
may  almost  add.  North  America,  contract  toward  the  south  into  single 
promontories,  each  of  the  others  sends  out  three  separate  projections, 
which  curiously  corre^ond,  each  to  each.  Thus  the  Spanisn  peninsula 
resfflnbles  Arabia ;  Itsuy  with  Sicily  corresponds  to  Inma  with  Ceylon ; 
and  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  with  its  adjacent  islands,  to  Further  India 
with  the  Malay  Archipelago.  10.  But  the  most  important  feature  of 
configuration  is  that  which  has  reference  to  their  comparative  lengths  of 
eoast'line.  While  the  three  southern  continents  present  to  the  ocean  an 
almost  unbroken  outline,  neither  receiving  its  waters  into  their  bosoms 
nor  projecting  into  it  any  important  poiinsulas,  the  three  northern  ones 
are  highly  indented,  thou^  in  very  different  degrees,  their  masses  evinc- 
ing a  tendency  to  break  up  into  members.  Thus,  while  Asia  and  North 
America  has  each  an  extensive  line  of  coast,  Europe  has  wholly  surren- 
dered herself  to  the  ocean,  as  if  conscious  that,  at  a  future  time,  that 
element  would  become  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  her  prosperity. 

Vertical  Sellef. — In  regard  to  the  lines  of  vertical  relief,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  following  are  the  most  important  generalisations : — 

1 .  AU  the  continents  rise  gradually  from  the  sea-shore  towards  t\\t  m- 


20  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

terior,  where  they  attain  their  maximum  elevation ;  and  thus  each  of 
them  presents  to  the  surrounding  ocean  two  great  slopes,  which  greatly 
differ,  however,  in  length  and  degree  of  inclination.     2.  In  the  Ola 
World,  the  long  gentle  slope  is  inclined  toward  the  north,  and  the  short 
abrupt  slope  toward  the  south ;  while  in  the  New  World  the  gentle  slope 
is  toward  the  east,  and  the  abrupt  toward  the  west.    8.  But  while  each 
of  the  grand  continents  has  thus  a  law  peculiar  to  itself,  it  is  also  influ- 
enced by  the  law  of  the  other.    Thus,  though  in  the  Old  World  the  lonff 
or  gentle  slope  is  toward  the  north,  and  the  short  or  abrupt  one  toward 
the  south,  it  is  also  true  that  the  slope  fronting  the  east  is  more  gradual 
than  that  fronting  the  west.    In  like  manner,  though  in-  the  New  World 
the  longer  slope  fronts  the  east,  and  the  shorter  the  west,  it  is  also  true 
that  the  slope  which  fronts  the  north  is  gentler  than  that  which  fronts  the 
south.    4.  The  elevated  ridge  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  great 
slopes  or  watersheds  is  usually  occupied  by  lofty  mountain-chains,  and 
constitutes  the  grand  water-oartings  of  the  different  continents.    Hence 
in  the  Old  World  the  general  direction  of  the  principal  mountain-ranges 
is  from  east  to  west,  while  in  the  New  it  is  from  nortn  to  south ;  while  in 
both  they  extend  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  len^k  of  the  continents* 
Thus,  in  the  eastern  continent,  one  immense  mountain-chain  extendi, 
wil^  few  interruntions,  from  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees  to 
the  vicinity  of  Behring  Strait ;  while  in  the  western,  an  almost  unbroken 
range  extends  from  the  north-east  angle  of  Alaska  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Patagonia.    5.  Hiis  law  holds  equally  true  in  regard  to  all 
the  more  important  peninsulas  and  islands.    Thus  Scandinavia,  Italy, 
Malacca,  Corea,  Eamtschatka,  and  Lower  California,  together  with  Great 
Britain,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicil}',  Crete,  Madagascar,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Japan,  Cuba,  Hayti,  Jamaica,  and  New  Zealand,  are  all  traversed  by 
mountain-ranges  in  the  direction  of  their  greatest  lengths.    6.  While  in 
both  hemispheres  the  reliefs  go  on  increasing  irova.  the  poles  to  the 
equator,  the  highest  elevations  of  the  eastern liemisphere  occur  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  while  in  the  western  they  are  found 
near  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn :  compare  the  positions  of  Mount  Everest 
in  the  Himalaya,  with  that  of  Aconcagua,  in  the  Andes.    7.  A  remark- 
able similarity  exists  between  Europe  and  Asia  in  respect  to  their  re- 
liefs.   Thus  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps  correspond  with  the  Taurus,  Cau- 
casus, and  Himalayan  ranges ;  the  basin  of  the  lower  Danube  has  its 
counterpart   in  Tonquin;    European   Turkey   corresponds   with   Fur* 
ther  India ;  Venetian  Lombardy  with  the  basin  of  the  Ganges ;  while 
Delhi,  Calcutta,  and  Bombay  at  once  suggest  Milan,  Venice,  and  Genoa. 
8.  Notwithstanding  the  imposing  height  of  the  various  mountain-chains, 
the  mean  elevation  of  the  continents  depends  far  less  on  this  than  on  the 
general  configuration  and  extent  of  the  plains  and  table-lands.     For 
example,  if  the  entire  mass  of  the  Alps  were  pulverised  and  distributed 
over  the  whole  extent  of  Europe,  its  sui'face  would  not  thereby  be  raised 
more  than  22  feet  above  its  present  level ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  were 
the  great  plateau  of  Spain,  which  has  an  elevation  of  only  2000  feet, 
levelled  down  and  spread  in  a  similar  manner  over  the  continent,  the 
general  surface  would  be  raised  76  feet.    Taking  each  of  the  continents 
separately,  the  average  elevation  of  Europe  would  be  671  feet :  of  North 
America,  748  feet ;  of  South  America,  1132  feet ;  and  of  Asia,  1151  feet : 
and  it  is  estimated  that  if  all  the  inequalities  of  the  earth's  surface  were 
reduced  to  a  uniform  natural  level,  the  land  would  have  an-  elevation 
aVove  the  sea-level  of  925  feet.    If  these  data  could  be  relied  on,  the  real 
level  of  the  eaith's  surface^  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  sea,  could 


tJ^f- 


nately  estimated  al  230  foet  liiglier 


I.  The  Ocean. — About  144,712,850  square  milea,  or  nearly 
tliree-fourthe  of  the  entire  superflciea  of  tlie  fjlolie,  are  peima- 
nently  covered  with  water,  the  euriace  of  which  forma  a  true 
natural  level,  all  the  jwrta  of  which  are  nearly  equidistant  from 
the  earth's  centre.  Such  a  level,  in  the  case  of  a  rotating;  body 
like  the  earth,  the  materials  of  which  were  once  capable  of 
yielding  to  the  influences  of  gravity  and  of  the  other  forces  that 
acted  upon  it,  is  of  a  spheroidal  form,  like  that  of  an  orange,  and 
differs  materially  from  a  dead,  horizontal  level,  such  as  the  floor 
of  an  apartment.  Tlie  euiface  of  lakes,  deserts,  plains,  and  even 
of  the  continents,  conforms  itself  to  this  natural  level ;  it  forma 
the  limit  from  which  all  the  elevations  of  the  land  and  tha 
soundings  of  the  ocean  are  measured ;  and,  in  constructing  a 
canal  or  a  railwav  along  the  surface,  an  allovaiiue  must  always 
be  made  for  this  difference,  amounting  to  about  8  inches  in  the 
mile.  By  the  inTestigations  of  H.M.S.  Challenger  and  other 
expeditions,  it  is  now  ascertained  that,  contrary  to  all  former 
ideas,  the  average  depth  of  the  ocean  does  not  exceed  2000 
fathoms,  or  rather  more  than  2  miles.  The  surface  temperature 
of  the  ocean  varies  with  the  latitude  and  season  of  the  year,  hut 
except  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ice,  it  is  everywhere'  warmer 
than  lower  down.  After  a  depth  of  100  fathoms  (at  which 
seasonal  changes  have  no  effect)  the  temperature  invariably  de- 
creases as  the  depth  increases,  until  we  arrive  at  a  depth  of 
20O0  fathoms,  where,  as  a  rule,  it  remains  stationary  at  or  about 
35°  Fuhr.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  are  salt  and  bitter,  their 
density  varying  according  to  the  quantity  of  saline  matter  they 
contain.  Generally  speaking,  the  quantity  of  salt  ia  from  3.5 
to  4.0  per  cent  of  the  entire  volume,  the  resulting  density  being 
1.0£7& — pure  water  being  unity.  Animalaof  many  orders  and 
genera — some  of  them,  too,  of  very  high  organisation — exist  at  the 
profoundest  depths  of  the  ocean.  Sponges,  annelids,  moUuscB, 
echinodemiB,  and  cmataceans,  have  already  been  found  in  vast 
numbers.  One  expedition  alone  has  added  127  species  to  the 
molluscs  already  faiown  to  exist  in  British  waters.  These, 
doubtless,  are  to  be  regarde<l  as  mere  prognostications  of  a  new 
world  about  to  te  revealed  to  naturalists, 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  desi>rve9  tha  lirat  place,  for  thongh  less  than 
half  the  size  of  tlie  Pacific,  it  is  the  best-luiawn  to  EaropeRns;  and  of 
all  Oia  great  watsrs  o(  the  globe  it  has  always  bean  tho  most  im- 
portant, as  that  on  whose  shores  and  gulfs  the  ereater  number  of  the 
civilised  nations  of  the  earth  have  taken  up  their  abode.  It  occupies 
a  huge,  angular,  canal-ahaped  basin,  whose  sides  are  nearly  parallel 

ounot  DUinbeT  as  Hi  rael—thiit  being  the  beltht  of  its  tMUitboTe  Um  leiL 


22  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

to  each  other — the  projections  of  the  one  side  standing  opposite  to 
the  indentations  of  tne  other;  extends  from  N.  to  S.  ahont  9000  miles; 
separates  the  Old  World,  on  the  east  side,  from  the  New  on  the 
west ;  and  connects  the  Arctic  with  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  It  varies 
greatly  in  breadth  in  different  parts,  being  4100  mUes  between  the 
shores  of  Marocco  and  the  Isthmns  of  Florida;  1700  miles  between 
Brazil  and  Sierra  Leone;  and  900  miles  between  Greenland  and  the 
coast  of  Noiway.  The  area  is  estimated  at  35,000,000  square  miles, 
or  nearly  half  the  area  of  the  Pacific  It  is  distingmshed  from 
all  the-  other  oceans  by  the  fewness  of  its  islands  and  the  great  num- 
ber of  seas  and  gulfs  which  it  projects  into  the  continents.  Its  aver- 
age depth,  as  ascertained  by  the  Ohalleuger  Expedition  of  1872-76,  is 
about  2500  fathoms.  In  the  N.  Atlantic  it  rarely  exceeds  2000,  thoi^ 
here  they  obtained  one  sounding  of  3916  fathoms,  or  23,500  feet, 
which  is  now  to  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  known  depth  of  this  ocean. 
A  submarine  plateau  runs  north  and  south,  near  the  middle,  with 
an  average  depth  of  less  than  2000  fathoms,  having  the  Azores 
as  its  culmination.  This  plateau  narrows  as  it  approaches  50**  N., 
where  it  touches  the  so-called  "  Telegraphic  Plateau,"  which  extends 
from  the  coast  of  Ireland  to  that  of  Newfoundland,  and  on  whidi 
are  laid  the  telegraphic  cables  between  Europe  and  America. 

The  princix)al  Branches  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Baltic,  the  North  Sea, 
the  Irish  Sea,  the  English  Channel,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  on  the  east  side ;  and  Hudson  Bay,  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  west.  The 
principal  Islands  and  Archipelagos  are,  Iceland,  the  British  Isles, 
Azores,  Madeira,  Canary  and  Cape  Verd  Isles,  near  its  eastern  shores ; 
and  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  Bermudas,  Bahamas,  Antilles,  and  the 
Falkland  Isles,  near  its  western.  Its  chief  Affluents  fit)m  the  Old  World 
are  the  Neva,  Rhine,  Loire,  Tagus,  Rhone,  Po,  Danube,  and  Don ;  Nile, 
Senegal,  Niger,  Congo,  and  Orange ;  and  from  the  New  World,  the  St 
Lawrence,  Mi9sissippi,  and  Rio  Grande  del  Norte ;  the  Orinoco,  Amazon, 
and  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Among  its  principal  Currento  are,  the  Equatorial 
Current,  which  flows  firom  the  coast  of  South  Africa  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
with  a  velocity  of  from  18  to  20  miles  a-day,  and  a  temperature  of  75® ;  ana 
the  far  more  celebrated  Gulf  Stream,  which,  leaving  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
flows  through  the  Strait  of  Florida  with  a  velocity  of  80  miles  a-day,  and 
a  mean  temperature  of  81**  Fahr.  "  After  having  run  3000  i^es  towards 
the  north,  it  still  preserves,  even  in  winter,  the  heat  of  summer.  With  this 
temperature  it  crosses  the  40th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  there  over- 
flowing its  liquid  banks,  it  spreads  itself  out  for  thousands  of  square 
leagues  over  the  cold  waters  around,  and  covers  the  ocean  with  a  mantle 
of  warmth  that  serves  so  much  to  mitigate  in  Europe  the  rigours  of 
winter.  Moving  now  more  slowly,  but  dispensing  its  genial  influences 
more  freely,  it  finally  meets  the  British  Islands.  By  these  it  is  divided, 
one  part  ^oing  into  the  polar  basin  of  Spitzbeigen,  the  other  entering  tilie 
Bay  of  Biscay,  but  each  with  a  warmth  considerably  above  the  ocean 
temperature."  The  Trade-Winds  blow  regidarly  in  its  intertropical 
regions;  but  beyond  these  limits  the  winds  are  variable.  Thus  we  see 
that  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  between  the  equator  and  the  40th  parallel 
are  kept  in  a  perpetual  whirlpool,  the  circumference  of  which  cannot  be 
less  than  from  eleven  to  twelve  thousand  miles.    In  the  centre  of  this 


THE   OCEAN.  23 

revolving  current  tliere  is  a  mass  of  nearly  atagnsnt  water,  covered  liy 
riense  mu^ea  of  on  fveiKreeti  sca-weeil,  cnlled  Fitcua  Natajis,  nhicti  tnada 
■□  livijy  aa  impression  on  ths  nuad  o(  Columbna  and  Ms  crew  when  about 
to  disiover  America  in  1492. 

The  Bu)]fic  Ocean  sapai-atea  America  on  the  east,  from  Asia,  Ma- 
lajiis,  and  Anatralia  on  the  iveat;  and  is  by  far  the  Ki^n^^est  ex- 
pacas  of  water  on  the  K^obe,  hsvins  an  area  estimated  at  72,DDD,00O 
square  miles,  or  equal  to  one-half  the  entire  waters  of  the  globe. 
Unlike  the  Atkntic,  of  which  it  is  fully  douhle  the  size,  itA 
grentest:  length  is  from  E.  to  W.  along  the  equator — a  direction  in 
which  it  Bitfitida  175*.  or  upwards  of  13,000  roilea,  reckoning  from 
the  coast  of  Fora  to  the  Malay  peninsula.  Its  greatest  breadth, 
between  Behring  Strait  and  the  Antarctic  Circle,  is  9000  miles,  cor- 
responding with  the  extreme  length  of  the  Atlantic  Its  shape  is 
somewhat  oval,  being  widest  in  the  middle  and  contracting  towarila 
both  extremities,  especiallj  in  the  north,  where  the  opposite  shores 
are  onlj  36  nules  apart.  The  Pacific  Ocean  was  unknown  to 
Europeans  till  the  year  1513,  whtn  it  was  discovered  by  Vaeeo  Ifuttet 
de  Bilbao,  from  the  autnmit  of  a  mouQtaiu  near  the  Isthmus  ol 
Panama.  Magaihaens,  who  aailed  from  America  to  the  Philippine 
Islands,  in  1S21,  bestowed  on  it  the  name  of  Pacific,  in  CDnsequenco 
of  the  calm  and  delightful  weather  he  experienced  while  navigating 
its  aiuface. 

The  coaat-lijie,  an  the  American  side,  thongh  liold.  Is  very  little  in- 
dsDted  by  the  ocean,  the  principal  Inleti  and  Branches  being,  Beliring 
Sea,  or  the  Sea  of  Eamtsahstka,  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  Bay  of 
PuuuDB ;  while  of  those  on  its  western  side  the  chief  are,  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  Sea  of  Japan,  Yellow  Sea,  China  Sea,  and  Gulf  of  Blam,  witb 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  in  Anstralia.  This  ocean  is  especially  charoc- 
tansed  by  the  immense  nnmber  of  ArcWpela^os— many  of  which  are  of 
volcanic,  and  others  of  submarine  u'oral  formation— that  are  scattered  over 
its  surface,  especially  in  iti  weiteni  and  central  parts.  North  of  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  the  principal  gronpa  are,  the  Japan  IbIbs,  Kurile  Isles, 
Aleutian  Isles,  Quean  Chaifuttc's  Island,  and  Viuicouver  Island.  South 
of  the  Tropic  ot  Cancer,  and  proceeding  from  W.  to  B.,  we  find  Malaysia, 
or  the  Malay  ArehipelsEO,  tho  Ladrones,  Caroline  Isles,  Marsliall  Archi- 
pelago, Saudwich  Isles,  and  the  Galapagos  Islands  near  the  South  Ame- 
rican cmai.  Then  returning  weatwani,  we  came  to  the  Marqnesss,  X.dw 
Atchipelago,  Society  Islands,  Hervey  or  Cook's  Islands,  Navigators' 
Islands,  Friendly  Islands,  Fiji  Islands,  Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  Salo- 
mon Isles,  New  HebrideB.  New  Caledonia,  and  New  Zealand.  Its  chief 
AflnoBta  troai  the  Old  Worid  are,  the  Amour,  Hoang-Ho,  Yang-tae- 
£ian^  Cambodia,  Ueinam  ;  and  from  the  New  World,  the  Frszer, 
Columbia,  and  Coloiulo.  The  principal  Current  of  this  ocean  la  oalled 
the  Eqnatorial  Cnrrent,  which,  origlnathig  in  the  Antarctic  Drift  Cur- 
rent, nowa  N.  along  the  western  shores  ol  South  America  to  the  coast  of 
Pern,  and  then  W,  through  the  Pacific,  where  it  occupies  the  entire  space 
between  the  tropics,  producing  a  genial  coolness,  where  otherwise  the  heat 
would  be  almost  insupportable.  Opposite  Lima,  on  the  Peruvian  eoiwt, 
Ita  temperature  b  11°  below  that  of^tho  neighbouring  ocean ;  and  even  at 
Payta,  which  is  7  degrees  farther  N.,  it  is  10°  colder  than  the  aea  in  its 
vicmity.  Farther  W.  it  gradually  loses  its  cooling  powers,  which,  how- 
ever, are  perceptible  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Morquesaii. 


24  PUYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Indian  Ocean  separates  Malaysia,  Australia,  and  Tasmania, 
on  the  east,  from  Arabia  and  Africa  on  the  west ;  its  northern 
bonndary  is  formed  by  the  shores  of  India  and  Biluchistan,  and  its 
southern,  by  tiie  Antarctic  Circle.  Its  shape  would  have  approxi- 
mated to  an  ec^uilateral  triangle,  had  not  A^ia  projected  its  hugest 
peninsula  into  its  apex,  and  given  it  a  very  irregular  form.  Extend- 
ing from  a  little  beyond  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Antarctic  Circle, 
its  greatest  length  is  90%  or  about  6000  miles ;  while  its  extreme 
breadth,  from  Cape  A^lhas  to  Tasmania,  is  expressed  by  the  same 
number.  The  area  is  generally  estimated  at  25,000,000  square 
miles,  or  20,000,000  when  its  southern  boundary  is  formed  by  a  line 
connecting  South  Cape  in  Tasmania  with  Cape  Agulhas  in  Amca. 

In  proportion  to  its  ma^itude  it  equals  even  the  Atlantic  as  to  the 
mmiber  and  extent  of  the  Branches  which  it  sends  into  the  land,  espe- 
cially on  its  northern  frontier.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  Bay  of 
Bengal ;  the  Arabian  Sea,  with  its  members,  the  Gulf  of  Kachh,  Gulf  of 
Oman,  and  the  Persian  Gulf ;  the  Gulf  of  Aden  with  the  Red  Sea ;  the 
Channel  of  Mozambique ;  Encounter  Bay,  St  Vincent  Gulf,  Spencer  Gulf, 
and  the  Great  Australian  Bight,  in  Australia.  The  only  Islands  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  are  Ceylon  and  Madagascar;  but  smaller  islands 
and  archipelagos  are  numerous,  as  Bourbon,  Mauritius,  Comoro,  Ami- 
rantes,  Seychelles,  Socotra ;  the  Laccadive,  Maldive,  and  Chagos  archi- 
pelagos ;  Kodrigues  ;  the  Andaman,  Nicobar,  and  Mergui  archipelagos  ; 
Keeling  Islands ;  St  Paul  aild  Amsterdam ;  Eerguelen  or  Desolation 
Island,  &c.  Its  larger  Affluents  are  nearly  all  from  the  Asiatic  continent, 
as  the  Irawadi,  Brahmaputra,  Ganges,  Mahanadi,  Godaveri,  Krishna, 
Tapti,  Nerbudda,  Indus,  and  Euphrates ;  together  with  the  Zambezi 
from  Africa,  and  the  Mmxay  from  Australia.  The  waters  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  being  as  hot  as  even  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  several  warm 
Currents  flow  out  of  it  in  various  directions.  One  of  these  originates  in 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  after  passing  through  the  Strait  of  Malacca, 
unites  with  other  warm  currents  from  the  Java  and  China  seas,  and 
then  flows  out  into  the  Pacific  like  another  Gulf  Stream — to  which, 
indeed,  both  in  its  direction  and  effects,  it  bears  numerous  and  striking 
resemblances.  Another  current,  from  the  Arabian  and  Red  Seas,  flows 
southwards  between  Africa  and  Madagascar,  tiU  it  meets  the  Cape  Cur- 
rent from  the  Atlantic,  south  of  Cape  Colony.  The  latter  current, 
formerljr  supposed  to  be  flowing  northward  along  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  is  now  ascertained  t<i  be  flowing  southward,  till,  after  uniting 
with  the  Mozambique  cun-ent,  both  find  their  way  into  the  intensely 
cold  waters  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 

The  Arctic  Ocean,  or  north  polar  basin,  is  bonnded  in  general  by 
the  northern  shores  of  Continental  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  all  of 
which  remarkably  conform  to  the  parallel  of  72^;  and  hence  its 
form  is  nearly  circular,  and  its  usual  breadth  2500  miles.  In  other 
directions  it  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  separates  it  from 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  forms  the  northern  limit  of  sun- 
shine in  winter.  Its  greatest  length  from  Behring  Strait  to  that 
point  on  the  Norwegian  coast  at  which  the  Arctic  Circle  cuts  the 
land — ^that  is,  along  the  meridian  of  124**  E. — is  3240  miles;  and 
the  total  area  is  estimated  at  5,000,000  square  miles.  Except  on  the 
Atlantic  sidC;  the  waters  of  this  ocean  are  virtually  land-locked« 


TDE   OCEAN.  25 

the  outlet  by  Behring  Strait  being  onlj  36  miles  viie,  with  a  mim- 
matn  depth  of  S5  fotnoma.  Hmnerona  attempts  have  heen  made  to 
Teach  the  Pole,  bnt  as  yet  all  have  proTed  imsaecessfnl.  The  latest 
was  bj  the  British  Expedition  nader  Captain  Narea,  which  returned 
to  England  in  October  187S.  Captain  Nares,  proceeding  up  Davis 
Strait  and  Smith's  Sound,  penetrated  aa  far  as  83°  20',  heing  35 
miles  beyond  the  furthest  paint  hitberto  attained,  and  only  100 


thickness.  The  depth  of  water  here  was  72  fathoms,  and  the  lowest 
winter  temperature — 72°  Fahr.  The  long  sought  JVortt-  Wesi  Fasaage— 
that  is  to  say,  a  navigable  passage  from  European  countriea  to  China 
along  the  northern  coast  of  America — was  at  last,  after  inDiunerable 
unanccessfnl  efforts  continued  for  two  centuries,  effected  hy  Captain 
Maolnro,  who,  in  1860,  achieved  the  haiatdoua  task  by  sailing  ont  of 
the  Pttciic through  Behring  Strait;  then,  turning  eastward,  pursued 
hia  conwe  along  the  coast  till  he  came  to  Cape  Bathurat,  at  the 
entrance  to  Coronation  Galf  ;  theo  northward,  along  the  west  coast 
of  Banks'  Land  to  Melville  Sound,  which  he  entered  ;  and  continued 
has  dangeroua  voyuge  eastward  to  Baf!iu  Bay  and  Davis  Strait ;  and 
1  finally  entered  the  Atlantic.  It  now  appears,  however,  that  the 
I  lionour  of  the  discovery  ia  really  due  to  Sir  John  Franklin,  who  left 
I  England  in  search  of  a  north-west  passage  in  1S15,  hut  who  perished 
In  the  attempt  in  1847.  Notwithstanding  the  success  of  this  bril- 
liant exploit,  the  route  thus  discovered  is  all  but  absolutely  impmc- 
ticable,  and  can  never  be  of  any  avail  in  a  conmetcial  point  of  view  ; 
while  the  same  route  in  the  opposite  direction  remains  still  unnccam- 
pliabed. 

The  principal  Branchei  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  are,  the  White  Sea,  in 
Europe;  the  Gulfa  of  Kara,  Obi,  and  Yenisei,  m  Asia  ;  Behring  Strait, 
between  Asia  and  the  New  World  ;  and  Coronation  Gulf,  Melville  Sooiul, 
Barrow  Strait,  Lancaster  Sound,  and  Baffin  Bay,  in  North  America. 

The  Blveta  that  find  their  way  into  this  ocean  are,  for  the  most  part, 
of  great  magnitude.  Having  their  sources  aa  far  south  as  the  SOth 
paroUe),  in  hoth  hemiapheres,  they  drain  an  area  fuUy  equal  to  that  of 
the  ocean  which  they  enter,  or  considerably  more  than  that  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  The  chief  of  those  from  the  Old  World  ar*  the  Dwina, 
Petchora,  Obi,  Teniasi,  Lena,  and  Kolyma  ;  and  from  the  New  World, 
the  Colville,  Macltenzie,  and  Coppermine.  The  northward  direction  of 
these  rirera  imparls  a  sliiking  pecuharity  (o  the  annual  thawln)^  of  their 
waters.  As  their  upper  courses  belong  to  more  temperate  latitudes  than 
their  lower,  the  former  are  melted  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  at  an  earlier 
data  than  the  latter,  and  discharge  their  liberateil  contenta  into  the 
valleys  and  eatunrios  below,  which,  being  thus  iimndated  hy  waters  of  a 
comparatively  elevated  temperature,  apeedily  give  way  in  turn ;  and 
thus,  in  a  compaistively  brief  period,  the  entire  ocean  is  covered  with 
an  immense  volume  of  freah  water  of  more  than  32°  of  temperature, 
which  now  becomes  the  prime  mover  of  that  Meaa-cnrrent  that,  everj- 
■nmmsr,  drifts  the  polar  ice  int^  the  Atlantic.  Another  cause,  however, 
eo-operatea  in  producing  this  pheuomenoo.  The  north-east  branch  of  the 
Gnlf  Stream  from  the  Atlantic  enters  the  Arctic  Ocean  between  Norway 
'    on  the  one  side,  and  Iceland  and  Spitibergcn  on  the  other,    Donbliug 


26  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  North  Cape,  it  flows  eastward,  close  to  the  shores  of  Lapland  and 
Siberia,  the  rigorous  climate  of  which  it  materially  softens.  Arriving 
at  Behring  Strait,  it  is  greatly  increased  in  volume  and  force  by  the 
Japan  current  from  the  Pacific,  and  now  pursuing  its  circuitous  journey, 
it  eventually  arrives  at  Banks*  Land  and  the  Parry  Islands.  The  IslanoB 
of  this  ocean  are  but  imperfectly  known.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
uninhabited,  and  are  important  only  a.s  the  temporary  abodes  of  the 
whale,  seal,  and  walrus  hunter.  The  principal  groups  are  the  following : 
Spitzbergen,  Novaia  Zemlia,  Franz  Joseph  Land,  and  New  Siberia,  be- 
tween the  Pole  and  the  Eastern  Continent;  and  the  great  North  American 
Archipelago,  the  chief  members  of  which  are  the  Parry  Islands,  Banks' 
Land,  N.  Somerset,  Cockbum  Island,  Cumberland  Island,  Comwallis 
Island,  North  Devon,  EUesmere,  Grinnell  Land,  Grant's  Land,  and 
Greenland. 

The  Antarctic  Ocean  is  far  less  accurately  known  to  geographers 
than  any  of  the  other  great  oceanic  basins,  the  cold  being  more  in- 
tense, the  winds  and  seas  more  boisterous,  and  the  ice  extending  at 
least  10°  degrees  nearer  the  equator  than  in  the  Arctic  Basin.  The 
highest  latitude  yet  attained  in  this  ocean  was  reached  by  Sir  James 
Boss,  who,  in  1841,  penetrated  to  lat.  78°  4',  or  within  815  miles  of 
the  South  Pole.  In  this  latitude,  and  immediately  S.  of  New  Zea- 
land, his  progress  southward  was  arrested  by  an  ice-bound  shore,  on 
which  he  landed,  and  which,  in  honour  of  his  sovereign,  he  named 
South  Victoria  Land.  Other  navigators,  in  approaching  the  pole 
from  other  directions,  have  encountered  similar  obstructions  at  con- 
siderably lower  latitudes,  as  Adelie  Land,  S.  of  Australia  ;  Enderby 
Land,  S.  of  Madagascar  ;  and  South  Shetland,  S.  of  Cape  Horn.  Pro- 
bably, therefore,  almost  the  entire  area  embraced  by  the  Antarctic 
Circle  is  occupied  by  a  continent  which  is  nearly  circular  in  form, 
and  more  than  twice  the  size  of  Australia  ;  which  is  covered  by  eternal 
snows,  and  wholly  devoid  of  vegetation  ;  the  shores  of  which  are 
guarded  by  gigantic  volcanoes,  or  by  impenetrable  barriers  of  ice ; 
and  whose  interior  has  never  been  trodden  by  the  foot  of  man.  One 
of  these  volcanoes,  named  Mount  Erebus,  was  found  by  Sir  James 
Ross  to  be  12,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  a  state  of 
constant  activity  ;  while  Mount  Terror,  an  extinct  volcano,  has  an 
altitude  of  9000  feet.  The  seas  around  this  continent  are  remark- 
ably shallow,  the  depth  rarely  exceeding  400  fathoms.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  hottest  month,  even  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  ranges  from 
11**  Fahr.  to  the  freezing-point  of  water.  The  baxometric  pressure 
is  also  greatly  less  than  in  tropical  regions  {see  p.  28).  Sir  Jamea 
Ross  determined  the  position  of  the  South  Magnetic  Pole  to  be  within 
the  limits  of  South  Victoria  Land — viz.,  in  lat.  75°  6'  S.,  and  Ion. 
145°  8'  E. 

4.  The  Atmosphere.— Many  of  the  phenomena  of  physical 
geography  are  inexplicable  without  some  previous  acquaintance 
with  that  thin,  aerial,  and  invisible  fluid  called  the  Atmosphere, 
which  envelops  the  earth  on  all  sides,  which  shares  in  its  diur- 
nal motion,  and  which  accompanies  it  in  its  annual  journey 
round  the  son.     In  respect  to  composition,  atmospheric  air 


TUE    ATMOSPHERE.  27 

consists  almost  exclusively  of  two  gaseous,  elementary  sub- 
stances, oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  proj)ortion  of  21  parts  by 
volume  of  the  former,  and  79  jjarts  of  the  latter,  or,  23  parts  by 
weight  of  oxvgen,  and  77  of  nitrogen.  It  also  contains  a  little 
carlK)nic  acid  gas,  a  minute  though  very  variable  quantity  of 
aqueous  vapour,  and  a  trace  of  ammonia.  The  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  are  not  chemically  combined,  but  exist  in  a  state  of 
mixture;  yet  their  relative  proportions  remain  invariable,  Ijeiiig 
the  same  on  the  summits  of  tne  highest  mountains  as  in  the 
deepest  recesses  of  the  surface,  the  same  in  the  country  as  in 
the  crowded  city,  and  the  same  in  the  tropical  as  in  the  frigid 
zones.  On  the  contrary,  the  carbonic  acid  and  vapour  of  water 
vary  greatly  in  quantity  in  different  localities,  the  one  beiDff 
affect^  by  local  causes,  and  the  otlier  mainly  by  changes  of 
temperature. 


of  the  Atmotpliertt. — ^Notwithstanding  its  extreme  light* 
ii€SB,  the  air,  in  common  with  all  other  material  bodies,  is  affo^cted 
by  the  aU-pervading  law  of  gravitation,  and  exerts  a  pressure  on 
1^  aorfiux  of  the  earth  which  can  easily  be  measttre<(i,  A/^cording 
TO  Dr  Prout,  100  cubic  inches  of  pure  dry  air,  at  60*  of  t(»apera' 
tore,  and  ihe  barometer  standing  at  30  mches,  weigh  31  grainsif 
The  wdi^it  on  erery  square  inch  (jf  surCau^  at  the  level  of  the  sea  gene* 
tbUt  anKxmts  to  about  1 5  lb.  avoirdupois,  bdn^  the  same  as  the  weight 
of  a  wAxmm  of  water  of  equal  base,  34  fbet  high,  or  of  a  coluirm  of 
mercmr  30  inches  io^  Snpposoag  the  mufM^  of  a  man's  body  to 
sMSBiire  15  sqnare  feet,  it  castains  a  pressure  of  no  less  than  14  toos^ 
Beixt^  a  hiduy  elastic  fluid,  the  deontT  and  ynmnam  of  the  »tm<>' 
^^j^nere  rapadhr  dknTTridi  as  we  asoend  upward,  1000  leet  of  Mist(y^f>t 
(near  like  sDrSnoe)  roo^r  oorraponding  to  a  USX  of  1  imk  m  the 
'baatoneter ;  or,  to  ifpeak  more  exactir.  As  ih/t  ^Jt4X)f^ii/im  i»^*'j(uiiu  im 

*jal  pr^presmKM.  ThxB,  at  liie  lerel  of  the  «es,  the  pressure  on  ea^ 
stnocre  inc^  is  15  lb.,  or  oqnsl  to  a  eolusm  of  'SbfiXi:!txxr  30  ijudtiee 
lii£^  :  St  3.4  sola  abore  toe  sorlaioe  lite  presstire  w  oofr  7^  Xb.,  or 
lo'indieE  of  mercnnr:  axtd  «t  ^6  aiiles  «  eier^tion,  3|  Jb.,  or  TJ 
i&fdiss  of  menmrr.  From  lids  the  appOdestioD  of  the  b&rosueUir  in 
asmgtaming  li»  jbeoj^bts  of  ixkoimtaixa  becogB»es  obrlous. 

Bfik^it  dr-tte  AlaiiMpteEie. — ^Masr  reasoai$  <:cfiLbine  to  indu<ie  ttke 
iKsbd*  ihat  the  atmo^^bere  does  Jix/t  erte&d  to  au  ixkde&uul^  hetjgfat; 
hut  termiiacteE  at  as  ahititde  of  l&xmi  45  to  50  fiule&*  Xtt;  heij^  is 
also  difierent  in  difiereait  latrtodes,  beinir  oososideraUr  ip:«8$«r  botwees 
tht  TTiqpioE  than  wrdmi  1i»  Polar  Cird^s.  This  is  onriu*  partly  to 
the  creata-  cemxifasaJ  foroe  liuct  exerts  is  the  oquatoritU  than  in  ths 
polar  resnoia  ieaosed  by  liie  rotatiuD  of  the  eami  arotmd  its  ^jom), 
and  portiT  lo  like  high  teur^ieratnre  of  the  earth's  suiisoe  in  io«r  Jaeti^ 
mdes,  whidi  causes  tine  air  in  oontaet  with  it  to  erpaud  at  the  rate 
ol^j^tifiteTohmieat  ^92*rahr-  («  •pi^CeaacL)  for  ererr  increase  of  J* 
^  James  ?i1he  ohwrv«d  thai,  in  Sooth  Tittoia  Laoi^  iat.  7^^  -^ 
'^  Qlaiaiker  iiae  actaiuefi  &  iiel^  flf  SCHTl;  ft.  iit  a  \is31ofnL 


28  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

barometric  pressure  rarely  exceeded  29  inches,  whereas  in  the  torrid 
zone  it  averages  about  80  inches. 

Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere. — When  ascending  the  side  of 
a  mountain-chain,  the  traveller  feels  the  cold  increasing  perceptibly 
in  proportion  to  his  elevation ;  and  should  the  chain  be  sufficiently 
lofly,  he  will  find  tiie  summit  covered  with  perennial  snow.  If  the 
ascent  is  made  within  the  tropics,  this  difference  of  temperature 
arising  from  elevation  is  beautifully  represented  to  the  eye  by  a  cor- 
responding succession  of  climatic  zones,  each  of  which  is  occupied 
by  a  fauna  and  flora  peculiar  to  itself,  but  quite  analogous  to  the 
succession  of  zones,  with  their  respective  faunas  and  floras,  that  is 
traversed  when  proceeding  from  the  equator  to  either  pole.  This 
beautiful  phenomenon,  of  which  the  Andes  and  Himalaya  afford  the 
most  striking  examples,  depends  on  the  fact  that  any  change  in  the 
density  of  the  atmosphere  is  uniformly  accompanied  by  a  corre- 
sponding change  in  its  temperature.  When  a  gaseous  body  expands, 
a  portion  of  its  heat  becomes  latent,  and  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
quired to  raise  it  to  any  given  temperature  increases  the  more  the 
gas  expands.  If  there  be  no  source  of  heat  from  which  this  addi- 
tional quantity  can  be  obtained,  the  gas  will  cool  during  expansion, 
by  a  portion  of  its  free  heat  becoming  latent.  Generally  speaking, 
the  thermometer  sinks  1**  of  Fahr.  for  every  300  feet  of  elevation 
for  the  first  mile  above  the  surface,  but  the  rate  is  influenced  by  many 
causes.    For  higher  elevations  no  regular  law  has  been  ascertained. 

Winds. — ^When  the  air  is  put  in  motion  by  any  cause,  a  wind  is 
produced;  and  no  cause  so  powerfully  contributes  to  such  motion 
as  local  changes  of  temperature,  arising  from  the  uneqiial  degree  in 
which  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  are  heated  by  the  solar  rays. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  clear  notion  of  the  nature  and  direction  of 
winds,  it  will  be  necessary  to  leave  out  of  view,  for  the  time, 
the  various  inequalities  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  to  regard  it  as 
uniformly  spherical.  In  tropical  regions,  where  the  sun  is  always 
vertical  at  noon,  his  rays  fall  perpendicularly  on  the  surface,  and 
consequently  with  a  far  greater  heating  power  than  if  they  came 
down  slantingly,  as  in  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones.  The  heated 
surface  communicates  its  own  temperature  to  the  stratum  of  air  in 
contact  with  it,  causing  the  latter  to  expand,  and,  with  a  diminished 
density,  to  ascend  through  a  higher  stratum,  supported  by  which  it 
flows  off  towards  the  nearest  cold  region,  its  place  meanwhile  being  sup* 
plied  by  other  currents  proceeding  from  adjacent  cold  regions.  Hence 
we  should  expect  that  at  any  point  on  the  surface  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  northern  winds  (that  is,  winds  from  the  north)  would 
prevail  throughout  the  year;  while  everywhere  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  they  would  blow  incessantly  from  the  south.  And,  were 
the  earth  at  rest,  and  its  surface  wholly  land  or  water,  such  would 
be  the  actual  direction  of  the  winds  throughout  the  year.  But  the 
earth  rotates  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east  every  twenty-four  hours, 
its  equatorial  parts  movins  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  per  hour, 
while  at  the  poles  the  surface  remains  at  rest.  Hence,  in  passing 
from  the  higher  latitudes  towards  the  equator,  the  cold  currents  of 


I 
I 
I 


TliE    ATMOSPHERE.  29 

air  arrive  progressiTely  at  regions  of  increaBcJ  rotntory  Telocity ; 
and  aa  tlier  cannot  keep  pace  vith  this  increase  of  mution,  tbey 
neoesaai-ily  lag  behind,  and  form  curronta  flowing  In  a  direction, 
opposite  to  tlie  rotsition  of  tlie  globe,  ot  fram  etut  to  vtut;  and  tiros, 
by  the  combined  efTectB  ot  the  rotBtion  of  the  globe  and  the  difference 
of  temperature  at  its  surface,  the  northern  and  aoiithem  currents 
are  deflected  and  modified,  so  as  to  become  respectively  the  per- 
manent north-easterly  and  south ■  easterly  currents,  farming  the 
roagoificent  phenomenon  of  the  Trade-Vlnds.  These  winds  extend, 
\riuL  occasionnl  interruptions  and.  modificntiong,  Irom  the  i-iciolty  of 
the  eqiaator  to  the  28tb  or  30th  parallel,  K.  and  S. — the  limit  vary- 
ing accolding  to  the  sun's  northern  or  southern  declination.  Their 
action  is  most  regular  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans ;  bat  their 
influence  ia  neatralised  in  the  vicinity  of  continents  and  Isive 
islands  by  the  currents  that  ars  generated  on  the  land.  In  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  aouth'Gastem  Asia,  the  trnde-wincla  imdergo 
remarkable  modifi cations,  changing  their  direction  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  hence  called  Monaoona.  These  winds  prevail  over 
a  tract  extending  from  lat.  7°  S.  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  from 
the  E.  coast  of  Africa  to  Japan,  Siheria,  and  the  W.  Pscifio  Ocean. 
They  blow  for  six  months  of  the  year  in  one  direction,  and  for  the 
other  six  in  an  opposite  one  ;  the  change  occurring  about  the  ISth 
April  and  the  ISth  October.  On  the  north  side  of  the  equator  the 
HTK  monsoon  prevails,  mth  little  variation,  from  October  to  April ; 
tihile  from  April  to  October  it  ia  replaced  by  the  S.W.  monsoon. 
In  the  W.  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean  south  of  the  equator  the 
S.W.  monsoon  blows  from  October  to  April,  constituting  the  rainy 
season;  while  from  April  to  October  the  S.E,  monsoon  holds  sway, 
and  forma  tie  dry  season.  The  last-named  monsoon  may  be  con- 
aidered  as  identical  with  the  S.E.  trade-wind.  In  general,  the  mon- 
soons blow  towards  the  continent  during  summer,  and  in  an  opposite 
direction  in  winter.  They  regulate  the  alternations  ot  the  wet  and 
dry  seasons  throughout  south-eastern  j*sia — the  rainy  season  of 
theW.  coast  of  India  corresponding  with  the  prevalence  of  the  S.W. 
monsoon,  and  that  of  the  £.  coast  with  the  S.E.  monsoon.  They 
are  also  of  great  importance  to  commerce,  for  by  them  a  ship  may 
he  wafted  to  a  distant  port,  where  she  nmaina  IJll  the  monsoon 
changes,  and  is  then  aided  hy  it  home  again. 

Zima  ot  Calms  and  Vaiiabla  Winds, — In  the  Atlantic  and  Pacilic 
oceans,  immediately  nnder  the  equator,  where  the  N.E  and  S.E. 
trade-winds  approach  each  other,  there  occurs  a  zone  of  calms  and 
variable  winds;  there  being  a  calm  when  the  opposing  winds  wholly 
neutralise  each  other,  and  a  wind,  which  is  usually  from  the  east, 
when  either  predominates.  This  zone  varies  in  breadth  from  150  to 
COO  mOes,  according  to  the  season  of  the  jsar,  and  is  perpetually 
shifting  its  position.  In  March  and  April  it  extends  from  lat.  7°  N. 
to  2°  H. ;  in  July  and  August  from  7  N.  to  12°  N. ;  thus  ranging 
over  10°  of  latitude.  As  each  of  the  trade-winds  has  traversed  a 
great  extent  of  ocean  before  arriving  at  the  equator,  it  becomes 
highly  charged  with  vapour;  and  hence  this  zone  is  characterised  hj 


30  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

constant  precipitation,  the  rain  falling  at  irregular  intervals  and  at 
all  hours  of  the  day.  The  heat  is  great,  and  thunderstorms  are 
frequent ;  and  perhaps  there  is  no  part  of  the  ocean  more  dreaded  by 
mariners  than  the  zone  of  calms  and  variables. 

Region  of  S.W.  and  N.W.  Winds. — We  have  seen  that  the  heated 
air  of  the  Torrid  Zone,  forced  upwards  by  colder  and  denser  cur- 
rents, finds  its  way  to  the  Frigid  Zones.  On  quitting  the  tropics  it 
begins  to  cool,  and  consequently  to  descend,  arriving  at  the  surface 
about  the  30th  parallel  of  latitude  in  both  hemispheres.  Were  the 
earth  stationary,  and  were  there,  also,  no  opposing  current  from 
the  polar  regions,  it  is  obvious  that  south  winds  would  prevail  over 
the  entire  N.  Temperate  Zone,  and  north  winds  over  the  S.  Tempe- 
rate Zone.  But  the  earth  rotates  from  west  to  east,  and  the  wind, 
on  its  way  from  the  tropics  to  the  poles,  is  ever  arriving  at  zones 
of  surface  possessed  of  less  rotatory  velocity  than  itself;  and  it 
will,  therefore,  so  far  as  this  cause  is  concerned,  manifest  itself  as  a 
west  wind.  Combining,  now,  both  these  causes,  the  resultant  effect 
is  that  in  the  N.  Temperate  Zone  S.  W.  winds  must  prevail,  while  in 
the  S.  Temperate  Zone  N.W.  winds  will  predominate.  Both  these 
\vinds,  however,  are  subject  to  great  irregularities,  mainly  owing  to 
their  being  affected  by  the  great  polar  currents  that  are  ever  pro- 
ceeding from  the  poles  to  the  equator.  The  winds  which  result  mom 
such  collisions  must  necessarily  take  a  Tnean  direction,  depending  on 
the  relative  force  of  the  opposing  currents;  but  this  direction, 
though  very  variable,  is  chiefly  westerly.  -  In  the  North  Atlantic 
they  are  chiefly  from  the  S.W. ;  and  the  effect  is,  that  a  sailing 
vessel  which  takes  forty  days  from  Liverpool  to  New  York  can 
make  its  return  voyage  in  twenty-three  days.  South  of  the  equa- 
tor, between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  50"  S.,  the  winds  are  pretty 
regular,  being  generally  W.N.  W.;  while  in  the  N.  Frigid  Zone  no 
regular  succession  has  been  observed,  but  northern  winds  are  the 
most  frequent. 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes. — On  islands  and  near  the  shores  of  the 
continents,  especially  in  warm  and  tropical  regions,  the  wind  during 
the  da)'^  blows  from  the  sea,  while  during  the  night  it  pursues  a 
contrary  direction.  After  the  explanations  given  above,  the  cause 
of  this  becomes  sufficiently  obvious.  Tho  sea  and  the  land  are 
very  unequally  heated  by  the  solar  beams.  About  sunrise  and  sun- 
set the  temperature  of  both  is  nearly  equal,  and  there  is  consequently 
no  wind  either  way;  but  shortly  after  sunrise  the  land  becomes 
warmer  than  the  water,  in  consequence  of  the  more  powerful  action 
of  the  solar  rays;  the  temperature  of  the  stratum  of  air  next  the 
surface  is  increased  and  its  density  lessened ;  it  must  therefore 
ascend  to  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  leaving  behind  a 
vacuum,  which  is  immediately  occupied  by  colder  and  denser  air 
from  the  ocean.  Thus  is  originated  a  sea-breeze^  which  attains  its 
greatest  velocity  at  the  period  of  the  maximum  heat  of  the  day,  and 
gradually  declines  towards  evening.  During  night,  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  sea  exceeds  that  of  the  land,  the  current  of  air  must 
necessarily  flow  in  an  opposite  direction,  aod  produce  what  is  called 
the  land-breeze. 


THE    ATMOSPUEKE.  31 

The  Vapour  of  Water  ana  tta  Prodncta.— The  quiintity  of  vn-pQUt 
u]  Ihe  atmosphere,  whicb  is  always  very  small,  varies  with  tlie  teni- 
poratare,  lieing  greater  when  the  temperature  is  high,  and  smaller 
when  it  is  low.  Sir  John  Leslie  Bhowed,  by  numerous  experiments, 
that  the  air  can  hold  the  IQOth  part  of  its  own  weight  of  vapour  iu 
_^Hii£penaiou  when  its  temperKture  is  et  32°  l^'ahr. ;  the  80tb  part  of  its 
freight  at  the  temperature  of  G9°;  the  40th  part  at  86°;  the  20th 
BbKt  at  113°]  and  the  10th  part  at  140°.  Seas,  rivers,  lakes,  and 
Enoist  grouud  are  the  sources  from  which  the  vapour  iu  the  atmo- 
Htthere  emanates.  When  water  is  thus  passing  mna  the  liquid  into 
HLe  gaseous  or  invisible  form,  it  is  said  to  evaporate.  Evaporation 
^pakas  place  at  all  temperatures,  and  is  caused  chieBy  by  the  aetieii 
K>f  wiuile  and  of  the  solar  heat  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  and  the 
■iiore  intense  this  action  is,  the  greater  becomes  the  quantity  of 
Fanoisture  that  rises  into  the  atmosphere.  When  the  air  has  received 
M  mnch  vaponr  as  it  is  capable  of  holding  in  the  inviaibte  form,  at 
any  given  temperature,  it  is  said  to  be  sataratfd.  Should  any  more 
vapour  enter  it  at  this  temperature,  or  should  its  temperature  bs  re- 
duced to  any  exteaC,  the  supeCBhundant  vapour  instantly  becomes 
visible,  and  aaaumes  the  form  of  mist  or  clouds,  or  is  precipitated  as 
dew,  hoar-frost.  Tain,  snow,  or  hail.  Should  the  reduction  of  tem- 
perature take  place  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  by  means  of  a  cold  current  of  air  coming  into  contact  with 
a  wnrmer  one  already  at  the  point  of  saturation,  donda  will  he  the 
form  which  the  superabundant  vapour  will  assume ;  but  if  the  re- 
duction  takes  place  at  a  lower  level,  so  that  the  clond  rests  on  the 
pround  instead  of  Boating  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 
It  is  called  a  tOg  or  nil«t.  Clouds  and  mist  are  identical  in  their 
nature,  and  only  dilfer  in  resjiect  to  elevation  ;  for  in  each  of  them 
^e  rapour,  formerly  invisible,  is  supposed  to  pass  into  the  form 
of  minnte,  visible  globules,  which,  from  being  hollow  within,  are 
possessed  of  such  buoyancj  as  to  be  capable  of  floating  in  the  atmo- 
rohare.  When  the  sntfaoe  of  the  ground  has  been  reduced  by  radia- 
tion, BO  that  the  air  in  contact  with  it  falls  helow  its  point  of  saturation, 
H  pintioit  of  the  vapour  contained  iu  the  latter  becomes  condensed, 
and  aasumes  the  form  of  dew ;  and  when  the  radiation  baa  proceed^i 
BO  for  as  to  reduce  the  surface  below  the  freezing-point,  lunr-frOEt 
is  the  product.  The  quantity  of  dew,  however,  which  is  deposited 
on  any  given  object  depends  not  only  on.  its  temperature,  hut  iu  a 
great  measure  also  on  the  nature  of  its  materials,  its  texture,  and  the 
roughness  or  smoothness  of  its  surface.  Thus,  white  metala,  stones, 
and  wood,  are  found  comparatively  dry,  living  plaiits  of  every  form 
are  copiaoaly  laden  with  dew  :  substances  having  a  close  testure  are 
unfavourable  to  its  formation,  while  those  that  are  loosely  com- 
pacted, as  cloth,  wool,  down,  cotton,  &c.,  are  highly  favourable; 
and  those  surfaces  which  part  with  their  heat  least  readily,  as,  for 
Example,  polished  metals,  contract  the  least  dew ;  while  those  that 
port  vrili  their  heat  moat  readily — viz.,  roughened  or  painted  sur- 
faces, contract  the  most  Wlien  the  tem)ierBture  that  has  led  to  the 
fonoation  of  the  minute  hollow  vesicles  of  which  a  cloud  conaiata  has 
been  reduced  still  lower,  the  vesii'lea  become  larger 


32  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

in  twos  and  threes ;  and  ultimately,  by  reason  of  their  densi^jind 
increased  gravity,  fall  to  the  ground  in  large  drops  of  raliL  When 
the  vesicles  have  been  exposed  to  an  intensely  cold  current  of  air, 
they  are  congealed  or  solidified  into  minute,  icy  crystals ;  and  when 
many  of  these  collect  together,  they  usually  assume  a  liighly  sym- 
metrical and  beautiful  shape  before  descending  to  the  earth  in  the 
form  of  flakes  of  snow.  Captain  Scoresby,  during  his  Arctic  voyages, 
observed  nearly  a  hundred  different  forms  of  snow-flakes,  many  of 
which  were  extremely  beautiful.  Should  the  snow-flakes,  in  descend- 
ing towards  the  surface,  pass  through  a  warm  stratum  of  air,  they 
melt  and  become  rain-drops ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  should  the 
rain-drops,  while  descending,  pass  through  a  stratum  of  very  cold  air, 
they  are  converted  into  hailstones. 

IMstribution  of  Rain. — Kain  falls  very  unequally  in  different  re- 
gions of  the  globe,  but  in  general  the  greatest  quantity  of  rain  falls 
in  warm  climates,  as  evaporation  proceeds  there  more  rapidly  than  in 
cold  and  temperate  regions.  The  following  generalisations,  which  can 
only  be  regarded  as  rough  approximations,  will  be  found  useful : — 

1.  Bain  is  more  abundant  in  tropical  regions  than  under  higher  lati- 
tudes ;  but  the  number  of  rainy  days  is  greater  the  farther  the  place  is 
from  the  equator.  The  annual  average  of  rain  between  the  tropics  is 
about  96  in.,  and  the  number  of  rainy  days  is  only  80 ;  while  in  the  two 
temperate  zones  the  average  annual  fall  is  only  87  inches,  but  the  number 
of  days  on  which  rain  falls  varies  fi*om  64,  in  the  N.  of  Syria,  to  169  at 
St  Petersburg.  2.  The  annual  amount  of  rain  decreases  in  ascendine 
from  low  plains  to  elevated  plateaux.  3.  On  the  contrary,  the  amount 
of  rain  increases  in  ascending  from  plains  to  the  rugged  slopes  of  moun- 
tain-chains. Thus,  while  at  Paris  only  20  inches  of  rain  nill  annually, 
upwards  of  tlurice  that  quantity  falls  on  the  sides  of  the  Great  St  Ber- 
nard; and  in  England  the  quantity  that  falls  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts is  more  than  double  that  of  the  less  elevated  portions  of  the  country. 
4.  The  amount  of  rain  decreases  as  we  proceed  from  the  shores  of  conti- 
nents towards  their  interior ;  thus,  while  on  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland,  Nor- 
way, and  Portugal,  the  annual  average  is  47,  80,  and  111  inches,  respect- 
ively, in  central  and  eastern  Europe  it  is  only  15  inches.  There  are  important 
exceptions,  however,  to  this  rule,  arising  from  the  direction  and  position 
of  mountain-chains,  and  from  the  character  of  the  winds  (whether  dry  or 
humid)  to  which  any  given  place  is  exposed.  For  example,  one  side  of  a 
mountain-chain  may  be  humid,  while  the  other  is  comparatively  rainless. 
The  Andes  in  South  America,  the  mountains  of  Norway,  and  Mount 
Atlas  in  North  Africa,  afford  striking  examples.  5.  Within  the  tropics, 
the  eastern  coasts  of  the  continents,  owing  to  their  exposure  to  the  trade- 
winds,  are  more  humid  than  the  western ;  while  in  the  temperate  zone 
their  toestem,  sides,  from  being  exposed  to  westerly  winds  charged  with 
moisture— received  in  their  passage  across  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans 
— are  more  humid  than  the  eastern. 

5.  Climate. — By  the  climate  of  a  place  is  meant  the  prevail- 
ing character  of  its  weather,  or  all  those  states  and  changes  of 
its  atmosphere  which  sensibly  affect  the  organs  of  plants  and 
animals.  The  peculiarities  of  climate  are  mainly  attributable 
to  the  following  causes : — 

1.  Latitude. — This  determines  the  amount  of  solar  heat  which  the 


CUMATB.  33 

f  tf"«e  enjow— tMcIi  unannt  dep«]>da,  not  meni;  on  t^«  IniirtU  i>( 
tiiBe  it  ia  omtuiiiooilj  eiposvd  to  th«  solar  rays,  bnt  npccially  nn 
th«diracliDnartheixfa«lieo  th«  sun  is  in  the  mcridiui,  tiettvcsii 
iba  tn^Hca  tha  solar  an  descend  lertically  at  noon,  and  halioa  juv- 
dnee  tfaair  noi-iminn  eOect ;  bat  the  more  mnota  the  plaoa  la  tVum 
the  torrid  nma,  the  nys  dosceud  mora  and  mora  slmtinsly.  SI.  tl*- 
■nam. — The  more  Blefated  any  place  Ja,  the  lonor  ia  ita  tenipor*. 
tan ;  and  a  change  of  level  of  oulj  a  fon  icet  will  diminish  tlie  teui< 
perstore  of  the  place  as  much  as  a  change  of  latitude  amounting  to 
many  miles.  In  the  tonid  Kane  an  ascent  of  300  foot  alnha  tha 
thermometer  1°  Fahi. ;  bat  the  rote  is  not  nnilorm  aa  the  ascent  i* 
coDlinned — less  than  300  feet  beinc  safficient  for  reducing  the  tatii- 
peratore  anotber  de^ce.  A  smaller  elevation  will  also  aulfico  for 
producing  this  effect  in  higher  latitudes.  By  continuing  the  nsceiit 
in  any  latitude,  ne  at  length  arrive  at  what  is  called  the  now-Ua*, 
or  the  Umlt  of  peremilal  congelation.  This  line  attains  its  maxl. 
mum  elevation  between  the  tropics,  andgradually  descends — tlioilgll 
at  a  rate  not  yet  exactly  ascertained — as  it  proceeds  to  the  poles,  In 
the  Antarctic  regions  it  reaches  the  sea-level  between  the  fl7tli  and 
Tlat  parallel;  but  in  tha  north  frigid  zone  it  is  more  than  douhtCnl 
whether  it  touches  the  seb  at  all:  for  hare  the  greater  drynoHS  of  the 
rJimate  and  the  perpetual  day  of  summer  occnsion  the  compute  disip> 
pearance  of  the  snow,  though  the  mean  annual  tetnpentun!  Unalow  »x 
zero  (Fahr.)  The  height  ot  the  anow-line  is  not  regulated  exclusively 
by  the  degree  of  latitude  ;  but  depends  very  much  on  the  cxpnaurn 
of  the  place,  the  character  of  the  prevailing  winds,  and  on  the  dfl|itli 
of  Ihesnow  tbat  hasfaUen  during  winter.  Nonaof  tliemountaluM  if 
the  British  Mea  attain  the  height  of  the  anow-line;  but  Den  Nevie, 
the  highest  of  them,  wbnse  height  is  tlOS  feet,  approaches  it  very 
closely,  aa  it  generally  retains  the  snow  in  t)ie  deeper  ravines  all  tiia 
year  round.  3.  Slopo  or  Aspect  at  noon  greatly  affects  the  elimato 
of  a  country,  especially  in  the  tflmpemte  zone.  If  the  slope  ia  towards 
the  son  at  noon,  the  raya  of  that  luminary  foil  more  directly  on  the 
nu&ce,  and  therefore  produce  a  grmter  effect  than  if  the  place  ia 
level ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  surface  inclines  towards  tha 
nort^  the  contrary  eSect  is  produced.  Thus,  in  Siberia  and  British 
Americ*:,  where  the  slope  is  northward,  as  indicated  by  the  direction 
of  the  riven^  the  climate  ia  incomparably  more  rigorous  than  in  the 
BritiA  Isles  and  ScaDdinavia,  tnough  situated  between  the  saue 
psalldsof  ktitnile.  In  the  south  o[  Siberia  mercoc?  freezes  in 
winter;  lAereai  in  Ireland  the  myrtle  grows  in  the  open  air.  Even 
'~  " IS  tocali^  the  greatest  diversity  of  climate  prevails  or  """ " 


oopente  nim  of  a  mAontajn-range.  Thns,  on  the  southern  slopes  of 
ue  Al(«  of  the  Talaui  tbevioeattainsto  ita  utmost  perfection,  while 
dMlWidwra  sHop*  is  densely  covered  witli  ice  and  snow.     4.  The 

-mJiT  In  teapeet  to  Laige  Tracts  of  Land  ot  Water. 

!E  of  the  ocean  is  more  equable  than  that  of  the 
■g  u^  iflntid  hj  the  action  of  the  solar  lays  and  by 
Heoee;  tkimwh  the  agency  of  the  winds,  those  countries 
wHA  HC  wtw<f<  BMZ  m  ocean  are  leu  sabject  to  tiie  eitremea 


34  PHYSICAL  GEOGBAPHY. 

of  heat  and  cold  than  other  countries  under  the  same  latitude,  situ- 
ated in  the  interior  of  continents.  Thus  London  eiyoys  a  milder 
winter  and  a  cooler  summer  than  Paris,  which  is  2°  42'  of  latitude 
farther  south.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  a  country  is  rendered 
hotter  by  having  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  south  and  sea  to  the 
north,  but  cooler  when  these  relations  are  reversed.  6.  Other  im- 
portant elements  of  climate,  such  as  the  prevalence  of  partlcalar 
winds,  proximity  to  ocean-currents,  the  annual  taM  of  rain,  and  the 
direction  and  relative  position  of  mountain-clialns,  together  with 
the  nature  of  tlie  soil  and  the  degree  of  cultivation  to  which  it  has 
been  subjected,  have  for  the  most  part  been  treated  of  in  previous 
sections  of  this  work,  and  need  not  here  be  resumed. 

Isothermal  Lines  and  dlmatlc  Zones. — As  the  temperature  of  any 
given  place  depends  on  a  multitude  of  causes  besides  latitude,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  old  designations  of  torrid,  temperate^  and  frigid 
zones,  bounded  by  the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles,  do  not  ade- 
quately express  the  temperature,  and  far  less  the  general  climatic 
character,  of  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  Humboldt 
and  others  have  accordingly  substituted  other  lines,  instead  of  the 
parallels,  as  the  true  boundaries  of  climatic  zones — viz.,  ItothermcU, 
Isocheimenal,  and  laotheral  lines.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
any  given  place  may  be  readily  ascertained  by  means  of  the  thermo- 
meter ;  and  imaginary  lines  connecting  together  all  the  places  in 
the  same  hemisj^ere,  having  the  same  mean  annual  temperature^ 
are  called  Isotherms.  The  Isocheimenals  are  similar  lines  connect- 
ing places  that  have  the  same  winter  temperature,  and  the  Isotheral 
lines  are  those  drawn  between  places  having  the  same  summer  tem^ 
perature.  These  lines  of  equal  temperature  approximate,  more  or 
less,  to  the  direction  of  the  equator,  though  they  are  nowhere 
parallel  to  it.  They  diverge  from  it  more  in  the  northern  than  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  and  greatly  more  in  high  than  in  low  lati- 
tudes. The  hottest  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  is  an  oval-shaped 
tract  in  East  Africa,  extending  from  Lake  Tchad  to  Mecca  and  the 
Strait  of  Babelmandeb,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  81"; 
and  the  coldest,  so  far  as  yet  ascertained,  is  a  long  narrow  belt  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  midway  between  Behring  Strait  and  the  North  Pole, 
and  extending  from  Melville  Island,  in  the  direction  of  New  Siberia, 
with  an  average  temperature  of  0'  Fahr.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
the  hottest  region  is  not  under  the  equator,  nor  the  coldest  under 
the  pole ;  and  that  all  the  lines  of  equal  temperature  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  attain  their  highest  latitude  in  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean — owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  high  temperature  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  northward  along  the  western  shores  of 
Europe.  By  means  of  these  Isotherms  eacn  hemisphere  is  divided 
by  the  meteorologist  into  six  climatic  zones,  named  respectively  the 
hot  or  equatorial,  the  warm,  mUd,  cool,  cold,  sjid.  frigid  or  polar  zone. 

The  Equatorial  Zone  extends  on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  is  bounded 
by  the  isotherms  of  77*,  and  embraces  Central  America,  the  West  India 
Islands,  a  portion  of  South  America,  all  Africa  between  the  Atlas  chain 
and  the  15th  degree  of  S.  latitude,  and  the  north  of  Australia.     The 


CUXATE. 


35 


is  boimded  on  the  soufh  hy  the  equatorial  zone,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  isotherm  of  59%  which,  in  the  New  World,  Basses  throneh 
San  Fnmcisco  and  Gajte  Hatteras ;  and,  in  the  Old  Worlo,  through  tne 
north  of  Spain,  Borne,  GktUipoli,  tiie  north  off  Asia  Minor,  the  south  of 
the  Caspian,  Lake  Koko-Nor,  the  mouth  of  the  Hoang-Ho,  and  the 
capital  of  Japan.  The  WM  Zone  is  bounded  on  the  south  bv  the  warm 
zone,  and  on  the  north  by  the  isotherm  of  41",  which  passes  tnrouffh  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  Sitka,  a  little  south  of  Lake  Superior,  througn  the 
centre  of  Kova  Scotia;  and,  in  the  Old  World,  through  Bergen, 
Christiania,  Stockholm,  Riga,  Moscow,  and  Orenbui^.  The  Cool  Zone  ia 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  isotherm  of  82";  whidi,  in  the  New  World, 
passes  Cape  Bomanzoff,  Cumberland  House,  and  the  southern  extremity 
of  James  Bay,  south  of  Nain  in  Labrador,  and  north  of  Cape  Farewell  in 
Greenland;  and,  in  the  Old  World,  through  the  north  of  Iceland,  Ham- 
merfest,  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  Archansel,  Tobolsk,  and  to  the 
south  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  Cold  Zone  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
isotherm  of  5°,  which  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  North  American 
Archipelago,  nort^  of  Greenland,  and  through  the  extreme  north  of 
Siberia.  And,  lastly,  the  Polar  Zone,  whose  southern  limit  is  the 
isotherm  of  5",  embraces  all  the  remainder  of  the  Arctic  regions. 

Table  of  Mean  Temperatnres. — In  order  to  illustrate  this  subject 
more  fully,  we  subjoin  a  table  of  the  mean  a/nmuU,  mean  lointer, 
and  mean  gummer  temperature  of  a  number  of  the  most  im- 
I>ortant  cities  in  the  world. 


^" 

Mean 

Mean — 

Mean- 

Cities. 

Lat. 

annual 

Dec.  Jan. 

June,  July, 

temp. 

Feb. 

Aug. 

London,    .... 

51*'  82'N. 

50-.1 

8r.3 

63-.  8 

Edinburgh,    . 

SS'^ST' 

47.2 

37.9 

67.6 

Dublin,     .     . 

53**  21' 

50.1 

41.9 

69.8 

Paris,   .    .    . 

48''50' 

51.5 

88.2 

64.9 

Marseilles,     . 

43«17' 

67. 

45. 

72.0 

Lisbon^     .    . 

88-41' 

61.4 

62.5 

70.94 

Madrid,     . 

40-25' 

67.9 

42. 

74.5 

Gibraltar,      . 

se-y 

64.5 

65.3 

73.8 

Borne,  . 

41-54' 

59.5 

45.2 

74.2 

Constantinopl 

e, . 

41- 

56.3 

40. 

72. 

Brussels,  .    . 

50-52' 

50.4 

87.4 

64. 

Vienna,     .    . 

48-13' 

50. 

31.5 

68. 

Berlin,      .    . 

52-31' 

48.3 

33.6 

64.2 

Copenhagen, 

55-40' 

46.56 

81.31 

62.7 

Stockholm, 

51^' 17' 

42-27 

26.04 

60.43 

St  Petezsbm:! 

J 

59*58' 

88.7 

17.2 

60.8 

Moscow,    . 

52-42' 

39.6 

14.7 

64.9 

Yakutsk,  . 

CI- 58' 

13.9 

36.7 

58.7 

Pekin,  .    . 

.S9-53' 

54.8 

26.7 

8L1 

C^BtOO,       . 

23-12' 

70.4 

53.3 

84. 

1-15' 

80.8 

79.4 

91.4 

Cakstta,  .    .    .    . 

• 

22-36' 

90. 

72.25 

86-72 

36 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Mean 

Mean — 

Mean — 

Cities. 

Lat. 

annual 

Dec.  Jan. 

June,  July, 

teinp. 

Feb. 

Aug. 

Madras,    .... 

IS'' 5' 

82*.9 

77*.2 

86*.7 

Bombay,  .     , 

18''  57' 

81.27 

77.44 

82.84 

Cabool,     .     .    . 

34''  63' 

68. 

41. 

83. 

Jerusalem,     .    . 

SI''  47' 

63.4 

48.6 

74.7 

Cairo,  .    .    . 

30*    3' 

72.2 

58.52 

85.1 

Tunis, .... 

36*46' 

68.7 

55.76 

83. 

Sierra  Leone, 

8*28' 

79. 

79. 

77. 

Timbuctoo,    .    . 

17*  48' 

79. 

68. 

83. 

Melville  I.,    . 

75*  40^ 

1.24 

—28.45 

37.08 

Nain,    .    .    . 

56*  25' 

27.82 

3.66 

47.9 

Montreal, .    .    . 

45*  31' 

45.8 

17.8 

71.4 

Halifax,    .     . 

44*  38' 

42.9 

23.6 

62.3 

New  York,    .     . 

41*6' 

51.7 

31.4 

72.3 

New  Orleans,     , 

.   30* 

69.8 

65.8 

82.04 

Mexico,     .     .    . 

19*  25' 

60.6 

53.64 

65.23 

Havannah,     .     , 

23*  10' 

77.9 

82.4 

73. 

Mozambique,     . 

15*  2'  S 

78. 

79. 

73. 

Cape  Towu,  .    . 
Quito,  .... 

34*  56' 

64.7 

70. 

68.3 

0*13' 

73.31 

77.6 

59.71 

Kio  de  Ja,neiro, , 

22*  57' 

74.1 

78.2 

69.2 

Melbourne,    .     . 

37*  49 

57.6 

65.2 

49. 

Sydney,    .    .     . 

33*54' 

62.7 

69.6 

54. 

AucklaTid,      .    , 

36*52' 

60.3 

68.7 

63.3 

6.  Mineralogy. — ^The  sixty-five  constituent  elements  form- 
ing the  earth's  crust  are,  in  general,  characterised  by  a  strong 
affinity  for  each  other,  disposing  them  to  form  compound  bodies, 
each  of  which  possesses  properties  widely  different  from  those 
of  its  constituents.  These  compounds  are  termed  minerals,  and 
the  science  which  treats  of  their  forms,  composition,  and  other 
properties,  is  called  Mineralogy. 

Number  of  Minerals. — The  number  of  mineral  species  at  present 
recognised  by  science  somewhat  exceeds  five  hundred,  many  of  them 
having,  in  addition,  a  great  number  of  varieties.  The  mineral 
species,  however,  found  on  our  globe,  is  exceedingly  small  when  com- 
pared with  the  vast  number  of  species  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms.  All  the  species  above  named  have  been  arranged  by 
mineralogists  into  seven  ordexs  and  thirty-seven  families.  Theso 
orders,  with  their  respective  families,  are  as  follows:  1.  Oxidised 
StoneSf  comprising  12  families  —  quartz,  felspar,  scapolite,  haloid 
stones,  leucite,  zeolites,  mica,  hornblende,  clays,  garnet,  gems,  and 
metallic  stones.  2.  Saline  Stones,  6  families — calc-spar,  fluor-spar, 
heavy-spar,  gypsum,  rock-salt,  3.  Saline  Ores,  3  families — sparry 
iron  ores,  copper  salts,  lead  salts.  4.  Oxidised  Ores,  5  families — 
iron  ores,  tin-stone,  manganese  ores,  red  copper  ores,  white  antimony 
ores.    6.  Native  Metals,  forming  only  one  family.     6.  Sulphuretted 


MINERALOGY.  37 

itelals,  Q  faiiiilioa — iron  jiyrites,  galeuti,  grey  antimony  nre,  grey 
'  copper  ore,  blende,  ruby  blende.  7.  fijlammahles,  S  lamiliea — aul- 
L  phur,  diamnnd,  eoal,  mineral  resins,  inllammable  salta. 
I  Fomu  of  BOneraU. — Miners!  subatancea  occw  in  natnre  in  two 
diatinet  modes  of  aggremtion— amorphaua  and  crj-atalliaed.  When, 
the  pirtiolaa  of  the  mineral  are  merely  collected  together,  without 
Bibibitiog  any  regukrity  of  atructure,  it  is  called  UTnorp/toug ;  bat 
ihould  the  mineral  possess  a  deEuite  chemical  composition,  together 
with  a  regular  symmetrical  esternal  form,  it  is  said  to  be  crystallised. 
Generally  speaking,  every  mineral  substance,  whether  simple  or 
campoond,  is  found  ia  nature  with  a  form  peenliar  to  itself,  and  that 
readily  distingnishes  it  from  all  other  minerals.  Mapy  of  them, 
moreover,  eiist  in  various  allied  forma,  and  hence  tho  number  of 
nstiiraJ  cryatala  is  fnoiraoua  Mineralogists,  however,  have  succeed- 
ed iu  arranging  them  all  under  abs  mstenta  of  orystalllsatioD,  to  emh 
of  which  belongs  a  number  of  forma  navinc  some  properties  in  com- 
mon. In  every  crystal  there  are  found  three  rxcb,  which,  intersect 
Rt  its  centre  and  pass  through  from  side  to  side.  The  entire  classiS- 
cation  of  crystals  depends  on  the  relative  lengths  and  poaitiou  of 
these  aiea.  1.  The  first  system  is  named  the  Segiilar  or  Teeeeral 
Syslem  (from  teasera,  a  cube),  and  is  ch&raeterised  by  three  equal  axes 
intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles.  It  includes  the  cube,  the 
regular  octohedron,  the  rhombic  dodecahedron,  and  the  regular 
tetrahedron.  Some  of  the  best-known  minerals  that  assume  one  or 
other  of  these  forms  are  common  salt,  alum,  fluor-spar,  iron  pyrites, 
Krey  oopper  ore,  and  boracite.  2.  The  Quadratic  or  Teiragonal 
Mtlem,  with  three  axes  at  right  angles,  but  one  shorter  or  longer 
than  the  other  two.  Eight  principal  forms,  with  nnmeroua  varieties, 
belong  to  this  system,  among  which  are  included  the  first  and  second 
tight  square  prisms,  and  the  first  and  second  right  square  octohedra  ; 
exam^es — zircon,  stannic  oside,  and  yellow  pruasiete  of  potash.  3. 
The  Sexagrmal  or  RhajnbohedraX  &yitan,  with  four  axes,  three  of 
which  are  eqnal,  intersecting  each  other  in  one  plane  at  60°,  and  one 
principal  axis  at  right  angles  to  them.  It  embraces  the  regular  six- 
sided  prism,  the  regular  six-sided  pyramid,  and  the  rhombohedron. 
Rock-crystal,  calc-spar,  beryl,  comndnm,  graphite,  and  many  other 
minerals,  assume  forms  belonging  to  this  system.  4.  The  lihoml/ia 
Sysltia,  characterised  by  three  axes,  all  unequal,  but  at  right  angles 
to  each  other:  its  principal  forms  are  the  right  octohedron  with 
rhombic  base,  and  the  right  rhombic  prism.  This  system  comprises 
□nir  a  few  varieties  of  form  essentially  distinct,  but  embraces  nitre, 
native  sulphur,  topaz,  and  arragonite.  6.  The  ifonodinic  or  Mono- 
eliBohedric  Sytlem,  having  three  unequal  axes,  two  of  which  inter- 
sect each  other  at  an  oblique  angle,  and  aro  cut  by  the  third  at  right 
angles.  The  forms  peculiar  to  this  system— among  which  is  the 
obSqna  rhombic  octohedron — approach  very  near  to  those  of  the 
rhombio,  but  the  inclination  of  the  axes  enables  us  readily  to  dis- 
tingnish  them.  As  eiamplea  of  tho  numerous  minerals  assuming  one 
or  other  of  its  forme  may  be  mentioned  sulphur  deposited  from 
(iuion,  sodium  carbonate,  and  borax.     6.  The  TTiolinia  or  Tnclino- 


38  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

hedric,  with  tLree  axes,  all  unequal  and  all  oblique.  This  is  the 
least  regular  of  all  the  systems,  and  departs  the  most  widely  from 
symmetry  of  form.  The  doubly-oblique  octohedron  and  the  doubly- 
oblique  prism  are  the  leading  forms ;  examples — copper  sulphate, 
boracic  acid,  and  albite. 

7.  Geology. — Minerals  aggregated  together,  so  as  to  form 
large  masses,  are  technically  called  rocks.  These  rocks,  accord- 
ing to  their  structure,  are  of  two  kinds :  either  they  consist  of 
minute  particles  of  one  and  the  same  mineral,  or  of  two,  three, 
or  more  different  minerals  aggregated  together.  The  former 
are  caMed^.mplej  the  latter  mixed  rocks.  Thus,  for  instance, 
marble,  consisting  of  nothing  but  grains  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
is  a  simple  rock;  while  gramtef  on  the  contrary,  which  is  made 
up  of  small  crystals  of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica,  is  a  mixed 
rock.  The  component  parts  of  a  rock  are  either  crystallised 
together,  or  united  by  a  non-crystalline  cement,  in  the  same 
manner  as  mortar  binas  the  stones  of  a  wall.  In  many  rocks 
the  cohesion  is  very  great,  as  for  instance  in  greenstone  ;  while 
in  others  it  is  but  slight,  as  in  sandstone,  gravel,  coal,  &c.  As 
compared  with  the  vast  variety  of  minerals,  the  number  of 
distinct  rocks  is  exceedingly  small.  They  are  also  pretty  uni- 
formly distributed  over  the  globe,  while  none  of  them  is 
peculiar  to  any  particular  country.  Thus,  while  the  plants  and 
animals  of  tropical  regions  differ  exceedingly  from  those  of  the 
frigid  zone,  the  materials  which  form  the  mountain-ranges,  as 
well  as  the  pebbles  along  the  sea-shore,  are  everywhere  the 
same.  Notwithstanding,  however,  this  general  uniformity,  there 
is  considerable  local  variety,  depending  on  the  geological  char- 
acter of  the  place.  Thus  a  traveller  setting  out  from  London, 
either  to  Berwick  or  Land's  End,  will  find  the  character  of  the 
rocks  continually  varying  as  he  proceeds  from  county  to  county ; 
and  before  he  arrives  at  nis  destination,  he  will  have  passed  in 
review  almost  every  variety  of  rock  in  the  geological  scale.  In 
like  maimer,  when  a  considerable  section  ot  the  earth's  crust  is 
exposed  to  view — as  in  sea-cliffs,  quarries,  mines,  and  railway 
cuttings — a  great  variety  of  rocks  is  discernible  ;  but  they  may 
be  all  reduced  to  two  principal  kinds.  They  are  either  arranged 
in  beds  or  layers,  and  hence  known  as  stratified  rocks;  or  they 
are  found  in  shapeless,  indeterminate  masses,  destitute  of  any 
such  arrangement,  and  therefore  called  unstratified, 

Unstratlfied  Rocks. — ^The  unstratified  rocks  are  also  termed  igne- 
tms,  being  regarded  as  having  been  formed  by  the  agency  of  fire,  at 
a  time  when  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  crust  was  immeasurably 
higher  than  at  present.  Most  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  our 
planet  was  in  an  incandescent  state  in  the  earlier  stages  of  its  exist- 


I 


ence,  inst  ns  the  tran  and  fiied  stars  aw  by  some  anpposed  to  be  at 
the  present  ilay.  In  the  course  of  a^tes,  according  totLishypotheaiB, 
the  eiterior  portion  gradually  cooled  down,  and  the  materials  of 
which  it  couBiated,  preriously  in  a  molten  atate,  came  by  demea  to 
asanme  the  consolidated  form  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  now 
prssants,  while  thn  interior  still  retains  ita  former  intense  heat, 
whatever  view  we  may  form  of  this  hypotheais,  there  can  ha  EO 
doubt  of  the  fact,  that  the  lower  we  penetrate  into  the  bowels  of  the 
earth  the  temperature  gradnally  increases.  A  thermometer  placed 
in  any  locality,  only  3  feet  below  the  aarface  of  the  earth,  no  longer 
indicates  the  chnngea  of  the  daily  temperature,  bat  merely  those  of 
the  Tear.  Again,  at  a  depth  of  55  feet,  it  indicates  everywhere  and 
at  all  times  the  same  temperature,  which  ia  neither  affected  by  the 
hottest  summer  nor  by  the  coldest  winter.  Below  Ciis  depth,  it  has 
been  found  that  a  rise  of  1  decree  of  Fahr.  takes  place  for  every  EO  or 
C6  feet  of  descent.*  Calculating  at  this  rate  of  increase,  a  tempera- 
ture of  2100°  Fahr.  would  he  reached  at  adepthof  25  miles,  sufficient 
to  keep  in  fusion  such  rocks  sa  basalt,  greenstone,  and  porphyry  ;  at  a 
depth  of  8B  miles  the  temperature  would  be  3272°,  eufiicient  to  malt 
iron  ;  and  at  a  depth  of  5i  miles,  a  beat  of  4892°  would  prevail — a 
temperature  at  which  all  known  subatancea  would  pass  into  the 
liquid  or  molten  form.  The  phenomena  of  hot  springs,  rolcanoea, 
and  earthqoakes,  atTord  other  and  independent  evidence  of  the  in- 
tense heat  prevailing  in  the  interior  of  our  planet.  The  igneous 
Tflcks  have  everywhere  the  appearance  of  having  existed  at  a  former 
period  in  a  molten  state  ;  and  the  nnnieroua  varieties  of  beautiful 
crystals  found  osBociated  with  them  are  a  striking  testimony  of 
their  having  cooled  down  with  great  slowneaa  and  regularity.  Cfene- 
rally  speaking,  they  occupy  a  lower  position  in  the  crust  than  tha 
aqneons ;  though  they  are  often  seen  overlying  the  latter,  or  aepatat- 
ing  the  strata  of  which  they  consist,  or  forcing  their  way  tlrough 
those  strata  in  veins,  rents,  and  fissares.  They  are  usually  divided 
iato  three  principal  kinda — granitic,  irappean,  and  volcanic.  The 
first  of  these  is  reckoned  the  oldest,  as  it  is  generally  found  under- 
lying  or  aaaoctated  with  the  oldest  series  of  the  stratmed  rocks ;  the 
second  is  considered  more  recent  in  ita  origin,  because  occurring  for 
the  moat  part  among  the  secondary  and  tertiary  forniationa  ;  and  the 
,  third,  as  the  neweat  of  all,  being  generally  found  aaaociated  n-ith 
Utilise  modem  formations  which  have  been  deposited  since  theter- 

I  *  "  It  roUowi  from  thli  (mportant  remit  ttist  beat  mnat  be  oonatantly  ronlnE 
r  ftom  the  iolerior  ot  thB  C4rt£  tfl  lli  Burfnce,  wlionca  tt  eicapea  intg  spade ;  and 
bence  the  temperitnreot  the  whole  earth  nm8t  be  cooling  from  year  to  rear.  Blr 
W.  TbonwoD  of  aiBigDwlms  cilcalated  that  during  the  Luiee.OOMOO  j^eui,  the 
ratoofUicroaie  of  Umpsreture  under  ground  hu  dimialahed  (rem  I' for  every 
10  foet  to  1- for  erary  SO  feel,  of  descent,  an  at  present;  and  adds,  tbut  if  thii 
•cHonimd  been  gnliig  on  with  anji  approach  to  nnifgrmlty  fbr  29,000,000,(100 
reus,  the  amount  of  heat  loat  out  of  the  earth  woold  be  more  tban  enough  to 
melt  a  miu  of  sorftce-mck  eqnal  in  bulk  to  the  whole  earth,  and  In  BOO.OOO.OM 


40  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

tiary  era.    The  following  are  the  principal  rocks  belonging  to  these 
three  varieties,  beginning  with  the  lowest : — 

Granitic:  Common  granite  (consisting  of  small  regular  crystals  of 
quartz,  felspar,  and  mica),  porphyry  or  porphyritic  granite,  syenite, 
proto^e,  pegmatite,  hornblende  rock,  primitive  greenstone,  serpen* 
tine,  felspathic  rock,  &c. 

Tbafpean  :  Basalt,  greenstone  or  dolerite,  clinkstone,  compact  felspar, 
hometone,  pitchstone,  claystone,  amygdaloid,  trap-tuff,  &c. 

VoLOANio :  Lava,  trachyte,  obsidian,  pumice,  pearlstone,  tufa,  scoriae, 
palagonite,  sulphur,  &c. 

Igneous  rocks  are  very  widely  distributed,  and  play  a  most 
important  part  in  the  physical  aspect  of  many  countries.  The 
mightiest  mountain-ranges  on  the  earth's  surface  are  mainly 
formed  of  the  granitic  series,  as  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Ural,  and 
Grampian  Mountains  in  Europe ;  the  Himalayas  in  Asia ;  the 
Abyssinian  Mountains  in  Africa ;  and  the  Andes  in  South 
America.  The  prevailing  scenery  is  dreary  and  monotonous, 
and  the  soil  barren  and  inhospitable.  But  the  economic  uses 
of  granitic  rocks  are  numerous  and  varied.  They  form  exceed- 
ingly durable  building  -  stones,  admirably  fitted  for  bridjges, 
lighthouses,  docks,  fortresses,  and  as  road  and  street  matermls. 
When  polished  they  are  generally  highly  ornamental,  and  are 
therefore  employed  for  obelisks,  tombstones,  and  pillars.  The 
industrial  products  of  the  trap-rocks  are  also  numerous,  though 
not  of  equal  importance.  Some  basalts  and  ^eenstones  make 
good  building-stone,  but  the  difficulty  of  dressmg  them  into  the 
required  shape  prevents  their  extensive  use.  X^early  all  the 
sulphur  of  commerce  is  derived  from  volcanic  regions  ;  pumice 
has  long  been  used  as  a  polishing  or  rubbing  stone;  while  many 
of  the  lavas  yield  precious  stones,  and  others  are  metalliferous. 

Stratified  Bocks. — ^These  are  divided  by  geologists  into  two 
peat  series — the  Orj-^stalline  or  Non-fossiliferous,  and  the  Fossil- 
iferous.  The  former,  —  also  called  Metamorphic  rocks,  —  are 
usually  found  immediately  above  the  granitic,  separating  them 
from  the  fossiliferous  strata  above,  and  embrace  the  foflowing 
members — viz.,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  clay-slate,  hornblende-slate, 
talc-slate,  actynolite-slate,  chlorite-slate,  quartz-rock,  and  pri- 
mary limestone.  Although  gneiss  usually  occupies  the  lowest 
place  in  the  series,  these  rocks  do  not  follow  any  invariable 
order,  and  not  imfrequently  one  or  more  of  them  is  wanting. 
The  materials  of  these  strata  appear  to  have  been  originally  de- 
posited by  water  in  the  form  oi  sediment,  and  to  have  been  sub- 
sequently so  altered  by  subterranean  heat  as  to  assume  their 
present  crystalline  texture.  At  the  time  of  their  original  for- 
mation they  were  probably  replete  with  organic  remains  similar 
to  the  fossiliferous  systems  above  them ;  but  the  intense  heat  pro- 


GEOLOGY.  41 

ceeding  from  the  nnderlymg  granite  !ias  destroyed  every  vestige 
of  oi^nio  matter.  In  regionB  where  the  Metamorphic  rocka  Se 
near  the  aurface,  the  Boenery  in  usually  bold,  rugged,  luid  pic- 
tureaqiie,  and  the  soil  unprodnctive ;  but  fllate,  marble,  and 
building-stone  are  obtained  in  theiD,  and  not  unfrequently  tin, 
copper,  lead,  silver,  and  gold, 

FosBiLiT'EEOUB  Strata  —  FalEeontologr.  —  By  carefully 
Btudying  the  fossiliferoua  strata  above  mentioned,  we  obtain, 
moat  important  information  regarding  the  earliest  stages  of  the 
earth's  existence — information,  in  faet,  nowhere  else  to  be  found. 
We  learn,  for  example,  that  our  world  had  arrived  at  a  hoary 
antiquitj  before  the  creation  of  man  ;  that  it  was  not  then  a 
barren,  untenanted  wilderness,  hut  the  happy  home  of  innu- 
merable races  of  living  creatniea,  which,  once  and  again,  were 
swept  away  by  great  natural  oatastrophea,  and  replaced  by  other 
orders  of  plants  and  animals,  higher  in  tjie  scale  of  being  than 
their  predeceasora,  and  more  nearly  appoxjmating  in  beauty  of 
form  and  utility  to  the  many  races,  animal  and  vegetable,  which 
are  now  placed  under  man's  domain.  This  knowledge  is  partly 
derived  &om  the  lithological  character  and  immense  depth  of 
these  strata,  each  of  which,  in  ita  turn,  muat  have  been  slowly 
deposited  by  the  waters  of  seas,  lahea,  or  rivers ;  but  principally 
&om  the  conntless  petrified  remains  of  the  enimala  and  planta 
that  had  their  abode  in  the  waters  or  on  the  land,  at  the  period 
of  their  formation.  The  branch  of  geology  which  treats  of  these 
organic  remains  ia  termed  Palaeontology  (from  palaioi,  ancient, 
anta,  beings,  and  If^oa,  a  description),  signifying  a  description 
of  ancient  beings.  The  long-continued  study  of  the  fissiliferona 
strata  of  many  coiuitriea  has  enabled  geologists  to  arrange  the 
entire  series  into  ten  distinct  and  weLl-deiined  systems,  each  of 
which  differs  essentially  from  all  the  others,  both  as  recards  its 
litholo^cal  conatituentH  and  ita  petrified  organisms.  Tiieae  ten 
BystemB  are  further  grouped  into  three  great  series,  or  periotk — 
vit.,  the  PaIuEOZOIC,  or  moat  ancient ;  the  Mesozoic,  or  seoond- 
arys  and  the  CAiNozorc,  or  moat  recent.  The  diagram  (p.  51) 
indicates  at  a  glance  the  precise  place  in  the  geological  scale 
where  each  higher  order  of  organised  existence  made  its  £rst 
appearance. 

J.  TlB  Lanrentlsn  ayrtsm. — This,  the  niost  ancient  of  all  Itnown 
fossiliferoua  deposits,  drnvesi  ita  name  from  the  river  St  Law- 
rence, in  the  haain  of  which  it  occnpiea  an  immeusa  area.  Sir  W. 
Logan,  of  the  Causdian  Geological  Survey,  regards  these  rocka  as  the 
moat  ancient  on  the  American  continent,  and  as  the  enoiraleDts  of 
the  oldtat  gneiss  of  Scotland  and  Scan iliua via.  In  the  geological 
scale  they  occupy  a  lower  position  than  the  Camhiian  rocka  of 
Kortb  Wales,  and  consist  of  nighly  crystalline  gneissoid  and  honv- 


42  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

blendic  schists,  -which,  in  some  localities,  attain  a  thickness  of  30,000 
feet.  Principal  Dawson,  the  eminent  Canadian  geologist,  has  re- 
cently (1868)  detected  in  the  lower  formation  of  these  rocks  what 
may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  indication  of  animal  life  on  our 
globe.  This  consists  of  a  foraminifer,  named  by  him  EozoGn  Carta- 
dense,  a  humble  Zoophyte,  and  one  of  the  very  lowest  types  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  This  zoophyte  has  since  been  detected  in  Bohemia, 
in  strata  underlying  the  Silurian  rocks. 

2.  Tlie  Cambrian  Syvtem.— (From  Carnbria^  the  ancient  name  of 
Wales),  a  term  employed  by  Professor  Sedgwick  to  designate  the 
lowest  fossiliferous  rocks  in  North  Wales.  They  consist  mainly  of 
slaty,  gritty,  and  silicious  beds  of  immense  thickness  (from  20, 000 
to  80,000  feet),  which  are  regarded  as  the  geological  equivalents  of 
the  fossiliferous  schists  of  Wicklow,  the  lower  greywacke  of  Dum- 
fries, the  Northern  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the  alum -schists  of 
Sweden,  and  the  Huronian  sandstone  of  America.  A  deeper  interest 
attaches  to  the  Cambrian  and  Laurentian  systems  than  to  any  other 
in  the  geological  scale,  on  account  of  their  containing  the  petrified 
remains  of  the  earliest  living  inhabitants  of  our  planet.  These  con- 
sist of  FucoiDS,  a  humble  genus  of  marine  plants ;  of  Zoophytes 
(Oldhamia),  and  Graptolites,  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life;  of 
brachyopodous  Molluscs  (lingula  and  terebratula) ;  and  of  Trilo- 
bites  (olenus  and  paradoxides),  a  remarkable  family  of  Crustaceans 
peculiar  to  the  Palaeozoic  period. 

3.  The  Silurian  Ssrstem,  so  called  on  account  of  its  huge  develop- 
ment in  South-Eastem  Wales,  a  locality  once  inhabited  by  the  iS'i7- 
ureSy  an  ancient  British  tribe.  Here  it  amounts  to  about  8000  feet 
in  thickness,  forming  several  distinct  formations,  which  differ  essen- 
tially in  the  character  of  their  organic  remains.  The  prodigious  de- 
velopment of  fossils  has  no  parallel  in  the  underlying  formations. 
In  the  British  Isles'  alone,  in  1867,  the  Silurian  strata  contained 
1194  recognised  species,  only  8  of  which  were  plants.  In  a  small 
tract  around  Prague  in  Bohemia,  the  indefatigable  M.  Barrande  enu- 
merates no  fewer  than  2735  species ;  while  Dr  Bigsby,  in  his  *  The- 
saurus Siluricus,  *  a  work  of  immense  industry  and  research,  enumerates 
7553  well-defined  species  as  belonging  to  all  countries.  By  inspect- 
ing this  great  work  it  will  be  perceived  that  in  the  Silurian  age  of 
the  world's  history  all  the  classes  of  the  invertebrate  division  of  the 
animal  kingdom  are  well  represented,  but  that  Molluscs,  Echino- 
dermata,  and  especially  Trilobites,  existed  in  vast  numbers.  But 
what  imparts  the  deepest  interest  to  the  Silurian  system  is  that  it 
affords  the  earliest  evidence  both  of  vertebrated  animals  and  of  land- 
plants.  These  occur  in  the  uppermost  strata  of  the  Ludlow  rocks, 
and  immediately  underlying  the  lowest  beds  of  the  Devonian  system. 
The  vertebrata  consist  of  Fishes  of  the  genus  Pteraspia.  They  are 
few  in  number  (11  species  only  having  yet  been  found  in  British 
rocks),  small  in  size,  and  of  the  lowest  order.  They  are  all  cartila- 
ginous fishes,  like  the  skate  and  dog-fish — for  fishes  with  ossified 
vertebrae  are  not  found  till  we  arrive  at  the  Devonian  strata.  The 
land-plants  are  also  of  the  humblest  rank,  belonging  to  the  family 


OEOLOGT.  43 

I  Lycopodiacea:,  and  allied  to  our  present  club-mossea.  "Very  recently 
fi^ea  have  also  been  detected  in  the  Lower  Siluriaa  fartaation.  Sil- 
urian strata  are  eirteosivelT  dereloped  in  many  countries,  especially 
in  Wales,  the  Soutti  of  Scotland,  Bohemia.  Russia,  Scaadinavia, 
Nori:h  and  Soath  America,  and  AaBtralia.  The  Teina  that  trareriis 
the  Bystem  are  OBiially  metalliferons,  yielding  mercury,  copper,  lend, 
■ilvor,  and  gold.  It  ia  mainly  from  rocks  lielongins  to  tliia  system  tlmt 
the  pi'odi^ous  quantitiea  of  gold  recently  brought  to  light  in  Aua- 
tralia,  California,  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  other  loealitiea,  have  been 
obtained.  Thoy  also  yield  flagstones,  roofing- alatea,  and  limestone 
for  mortar  and  manure.  In  Silurian  districts,  the  scenery  ia  usually 
Taried  and  picturesque,  less  ahrunt  and  bold  than  in  Metamorphic 
regions,  yet  move  diversified  by  hill  and  dale  tLan  Secondary  strata  ; 
but  in  KoBsia,  south  of  the  G.  of  Finlaod,t1ieyfann  wide  level  plains, 
or  low  plateaux.  Sir  Boderick  Impey  Morchison,  the  Prince  of  British, 
geolog^ta,  has  been  the  chief  investigator  of  the  Silurian  system, 

4.  Tbe  Devonian  or  Old  Bed  Sandstone  SyBtem  overlies  the 
Silurian,  separating  it  from  the  Carboniferous  system.  Geologists 
are  far  from  bein^  nt  one  as  to  the  number  of  formations  into  which 
it  is  divisible  ;  but  Hugh  Miller,  its  most  illusti'ious  explorer, 
divides  it  into  three — Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper.  It  is  lai^ly  de- 
veloped in  Scotland,  South  Wales,  Devonshire,  Belgium,  fiussia,  ani 
North  America,  where  it  usually  conaiata  of  aaucccasion  of  sandstones, 
alternating  with  layers  of  sandy  shale  and  beds  of  concretionary  lime- 
atones.  The  Sora  of  the  system  consists  partly  of  msriDe,  bntchieily 
of  land  plants,  of  a  gi'eatly  higher  order  than  those  found  in  the  up- 
permost beds  of  the  Silurian.  Upwards  of  ten  years  ago,  the  author 
of  this  Manual  discovered  several  huge  calamites  in  the  lowermost 
strata  of  the  Old  Ked  Sandstone  of  Aberdeenshire,  previously  re- 
gBjded  OS  unfoasiliferous.  Conc-lwaring  trees— plants  as  high  in  the 
Buale  of  nature  as  the  pines  sad  Cedars  of  the  present  day — were 
found  by  Miller,  long  previously,  in  the  same  formation  at  Cromarty ; 
while  Dr  Dawson  has  recently  discovered  no  fewer  than  eighty-two 
species  of  laud-plants  in  tlie  Devonian  strata  of  Nova  Scotia.  To 
inch  an  extent,  indeed,  did  lBnd-]ilants  abound  in  the  Devonian  age., 
that  in  some  localities,  as  at  Point  Gasp*,  in  Canada,  thin  seams  of 
bituminous  coal  have  been  discovered.  Perhaps  the  moat  beautiful 
species  of  the  Devonian  flora  was  the  Adiantiles  Hibemkue,  a  Iree- 
fem,  obtained  from  the  yellow  sandstone  series  of  Ireland  and  Rox- 
burfthshire.  The  fauna  of  the  system  displays  an  equal  development; 
for  thongh  the  Trilobites,  which  so  pre-eminently  characterised  the 
Silurian  system,  have  passed  their  meridian,  other  cnistaceajia  of  a 
still  higher  order  appear  in  their  room.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  is  the  PCerygotaf  j4Tigliciu,  a  gigantic  lobster-like  crustacesu, 
from  4  to  fl  feet  long,  found  in  the  Devonian  rocks  of  Hereford,  For- 
far, and  Ulbster  in  Coithneas.  A  few  placoid  fislies  were  found  in 
the  Silurian  system,  but  here  fishes  exist  in  vast  numbers  and  of  two 
distinct  ordere — Placoids  and  Ganoids — the  latter  with  osseous  ver- 
tebrse  and  dermal  skeletons.  Among  the  most  characteristic  foritiR 
are  Oachui,  Cvplutlw/a^,  Coccaeteua,  Aetcmlepk,  DipUrue,  and  Holop- 


44  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

tychius.  Insects  make  their  first  appearance  here,  but  the  reptU* 
ian  remains  of  Elgin,  formerly  supposed  to  belong  to  this  system, 
are  now  assigned  to  the  Trias.  In  1856,  the  total  number  of  fossil 
species  belonging  to  British  Devonian  rocks  amounted  to  only  300  ; 
but  the  number  has  since  been  greatly  increased.  In  the  Khenish 
and  Belgian  rocks  alone,  450  species  have  been  discovered ;  while 
the  total  number  of  species  known  in  1867  was  682.  The  minerals 
of  the  system  are  mainly  building-stone  of  inferior  colour  and  dura- 
bility, paving-slabs  of  excellent  quality,  which  are  extensively  ex- 
ported from  Caithness  and  Forfarshire ;  while  to  the  trap-rocks  of 
the  system  the  lapidary  is  indebted  for  his  agates,  jaspers,  and  Scotch 
pebbles.  The  scenery  is  generally  flat  and  tame,  though  occasionally 
Iiighly  diversified ;  and  the  soil,  owing  to  its  porousness,  is  usually 
well  adapted  for  agriculture. 

6.  Tbe  CaTbonlferouB  System,  so  called  from  the  profusion  of 
vegetable  matter  {carbon)  which  it  contains,  consists  in  like  manner 
of  three  formations  —  the  Lower  Coal-Measures  or  Carboniferous 
Slates,  the  Mountain  Limestone,  and  the  Upper  or  true  Coid-Mea- 
sures.     Not  unfrequently  one  of  the  members  is  wanting,  and  some- 
times beds  of  one  formation  alternate  with  those  of  another.     In 
some  parts  of  Scotland  the  Lower  Coal-Measures  yield  great  quanti- 
ties of  serviceable  coal ;  while  in  Ireland,  where  the  formation  is  so 
enormously  developed,  little  coal  is  found.     Wherever  this  forma- 
tion exists,  it  presents  indications  of  having  been  deposited  in  fresh 
water,  in  estuaries,  or  in  inland  seas.     The  Mountain  Limestone, 
^ain,  is  essentially  a  marine  deposit,  and,  by  the  peculiar  character 
of  its  fossils,  forms  the  most  easily  recognised  formation  in  the 
earth's  crust     The  Upper  Coal-Measures,  like  the  Lower,  are  mainly 
of  lacustrine  origin,  and  consist  of  alternations  of  sandstone,  coal, 
shale,  ironstone,  clay,  and  impure  limestone.     The  minerals  of  this 
formation,  especially  its  coal  and  iron,  form  an  inexhaustible  source 
of  wealth  to  those  countries  where,  as  in  Britain,  they  most  exten- 
sively prevail.     In  Britain,  especially,  they  mightily  contribute  to 
our  power  and  eminence  amongst  neighbouring  nations.    The  flora 
of  the  system  is  the  most  abundant  and  gigantic  that  ever  appeared 
on  the  earth's  surface — consisting  of  coniferous  trees  of  immense  size, 
huge  palms,  tree-terns,  lenidodendra,  calamites,  sigillarise,  equiseta, 
club-mosses,  and  other  allied  forms.     Wherever  any  of  tiie  Carbon- 
iferous formations  occurs,  these  crowd  eveiy  bed  of  shale,  and  form 
the  materials  of  which  every  seam  of  coal  consists.     Considering, 
then,  that  the  Coal-Measures  exist  in  numerous  lands  and  in  all  lati- 
tudes, and  that  these  plants  all  belong  to  a  tropical  vegetation,  the 
obvious  inference  is,  that  during  the  deposition  of  the  Carboniferous 
strata  a  hot  moist  climate  prevailed  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
globe.     The  fauna  is  less  peculiar  than  the  flora,  but  it  equally  marks 
distinct  progress  in  organic  development.     Here  sauroid  fishes,  and 
Reptiles  of  the  Batrachian  or  lowest  order,  appear  for  the  first 
time.*    The  number  of  plants  hitherto  discovered  in  the  whole  sys- 

*  While  these  sheets  are  passing  throni^h  the  press,  there  is  a  report  in  the 
newspapers  that  Sir  T.  P.  Barcas  of  Newcastle  has  detected,  in  the  Northamber- 


I 


GEOLOGY.  i5 


3; 


tsm  amoants  fully  to  1700,  of  wliiali  Rbout  one-tenth  are  plianero- 
{(amous.  In  British  strata  alone,  the  fauna,  iu  1B67,  iiumbered  1100 
species,  Carboniferona  strata  cover  lar^^  portions  of  t^e  British 
Isles.  In  England  the;  extend  from  Bertiy  to  Berwick,  but  the 
Upper  Coal-Measatas  are  chiefly  confined  to  South  Wales  and  the 
T^iey  of  ths  IVne.  In  Scotland  they  form  a  broad  belt  across  the 
coiratiy  from  the  coast  of  Ayrshire  to  Fife.  Ireland  is  not  rich  in 
coal,  ul  her  coal-fields  being  situated  in  the  Carboniferous  limestone, 
which  covers  the  central  plain.  On  the  Continent  the  principal 
localities  are  the  north  of  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Frussia,  Aus- 
tria, and  the  south  of  Russia.  In  extra-Earopeau  countries  (for 
which  see  under  the  diflarent  continents)  the  main  localities  are, 
Hindostan,  the  coasta  of  Chili  and  Pent,  the  lathmiu  of  Panama, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  especially  the  United  States  of  America,  where  the 
Coal- Measures  occupy  an  area  of  600,001)  sq^uare  miles.  The  econn- 
mic  importance  of  the  Carboniferous  system  canoot  be  overratod.  ]  t 
furnishes  nearly  all  the  coal  consumed  iu  every  civilised  country. 
In  the  British  lales  alone  about  100,000,000  tons  of  this  valuable 
mineral  is  dug  annually-  Almost  equally  important  is  the  iron, 
which  is  ustiBlIy  asaociated  with  the  coal.  Other  products  of  the 
-—^  m  are,  petroleura,  asphalt,  naphtha,  paraffliie-oil  copperas,  ochre. 
;  the  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  and  antimony  |  marble,  limestone,  and 
building-stone  of  the  finest  quality.  The  scenery,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  limestone  districts,  is  generally  tame  and  iinpicturesi^ue, 
while  the  sod  is  often  cold  and  only  moderately  fertile. 

8.  The  Fennlaii  SyBtsm,  so  named  from  its  enormoos  development 
in  the  govEmment  of  Perm,  in  Russia,  forms  the  uppermost  member 
of  the  great  PalKozoio  aeriee  of  rocka.  It  was  formerly  known  as  the 
Saliferoos  or  Kew  Red  Sandstone,  in  opposition  to  the  Devonian  or 
Old  Bed,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Carboniferous  systeni. 
It  consists  of  two  formations  in  England — Red  Sandstone  and  Mag- 
neaian  Limestone — hut  of  three  m  Central  Eussia.  The  organio 
remains  ara  neitlier  nnweroua  nor  very  remarkable,  but  approximate 
far  mora  closely  to  those  of  tha  Carboniferous  system  below,  than  to 
those  of  the  overlying  Triaaaic,  The  flora,  consietin^  of  land  and 
marine  plants,  amounts  to  183  species,  embraciog  fucoids,  calamltes, 
coniferous  trees,  and  silicified  trunks  of  tree-ferns.  The  fauns 
amounts  to  350  fossil  speciea,  including  £3  fishes-  The  Trilobites 
and  other  higher  forms  of  crustacean  life  have  disappeared,  la 
common  nith  the  other  Paleozoic  systems,  the  fishes  are  all  charac- 
terised by  heleracaval  or  uneqaaUj-lobed  tails  ;  whereaa  in  all  the 
XBteraa  above  the  Permian  the  hovtocereal  or  equally-Iobad  tail  pre- 
iminates — a  form  which  is  nearly  uaitorsal  in  the  8000  speciea 
now  existing.  Reptiles  are  more  numerooa  than  in  the  Carhonifcr- 
OQs  ayatem,  and  uow  cm  brace  Sachiank  as  well  as  Batrachians — f.g., 
the  paUcomunu,  proCoroaaurus.  and  tkccodonloaauna,  all  of  which 
are  true  air-breatbiDg  and  land-inhabiting  reptiles.  The  minerals 
land  Coal-MeiinrM,  the  Jkbt  of  a  true  nummal  I  The  efftot  of  tJiis  dlscowir,  ([ 
*g»  (Of-  1B6B).    This,  however,  has  not  Jet  been  tone  (Jan.  187T), 


46  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

embrace  excellent  building-stones,  limestone,  ^(ypsum,  lithographic 
stone,  and  copper,  and  occasionally  veins  of  galena  and  sulphuret  of 
zinc.  Permian  strata  are  known  to  prevail  in  the  north  and  midland 
counties  of  England,  in  the  whole  of  eastern  Russia,  and  over  con- 
siderable areas  in  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  and  America.  The 
physical  aspect  of  Permian  districts  is  by  no  means  destitute  of  beauty 
and  variety,  though  the  scenery  is  sometimes  tame  and  uninviting, 
and  the  soil  well  adapted  for  pasture  and  woodland. 

7.  The  Triassio  System  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in 
Germany,  where  the  system  is  highly  developed,  it  consists  of  three 
well-defined  formations — ^the  Burder  SandstHn,  the  Jduschelkalkf  and 
the  Keuper — the  middle  formation  being  wanting  in  England.  With 
these  formations  we  commence,  on  our  upward  march,  the  second 
great  division  of  the  fossiliferous  strata,  and  hence  named  the  Meso- 
ZOIC.  At  the  close  of  the  Permian  system,  an  infinitely  greater 
change  took  place  in  organic  life  than  that  which  marked  tne  ascent 
at  any  previous  stage.  All  the  species  and  most  of  the  genera  of 
the  earlier  races  have  now  disappeared,  and  are  replaced  in  tne  Trias 
by  an  entirely  new  series,  the  types  of  which  are  continued  to  the 
base  of  the  Tertiary.  Nature  has  entered  on  a  new  cycle,  and  every- 
where the  humbler  forms  of  organic  life  have  given  place  to  forms 
more  highly  organised.  It  is  to  this  system,  and  not  to  the  Devo- 
nian, that  we  must  now  refer  the  remarkable  reptiles,  the  Telerpeton, 
Staganolepis,  and  Hyperadapedon  of  the  Elgin  Sandstone.  In  the 
Trias  formations  on  the  Connecticut  river,  in  New  England,  the 
footprints  of  no  fewer  than  23  species  of  Birds  are  enumerated  by 
Dr  Hitchcock,  together  with  Chelonians,  Batrachians,  and  other 
reptiles.  In  the  Trias  also  occur  the  earliest  traces  of  Mammals. 
In  1847,  Professor  Plieninger  discovered  in  the  upper  beds  of  the 
keuper  formation,  in  WUrtemberg,  the  molar  teeth  and  bones  of  a 
small  marsupial  animal  named  Microlestes  ardiquvs.  In  England, 
the  animal  remains  in  the  Trias  are  not  very  numerous  (omy  61 
species) ;  but  on  the  Continent,  one  single  formation  (the  Muschel- 
kalk)  has  already  yielded  222  species,  and  the  St  Cassian  beds*  744 
species.  The  flora  embraces  equisetums,  calamites,  ferns,  cycada- 
ceous  and  coniferous  plants,  but  is  very  limited.  In  England  and 
Ireland  this  system  is  the  great  repository  of  rock-salt,  the  layers  of 
which,  in  Cheshire,  in  some  places  attain  a  thickness  of  from  75 
to  100  feet.  It  also  yields  sandstone  for  building  purposes,  calcare- 
ous flagstones,  limestones,  and  valuable  beds  of  gypsum.  The 
scenery  of  the  Trias  is  usually  tame  and  monotonous,  and  the  soil 
better  adapted  for  pastoral  than  agricultural  purposes. 

8.  The  Oolitic  System  is  highly  developed  in  England,  where  it  con- 
sists of  three  very  distinct  formations — tne  Lias,  Oolite,  and  Wealden 
— and  stretches  slantingly  across  the  country  from  Dorsetshire  to 
Yorkshire.  It  is  evident  from  the  character  of  the  imbedded  organ- 
isms that  the  first  two  are  mariTie  formations,  while  the  last  must 
have  been  deposited  from  fresh  water.  The  characteristic  fossils  of. 
the  lAas — the  lowest  of  the  three — are  cycadaceous  plants,  which 
occupy  a  middle  position  between  ferns  and  coniferous  trees,,  and 


I 


GEOLOGY.  47 

which  here  make  thcdr  first  appparaccH.  The  fauna  wears  a  aiiigulac 
aspects  owing  to  the  vast  number  of  aminoniteB,  faiJleraBites,  gry- 
phes,  and  cuttle -ftsbea  which  it  embraces.  Beptilea  also  attain 
their  higbeat  development  in  thia  formation,  contkining,  as  it  does, 
those  gigootio  and  highly  characteristic  forms,  the  Ichtbyosaama  and 
Pledosaurua.  In  1864,  the  fosail  fauna  of  this  formation,  as  devel- 
oped in  the  British  Isles,  contained,  accordiDg  to  Professor  Eamsay 
4K  ths  London  University,  467  species.  The  flora  of  the  Oolite  ta 
tha  same  year  comprised  128  species — consisting,  for  the  most  part, 
of  cyoadaEere,  fetus,  eqitisetaceee,  and  pines,  with  the  new  orders — 
■cypresses,  yews,  dammaras,  thujas,  and  acrew-pinas.  Sucb,  indeed, 
was  the  abuadaace  of  vegetation  in  the  Oolitic  age,  that  not  nnfre- 
QUently  it  exhibita  seams  of  workable  coal,  as  at  Brora  in  Sutberland- 
ahire,  and  Richmond  in  Virginia.  Ita  faaua  was  pecaliarlj  riuh  and 
Taded,  as  is  evident  from  uie  fact  that  in  the  British  rocks  alone 
no  fewer  than  11S3  species  were  known  to  geologists  in  1S64.  Tho 
marsupial  or  pouched  auimals,  which  Brat  appeared  in  the  Trias, 
now  existed  if  grant  numbers.  They  were  allied  to  the  living  opos- 
■um  and  kangaroo  of  the  Australian  continent,  and  formed  a  con- 
necting link  between  birds  and  tha  placental  or  true  Mammalia, 
which  do  not  appear  till  neat  the  end  of  the  Wealden  age.  The 
IfMWen  derives  ita  name  from  the  "wealds"or  "wolds'' of  Suffolk, 
because  it  prevails  extensively  in  that  country.  Unlike  the  two 
tlnderlfing  formationB,  the  Wealden  is  essentially  a  fresh-water 
I  formatian,  and  the  only  one  of  that  nature  occurring  within  tha 
I  limits  of  the  Mesozoic  series.  Its  organic  remains  differ  very  widely 
[  from  those  of  the  Lisa  and  Oolite— rconaisting  of  "  the  spoils  of  tliH 
■  river  and  the  land,  not  of  tha  sea.  Among  its  most  characteristic 
plants  may  be  named  the  tphejiopteris  gratis  (a  sort  of  fern),  leaves 
of  com/enE  and  cgmdaceiB,  and  fruits  resembling  those  of  palma.  Of 
theoumeroua  reptiles  belonging  to  tha  formation  ore — the  Iguaaodon, 
a  gigantic  herbivorous  animal,  and  the  Fterodacti/l,  or  Hying  reptile, 
wbich  somewhat  reaembled  a  baL  But  by  far  the  most  interesting 
fossils  of  the  Weatden  are  fonnd  in  its  uppermost  strata,  near  the 
base  of  the  Cretaceous  system — being  the  bones  and  teeth  of  Placen- 
tal or  Trite  M^UHals,  which  mark  another  stage  in  the  great 
march  of  creation.  Including  the  Purbeck  beds,  the  Wealdon  for- 
mation of  tho  British  Isles  have  yielded  253  fossil  species,  including 
23  plants,  SO  fishes,  and  29  reptiles.  The  minerals  of  the  Oolitic  aya- 
tem  are  of  considerable  importance,  consisting  of  building,  paving, 
roofiugand  tile  stones,  alum,  marble,  coal,  and  fuller's  earth.  Both 
the  Lias  and  Oolitic  Limestones  are  largely  quarried  for  mortar  and 
hydraulic  cement,  the  latter  also  furnishing  the  best  description  of 
I  lithographic  stones.  The  scensry  of  Oolitic  districts  is  varied  and 
I  pleasing,  but  wants  the  boldness  and  abruptness  of  Metamorphio 
1  tegions.  The  soil  is  osually  dry  and  fertile,  except  the  Lias  and 
F  Wealden  clays,  which  in  dry  seasons  are  stiff  and  intractable. 
'  S.  Tlia  Oretaceoni  Sjetixa,  the  highest  in  the  great  Hesozoio 
■eriea  of  rooks,  derives  ita  name  from  the  chalk  (l^t.  erela)  that 
forms  the  main  ingredient  in  its  composition.   It  is  a  marine  depcEiiE, 


48  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

and  embraces  two  well-defined  formations — ^the  Greensand  and  the 
Chalk.  The  ^ora  is  not  abundant,  there  being  only  12  species 
known  in  British  rocks,  and  even  these  usually  consist  of  (uifted 
and  imperfect  fragments.  They  exhibit,  however,  a  great  era  in 
the  progress  of  terrestrial  vegetation,  for  here  first  occur  the  re- 
mains of  Exogenous  or  Dicotyledonous  Trees — i.6:,  trees  having 
a  separable  bark,  distinct  concentric  circles,  increasing  at  their  circum- 
ference, the  solidity  diminishing  from  the  centre  outwards,  the  pith 
enclosed  in  a  longitudinal  canal,  and  possessed  of  medullary  rays. 
The  fauna  is  rich,  varied,  and  beautifully  preserved.  Nearly  all  the 
types  of  life  are  strictly  and  peculiarly  Mesozoic.  *  *  Of  the  521  species 
Imown  in  our  Upper  Chalk,  all,  with  the  exception  of  TerebratiUa 
captU-serpentia  and  a  few  foraminifera,  have  apparentlv  become 
extinct  during  that  vast  period  that  elapsed  between  the  close  of  the 
Cretaceous  and  the  beginning  of  the  Eocene  epoch  in  England." — 
(Professor  Ramsay.)  Of  the  four  orders  into  which  fishes  are  divided, 
two  appear  for  the  first  time  in  Cretaceous  rocks — viz.,CTENOiDsand 
Cycloids.  Reptiles,  though  still  the  dormant  class  of  animals,  have 
now  passed  their  meridian ;  but  turtles,  pterodactyles,  and  oviparous 
saurians  are  not  unfrequent.  Bones  of  birds  have  been  detected  in 
N.  America,  but  the  formerly  supposed  Qtutdrumarums  Mammids 
first  appear  in  the  Eocene.  Altogether,  1362  species  of  fossil  animals 
were  Known  to  exist  in  British  rocks  in  1864,  of  which  89  were 
fishes  and  31  reptiles.  Cretaceous  strata  cover  extensive  areas  in  the 
south  of  England,  in  France,  Germany,  the  United  States,  and 
Vancouver  iSand,  in  all  of  which  the  scenery  is  distinguished  by 
the  rounded  outlines  of  the  hills  and  valleys,  which  afford  excellent 
pasturage.  The  origin  of  the  chalk-beds  has  led  to  much  discussion, 
but  it  IS  now  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  myriads  of  coralline 
zoophytes  and  foraminifera  "mth.  which  the  seas  of  the  period 
abounded.  The  industrial  products  are  comparatively  unimportant, 
consisting  chiefly  of  preparations  of  chalk  and  flint.  The  former, 
which  consists  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  employed  by  the  farmer, 
bricklayer,  and  plasterer ;  while  the  latter,  when  calcined,  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  flint-glass  and  porcelain  ware. 

10.  Tlie  Tertiary  SyBtem,  embraces  three  formations — ^the  Lower, 
Middle,  and  Upper — or,  as  they  are  more  commonly  called  (with 
reference  to  the  number  of  species  which  they  respectively  con- 
tain in  common  with  our  existing  fauna).  Eocene,  Miocene,  and 
Pliocene.  These  consist  of  vast  and  varied  deposits — fluviatile, 
lacustrine,  marine,  and  volcanic — usually  found  resting  on  one  or 
other  of  the  formations  of  the  Cretaceous  system.  It  appears  evi- 
dent that  during  their  deposition  important  changes  tooK  place  in 
the  relative  level  of  sea  and  land ;  that  volcanic  agency  was  de- 
veloped on  a  vast  and  magnificent  scale ;  that  the  portion  of  Europe 
now  forming  the  British  Isles  was  the  site  of  enormous  lakes,  which 
at  the  present  day  have  their  best  analogues  in  the  vast  fresh-water 
lakes  of  Canada ;  and  that,  during  the  same  epoch,  such  a  gradual 
refrigeration  of  climate  took  place  in  European  countries  as  to  admit 
of  the  existence  of  plants  and  animals  similar  to,  or  identical  with. 


GEOLOGY.  49 

•  those  now  Existiog  in  lliat  continent.  On  entering  tlio  Tertmij 
■trata  the  palieontologist  finds  that  orguiie  nature  ha^  uudersone  a 
ccmplete  cuanj^e — that  everj  plant  and  animal  with  which  he  h«- 
c«ine  acquainted  irhen  itudjing  the  SeccndaTj  rocks  has  passed 
anny,  and  that  he  has  now  entered  on  a  wholly  new  stage  of  exist- 
ence, Never  before,  during  Uie  pre-AdimichiHtoiyof  our  earth,  did 
BO  thorough  ond  total  a  change  take  place  in  the  fiorn  and  fauna  of 
the  globe  (see  under  "  Trisssic  Syatem,"  p.  46).  The  flora  ia  dia- 
tinguished  from  that  of  the  older  epochs  by  the  abundance  of 
dicotyledonous  trees  (oaks,  beeches,  elms,  ftc),  a  few  leaves  and 
fragments  only  of  which  have  as  yet  been  detected  in  the  Cretaceous 
TOCKB,  and  even  these  are  of  wholly  different  species.  The  mono- 
cotyledons, especially  jialms,  also  'become  greatly  more  nomerons ; 
while  the  conifers,  previously  ao  abundant,  no  longer  ocrnpy  a 
prominent  place.  In  the  Goccna  formation  atone,  in  which  between 
200  and  300  fosail  plnnta  have  heen  detected,  no  fewer  than  one-half 
are  dicotyledons.  The  fauna  of  the  ayatem  is  equally  characteristic 
It  was  pre-eminently  the  age  of  mammalia  ;  for,  though  manimals, 
both  marsupial  and  placental,  are  knowu  to  hare  existed  in  the 
Seeondary  ages,  only  a  few  vestiges  of  either  occur  in  formations 
lower  down  than  the  Eocene.  In  this  single  formation — that  to 
which  the  London  and  Paris  basins  belong — no  fewer  than  25  genera 
of  this  class  of  vertebrata  were  known  in  1656,  Altogether,  upwards 
of  100  genera  of  mammals  occur  in  the  Tertiary  rocks ;  and,  what 
ii  Kill  more  remarkable,  all  the  existine  orders  of  the  class  are 
represented,  though  unequally.  The  pochydennata  were  especially 
nnmerouB,  embracing  the  uncouth  jialieothe-ium,  aaoplotherium,  da- 
uot/ieriujn,  maetodon,  and  mammoth.  It  was  among  the  pachyder- 
mata  of  the  Paris  basin  that  the  illustrious  Cuvier  etfected  those 
wonderful  restorations  which,  in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  gave 
such  an  impetus  to  palEeontoIogy.  Several  species  of  birds,  chiefly 
from  the  Eocene  of  Paris,  have  been  described,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  is  the  gigantic  gastoraia  Parisiensii,  a  fonn  intermediate 
between  the  wading  and  aqnatio  orders.  The  reptiles  resemble  the 
esisting  crocodile,  Bligator,  and  gavial.  The  fishes  embrace  the  four 
orders — plaeoids,  ganoids,  cycloids,  and  ctenoids — but  appear  to  be 
almost  without  esceptiou  of  diflerent  species  from  those  now  peopling 
the  ocean.  In  England,  Tertiary  strata  cover  nearly  all  the  basin  of 
the  Thames,  as  also  Hampshire  and  the  northern  part  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  but  they  scarcely  exist  in  ScotUnd  and  Ireland,  For  their 
distribntion  in  Southern  Eurojie  see  at  p.  BO.  The  indastrial  pro- 
duct* are  various,  comprising  building- stone,  marble,  limestone, 
(ffpsum,  brick-clay,  potter's  clay,  pipe-clay,  miUstonos,  lignite  or 

brown  coal,"  and  amber, 

II.  The  FleUtDoetLB  or  Boulder  Cliur.— It  would  appear  that, 
after  the  deposition  of  the  Eocene,  Pliocene,  and  Pliocene  fcrma- 
tiona,  a  great  change  took  place  in  all  the  higher  latitudes  of  the 
1  northern  hemisphere  in  regard  to  the  relative  distribution  of  sea  and 
'»nd;  that  a  large  portion  of  Europe  and  of  the  British  Isles  was 
p»dllal!y  submerged  beneath  the  waters,  the  summits  c[  the  loftiot 


50  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

moontam-raiiges  appearing  as  islands  in  mid-ocean ;  that  a  corre- 
sponding elevation  of  land  oocnrred  simultaneously  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  accompanied  by  a  change  iu  the  direction  of  the  great  ocean- 
currents,  and  by  a  great  diminution  of  temperature  over  all  North- 
em  Europe ;  that  enormous  icebergs — ^laden  with  gravel,  sand,  and 
gigantic  boulders — were  annually  disengaged  from  the  Arctic  shores, 
which,  floating  southwards,  discharged  their  miscellaneous  contents 
over  tiie  recently-submerged  lands ;  that  this  submergence  and  ac- 
companying change  of  temperature  caused  the  destruction  of  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  the  plants  and  animals  which  existed  in  North 
Europe  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  ages — ^their  places  being  sup- 
plied, however,  to  some  extent,  by  the  fauna  and  nora  now  peculiar 
to  more  northern  latitudes ;  that  after  this  state  of  things  had  con- 
tinued for  ages,  the  submeiged  lands  of  North  Europe  and  the  Bri- 
tish Isles  were  again  gradually  elevated  to  their  present  level ;  and 
that,  finally,  the  glaci^  epoch  having  passed  away,  a  new  flora  and 
fauna,  suited  to  &e  new  conditions,  made  their  appearance — ^many 
of  the  species  of  which  c-ontinue  to  exist  to  the  present  day.     The 
organic  remains  of  the  boulder  clay  are  by  no  means  numerous.    In 
the  British  Isles  they  occur  chiefly  in  the  Norwich  Crag,  Lanca- 
shire, North  Wales,  Isle  of  Man,  the  banks  of  the  Clyde,  Caitliness, 
and  in  the  north  and  east  of  Ireland.     On  the  Contment  the  main 
localities  are  Scandinavia,   Russia,  and    North  Germany ;  while 
similar  deposits  are  found  in  Sicily,  North  America,  Patagonia,  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego.     The  Pleistocene  beds  contain  very  few  recognis- 
able remains  of  plants,  but  some  of  the  species  still  exist  among  car 
aboriginal  trees;  a^  for  example,  the  Scotch  fir  and  the  common 
birch.    Others  continue  to  hold  tiieir  place  in  the  forests  of  North- 
western Europe ;  as  Abies  exceUa,  or  the  Norwegian  spruce,  which  is 
found  rooted  in  the  Norwich  Crag.     In  general^  the  coniferae  alone 
appear  to  have  flourished  during  the  enture  era  of  the  boulder  clay. 
Tbe  fossil  fiinna  is  more  abundant,  but  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
mollusca;  though  in  the  fresh-water  beds  numerous  remains  of 
mammals  occur,  the  greater  number  of  which  have  become  extinct. 
The  total  number  of  marine  testacea  in  the  Norwich  Crag  does  not 
exceed  76  species,  of  which  only  one-tenth  are  extinct ;  while  of  the 
14  fresh- water  species  associated  with  them,  all  appear  to  be  now 
living,  either  in  the  British  seas,  the  Boreal,  or  the  Arctic  r^ons. 
No  fewer  than  87  species  of  mammals  are  enxmierated  by  Professor 
Owen  as  occurring  in  the  caves  of  the  British  Isles ;  and  of  these,  he 
says,  18  species  have  become  extinct,  while  the  remaining  19  con- 
tinue to  survive  in  the  British  archipelago,  or  on  the  Continent. 
The  entire  fauna  of  the  glacial  beds,  as  given  by  Dr  Edward  Forbes 
in  the  new  edition  of  the  *  Physical  Atlas,'  amounts  to  170  species. 
These  are  chiefly  mollusca,  but  the  number  includes  several  birds, 
and  not  a  few  extinct  mammals ;  but  the  horse,  goat,  ox,  red  deer, 
badger,  fox,  wild-cat,  and  several  other  species  known  to  have  existed 
in  l£e  Pliocene  era,  survived  the  storms  of  the  Pleistocene,  and  now 
form  a  living  bridge  connecting  the  present  epoch  with  the  immea- 
surable ages  of  the  past 


CEOLOGT. 

SUCCESSION     OF     LIFR 


^^T^^H 


— t 


TRIAS     ^^ 


SkUR  AN    REPTILES 


EIEVONIAN  F- 


Fi«CH  AH  EEPTILES. 

tfiuRO  O  riSHES. 
N  FEHOUS  TREES- 
PALMS,  TREE-FERNS 


MOLLUSCS. 
COH  NODE  RM  ATA. 


CAMBRIAN 


52  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY, 

12.  Prehistorlo  Formation.— A  deeper  interest  attftches  to  this 
formation  than  to  any  other  in  the  entire  geological  scale.  Here  are 
found  the  earliest  traces  of  the  existence  of  Man  on  the  earth — as  pile- 
dwellings,  tree  canoes,  flint  arrow  -  heads  and  other  stone  imple- 
ments manufactured  by  human  hands.  No  clear  line  of  demarca- 
tion separates  this  formation  from  the  Pleistocene,  and  in  the  present 
state  of  science  it  cannot  be  positively  determined  in  what  century 
or  millennium  those  implements  were  fabricated.  There  can  be  little 
doubt,  however,  of  the  vast  antiquity  of  some  of  them,  as  proven  by 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  and  others.  The  antiquity  of  the  human  species, 
as  thus  indicated,  no  doubt  conflicts  with  the  chronology  of  u  sher, 
founded  on  our  modem  Hebrew  text.  In  the  matter  of  antediluvian 
chronology,  however,  the  Hebrew  text  has  in  all  probability  been 
vitiated,  as  we  have  shown  at  large  in  a  separate  work  (*  Facts  and 
Dates,'  p.  62-69).  The  Septuagint  translation — ^a  translation  made 
from  an  uncorrupted  text,  and  sanctioned  by  our  Lord  and  His  apos- 
tles— assigns  to  our  race  an  antiquity  of  nearly  1500  years  more  tnan 
Usher  does.  Science  is  giving  its  emphatic  verdict,  in  this  particolary 
in  favour  of  the  Septuacint ;  and  tnough  the  extended  cnronology 
may  fail  in  meeting  all  the  difficulties  of  the  case,  it  will  certainly 
meet  many  of  them.  In  the  mean  time  we  cordially  adopt  the  words 
of  a  recent  brilliant  writer  when  he  says,  "The  theology  of  science 
is  at  present  in  its  infancy,  and  consequently  liable  to  multitudes  of 
errors.  When  the  theolo^n  shall  have  become  more  conversant  with 
Grod's  works,  and  the  scientiflc  man  more  of  a  theologian,  we  shall 
obtain  more  light  "—(*  Old  Bones,*  by  Rev.  W.  S.  Symondi  F.G.S.) 

8.  Botany. — Physical  Geography  does  not  concern  itself  with 
the  structure  and  classiflcation  of  plants,  but  conflnes  its  atten- 
tion to  their  existing  number,  to  the  various  modes  by  which 
they  have  been  disseminated,  to  the  external  causes  which  affect 
their  distribution,  and  to  the  more  or  less  limited  areas  to  which 
the  different  species  and  families  are  confined. 

Number  of  Speoles.  —  The  number  of  species  presently  known 
to  botanists  probably  exceeds  120,000 ;  but  the  progress  of  dis- 
covery is  so  rapid,  and  the  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  still  unin- 
vestigated so  extensive,  that  200,000  appears  to  be  a  very  moderate 
calculation  of  the  number  of  species  actually  existing.  Theophrastus 
(B.C.  390)  knew  only  600  ;  Plmy  (a.d.  79)  increased  the  number  to 
1000  ;  the  naturalists  of  the  middle  ages  contented  themselves  with 
a  description  of  1400  ;  the  celebrated  Linnseus,  in  1753,  swelled  the 
number  to  6988,  and  in  1762,  to  8800;  while  Wildenow,  in  1807, 
raised  the  number  to  20,000.  During  the  present  century  the  pro- 
gress of  the  science  has  been  remarkable.  In  the  year  1820,  ^e 
number  of  species  in  the  herbarium  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  at 
Paris,  was  estimated  at  66,000.  In  1847  the  collection  of  M.  Deles- 
sert,  of  the  same  city,  contained  about  86,000  speciea  In  1844, 
Steudal,  the  German  botanist,  estimated  the  total  number  of  known 
forms  at  96,000  ;  while  in  1869  the  number  of  recognised  species  was 
120,000,  of  which  103,000  were  flowering,  and  17,000  flowerless. 


I 


JFIuin^ldt  estimates  the  total  numlier  of  existing  plants  as  at  liiast 
200,000. 

Aatlqolt?  of  Spedes. — Ths  geologist  can  demonstnits  that  all 
the  apeciaa  of  the  eiiatiag  flora  were  not  creafed  sinraltaneoasly, 
but  were  introduced  at  successive  stages  33  the  surface  and  teia- 
peratura  of  the  earth  became  fitted  for  their  reception.  Tliey  are, 
therefore,  of  very  dilFerent  degrees  of  antiquity  ;  for  while  they  all 
appear  to  have  been  danizena  of  the  earth  ever  since  the  creation  of 
man,  most  of  them  were  ushered  into  being  prior  to  the  time  in 
which  our  existing  continents  acquired  their  present  configuration  ; 
■uid  a  very  few  of  them  can  be  traced  back  to  the  earliest  Tertiary 
a^s.  Those  siieciea  are  reckoned  the  oldest  which  combine  simpli- 
(dty  of  organisation  with  great  width  of  distribution,  as  our  commou 
i^rassea  and  rushes,  together  with  mosses,  lichens,  ^ngi,  and  ferns  ; 
while  those  that  are  confined  to  small  areas — notwithatandine  the 
contiguity  of  land  having  a  suitahle  climate,  and  their  being  endowed 
with  the  requisite  means  of  transport — are  consideredthe  moat  recent. 

Oantrea  ol  CreatloiL^Most  people  seem  to  be  of  opinion  that  all, 
or  nearly  all,  the  plants  found  in  any  particular  locality,  were  oti- 
oinally  created  there.  The  great  SwFdlsh  botanist,  on  the  other 
ABnd,  believed  that  *'"■  *'«"">" :*'^''='  "'  -n  *i>^  .>i-;=t,'v.ri  t.i.>nt.,  «■<.»> 
uraated  in  some  oni 

•Uy  disseminated  o  ._   .._.   ..._....     _._  .._ 

be  adduced  by  modem  science  to  show  that  each  of  these  hypotheses 
ii  equally  antenahle  ;  and  most  naturalists  are  now  of  opiuiou  that 
there  were  numerous  tpteifie  tentrei,  situated  in  numerous  and 
widely-aeporated  localities,  each  centre  being  the  birthplace  of  one 
apeoiM,  or  assemblage  of  species,  which  continues  to  grow  there  in 
greater  peifection  tMn  in  any  other  region  to  which,  by  the  various 
trsnaporting  agents  known  to  exist,  it  was  subse(]^uently  wafted. 

Hodee  of  DlflBemlnation. — Many  plants  are  possessed  of  moons  by 
which  they  can  diffuse  themselves  over  areas  more  or  loss  extensive. 
Some  have  seeds  with  winged  or  feathery  appendages,  which  enable 
them  to  float  on  the  air ;  other  seeds  are  so  small  as  to  be  borne 
by  winds  to  very  distant  locahtiea ;  very  many  are  trsuaported  by 
Tivers.  streams,  marine  currents,  and  even  icebergs,  to  very  remote 
regtona,  where,  if  the  soil  and  climate  be  suitable,  they  take  root 
•nd  propagate  their  species;  while  not  a  few  adhere  to  the  hairy 
coatioga  of  migratory  animals,  or,  entering  into  the  gizzards  of  birds 
of  passage,  retain  their  vitality  after  being  voided  by  them  in  distant 
localities.  The  agency  of  man  has  also,  m  all  ages,  been  very  effec- 
tual in  the  dissemination  of  plants ;  for  example,  the  passage  of 
armies  from  one  country  to  another,  commerce  by  sea  with  foreign 
naliona,  the  discovery  of  previously  unknown  lands,  and  the  plant- 
ing of  colonies  in  lustant  regions.  But  all  these  agencies,  singly 
or  combined,  cannot  adequately  account  for  the  present  distribution 
of  the  species,  without  supposing  a  multiplicity  of  original  specific 


54  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

that  the  individual  species  are  confined  to  particular  portions  of  the 
surface  characterised  hy  a  certain  temperature  and  other  climatie 
conditions.  The  area  within  which  a  gLven  plant  prevails  is  called 
its  TiaMiationf  or  area  of  distribution.  In  or  near  the  centre  of  this 
area  it  attains  its  highest  development ;  it  degenerates  when  far 
removed  from  this  centre  ;  and  when  transported  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  area  it  languishes  and  dies.  Though  each  species  of  plant 
has  a  nature  peculiar  to  itself^  the  soil,  temperature,  and  climatic 
conditions  of  the  various  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  are  so  vari- 
ous, that  each  species  finds  for  itself  a  x)erfectly  suitable  habitation. 
These  habitations,  or  areas  of  distribution,  are  of  all  sizes ;  embrac- 
ing in  some  cases  a  large  section  of  a  continent,  or  of  several  con- 
tinents, and  being  limited  in  others  to  the  merest  speck  of  land. 
For  example,  a  considerable  number  of  plants  of  Northern  Europe 
occurs  also  in  Liberia  and  British  Kortn  America ;  some  British 
species  are  found  at  high  elevations  on  the  Himalaya  Mountains ; 
and  one  species — the  Epilobium  tetragonum — ^is  common  to  Britain^ 
Canada,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  California,  and  certain  regions  of  the  Andes,  have  re- 
spectively certain  species  peculiar  to  themselves ;  as  also  Madeira, 
tne  Canaries,  St  Helena,  the  Sandwich  and  Society  Islands,  &c. 
The  same  species  of  plant  seldom  occurs  in  widely-separated  coun- 
tries, however  closely  the  soil  and  climate  of  both  may  approximate  ; 
but  similar  species  of  the  same  genus  are,  in  such  circumstances,  rarely 
absent,  and  these  are  spoken  of  by  botanists  as  representative  speeies. 
Thus  the  heaths  of  Europe  are  represented  by  other  species  oi  the 
genus  Erica  in  S.  Africa ;  and  the  violets  of  North  America  represent 
those  of  Britain,  which  are  specifically  different. 

Botanical  Regions. — ^Various  attempts  have  been  made  by  botanists 
to  divide  the  globe  into  certain  well-defined  regions,  founded  on  their 
characteristic  vegetation.  Wildenow,  De  Candolle,  Meyen,  and  espe- 
cially Schouw,  have  distinguished  themselves  in  this  department  of 
science.  The  last-named  naturalist,  about  thirty  years  ago,  proposed 
to  divide  the  earth's  surface  into  what  he  calls  **  Phy to-geographic 
re^ons.''  These,  according  to  him,  are  25  in  number,  and  charac- 
terised as  follows  :  1.  At  least  one-half  of  the  species  found  in  each 
region  must  be  peculiar  to  it  2.  One-fourth  of  the  genera  must  be 
peculiar  to  it,  or  at  least  be  more  prevalent  there  than  elsewhere. 
8.  Some  of  the  orders  must  either  be  peculiar  to  it,  or  reach  their 
maximum  in  it.  Each  of  the  different  regions  receives  three  separate 
designations  :  the  first  indicating  its  botanical  character ;  the  second 
its  geographical  position ;  while  the  third  is  named  after  some 
eminent  botanist. 

1.  Region  of  Mosses  and  Saxifrages,  the  Arctic- Alpine  flora,  or  Wahl- 
enberg's  region ;  embracing  all  the  countries  situated  within  the  Arctic 
Circle,  together  with  the  higher  elevations  of  the  mountain-ranges  of  W. 
and  S.  Europe.  2.  Beef  on  qf  UmheWferm  aaidCrvjciferce,  North-European 
and  North- Asiatic,  or  Linnaeus's  re^pn ;  embracing  that  large  portion  of 
the  area  of  the  Old  World  which  lies  between  the  Polar  Circle  and  lat. 
i5°  N.,  and  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.     8.  Region.  ^ 


n^.,,^,  .^u  fj.^.,.0,  4.  Region  of  AMert  and  Solidagoi,  Nortliern 
Noiih.Americain,  or  Michaoi'a  r^on;  extending  fram  tha  Atlantic  to  the 
Kocky  MouDtams,  and  from  lat.  35"  N.  to  Lake  Wionipeg  and  St  Jamea 
Baj.  It  embraces  the  Kreater  part  of  Canada  and  the  N.B.  part  of  the 
Ti-;..j  o....„  c  E,_-'..  ^ifagnoUiu,  the  S.E.  North-American  flora, 
the  remavnder  of  the  United  States  lying 
I.  RegiuH  of  Caiiielliacea  and  Celattracta, 
n.ampier'9  regioa ;  embracing  Japan,  CoTea,  a  ' 
7.  Itr^ion  cf  Seitammr -"  •>-- --^ ' 


i  of  SAododrndroj 


the  Chino-JapaneKB,  o: 
the  N.E.  part  of  Chim 
Indian  flora,  or  Roxbn^h's 
and  the  S.  of  Cliina.  °  " 
Wallieh's  region  1  com; 
from  the  altitude  of  500010  12,000  feet.  It  inolndea  Sinnnr,  QnTwh^al) 
Kninaon,  Nepal,  and  Bholan.  9.  Tin  Mtdaysian  jUrra,  or  Reinwanit'a 
region ;  embracing  Northern  Australia  and  the  Malay  Aichipelago,  with 
the  exception  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  &.  of  Borneo.  10.  Jamnea 
flora,  or  Blnme'g  region ;  embracing  Java,  Sumatra,  Timor,  and  the  S. 
ofBomeo.  II.  Qeianie  or Pott/naian flora,  or  Chaniisso'a  region;  em- 
bracing all  the  islands  of  the  Pacifio  Ocean  within  the  tropica,  12. 
JtmoK  of  BaltaTnie  Irea,  Arabian,  or  Forskal'a  region  ;  embracing  the 
I  ^W.  of  Arabia,  the  B.  of  Abyssinia,  S.  of  Persia,  Beluchistan,  and 
"TBiadJi.  13.  TheDeiert,  or  Delile's  region;  compriaing  the  Sahara,  and 
alU  Arabia  except  the  S.W.  angle.  14.  fUgim  of  Tropkat  Afrita,  or 
pAdonson'a  region  ;  embracing  the  whole  af  Af lica  betw^  the  Tropic  of 
^^pricamandtbe  15th  deg.  of  N.  latitude,  with  the  exception  ofEaitem 
Ijttbysainia.  It  also  includes  Madagascar.  15.  S^on  qf  Cadacta  and 
^ftraeea,  Meiican,  or  Jacnuin's  region;  Inclndes  Meiico,  Central 
'hnteriCB,  New  Granada,  Eciiador,  Peru,  Venemiela,  Guinea,  and  the  N. 
if  Brazil,  with  tbe  exception  of  tlie  higher  elevations  of  the  mountain- 
.  _'. ..'.  ..  16.  Jt^ioJi  of  tie  JUgilaadi  o/  Mexico,  or  Bonplaod's  xegicn ; 
those  parta  of  Meiico  and  Central  America  which  have  an  eloratloa  of 
more  than  6000  feet.  17.  K/gioit  of  Cindiovce,  or  mtdicinai  herlu,  the 
Andes,  or  Hnmboldt's  region ;  embracing  the  elevated  r^ions  of  the 
Andes,  ftem  5000  to  9000  feet  high,  and  extending  southward  to  the 
Tropic  of  Caprieom.  18.  Region  i^  EicaUoniie  mui  Calttolaria,  or  Ruiz 
■nd  Pavon'fl  region,  embraces  the  highest  elevations  of  the  last-nieationed 
rnnee,  or  above  BOOO  feet.  19.  The  Wtil  Indian  flm-a,  or  Swart^'e  re- 
gioD  :  erabracingal]  the  islands  of  the  Westlndies.  20.  Region  ijf  Paltut 
and  Melattoataeea,  Brazilian,  or  Marti  us's  region;  embracmg  all  South 
America  between  the  Andes  and  the  Attantio,  and  between  tlie  Tropic  of 
Capricorn  and  the  15th  region.  21.  Jtegwa  of  Art-oitatftil  Composila, 
Ettra-tropical  South-American,  or  St  Hilaire's  region ;  embracing  South 
America  between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  Patagonia.  2i  Pata- 
oonvos  or  Antareiic  Region,  D'Urville's  region;  embracing  Patagonia, 
Tlerra  del  Fuego,  and  the  Falkland  Isles.  23.  Region  of  Ulapeliig  and 
Xaai-     "--■"    ' .m-^.— -.- 1-^-.  I--.-..I— .. - 

qwl  Bpaeridaeea,  Anfttralian, 

Australia  and  Tasmania.    25.  Rtgian  of  Nev  Zealu 

eiOD ;  embracing  the  isLinda  of  New  Ze^and. 

■  9.  Zoology. — Zoologicnl  Geography  ia  closely  allied  to  Botani- 
Sl  Gw^ptipby,  being  that  braneh  of  the  science  which  treats  of 


Brovrn's  region;   including  Southern 


56  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  habitats,  limits  of  distribution,  and  dispersion  of  animals, 
as  they  at  present  exist  on  the  globe. 

lTiim1)er  of  Animals. — The  barriers  in  the  way  of  obtaining  acca« 
rate  statistics  of  the  number  of  animal  species  are  even  greater  than 
in  the  case  of  plants ;  and  naturalists  accordingly  vary  greatly  in 
their  estimates,  not  only  of  the  probable  number  presently  existing, 
but  also  of  the  known  and  described  species.  This  statement  ne^ 
not  excite  surprise  when  we  consider  that  many  regions  of  the  globe 
remain  almost  wholly  unknown,  while  others  have  been  but  imper- 
fectly explored ;  that  whilst  the  habitat  of  plants,  when  once  dis- 
covered,  can  be  visited  and  revisited  by  the  botanist  at  pleasure,  the 
great  majority  of  animals  are  endowed  with  the  powers  of  locomo- 
tion, and  evade  the  pursuit  of  man ;  that  myriads  of  species  are  too 
minute  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  while  others  are  too  fleet  or  too 
formidable  for  being  accurately  observed  ;  that  age  and  sex  produce 
such  changes  in  their  appearance  as  often  to  render  it  doubtful 
whether  or  not  the  species  are  identical ;  that  many  of  them  have 
their  home  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  or  conceal  themselves  in  the 
sand  on  the  sea-shore ;  while  others  seek  shelter  in  the  impenetrable 
recesses  of  the  forest,  or  in  inaccessible  mountain-cliffs.  The  num- 
ber of  known  species  of  vertebrated  animals,  accordinj^  to  Br  Keith 
Johnston's  *  Physical  Atlas,'  published  in  1856,  is  as  Allows :  Mam- 
mals, 1704 ;  birds,  6226  ;  reptiles,  657  ;  fishes,  8000  —  total, 
16,587.  Wagner  and  Waterhouse,  in  1848,  gave  the  number  of 
known  mammals  at  1967  ;  birds,  8000 ;  reptiles,  1600 ;  and  fishes, 
8000 — total,  19,567.  The  probable  number  of  existing  Vertebrata 
may  therefore  be  estimated  at  about  20,000.  The  other  divisions  of 
the  animal  kingdom  are  far  more  uncertain.  Thus,  while  Wood- 
ward, writing  in  1861,  gives  the  number  of  recent  MoUusca  at  12,000, 
and  the  fossu  species  at  15,000,  others  maintain  that  no  fewer  than 
20,000  recent  species  are  to  be  found  in  certain  existing  collections. 
Keferstein  (in  1834)  assigns  1000  as  the  number  of  known  species  of 
Radiata,  including  the  polypi,  entozoa,  acalepha,  and  echinoder- 
mata ;  while  Swainson,  in  1840,  gives  the  number  at  2500.  But  by 
far  the  greatest  discrepancy  prevails  in  regard  to  the  Articulata  (em- 
bracing annellida,  Crustacea,  arachnides,  and  insecta),  some  authors 
stating  the  number  at  120,000,  others  at  400,000,  and  some  even  as 
high  as  550,000,  the  great  majority  of  which,  however,  are  Insects. 
Besides  these,  there  exist  innumerable  hosts  of  infusoria  or  animal- 
cules, a  class  of  microscopic  animals  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom 
Badiata,  and  found  in  countless  numbers  in  vegetable  infusions. 
Omitting  from  our  reckoning  the  insects  and  infusoria,  of  the  actual 
number  of  which  we  can  form  no  probable  estimate  in  the  present 
state  of  science,  the  following  may  betaken  as  a  tolerable  approxima- 
tion to  the  existing  number  of  animals :  Vertebrata,  20,000 ;  Mollusca, 
20,000 ;  Radiata,  5000 ;  Articulata,  5000— total,  50,000  species.  M. 
Agassiz,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modem  naturalists,  estimated,  in 
1850,  the  total  number  ofhnoion  ipedes,  including  insects>  at  250,000. 
BUtrlbution  of  AnimalB. — Though  animals  are  endowed  with  the 
power  of  voluntary  motion,  and  are  therefore  more  capable  than 


ZOOLOGY.  57 

F  p]Ent3  of  tranaporting  themselves  from  one  region  to  iinotlier,  varioua 
causes  combine  to  limit  the  bcIdoI  extecBion  of  iniUvidiial  species- 
Difference  of  climate,  and  tha  greater  or  less  facility  of  procuring 
nbdsteuce,  are  amongst  the  foremost  of  those  caQsel  j  while  in  regard 
to  land-animals,  arms  of  tha  sea  and  elevated  mountain -chains  pre- 
sent formidable  barriers  to  miration.  In  numerous  instances,  how- 
ever, we  can  trace  tha  operation  to  no  secondary  cause,  and  little  cnn 
bo  advanced  beyond  conjecture  as  to  the  way  and  manner  iu  which 
a  iaigB  jiroportion  of  the  species  came  to  be  located  in  the  precise 
legions  whore  they  are  found  ;  unless,  as  in  tlie  case  of  plants,  we 
assent  to  the  doctrine  of  numerous  caitree  of  creation.  In  no  otlier 
way  can  science  satisfnctority  resolve  the  question  how  quadrupeds, 
for  example,  and  other  animals  incapable  of  crossing  arms  of  the  sea, 
Lave  found  their  way  to  islands  situated  in  mid-ocean  ;  whilst  in 
regions  very  remoto  from  each  other,  but  having  a  similar  climate, 
the  species,  instead  of  being  identical,  are  merely  analogous. 

Zoologloal  KlnidomB.  —Naturalists  divide  the  snrface  of  the  globe 
into  six  zoological  kingdoms,  which  arc  subdivided  into  fourteen 
zoological  provinces.  Approximately,  the  six  kingdoms  correspond 
respectively  with  the  six  continents  of  t3ie  globe — viz.,  Europe,  Asia, 
Afnca,  North  America,  South  America,  and  Oceania.  Hor^i  and 
Soath  America  ore  indeed  usually  comprised  under  one  kingdom, 
thus  redacing  the  number  to  live ;  but  simplicity  of  arraueemeut, 
and  the  convenience  of  the  student,  render  uie  other  uivisiou 
prefemble. 

The  first,  or  Europsan  Kingdom,  embraces  the  whole  of  insular 
Europe,  and  is  subdivided  into  three  zoological  provinces— vii.,  Atetlc, 
Ctntrat,  and  SoKtkem  /SKropt.  Tlie  sec^ond,  or  Asiatic  Kihgdou,  in- 
cludes continental  Asia,  with  the  exception  of  Arabia,  extends  from  tha 
Unds  ond  the  Volga  to  the  Pacific,  and  embraces  four  provinces— vii., 
AMu!,  CtHtral,  end  Tropical  Asia,  together  with  Asia  Minor  and  Syria, 
which  last  is  designated  the  Transition  Province,  as  its  fauna  combines 
the  cbaraeteristicB  of  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa.  The  third,  or  AfulCilJ 
KiNGDDU,  consists  of  but  one  province,  which  embraces  the  entire  con- 
tinent of  Africa,  together  with  Arabia,  Madagascar,  Bourbon,  and  Mau- 
ritius. The  OcEAKic  or  Acstbalian  KlNaDOU  embraces  the  wliole  of 
Oceania,  and  is  subdivided  into  two  provincss— viz..  the  Malagiian, 
which  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  Asiatic  aud  Australian  king- 
doms ;  and  the  Melanaian,  whoso  fauna  is  of  a  very  peculiar  character. 
The  fifth,  or  North  Amebioan  KiNoDoa,  embraces  the  whole  of  that 
Pontbient  noiih  of  the  Meiicaa  States,  and  contains  two  provinces,  the 
first  of  wIlIcIi  comprehends  Alaska,  and  British  and  Danish  An^erica,  and 
the  second  tbe  United  States.  The  sixtb,  or  South  Auekican  Kino- 
DOH,  embraces  not  only  tbe  whole  South  American  continent,  but  alau 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies.  It  consists  of  two  pro- 
vinces of  very  unequal  dimensions— viz..  Tropical  America,  which  extends 
from  the  north  of  Mexico  total.  40°  S.  ;  and  .<tuirai.4nimca,  embracing 
Pati^nta,  Tierra  del  I'uego,  and  the  fUklsnd  Isles.* 

iclerlatlc! ,.. 

I  of  tills  work,  ucdei  the  il 


58  PHYSICAL   GEOORAPHY. 

The  following  Table,*  which  ia  adapted  with  modifications  from 
Milner's  '  Doiversal  Geography,'  exhibits  the  distrihutioD  of  the  aere- 
nl  ordera  of  Mammslia  m  the  six  zoological  hingdoms . — 

DlSTBIBUTION  or  THE   MaUUALIA. 


X!^,:." 

.„„«. 

... 

.«,. 

.-".-c. 

•S 

_....| 

n 

l1l 

n 

4 

a 

rf 

IJ 

4 

n\4 

3f 

4 

n 

4 

Qmidtunuma 

170 

ISO 

1 

_ 

-ID 

■IB 

M 

112 

_ 

_ 

7^ 

74 

_ 

_ 

Camlvom      . 

.11. 

T3I 

S( 

3-n  S94 

174 

151   101 

lil 

ut 

— 

-       *l     ^ 

_ 

— 

■* 

R 

M 

371105 

IDS 

nqdcntlB  .    . 

ei 

1SS'12B 

91 

IIR 

11.1 

ICB 

l.l     .1 

1» 

;  EJenlata  .    . 

SB 

u 

_ 

— 

s|   s 

4 

6 

1 

1 

SO 

3 

■■ni»l.ydcn„»f« 

8S 

IT    16 

IS' 

1S( 

^ITi   W 

U 

e 

13 

li    - 

" 

15 

!4 

^ 

M      S 

16 

' 

" 

« 

«» 

"      " 

" 

Total  So.  or  1 

1-04:  iwjT 

1« 

W 

835  Ufljlue 

309  260 

IIS 

MS 

...!■» 

1=8 

10.  Ethkography. — Man,  from  the  perfection  ami  l)eaiity  of 
lus  bodily  OTj^anieation,  and  from  the  order  of  time  in  which  he 
was  caUecl  into  existence,  occupies  the  apes  of  the  vast  pyramid 
of  animal  life.  Of  all  aniraala  he  only  walks  erect,  his  eye  re- 
flecting earth  and  sky,  and  his  look  glancing  freely  over  tbat 
world  in  the  midst  of  ivhich  he  lives  and  reigns.  Over  hia 
whole  form  there  is  an  air  of  more  than  material  beauty,  the 
reflection  of  a  soul  infinitely  rich  in  thought  and  emotion  ; 
while  by  XKissessiiig  an  immortal  spirit  he  is  raised  immeasur- 
ably above  material  things,  and  separated,  as  by  an  impassable 
gulf,  from  all  other  animab.  In  common  with  these,  he  ia,  to 
some  extent,  subject  to  the  influence  of  external  circumstances, 
though  in  a  less  degree  than  an^  other  species.  His  superior 
inteUi"ence,  and  the  pliancy  of  his  constitution,  tit  him  to  be- 
come the  denizen  of  all  countries,  and  all  varieties  of  climate, 
from  the  scorching  heat  of  the  ttcpics  to  the  rigorous  cold  of 
Arctic  latitudes.  His  geographical  distribution,  accordingly, 
differs  from  that  of  all  other  organic  beings,  and  man  is  the  only 


*  Tlifl  Jlnt  oolnm 


I 


ETHSOGRAPHV.  59 

hue  cosmopolite.  Of  the  vast  number  of  countries  brouf;tit  to 
the  knowledge  of  Europeana  by  modem.  diaoovEry,  very  few 
ware  found  uninhabited  ;  the  principal  exceptione  being  Ice- 
land, Spitzbergen,  and  Novaia  Zemlia  ;  Madeira,  the  Azores, 
and  St  Helena  ;  the  Falkland  Isles,  the  Galapagos,  some  minor 
groups  in  Polynesia,  and  the  inhospitable  legionB  around  the 
South  Pole. 

Unltr  of  the  Spedea, — JIan  is  of  only  one  species,  and  tlie  so- 
called  races  of  men  are  mere  rarietiea  of  the  same  Bpeeies,  differing 
less  from  each  other  than  do  the  varieties  of  many  other  animals  ; 
■s,  for  example,  the  dog,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  domestic 
fowl.  Science  and  Revelation  alike  proclaim  this  fundamental 
truth ;  the  one,  by  establishing  an  identity  of  anatomical  structure 
between  the  races,  the  same  jieriod  of  gestation,  the  same  instincts, 
longevity,  and  diseases,  the  same  mental  and  mor^  character,  and 
the  fertility  of  offspring  arising  from  intermixture  of  blood  ;  and 
the  other,  by  declanng  that  in  one  man  was  the  germ  of  the  whole 
hninan  family;  that  ^e  myriads  of  men  that  now  people  the  earth, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  hnndred  and  fifty  generations,  are  all  brethrra, 
nnited  together  by  the  closest  ties  ;  and  that  the  nnirersal  depravity 
«iid  death  which  have  their  root  in  the  common  ancestor  of  all,  are 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  obedience  and  sniferings  of  his 
fflorions  Descendant,  whom  every  human  being  can  claim  as  bis 
near  kinsman. 

Origin  of  Boces. — Yet  in  all  ages  and  countries  tlie  individuals  of 
the  human  family  have  preseuteu  numberless  diTeraities  of  appear- 
ance ;  and  though  all  are  speoincally  identical,  evei^  member  of  the 
family  exhibits  bia  own  proper  individuality — that  w  to  say,  certain 
L  charaeteristicB  of  physical  organisation  and  of  mental  disposition 
■  ittiat  distinguish  him  from  every  other  individual  of  the  sneciea.     For 
pUan  is  a  complex  being,  and  embraces  within  him  a  world  of  diverse 
I   elements,  that  rival,  in  their  varions  riches,  the  world  of  externa! 
nature.      These  elements  are  capable  of  combination  in  infinitely 
varied  proportions.     In  one  the  soul  predominates,  in  another  tlie 
body  ;  here  the  nervous  system  bears  rule,  there  the  arterial ;  here 
the  affections,  there  the  understanding.     The  laws  and  the  causes, 
however,  that  determine  these  combinations,  are  to  us  a  secret ;  for 
L individuality  is  a  mystery  of  life,  the  stamp  of  the  Creator.     This 
Ciniieh,  however,  seems  certain,— viz.,  tliat  while  the  distinctive  char- 
f  Wrter  of  the  soul  never  fails  te  manifest  itself  very  perceptibly  in 
r'tiie  entire  physical  oipinisation— eBpecially  in  the  form  of  the  head 
and  fa  the  physiognomy — the  influence  of  external  nature,  of  the 
family,  of  lociebr,  of  habit,  and  of  education,  is  but  of  secondary 
importance,  temUng  merely  to  modify  the  original  individuality, 
Yeli  by  a  constant  and  unvarying  repetition,  carried  on  through  a 
long  series  of  generations,  even  the  latter  inflaences  may  produce 
very  important  effects;  though  never  to  the  extent  of  eradicating 
the  ontlmes  of  this  indiviiiuality,  which,  notwithstandine  the  con- 
rtnnt  inttrmingling  of  blood  by  marriage,  x>erpetuates  itself  for  ages 


60  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

from  father  to  son,  in  the  same  family,  every  member  of  which  re- 
sembles, both  in  temperament  and  physical  organisation,  some  one 
or  other  of  his  ancestors  or  blood  relations.  Accordingly  we  find 
that,  from  the  earliest  dawn  of  History,  mankind  has  been  divided 
into  races,*  and  organised  into  nations  ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  first  les- 
sons of  Revelation  that  with  this  division  human  design  and  human 
choice  had  nothing  Whatever  to  do, — that  it  was  exclusively  the  work 
of  the  Creator,  with  nature  to  aid  in  its  accomplishment, — and  that 
these  races  and  nations  were  distributed  over  the  earth's  surface  ac- 
cording to  a  definite  plan,  in  which  each  had  assigned  to  it  its  proper 
part  in  the  progress  of  events.  £ach  region,  moreover,  streng^thened 
and  modified  the  character  of  the  race  that  was  conducted  into  it ;  and 
thus  national  characteristics,  which  become  more  and  more  marked 
as  generations  succeeded  each  other,  attained  at  length  such  a  degree 
of  fixedness  and  inflexibility  as  has  enabled  them  to  traverse  the  ages 
of  history,  and  encounter  the  most  opposite  influences,  without  under- 
going any  radical  change. 

Dispersion  of  Nations. — The  precise  locality  in  which  the  disper- 
sion of  nations  originated,  and  the  precise  date  at  which  it  took 
place,  are  not  easily  determined  ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  we 
must  look  for  the  former  to  Western  Asia,  and  for  the  latter  to  the 
fifth  generation  after  the  Deluge,  f  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  Old  World,  and  midway  between  its  four  great  oceans, 
has  been  twice  the  cradle  of  mankind,  and  still  remains  the  region  in 
which  the  human  form  attains  its  highest  perfection.  Here  Noah 
with  his  family,  the  sole  survivor  of  that  great  catastrophe  which 
swept  away  the  inhabitants  of  the  antediluvian  world,  took  up  his 
destined  abode  ;  and  here  his  three  sons — Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhetli 
^like  branches  cut  from  the  same  tree,  took  root  and  flourished,  con- 
taining within  themselves  the  germs  of  the  three  great  races,  and  of 
all  the  minor  varieties,  that  subsequently  peopled  the  earth.  The 
distinctive  characteristics  of  the  ancestors  were  indelibly  impressed 
on  their  respective  descendants:  thus  spiritual  and  religious  tendencies 
predominated  in  the  offspring  of  Shem ;  the  sensual  and  corporeal  in  those 
of  Ham;  while  the  nations  that  sprung  from  Japheth  have  been  no  less 
remarkable  for  their  fuller  development  of  all  tne  powers  of  the  mind. 
Accordingly,  when  the  set  time  for  the  great  dispersion  arrived  (b.c. 
2552,  accurd^g  to  W.  Osbum),  Ham  and  Japhetn  wandered  far  from 
the  ancestral  home,  in  quest  of  abodes  congenial  to  their  respective 
natures ;  while  Shem  retained  possession  of  the  paternal  altars,  became 
the  custodier  of  the  one  true  faith,  and  the  ancestor  of  that  promised 
Seed  of  the  Woman  in  whom  all  nations  of  the  earth  shall  yet  be 
blessed.  Begarding  this  distribution  from  another  point  of  view,  we 
observe  a  curious  and  remarkable  anomaly ;  for  while  all  the  other 
tvpes  of  animals,  as  also  of  plants,  go  on  decreasing  in  perfection  from 
tlie  equator  to  the  poles,  man  presents  to  our  view  his  most  perfect 
type  at  the  centre  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  in  that  region  of  the 

*  For  an  Important  modification  of  this  statement,  see '  Facts  and  Dates,'  p.  121> 
t  The  Hebrew  Bible  apparently  gives  the  date  of  the  Deluge  as  b.c.  2288 ;  the 

Beptuagint  as  8216 ;  vhue  the  Great  Pyramid  at  Jeezeh  indicates  an  almost 

exact  mean  between  them,  giving  it  as  b.  a  2800. 


ETHNOGRAPHir,  Gl 

CEueaans  above  nlladed  to  ;  whereos,  departing  from  that  wgion, 
whether  to  the  nortli,  aonth,  or  east,  the  types  gradually  lose  their 

rmetiy,  tiU,  at  the  remntB  eitremities  of  tlie  continents,  wa  tinil 
moat  deformed  and  degenerate  niees. 
Mnmlwr  and  Oharacteilitlcs  of  Kacei. —  Modem  Ethnographjr 
classifies  the  unnieroua  nations  that  people   the  globe  into  three 

E'mary  races— viz.,  the  Cancaaian,  or  white  and  bearded  race ;  the 
ngolian,  or  tawny  and  beardless  race  ;  aad  the  Negro,  or  blacJt- 
skinued  and  wooUj'haired  race.  These  are  confined  to  the  Old 
"Wgrld,  and  correspond,  with  certain  linitations,  to  its  three  conti- 
nental diTistons;  the  Caucasians  occupjing  nearly  all  Europe,  south- 
wettem  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  extending  from  Iceland 
and  the  Atlantic  to  the  Ganges  and  Brahnfiapntra,  and  from  the 
Arctio  Cirda  to  the  Tropic  of  Caprienm  ;  the  Mongolians  peopling 
all  the  rest  of  Asia,  together  with  certain  isolated  localities  in  cen- 
tral and  nnrtliem  Europe  ;  and  the  Hegro  race,  the  whole  of  conti- 
nental  Africa  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  several  minor  varieties,  inhabiting  Oceaniit  and  the  New 
World,  and  probably  originating  in  the  inteitnixturea  and  modifi- 
cationa  of  the  three  primary  raoe; :  as  the  Malayans  in  Malaysia 
and  Madagascar  ;  the  Papuans  in  Now  Guinea  and  Hew  Hebrides  ; 
the  Maoris  or  Australians  in  Australasia;  and  the  Americans,  or 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  North  and  South  America.  The  more 
jtromment  characteristics  of  the  principal  races  are  the  following : — 


■i  metrical,  ot  gnat 


'  cnpauity,  and  1i\gh  faplal  angle;  facBOVil.  ancf  tba  featiiroi 


UtfBspt 


d  ruddy,  or  o' 


diflaniit  Abades  ot  bmwn ;  balr  abimdjuit  oa  head  and  chin,  but  ulBp^titKl 
tLinly  over  other  parte  ot  the  body ;  culout  varlcins,  accardiug  ta  cooipleiion, 
from  n  yoUoir-red  auburn  and  deep  brown  lo  gloasy  blaok  ;  *reab!neorhMel  to 
(lark  brown  and  black;  eUtnrB  ot  medium  size,  apprpacblng  9  feet  la  the  Cair 
TUJetiee.  but  sevei^  Incbea  leti  in  the  dark.  MoHcular  etrength  greet ;  InteL- 
lAOl  highly  developed.  Langoagee  polyBrlbtbii!,  copious,  and  highly  Infltxiorkal 
Thti  tJTB  it  diyided  Into  two  biancheB,  Che  /ndo-BurojJMH  or  Jsptetlc  braucli, 
■Bd  tha  S^n-Arabian  or  Bemltic  braach.    For  s  toller  deicrlrtiiin  of  Uiese  we 


chlnp 
>kln  ot 

mdbl 

m  other  parts  of  th 


in  olive 
and  btaok ;  lAs  Ih 


-hort     atrenaUi  and  cndoraii 

Inlellict  moderately  developeii.  bat  ahrewd, 
more  obstlnnta  Ibnn  brave,  and  extremely  cmej  to  vanqniabed  foes  ;  imBcitia- 
tfon  and  tute  deacieut;  Imitative  and  ekUrul  in  the  duaieatio  arts,  but  wiOioat 
■ajscienttBa  oDterprlie;  eootentwlth  a  ilatlonuy  clvlliBatlon ;  fond  of  hono- 
Iiaok.  aluegiib,  and  dirty.    Langtisgea  inartiflnlal,  limited  In  range  of  lltenture. 

mfleiUmi,  and  Che  rinno-l^nnHan,  uhli'Ji  la  illghtly  inSeilonal  ancl  phoneUc. 
RvUgLous  aapiratlonfl  obtoae,  tbe  fonns  being  varlouB,  as  Buddhlem,  Bbaniuilam, 


G2 


PHYSICAL    GEOGEAPHT. 


Neoro  or  Ethiopian  Race. — Skull  thick  and  heavy,  compressed  at  the 
Bides,  and  elongated  from  front  to  back ;  the  forehead  convex,  retreating,  fuid 
narrow,  with  facial  angle  lower  than  in  the  Mongolian  type ;  cheek-bones  pro- 
jecting forward ;  both  jaws  much  elongated,  with  the  front  teeth  of  the  upper 
turned  obliquely  forward ;  mouth  wide,  and  lips  very  thick ;  the  chin  retracted ; 
eyes  black  and  prominent ;  skin  varying  from  a  deep  sallow  to  intense  black, 
and  emitting  a  strong,  offensive  odour,  but  soft  and  silkv  to  the  touch ;  hair  of 
a  crisp,  woolly  texture,  and  curly  on  the  head,  generally  destitute  on  other  parts 
of  the  body ;  beard  scanty  on  the  upper  lip,  and  chiefly  confined  to  the  chin. 
Body  strong,  muscular,  and  often  very  symmetrical ;  the  arms  somewhat  elon- 
gated; feet  broad,  heavy,  and  flat-soled.  Intellect  without  depth  or  compre- 
hensiveness, but  acute  and  perceptive ;  patient,  submissive,  affectionate,  honest, 
cheerful,  and  contented ;  well  adapted  for  all  domestic  and  i^cultuial  employ- 
ments, but  do  not  excel  in  uts,  navigation,  or  commerce,  and  have  never  arrived 
at  a  high  civilisation.  Languages  a^lutinate,  slightly  inflexional,  but  one 
stage  removed  Arom  the  simplest  monosyllabic,  and  without  a  written  litera- 
ture. Religion  fetichism  or  demon-worship,  but  Mohammedanism  among  the 
northern  tribes;  in  a  civilised  state,  however,  they  are  susceptible  of  deep 
devotional  feelings.* 

Population  of  the  Globe. — The  population  of  the  entire  globe  cannot, 
as  yet,  be  stated  with  anything  like  accuracy,  as  many  regions  still 
remain  unexplored,  and  as,  beyond  the  limits  of  Europe,  correct  census 
of  the  population  are  almost  wholly  unknown.  Accoiding,  however, 
to  the  most  recent  estimates,  it  amounts  to  1890  millions,  that  of  the 
diffei*ent  continents  being  as  follows : — 


Continents. 

Area  in  Eiifirllsh  Square 

Population  by  latest 
Estimates. 

Europe 

Asia, 

Africa,- 

North  America,     .    .    . 
South  America,     .    .    . 
Oceania, 

Total,     .    .    %    .    . 

3,857,122 
16,427,015 
11,556,300 
8,770,882 
7,028,206 
4,500,000 

301,232.352 

784,728,500 

188,000,000 

58,939,239 

27,170.932 

30,000,000 

52489,025 

1,800,061,023 

Religions  of  Haakind. — The  following  estimate  has  been  made  of  the 
numbers  professing  each  of  the  principal  religions  now  existing ;  but 
ihey  can  be  viewed  as  only  a  rough  approximation  to  the  truth : — 

Roman  Catholics, 176,000,000\ 

S^^ah;:::::::::::::::'K;r  ^  christians. 400,000.000 

Minor  Christian  Sects, ....  28,000,000; 

Jews, 7,000,000      Jews, 7,000,000 

Mohammedans, 145,000,000      Mohammedans,   145,000,000 

Brahmins, 225,000,000 'j 

Buddhists, 395,000,000  V  Heathens, 735,000.000 

Other  Pagans 115,000,000) 

Not  accounted  for, 103,000,000 

Population  of  the  Globe, 1,890,000,000 

*  For  a  description  of  the  sub-varieties  above  enumerated,  the  student  ia  re- 
tarred  to  the  seuuons  of  this  work  treating  of  America  and  Oceania. 


PART    III. 

POLITICAL   OEOOEAFHY. 


E  U  K  0  P  E. 

_.  Bonndaries. — Nortli,  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  West,  the  Atiau- 

'  tic  ;  South,  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  thii  Sleditcrranean,  Sea  of 

Marmora,  Black  Sea,  anil  Mount  Caucasus  ;  Eiiat,  the  Caspian 

Sea,  the  Kiver  Ural,  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the  Bivcr  Kara. 

Continental  Enrope  licslMtween  the  parallels  of  36"!' and  73°  8'  N., 
and  betwaen  the  meridians  of  S°  30"  W.,  and  65°  E. ;  it  otciipies  35°  8'  of 
fait  and  71°  30'  of  Ion.,  and,  nith  tlie  eiception  of  Laplnnd  and  part  o( 
thg  gavermueut  of  Arkliaa^l,  is  wholly  inchided  within  the  north  tem- 
perats  lone.  Bnt  inanUr  Enrope,  including  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  the 
Azores,  Candia,  kc.,  embroceB  a.  much  larger  area — viz, ,  bom  Int.  S4°  51/ 
<C!andia)  to  80°  id'  (SnitzljBTgen),  and  from  Ion.  81°  Iff  W.  (Amrea)  to 
65°  E.  (Dnd  MoiintBiaa),-heing  in  all,  45°  63-  of  Int.  and  98°  18'  of  Ion. 
Grodno,  in  Russia,  in  the  centre  of  tlie  continent,  ia  nearly  in  the  Enma 
latitude  as  the  centre  of  Ireland,  the  south  of  Labrador,  the  nortli  of  Lake 
Winnipeg  and  Queen  Charlotte  Island,  and  as  Tula,  Uratak,  and  the 
middle  of  Lake  Baikal ;  and  nearly  in  the  same  longitude  as  Hammer- 
Teat,  Tomea,  Riga,  LembBr^  Klauaenbnrg,  Athena,  anO.  the  east  side  of 
Tripoli  and  Cat>e  Colony.  The  aouth-eoat  comer  of  Sweden  is  the  centra 
cf  laaalar  Europe. 

2.  Form,  Dimensions,  Eztreme  Points,  and  Coast-Line. 
— Europe  is  an  imineiiJie  peninsula  jutting  out  from  Western 
Amb,  and  broken  up  into  a  great  number  of  smaller  peniBsuloa. 
the  principal  of  which  ate :  The  Scandinavian,  bet.  the  Baltic 
imd  Atlantic ;  the  Danish,  het.  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  ;  Brit- 
tany, bet.  tlie  English  Channel  and  Bay  of  Biscay ;  the  Spanish, 
bet.  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  ;  the  Italian,  het,  the  Ad- 
riatic and  Tyrrbeniiui  Sea ;  the  HellDnic  Peninsula  with  Istria 
and  the  Moteo,  bet.  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Sea  i  and  the  Crimea, 
bet  the  O.  of  Odessa  and  Sea  of  Azov.  The  peninsulas  occupy 
oue-fborth  of  the  entire  area  of  the  continent. 

All  these,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Danish,  Btretch  out  in  a 
noatherly  direction,  and  hare  manntain-ianges  occupying  tlielr  entire 
>  — .1.      mil arkible  law  holds  good  with  aluiciit  all  the  peniii4i\aa 


length.    This  re 


64  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUY. 

of  the  globe.  The  extreme  length  of  Eurojpe,  firom  Cape  St  Vincent  in 
l^ortugal  to  Orsk  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  is  3400  miles ;  extreme  breadth, 
from  North  Cape  in  Lapland  to  Cape  Matapan  in  Greece,  2450  miles. 
Cape  Nordkyn  m  Norway  is  the  most  northern  point  of  the  continent ; 
Ponta  da  Tarifa,  near  Gibraltar,  the  most  southern ;  Cabo  da  Boca,  in 
Portugal,  the  most  western ;  and  the  Urals,  in  Perm,  the  most  eastern. 
Owing  to  its  peculiar  form  and  numerous  deep  indentations,  the  coast- 
line greatly  exceeds  in  proportion  that  of  every  other  continent.  It  is 
estimated  at  nearly  17,000  miles,  being  one  mile  of  coast  to  every  225 
miles  of  surface ;  while  Asia  has  only  one  to  everv  550  miles ;  Africa,  one 
to  every  710 ;  and  America,  one  to  every  490.  Tne  continental  boundary 
does  not  exceed  2500  miles.  It  is  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  this  pecu- 
liarity of  surrendering  herself  to  the  ocean,  and  her  central  position  in 
the  terrestrial  hemisphere,  that  Europe  owes  her  high  civilisation  and 
unrivalled  commercial  prosperity. 

3.  Area  and  Population. — The  total  nrea  of  Europe,  includ- 
ing the  islands,  is  estimated  at  3,857,122  sq.  miles,  or  con- 
siderably less  than  one-fourth  the  size  of  Asia.  Hence,  reckon- 
ing the  area  of  Oceania  at  4,500,000  sq.  miles,  Europe  is  the 
simdlest  of  the  six  great  divisions  of  the  globe,  of  the  land-sur- 
face of  which  it  embraces  only  a  fourteenth  part  Knssia 
embraces  much  more  than  a  half  of  its  entire  area,  and  the 
British  Isles  less  than  a  thirtieth.  According  to  the  most 
recent  census  of  its  various  states,  the  population,  in  1872, 
amounted  to  301,222,352,  or  nearly  one-tourth  of  the  entire 
human  race.  It  is  by  far  the  most  densely  peopled  of  all  the 
continents,  having  78  persons  to  each  sq.  mile.  The  seven 
most  densely  peopled  countries  are, — Belgium,  which  has  440 
persons  to  the  sq.  mile  ;  the  Netherlands,  275 ;  the  United 
Kingdom,  259  ;  Italy,  233 ;  South  Germany,  210  ;  Prussia  and 
North  Germany,  194  ;  France,  178. 

4.  Political  Divisions. — Europe  contains,  at  present,  six^^- . 
seven  separate  states,  all  of  them  more  or  less  independent.  Of 
this  number  26  belong  to  the  recently  constituted  German 
Empire  (including  Alsace),  and  25  to  Switzerland.  Counting 
the  confederations  as  forming  one  State  each,  we  have  in  all 
16  states,  the  names,  areas,  populations,  and  capitals  of  which 
mil  be  found  in  the  following  table.  There  are  4  Empires 
(Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Turkey) ;  37  Monarchies  (in- 
cluding Kingdoms,  Grand  Duchies,  Duchies,  and  Principalities) ; 
and  26  Republics.  The  various  states  are  arranged  in  three 
separate  classes,  according  to  their  political  importance.  Great 
Britain,  Prance,  Germany,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Italy  are  called 
the  six  Great  Powers,  because  they  exercise  a  decided  influence 
on  the  political  affairs  of  Europe.  Those  of  the  second  rank 
are  Spam,  Belgium,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Turkey  ;  while 
those  of  the  third  rank  are  Portugal,  Switzerland,  the  Nether- 
lands, Greece,  and  Denmark. 


H 


^  SS-S"SSSlS~SS!SSSsSSS!^~i 


JiJiiiyiiiyili 


iliiil 


I 


66  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

5.  Isthmnses  and  Capes. — Isthmus  of  Coriuth,  connecting 
the  Morea  with  Northern  Greece  ;  Isthmus  of  Perekop,  connect- 
ing the  Crimea  with  the  mainland  of  Russia.  The  other  isth- 
muses, though  numerous,  have  no  distinctive  names.  Owing  to 
its  peninsular  character,  the  capes  and  headlands  of  Europe  are 
extremely  numerous.     The  following  are  the  principal : — 

In  the  Arctic  Ocean— C  Nordkyn,  in  Finmark,  the  most  N.  point  of 
the  continent ;  North  Cape,  in  I.  Mageroe ;  C.  Nord,  N.  W.  of  Iceland.  In 
the  Baltic—The  Naze,  S.  of  Norway ;  Skaw,  N.  of  Denmark ;  Hango 
Head,  S.W.  of  Finland.  In  North  Sea  and  Atlantic— Sumbvagh.  Head, 
S.  of  Shetland ;  Dennis  Ness,  N.  of  Orkney  ;  Dunnet  Head,  Duncansby 
Head,  and  Cape  Wrath,  N.  of  Scotland :  Buchanness  the  most  E.,  Point 
of  Ardnamurcnan  the  most  W.,  and  Mull  of  GaUoway  the  most  S.  points 
of  Scotland  ;  Lowestoft  Ness  the  most-E.,  South  Foreland  the  most  S.E., 
Lizard  Point  the  most  S.W.,  and  Land's  End  the  mostW.  points  of  Eng- 
land ;  Malin  Head  in  the  N.,  Fair  Head  in  the  N.E.,  Camsore  Point  in 
the  S.E.,  C.  Clear  in  the  extreme  S.,  and  Dunmore  Head  in  the  extreme 
W.  of  Ireland ;  Capes  Gris-Nez,  Barfleur,  La  Hague,  in  the  English 
Channel ;  Raz  Point,  the  extreme  N.W.  of  France  ;  Capes  Ortegal  and 
Finisterre,  N.W.  of  Spain ;  Cabo  da  Roca,  in  Portugal,  the  most  W. 
point  of  the  continent;  C.  St  Vincent,  S.W.  of  Portugal :  Pt.  Albemos, 
m  the  Azores,  the  most  W.  point  of  insular  Europe.  In  the  Mediier^ 
ranean — Punta  da  Tarifa,  in  Spain,  the  most  S.  point  of  the  continent ; 
Capes  de  Gata,  Palos,  St  Martin,  Creux,  E.  of  Spain ;  Corso,  N.  of  Cor- 
sica ;  Teulada,  S.  of  Sardinia ;  Passaro,  S.E.,  and  S.  Vito,  N.W.  of  Sicily ; 
Spartivento,  Nau,  and  Leuca,  S.  of  Italy;  Matapan,  S.  of  Greece; 
Matala  (Crete),  the  most  S.  point  of  insular  Europe  ;  Chersonese,  S.W. 
of  Crimea;  Abcheran,  in  the  Caspian,  the  E.  extremity  of  Mount 
Caucasus. 

6.  Islands. — Very  numerous,  and  best  arranged  in  groups  or 
classes,  according  to  the  seas  in  which  they  are  situated  : — 

In  the  Arctic  Ocean — Novaia  Zemlia  ("new  land")  and  Vaigatch,  N.E.  of 
Russia,  and  forming  an  insular  prolongation  of  the  Ural  Mountains ;  Spitz- 
bergen,  N.  of  Lapland ;  Franz  Joseph  Land,  midway  between  Novaia 
Zemlia  and  the  Pole,  which  is  probably  the  most  northern  island  on 
the  globe ;  Kolguev,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Tcheskaia ;  MageriJe 
group,  fringing  the  N.W.  coast  of  Finmark ;  Loffoden  Islands,  W.  of  Nor- 
way.  In  the  A  tktntic — Iceland,  700  miles  W.  of  Norway,  and  immediately 
S.  of  the  Polar  Circle ;  Faroe  Isles,  35  in  number,  midway  between  Iceland 
and  Shetland,  and  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  growth  of  grain ;  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  5500  in  number,  separating  the  Atlantic  from  the  North  Sea 
(principal,  Great  Britain,  the  largest  island  belonging  to  Europe,  and  the 
seventh  largest  in  the  world ;  Ireland,  Anglesea,  Isle  of  Man,  Hebrides 
or  Western  Islands,  Orkney  Islands,  Shetland  Islands,  Isle  of  Wight, 
Scilly  Islands) ;  the  Norman  or  Channel  Isles,  N.  of  France  ;  the  Azores, 
a  volcanic  group,  800  miles  W.  of  Portugal.  In  the  Baltic — The  Danish 
group,  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  (principal,  Zealand,  Fiinen, 
Langeland,  Laaland,  Falster,  Alsen,  Bomholm);  the  Swedish  group, 
S.E.  of  Sweden  (Gothland  and  Oeland) ;  Rugen,  NW.  of  Prussia;  the 
Aland  Isles,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  the  Livonian  group 
(Oesel  and  Dago),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga  ;  Cronstadt  or  Kot- 
linoi,  in  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  with  a  celebrated  Bus- 


876^0 


ECIBOPE.  G7 

...  In  the  lledi/en-aMan — Tha  Baieario  Isles,  east  of  Spain 
(prindpal,  Majorca,  Minorca,  W^a,  and  Forment«ra) ;  the  Sardo- 
Coralcan  group,  W.  of  Central  Italy  (principal,  Sardinia,  Coraica,  Elba); 
the  Sicilian  ^np,  S.  of  Italy  (principal,  Sicily,  Lipari  Isles,  Ustica, 
and  Psntellnria) :  the  Maltese  groap,  or  Malta,  Gazo,  and  Comino  ;  thr 
niyrian  Arcbipelago,  in  the  Gulf  of  Quamero  |  the  Dalmatinn  Archi- 
pelago, on  the  W.  coast  of  Dalmatia  ;  the  Ionian  Isles,  W.  of  GSreaoe  ; 
Eabtea  or  Fegropout,  K  of  Hellas  ;  the  Cjckdes,  K  of  the  Morea ;  tbe 
Spoiadei,  N.  of  Eubifa;  Candia,  S.K  of  the  Jlorea. 

7.  Seas,  Gnl&i  and  Straits. — No  other  contment  has  eo 
ntanf  inland  eeaa  and  arma  of  the  sea.  We  con  enumecate 
only  the  following : — 

Tki  ^tdiurrajttim,  between  Europe  and  Africa,  2300  m.  long,  and 
S76j(X)0  lu.  In  area.  Its  principal  members  are,  G.  of  Lions,  G.  of  Qenoa, 
**■*  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  het.  Italy  and  the  Sardo-Coreican  islands ;  the  Adii- 
bet.  Italy  and  Turkey;  lunian  Sea,  bel^  Greece  and  Italy;  the  .^geen 
Arcbipalago,  hat.  Greece  and  Asia  Minor ;  Sea  of  Manunia7™t- 
^  ian  and  Asiatic  Tnikey.  Tie  Black  Sea,  het.  Rnssia  and  Asiatic 
^_-key,  690  m.  long  by  380  m.  broad,  and  having  an  area  of  172,500 
■q.  in.  Its  branctea  are,  G.  of  Odeaaa,  Str.  of  Kherson,  G.  of  Perekop, 
Sea  of  Azov,  G.  of  Sivaah  or  Putrid  Sea.  TAe  Catpum  Sea,  S.E.  of  Bus- 
■ia,  7O0  m.  long,  200  m.  broad  ;  area,  178,866  sq.  m.;  surfaceSS feet loiver 
tiian  the  Black  Sea ;  drained  esctuaivaly  by  evaporation  |  probably 
cammnnicated  at  a  remote  period  with  the  Black  Sea,  at  nhich  time  its 
area  wai  vastly  larger :  belongs  more  to  Asia  |hau  to  Europe,  ike 
WUte  Sea,  an  inlet  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  m  the  N.  of  Bussia  ;  area,  40,000 
iq.  m.  :  Kb  parts  are,  Golfs  of  Onega,  EandjJak,  and  Arkhangel ;  Tchei- 
taia  oil/,  N.K  of  Biiesia;  Varanger  Fiotd,  bet.  Russia  and  Norwegian 
Lapland  ;  Weat  Fiord,  bet  Norway  and  Loffoden  lales.     Tfie  BaUic,  a 

lai^  inland  aea  communioating  with  the  Korth  Sea,  and  *'-- 

Centra] from  Northern  Europe;  lenglbaoo  m.,  br.  ISOm.i  - 
■q.  m. ;  sbalUiw  throughout,  eaihng  dangerona,  tides  scarce 
braDehes,  G.  of  Bothnia,  bet.  Sweden  and  Finland;  G. 
of  Finland  ;  G.  of  Riga,  bet.  Livonia  and  Conrland  ;  G,  of  Dantzit  N. 
of  Pnuaia  ;  O.  of  Lnbeck,  bet.  Eolatein  and  Mecklenburg.  7jU  North 
Statn  Berma-n.  Ocean,  bet.  tbe  British  Isles  and  tha  continent;  length 
from  Shetland  to  Dover,  700  m.;  greatest  br.,  420  m.;  area,  244,000  aq. 
in.;  traversed  by  immense  saud-banke,  as  the  Dogger  Baiik  and  Long 
Forties  ;  branches,  the  Skager  Bacb,  M.  Norway  and  Denmark,  60  m. 
broad ;  the  Katt^at,  bet.  Sweden  and  Denmark  ;  the  Dollart  and  Zu  jder 
Zee,  is  the  N.  of  Holland ;  the  English  Cluinuel,  bet.  Eu^nd  and 
Ftuice ;  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  the  Wash,  the  Firtba  of  Forth  and 
T^,  the  Moray  and  Pentland  Firths.  The  Iriih  ^en,  bet.  Great  Britain 
md  Ireland ;  branches.  North  Channel,  St  Geot^e'e  Channel,  Solway 
Pirth,  and  Bristol  Channel.  The  Baj/ 1^  Biicay,  S.  of  Spain,  famous  for 
fu  heavy  seas  and  dangeroite  navJgatiDn. 

Thb  PBlBoiPii.  Sthaits  aie:  Str.  of  Gibraltar,  oniting  tbe  Medi- 
tananBan  with  the  Atlantic ;  8tT.  of  Bonifacio,  bet.  Corsica  and  Sardinia; 
Sltr.  of  Meaaina,  het.  Italy  and  Sicily ;  Str.  of  Otranto,  het.  Italy  and 
Turkey;  the  Hellespont  or  Sardauellee,  nnitiug  the  Archipelago  with 
tbe  Sea  of  Marmora ;  the  Boiparous,  or  Str.  of  Constautiitople,  uniting 
the  Sea  of  Mamiora  with  the  Black  Sea  ;  Str.  of  Kertch  or  Yenikaleh, 
bn.  tbe  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azov ;  Pentland  Firtb,  bet  Scotbuid  and 


68  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Orkney ;  Str.  of  Dover,  bet.  England  and  France ;  The  Sonnd,  "bet. 
Sweden  and  Seeland ;  Great  Belt^  bet.  Seeland  and  Fiilmen ;  Little  Belt, 
bet.  Schleswig  and  Ftihnen. 

8.  Monntain-SsTstems. — ^Eastern  Europe,  or  Bussia,  is  nearly 
all  one  nniform  plain,  and  the  northern  portion  of  Central 
Europe  is  also  remarkably  level ;  but  Western  and  Southern 
Europe  are  highly  mountainous.  The  various  chains  can  be  all 
arranged  into  eight  grand  mountain-systems — viz.,  the  British, 
Hesperian,  Sardo-Corsican,  Alpine,  Scandinavian,  Sarmatian, 
TJratian,  and  Caucasian.  The  two  last  are  partly  European  and 
partly  Asiatic  ;  but  as  their  highest  summits  occur  in  this  con- 
tinent, and  as  there  are  no  other  mountains  in  Eastern  or  South- 
eastern Europe,  they  are  most  conveniently  treated  of  here. 
These  eight  systems,  with  their  widely  -  extended  bases  and 
ramifications,  occupy  the  entire  area  of  S.W.  Europe. 

The  British  System  traverses  the  British  archipelago,  finom  the  Scilly 
Isles  to  Shetland,  a  distance  of  800  miles  in  length.  It  embraces  also  tiio 
Faroe  group,  midway  between  Shetland  and  Iceland.  As  compared  with 
some  of  the  other  mountain-systems  of  Europe,  it  is  of  very  moderate 
elevation,  and  nowhere  reaches  the  line  of  perennial  snow ;  tibough  Ben 
Nevis,  its  culminating-point,  lat  56"  48',  probably  comes  short  of  it  by 
less  than  100  feet.  The  system  embraces  various  mountain-rang^  the 
principal  of  which  traverses  the  extreme  length  of  the  largest  island,  and 
forms  the  water-parting  between  tiie  North  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  The 
mountains  of  Ireland  and  of  the  smaller  islands  are  of  greatly  inferior 
elevation.  We  subjoin  the  names  of  the  principal  ranges,  with  tiie  height 
of  their  loftiest  mountains ;  and  for  particulars,  refer  the  student  to 
Scotland,  England,  and  Irelimd :  Farde  7«Z««— Island  of  Ostero,  2864 
ft. ;  Shetland  Isles  —  Rooness,  in  Mainland,  1476  ft.;  Orhn^n — Hill  of 
Hoy,  1555  ft.;  Northern  Range  of  Scotland— Ben  Attow,  4000  ft;  Gram- 
pians— ^Ben  Nevis,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  British  Isles^  4406  ft. ; 
Cheviot  ffillSy  between  Scotland  and  England,  2741  ft.;  Pennine  Chain, 
in  north  of  England — Ooss  FeU,  2927  ft. ;  Cumbrian  Chain,  in  Cumber- 
land—Scawfel^  3229  ft.;  Cambrian  Chain,  in  Wales  (Snowdon),  8590 ft ; 
Devonian  Cham,  in  the  S.W.  of  England  (Caws  and  Beacon),  1792  ft; 
Irish  Mountains— WGmicnMfa  Reeks,  inS.W.,  3404  ft  Height  of 
snow-line  in  the  centre  of  the  archipelago — lat.  55%  about  5000  ft;  do. 
the  Grampian  range,  about  4500  ft 

The  HBsperian  or  Spanish  System  occupies  the  whole  Spanish 
peninsula,  the  Balearic  Isles,  and  the  portion  of  France  which  lies  south 
of  the  Garonne.  It  forms  in  its  interior  an  elevated  plateau  of  great 
extent,  which  has  an  average  height  of  about  2500  feet,  and  embraces 
many  lofty  mountain-ranges,  the  principal  of  which  are  subjoined  (see 
under  "  Spain") :  The  Pyrenees  separate  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Garonne 
basin  from  the  basins  of  the  Douro  and  Ebro,  11,168  ft.;  Cantairian 
Chain,  bet.  Douro  and  Tagus,  10,552  ft.;  Mountains  of  Toledo,  bet  the 
Tagus  and  Guadiana,  5110  ft:  Sierra  Morena,  bet.  the  Gnadiana  and 
Guadalquivir,  5550  ft.;  Balearie  Mountains,  5114  ft.;  Sierra  Nevada, 
bet  the  Guadalquivir  and  the  Mediterranean,  11,663  ft  Line  of  per- 
petual snow  on  Sierra  Nevada,  11,200  ft ;  do.  in  the  Pyrenees,  8856  ft 

The  Sardo-Corsican  System  is  confined  to  the  islands  Corsica  and 


le  Cotsn  in  the  tor- 

n  CoiHicB.  9068 

e  GBDnrgentu,  id  Snrdinia,  TOUO  ft.;  Enow-line  in  lat  i2*'  Sf, 
POdfj  ft. 

Die  Alpine  Byateia  trsTHnra  Ftsnce,  Itutj,  and  Turkey,  and  extendi 
Iromtbe  Maditeiraiiiiuu  to  the  Great  CeDtre.1  Flam,  Bndfnotitlie  Oonnme 
to  the  Dniester.  It  ambraoBS  6tb  dirtinct  minor  ByBtoms,  bU  of  Brefll 
altitndie,  indndiag  the  Alps  proper,  contBinine  Mont  Blanc  in  &kvo7 
(13,781  feet],  the  higliest  suiumtt  in  Europe.  In  reulitr,  hDwe'ar,  ihat 
iiononr  ahould  be  awarded  to  Moimt  ^burz,  the  cnlniinatin^'point  tTf 
the  CaniiaeaE  cbain,  vhich  ie  2790  feet  higher  thui  Mont  Blont,  ami 
within  the  Ijuiita  af  flnrope. 

(1. )  The  Alys  proper,  a  huge  Drranani-BhapEd  mnge,  ertending  from 
:N'iGeta  Vieniu,  and tiounded  lif  the  haauu  in  the  Bhouesnd  DonluaD 
ttie  VGGt,  t>f  Ibfi  Aor  and  I>anTibB  en  the  north  and  east,  and  by  thnee  of 
the  PD  and  Ban  ou  the  Boutb  :  total  length,  000  luileB.  It  consiiiti  of 
two  cantiguouB  chains — ru.,  the  Weetera  Alps,  from  the  MediterTaDein 
at  Hiaetu.MDnt  Blanc  in  Saroy,  dividing  Fiance  fmni  Italy,  and  the 
"     n,  biun  the  ya ;  and  the  Eaetem  Alps,  oj'  lutich  grester  imadth. 


nsiBting  of  twi 


._  .   _  le  Alps,  the  Alps  o!"  St  Gall,  and  the  Motie  Alps,  and 

g  nearly  to  Vieuna ;  and  the  latter  in  blurting  the  Pennine  Alps, 

B  BcdTetion  Alps,  the  Khactiaii  Alpa,   the  Camic  and  Jnlian  Alps. 

J«  highest  snnunits  ate  t     (reiler»..4^j»— Mt.  PBlvDllx,lS,14llfL;  £ait- 

»j4ipi— N.  fienes,  Finfiter-aar-bDin,  14,100  ft— S.  boriee,  M.  Blanc. 

V?B1  ft    Height  of  luic  ofpetenniol  snow  m  Bwiss  Alps,  BBOO  ft, 

'",)  TbeFreauh  or  QuUo-IiuidBii  Mountuins,  embracing  all  the  raomi- 

of  I^ranoe  north  of  the  Garonne  and  vest  of  the  lUjoue,  iLUd  oim- 

i  vit^  the  Alps  prppcr  by  the  Jura  chain  \aoe  under  ^* Fr/aics'^i- 

.itSeculet,  in  Jura  cWn,  f>Ca2ft.;  BaLon  de  Gnebwiller  (Toeera), 

t  fL;    Cote  d'Or  Mta.,   1986;    Cevaunes  Mts.,   It.  Jfesm,  DB2B ; 

i<^e.,  Fny  dc  Sancv,  eiS7. 

B4(B.)  The  Apennines,  6(H)  miles  long,  set  out  from  the  MnritiTna  Alps. 

wttse  the  entire  length  cf  Italy,  reapiiear  m  the  island  of  Sidlv,  and 

D  the-VBtfli-parting  betiveeu  the  MedileiTaiiBaD  on  the  one  ude,  aiid  the 

_  and  Adnatic  on  the  other.    Hcnte  Como,  in  North  of  Naples,  9G31 

K. ;  IL  £ltna,tbe  culntinating-point  of  the  evoteiD,  10,B74  H.     Height 

of  snow-line  in  Bicily,  BaOO  ft. ;  height  in  Central  Italy,  SaOO. 

(1.)  The  BlBVO-HeUemc  Mountains  conipilae  all  the  mauntBiuE  in  the 
Hellonic  pHUinsula  south  of  the  Danube  ajid  BaFE,  locBthej  with  thole  of 
CnvtiB  and  Lialmatia.  There  are  two  principid  ranges — one,  the 
MtUiBiw,  etntching  southward  along  the  £,  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
liDuinating  iLt  Oupe  Matapan  in  Greuce ;  the  olhur,  the  Halkay^,  branch- 
ing off  from  the  HelleniE  in  the  N.Ii,  of  Albania,  puisning  no  eaaterJy 
dkBctUm  to  Cape  Eiiiineh  in  tiie  Black  Baa,  and  forming  Uie  boDndary 
bflbmon  fioninelia  and  Bulgaria.  SalUitic  Ranqv — Ut-  Olyiupus,  V^i9 
n.  Baikm,  Rimge—iL'L.  Tchar  Sagh,  OBtO.  Height  of  snaH-Iine  on  Mt 
OljmipUB,  9000. 

jCi.)  The  Hercyrun-Ooipathian  systetn  EOmprisBs  all  the  mountaiua 
lying  betwesn  the  DoDiibe,  Dniester,  VMulu,  Bhine,  and  the  Baltic, 
biuoethe  entire  lemuindor  itf  the  p'eat  Alpine  systeni.  T\i£  Cargaihiaiia, 
SLBotaohetje,  9528  fL ;  Riacugibirye,  batween  Bohemia  and  Moratia, 
nsTC  ft. ;  SelHiiaTtxwald,  in  Baden,  4a0O  fL ;  Bokmervald,  between  Bo- 
hmniB  and  Bavaria,  461S  ft. ;  Thr  San,  in  Hanover  and  Pcnasia;  S74D 
fl.    Baieht  of  BDOw-linc  in  the  Cori'athianE,  about  (iOOO  ft 


70  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Scandinavian  System  traverses  the  Scaadinavian  peninsula,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  6.  of  Bothnia,  and  from  the  North  Cape  to  the  Naze. 
Commencing  at  the  Naze,  in  the  south  of  Norway,  it  proceeds  northward 
through  that  kingdom  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Trondhjem,  then  forms 
the  boundary  between  Norwa^r  and  Sweden,  and  terminates  at  the  North 
Cape  in  Lapland,  after  traversing  a  total  length  of  about  1150  miles.  In 
the  south  of  Norwav  its  breadth  extends  about  200  miles,  but  north  of 
Trondhjem  only  60  miles.  The  chain  is  not  continuous,  but  consists 
rather  of  a  series  of  broad  plateaux,  separated  occasionally  by  deep  and 
narrow  valleys,  and  very  rich  in  minerals.  There  are  three  principal 
ranges — the  Hardanger,  or  Langefield,  in  the  south,  the  Dovrefield  in  the 
middle,  and  the  Kiolen  Mountains  in  the  north.  Each  of  these  has  nn- 
merous  glaciers:  Langeiuld — Skagesloestinden,  8670  ft.;  Dovrq/kld — 
Sneehfitten,  7620  ft. ;  JTiofeT^— Sulitehna  (lat.  67°),  6200  ft  Height  of 
snow-line  in  the  Langefield,  5000  ft. ;  Folgefonden  glacier^  near  ifergen, 
6200  ft. 

The  Sarmatian  System  is  only  so  named  by  way  of  courtesy,  as  it,  in 
fact,  contains  no  real  mountains ;  but  being  the  only  elevated  ground  be- 
tween Scandinavia  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  it  possesses  considerable 
hydrographical  importance.  The  Valdai  Hills,  m  the  Government  of 
Novgorod,  attain  an  elevation  of  only  1100  feet,  and  form  the  water- 
pai'tmg  between  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian. 

The  Uralian  &^stem  forms  a  natural  boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  the  water-parting  between  the  extensive  basins  of  the  Voljga  and 
the  Obi.  The  principal  cd&vd.  (the  Urals)  extends  from  Orenburg,  on  the 
river  Ural  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  reappears  in  the  lengthened  insular 
group  of  Novala  ZemUa ;  length,  16S0  miles.  It  consists  of  round-backed, 
plateau-shaped  masses  of  very  moderate  elevation,  generally  not  exceed- 
isg  2000  feet,  but  rich  in  gold,  platinum,  and  other  metals.  The  highest 
summits  are :  Konjak-Ofski  (lat.  59°  55'),  5397  ft. ;  Obdorsk  (lat.  67°), 
5286  ft. 

The  Cancasian  System  extends  in  one  immense  chain  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Caspian,  forms  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  European  Rus- 
sia, and  separates  the  basins  of  the  Kuban  and  Terek  on  the  north,  from 
those  of  tne  Eur  and  Bioni  on  the .  south.  Length,  750  miles ;  mean 
elevation,  from  8000  to  9000  feet.  The  culmlnating-point  of  the  system^ 
and  in  fact  of  Europe,  is  Mount  Elburz,  near  the  centre  of  the  chain, 
18,571  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  2790  ft.  higher  than  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest 
summit  of  the  Alps.  Mount  Kazbek  (long.  44°  20'),  16,523  ft.  Height 
of  line  of  perennial  congelation,  11,000  ft. ;  limit  of  the  cereals,  7000  ft. 

9.  Volcanoes. — The  volcanoes  of  Europe,  active  or  extinct, 
are  very  numerous.  Of  the  former,  upwards  of  twenty  are 
enumerated,  aU  of  which,  except  Mount  Vesuvius,  near  Naples, 
are  situated  in  islands ;  but  tne  latter  occur  more  frequently 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  as  the  mountains  of  Auvergne 
in  France ;  the  Eastern  Pyrenees  in  Catalonia ;  the  Eifel  in 
Prussia ;  the  Westerwald,  between  Nassau  and  Westphalia ;  the 
Vogelsberg,  between  the  Main  and  Weser ;  and  many  others  in. 
Germany. 

The  principal  acHve  volcanoes,  which  are  for  the  most  part  con- 
fined .to  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  are :  Mount  Vesuvius*  in 

*  This  celebrated  volcaso,  the  only  existing  active  one  on  the  continent. 


f 


EUROrE.  71 

Saplea  i  Mount  Etna*  in  Siuliy  ]  Strooiboli,  +  Vuknno,  anj  Vn]- 
eanello,  in  tlie  Lipui  Islands  i  Mount  Heclo,!  und  eeveral  others,  ixi 
Iceland ;  Monnt  fieeren  in  Jan  Usyen,  midway  between  Iceland  and 
Spitzbergen ;  Sajytcheff  in  Hovaia  Zemlia,  the  most  northern  of 
known  volcanoes.  To  volcania  agency  must  ako  be  referred  the 
Oejsets,  or  intermittent  boiling  spnnga  of  Iceland.  The  Azorea  are 
all  of  Toloiuuc  origin,  and  contain  muny  recently-eitinct  ToleenoeB  ; 
Bs  aJsomany  of  the  Cyclades,  and  the  S.Vf.  of  the  dsland  Sardinia. 
"Die  earthquake  diatrict  of  Evirope  eitenils  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  Azores,  the  central  line  of  concussion  being  more  or  leaa  pandlel 
to  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  Carpathian  and  Caucasian  Monntaiua. 

10.  Plains  and  Table-Lands,— Notwithstanding  the  highly 
mountainous  character  of  Western  Europe,  by  fai  the  greater 
portioa  of  the  snrfnoe  of  tie  continent  ia  occupied  by  plains 
and  elevated  plateaux  or  table-landa. 

The  most  important  Plains  are  :  the  Great  Plain  of  Central  and 
Eaatem  Europe,  extending  from  the  Str.  of  Dover  to  the  Urals  and 
Caqiian,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  t^  the  Black  Sea, — this  plain  has 
a  area  of  2,GOD,000  square  miles,  being  about  two-tliirds  of  the  en- 
'  re  continent ;  the  Hungarian  Plain,  traversed  by  the  Danube  and 
iss,  SOO  miles  long,  and  from  800  to  JOO  feet  above  the  sea-level; 
n  of  the  Lower  Danube,  between  the  Eaatfim  Caipathiana  and 
Belkana ;  Plain  of  Bohemia,  in  the  basin  of  the  Uppi»  Elbe ; 

1  of  Lorobaidy,  between  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  end  watered 

by  the  Po.  The  principal  Table-lands  are :  tie  Plateau  o£  Central 
Spain,  of  great  ejttent,  and  about  2500  feet  high;  the  Plateaul  ol" 
Langres,  Orleans,  and  Auvergne,  in  Central  France  ;  the  Plateau  of 
Bsvaria,  about  2000  feet  high ;  and  TransylTania,  embosomed  in  the 
chain  of  tha  Carpathians, 

11.  Water-parting  and  Eiver-Easinfl. — All  the  rivers  of 
Europe  beloo"  to  one  or  other  of  seven  Rreat  baaina, — the 
Arctic  and  AtLintJc  Oceans,  the  North  Sea,  the  Baltic,  Mediter- 
ranean, Black,  and  Caspian  Seas,  The  devated  ridge  which 
HepoiateA  one  basin  from  another  is  called  the  Waler-parting, 
and  that  which  divides  the  seven  basins  into  two  principal 
groups  ia  denominated  the  Great  Water-parting. 

Commencing  at  the  south-western  ertremily  of  the  continent,  neat 
the  StcMt  of  Gibraltar,  the  latter  pursues  a  general  N.E.  direction, 
till  it  arrives  at  the  northern  terminatiDn  of  the  Ural  Mountains, 
ihaa  cutting  Europe  diagonally  into  two  great  sections  or  slopes,  now 
uBOflUy  called  If'aUnhedt — the  one  inchning  to  the  N.W.,  and  the 

bmled  th4  two  cUi%  Bercnliinsuiu  DDd  PompeU.  wltb  tlieli  inhsbltiiDta,  during 
an  eropHini  io  lis  yeat  78  n.D, 

•  Tho  Inigeat  Bid  Biort  fsraoDB  yoleano  la  EnmpB;  slity  enniHoni  are  re. 
oorded  aa  hufiiia  taken  place  dorlng  the  historto  period,  the  fast  In  ISM. 

i  Ccnutuitly  buTDicg,  anil  eoDietmies  culled.  In  conaeqiiccoii,  tlie  llghttmuBe  at 
ths  MsUtunoeaa. 

I  tti  lut  gnat  emptiOD  Qa  131S)  test  tlie  nebeg  as  fEir  aa  the  Oilmtra,  eOd 


1 


72 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


other  to  the  S.  E.  By  glancing  at  a  map  of  Europe,  it  will  be  seen  that 
all  the  great  rivers  follow  one  or  other  of  these  two  directions.'* 
Hence  the  seven  basins  may  be  reduced  to  two  grand  basins,  one  of 
which  will  include  all  the  rivers  finding  their  way  to  the  Atlantic 
and  Arctic  Oceans,  with  their  branches  the  North  Sea,  the  Baltic, 
and  the  White  Sea ;  and  the  other,  those  flowing  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, with  its  branches  the  Adriatic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Cas- 
pian. For  though  the  two  last-mentioned  seas  are  at  present  separated 
by  a  slight  elevation,  it  is  certain  they  were  united  during  llie  Ter- 
tmry  ages. 

12.  River-Basins   and   Capitals. —  The   following  Table 
shows  the  total  and  direct  lengths  in  English  miles  of  all  the 

Erincipal  rivers  of  Europe,  the  areas  of  their  basins  in  Eng- 
sh  square  miles,  and  the  capitals  of  the  states  and  provinces 
embraced  in  those  basins.  Tne  rivers  are  arranged  under  the 
seven  oceanic  basins  to  which  they  respectively  belong,  and  in 
the  order  in  which  their  mouths  would  occur  to  an  exploring 
expedition,  which,  setting  out  from  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Urals,  should  skirt  the  coast  westward,  southward,  and  then 
eastward,  till  it  arrived  at  the  western  extremity  of  Mount 
Caucasus.  The  capitals  of  independent  states  are  distinguished 
by  Small  Capitals,  those  of  provinces  by  Roman  letters  ;  and 
when  the  name  of  the  state  is  different  from  that  of  its  capital, 
the  former  is  added  within  parentheses. 

The  River-Basins  op  Europe. 


Kame  of  Rtrer 
or  Estuary. 


Total 

Length  in 

English 

MUea. 


Direct 

Iieiigth  of 

Basin  in 

English 

Miles. 


Area  of  Basin 

In  Square 

MUes. 


Capitak  of  States  and  Prorincc 
In  each  Basin. 


1.  Basins  inclined  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 


Petchora, . 
Mezen, 
Dwina, 
Onega, 
Alten  Fiord, 


900 

620 

400 

800 

700 

600 

300 

250 

160 

80 

114,400 
80,100 

184,400 
21,000 


Arkhangel,  Vologda. 
Altengard  (Finmark). 


*  But  let  us  trace  the  Great  Water-parting  more  exactly.  Commencing,  as  we 
have  said,  near  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar,  it  follows  the  crest-line  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  Pyrenees,  Cevennes,  C6te  d'Or,  Vosges,  and  Jura  Mountains ;  passes 
north  of  Lake  Geneva  to  the  Bernese  Alps  and  Mount  8.  Gothard ;  sweeps  round 
Lake  Constance,  which  it  keeps  on  the  left,  around  the  source  of  the  Danube, 
separating  its  basin  from  that  of  the  Rhine,  Elbe,  and  Oder;  passes  between  the 
basins  of  the  Vistula  and  Dniester,  and  of  the  Dtina  and  Dnieper,  then  north 
and  east  through  the  Valdai  Hills,  and  around  the  head-waters  of  the  Volga ; 
pursues  its  course  between  Lakes  Onega  and  Bielozero,  turns  south-east  around 
the  sources  of  the  Northern  Dwina  and  Petchora,  whose  basins  it  separates  from 
that  of  tlie  Volga ;  and  then,  proceeding  northward  along  tiie  Uialian  Ghatn,  it 
finally  anivea  at  the  Arctic  Ocean. 


EUROPE. 


73 


VMneofRircr 


Totol 
IiAurthin 
Bngliih 


Direct 
Lenffthof 
BMln  in 

Bngliali 

MUml 


Aremof  Baaln 
in  Square 

MilM. 


Capital!  of  Stat«8  andProrinoM 
in  eacli  Baiin. 


2.  Banns  inclined  to  the  A  tlantic  and  North  Sea, 


Trondhjem  Fiord, 
Torrisdals, 
Christiania  Fiord, 
GK>tha^      . 

L.  Malar, . 
Dal,  . 
Augennan, 
Uiuea, 

Neva  and  Gulf 
of  Finland,    . 


Ditna, 
Niemen,    . 

Pregel,     . 

Vistula, 

Oder, 

Stor, 

Trave, 
Schleifiord, 

Lymfiord, 
Elbe, 


100 

60 

120 

100 

60 

55 

400 

800 

Weser, 


17,000 


Trondl^em. 
GhriBtiansand. 
Ghristlakia  (Norway). 
Goteborg  (Gothland). 


8.  Basins  inclined  to  the  Baltic, 


170 
250 
150 
250 

ISO 
200 
120 
320 

625 

600 

400 
400 

SOO 
270 

120 

120 

530 

S60 

445 

360 

95 

65 

50 
25 

40 
20 

99,700 


34,700 
85,700 

6,300 

72,300 

45,200 


Btoobiholm  (Sweden). 
Hem5sand  (Norrland). 


Helsingfors  (Finland), 
Revel  (Esthonia),  Pskov,  St 
Petebsburo  (Russia),  Nov- 
gorod, Petrozavodsk  (Olo- 
netz). 

Riga  (Livonia),  Vitebsk. 

Grodno,  Suwalki  (Augus- 
towo),  Wilna. 

EOnigsberg  (Prussia  Pro- 
per). 

Plock,  Warsaw  (Poland), 
Radoin,  Lemberg  (Galicia), 
Lublin. 

Stettin  (Pomerania),  Bres- 
lau  (Prussian  Silesia),  Posen 
(Prussian  Poland),  Troppau 
(Austrian  Silesia). 

ScHWERiN  (Aiecklenburg- 
Schwerin). 

LUBECK, 

Schleswig. 


4.  Basins  inclined  to  Nwih  Sea. 


100 
550 


230 


90 

420 


500 
55,000 


250 


17,700 


Aalborg  (Jutland). 

Gluckstadt  (Holstein), 
Hamburg,  Magdeburg 
f Prussian  Saxony),  Dessau 
(Anhalt),  Dresden  (Sax- 
ony), Neu-Strelitz  (Meck- 
lenbui^  -  Strelltz),  Berlin 
(Prussia),  Rudolstadt 
(Schwartzburg  Rudolstadt), 
Greitz  (Reuss  Greitz),  Al- 
TEKBURQ  (Saxe-Alt.),  SON- 
•DERSHAUSEN  (Schwarzburg- 
Sonder.),  Gotha  (Saxe- 
Coburg  -  Gotha),  Weimar 
(Saxe  -  Weimar),  Prague 
(Bohemia). 

Bremen,  Buckeburo 
(Schaumburg-Lippe),  Mein- 
iNO£N(Saxe-M6in.},  Olden- 
burg, Hanover,  Bruns- 
wick, Detmold  (Lippe- 
Det.),  Abolsen  (Waldeck, 
Cassel  (Hesse-Cassel). 


74 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


KameofRlTer 
or  Bstoaiy. 


Total 

Length  in 

Enelish 

Mfies. 


Direct 

Length  of 

Badnin 

Enxliah 

Mflet. 


Area  of  Basin 

in  Square 

MUea. 


Oapttab  of  States  and  ProTinOM 
ineachBaain. 


Basins  inclhied  to  North  Sea  (continued). 


Ems, 
Hunse, 
Vecht, 
Rhine, 


Mease, 


Scheldt, 


160 

130 

50 

40 

90 

60 

600 

400 

580 

230 

210 

120 

75,000 


Miinster  (Westphalia). 

Groiiingen,A8sen(Dieuthe). 

Zwoll  (OverysselX 

Amsterdam  (Nether- 
lands), Utrecht,  Amhem 
(Guelderland),  Cologne 
(Rhenish  Prussia),  Wies- 
baden (Nassau),  Carls- 
RUHE(Baiden),  StrasbouTg(i) 
(Alsace),  Vaduz  (Liechten- 
stein), Nancy  (LomdneX 
Darmstadt  (Hesse-DarmA 
Stuttgart  (Wtirtembeig), 
Bern  (Switzerland).  (^) 

Bois-le-duc(N.  Brabant), 
Maestricht  (Dutch  Lim- 
burg),  Liege,  Namur,  Arlon 
(Belgian  Luxemburg). 

Middelburg  (Zealand^ 
Antwerp,  Bruges  (W.  Flan- 
ders), Ghent  (E.  Flanders), 
Brussels  (Belgium),  Has- 
selt  (Belgian  Limbnrg), 
LUle  (French  Flanders^ 
Arras  (Artois),  Mons  (Hahi- 
ault). 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Atlantic  (No.  2  continued), 

Somme,    .        .  115  90  ..  Amiens  (Picardy). 

Seine,       .       .  414  250  28,500  Rouen(Nomiandy),  Paris 

(France),  Troyes  (Cham- 
pagne). 

Vilaine,     .       .  125  80  . .  Kennes  (Bretagne). 

Loire,       .        .530  350  44,500  Angers    (Anjou),    Tours 

(Touraine),  Orleans  (Orle- 
annais),  Nevers(Niveniai8), 
Le  Mans  (Maine),  Limoges 
(Limousinl  Gueret  (La 
Marche),  Poitiers  (Poitou), 
Bourges  (Berry),  Moulins 
^Bourbonnais),     Clermont 

(AuvergneX 

RocheUe  (Aunis),  Saintes 
(Saintonge),      Angouldme 
(Angoumois). 
31,000  Bordeaux  (Guienne),  Tou- 

louse (Languedoc),  Auch 
(Gascogne),  Foix  (Foix). 

(1)  For  the  akcpf  brerlty,  the  old  prorlnees  of  France  and  Spain  are  those  here  employed,  but  the 
new  divisions  WiU  be  found  in  the  corresponding  tables  under  those  countries. 

(S)  The  capitals  of  the  Swiss  cantons  wHl  be  found  in  the  Biver-Sjpstem  of  Central  Europe.— (See 
under  "  Axutria.") 


Charente, 


Garonne,  • 


115 
414 

90 
250 

125 
530 

80 
350 

200 

110 

800 

230 

's-^^ 

# 

'r^jr- 

— ■•L-KJi'— 

Sflri« 

J  .-Briiwrf  h  the 

^(JoBtlVlA 

0.  2  cmitiftMfiii). 

1 

Nerrfod,  ;        '. 

« 

m 

P8u(Bf«r7i). 

Bilbao  (BaaqnoProvlTicea), 

Saloa,     .        . 

Oyieao(A«fl.TiM). 

■ 

011^ 

X\abo.     . 

S!l> 

Ri-d'EMB,       . 

Brags  (Hinho). 

Do™,      .        . 

ISO 

aw 

34,200 

BurgoalOldCBMe). 

MondBgo..        . 

Colmbra  (Belra). 

TagM.      . 

MO 

450 

Ss'iOOO 

Lisbon  'VortBgal),  M*- 

Ssflo, 

100 

™Esora  *S™tjjD). 

BadajoB    (9p.    EatiemB- 

. 

OMdHqoivlr, 

300 

270 

lo.soo 

n»da. 

1 

6 

— Bojttti  isciiji 

d  to  the  Me 

ZiVoTanean. 

■ 

BtgDB,       .          . 

ISO 

Hurcla. 

ValeneiiL 

™ 

Bbro,        .        . 

a40 

2B0 

32,S00 

Pamplona  Nn.aiT8), 

LIolinEat. 

70 

Bhone,      .        . 

Avignon.  LjonfLyonnala). 

DUDMBou^gne],  tauni 

Florence  (Tusiiany). 

TFberl       :       '. 

Home  (K.\f  Italy). 

1 

Po.   .       .      . 

4M 

!S0 

aV,™ 

TnaiB  (Pledinuct),   Uo- 
dt^a,Parni.,  Venice  (Vene- 

Miraalii. 

3W 

70 

tla),  MUan  (Lombarty). 
MoBtsr  (HerlEgovina). 

ttu.'  ; 

LarlssKiThesaalj). 

METllzi.     '. 

isisoo 

m 

8.-~5(«iiwfnc 

nedl«lht£ 

lati&a. 

1 

Duiiiba,  .       . 

808,000 

Sniatria  (BulgariB).  Bel- 
Bitds  (aervla),    PBterwar- 
Aeia    <MtlitBr]-    FrontiurX 

Cieranwiti      ffiuckowlna. 

Agrani   (Crogtlo),    BosnM- 

Beral  (Bosnia;,  laybaeh  (0- 

lyria),  KlBDHnbonr  (Trail- 

I 

eyHBEla).     EmK      (SEla. 

7G 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Kame  of  River 
orEstiuury. 

Total 

Length  in 

English 

Mflei. 

Direct 

Length  of 

Basin  in 

English 

.  MUea. 

Area  of  Basin 

in  Square 

Uilea. 

Capitab  of  States  and  ProriooM 
iaeachBaiin. 

Basins  inclined  to  the  BlcLck  Sea  (continued). 

Danube  (cont.) 

voniaX      Grfttz      (Styria), 
Brtlnn     (MoraviaX     Inns- 
brQck     (Tyrol),     Munich 
(Bayaria),  Salzburfi;,  Temes- 
\7ar  (Banat  and  Servia). 
Kamienetz        (Podolla), 

Dniester,  . 

500 

400 

27,300 

Elichenev  (Bessarabia). 

Dnieper  and  Bug, 

•  • 

640 

195,600 

Kherson,  Ekaterinoslay, 
Kiev,  Mogilev  Smolensk, 
Poltava,  Tchernlgov, 
Koursk,  Jitomir(VoIbyma), 
Minsk. 

Don, 

995 

500 

176,500 

Tcherkask  (Don  Cos- 
sacks), Stavropol,  Khar* 
kov,  Veronej. 

Kuban,     . 

SSO 

280 

•  • 

Ekaterinodar  (Black  Sea 

Cossacks). 

7.—Basi 

ns  inclined  to  the  Co, 

spian. 

Volga, 

2400 

1080 

627,000 

Astrakhan,  Saratov,  ^ 
mara,  Simbirsk,  Kasan, 
Nijni-Novgorod,  Kostroma, 
Jaroslav,  Tver,  Perm,  VI- 

atka,  Penza,  Riazan,  Kalu- 

ga,   Orel,  Vladimir,  Tam- 

bov, Moscow,  Tula. 

Ural, 

1040 

550 

85,000 

Orenburg. 

Kur, 

520 

400 

80,800 

Teflis,  Erivan,  Shemakha 
(all  in  Transcatusasia}. 

13.  Lakes. — Lakes  being  for  the  most  part  mere  expansions 
of  the  rivers  that  drain  them,  the  most  natural  way  of  treating 
them  is  to  group  them  in  the  order  of  the  river-basins  to  which 
they  belong. 

Clyde  Basin — Loch  Lomond,  the  largest  lake  in  Scotland,  drained 
by  the  Levon  ;  area,  46  sq.  m.  Leven — ^Windermere,  largest  lake  in 
England,  10  m.  long ;  area,  about  5  sq.  m.  Dee — Lake  Bala,  the 
largest  in  Wales,  4  m.  long.  Bann — Lough  Neagh,  in  Ireland,  the 
largest  in  the  British  Isles  ;  area,  153  sq.  m.  Dioinu — Eubinskoe, 
in  Vologda,  North  Kussia,  drained  by  the  Sukhona.  Onega — Lakes 
Latcha  and  Voje,'in  Olonetz.  Vygh — Vigo  and  Sego,  in  Olonetz. 
A'cm— Kunto  and  Niuk,  in  W.  of  Arkhangel.  .Smfo— Kovdo, 
l*iavo,  and  Imandra,  in  Arkhangel.  Varanger  Fiord — ^Enara,  drained 
by  the  Patajoki  or  Pasvig,  in  N.  of  Finland.  Olommen — Lake  Mio- 
Bou,  in  S.E.  of  Norway.  G^o^Aa— Wener,  in  S.W.  of  Sweden,  2020 
sq.  m. ;  and  Faemund,  in  E.  of  Norway,  drained  by  the  Clara.  Mo^ 
fa/a— Wetter,  E.  of  Lake  Wener.    Arboga — Malar  and  Hielmar,  in 


liURora.  77 

UiG  E.  of  Sweden.  Dal — Siljan,  in  the  centre  of  Sweden.  Indali 
— StoTsion,  N.  of  Lake  Sman.  SkeU/lea — Stoi  and  Horn,  united, 
in  N.  of  Sweden.  Lulea — Storo-Lalea,  in  H.  of  Sweden.  Totmh 
— Toraes,  in  N.W.  of  Sweden.  Ulca — TJlea,  in  the  centra  of  Fin- 
land. Borgo  A — P^uii,  in  the  S.  of  Finland.  Neva — I^doga.  {ths 
largest  in  Europe,  area,  7150  aq.  m.),  Saima,  Oriveai,  Pielis,  Knopio 
or  KalBTesi,  nmeii,  Onega,  VoMoicro,  all  in  Finland  and  Oionete. 
Karova — Peipus,  or  Tchoudsltoe,  between  Livoaia  and  St  Peters- 
bnTg.  Prtgel  —  Mailer  See,  in  Eoat  Pruaaia.  Vistula — Spirding 
See,  in  East  Prosaia,  drained  by  the  Pische,  an  nffiaent  of  thcKarew. 
StBr — Schwerin,  in  Mecklenbnrg-Sehwerin.  Elbe— iiiintz,  inMeok- 
lenbnrg-Strelitz,  drained  by  the  Havel.  Jihiiw — Boden  See,  on  tha 
Rhine ;  Tbnn  and  Brienz,  on  the  Aar  ;  Zurich  and  Wallenatadr, 
on  the  Limmat ;  Lucerne  and  Zng,  on  the  IJeusa  ;  Bienne  and  tSea- 
chStel,  an  tho  Thiele  ;  all  in  Switzerland.  Shone— heman  or  Geneva, 
bet.  Switzerland  and  Savoj  ;  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  Fo — Garda,  drained 
by  the  Mincio  (  Como,  by  the  Adda ;  Maggiore  and  Lugano,  by  the 
Ticino.  Daniiis— Balaton  or  Flatten  Seo,  drained  by  the  Sio  ;  and 
Nenaiedl,  by  the  Eaabnitz  :  botb  in  Hungary.  San — Manytch,  in 
Caacasaa,  drained  by  the  Wanytch.  Volga — Seiigher,  in  Russia, 
near  the  Valdai  Hills,  foi'ming  the  source  of  the  Volga. 

14.  OUinaite. — The  climate  of  Europe  is  greatly  milder  than 
in  other  continents  under  the  same  latitude  ;  bnt  it  presents 
Blrikmg  diversities  in  different  pait^,  arising  mainly  from  the 
following  causes ; — 

lat,  Ila  Pimfion  relative  to  lAe  AtlavMc. — The  prevailing  winds 
are  ftoai  the  W.  and  S.  W. ,  and  hence  pass  over  tliat  ocean  before 
arrfviDg  here ;  acquiro  its  temperature ;  become  laden  with  its 
Tnoistnre  ;  and,  striking  the  shores  of  the  continent,  powerfully 
affect  the  climate  of  W^em  Europe.  2d,  This  Effect  is  greatlv  in- 
er^^ed  by  the  warm  ocean-cuTrent  called  The  Golf  Strcwm,  which, 
setting  out  from  the  Galf  of  Mexico,  at  a  very  high  temperaturii, 

Sroceeds  along  the  coast  of  North  America,  crosses  the  Atlantic  in  a 
r.E.  direction,  arrives  at  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  and  imparts 
to  them  a  temperature  and  climate  greatly  milder  than  they  would 
otherwise  possess.  3d,  The  Etexation  of  the  land  above  the  sea-level. 
The  DiTeclvm  of  the  elope,  as  indicated  '  "  "  ■"  ■ 
K  of  Enropo  (deacribed  at  p.  72).  Eth, 
sereial  conntriea  in  regard  to  great  mountain-chiiins  in  their  vicinity, 
tth.  The  Latitude  of  the  place,  or  its  distance  from  the  equator. 
7th,  Pradmity  M  oUier  ptcaliar  Climafic  Regions. — For  enample, 
the  south  of  Europe  is  considerably  affected  hy-tho  proximity  of 
Afi^ca,  which  renders  itt  summer  climate  oppresBive ;  while  North- 
ern Bnrope  ia  continnally  exposed  to  the  chilling  winds  of  the  Polar 
Seaa  and  of  Siberia. 

Ollmatlo  Zones.— If  the  Northern  Hemisphere  be  divided  into  six 
Tfothermal  Zones  (viz.,  the  Ei^uatoriol,  Warm,  Mild,  Coot,  Cold,  and 
Polar  Zones),  which,  as  reganls  cUmate,  are  greatly  more  important 


78  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

than  2071^  of  latitude,  it  will  be  found  that  no  part  of  Europe  lies 
^vithin  either  of  the  eostrevie  zones,  that  is,  tne  Equatorial  and 
Polar. 

The  Warm  Zone,  which  is  bounded  by  the  isotherms  of  77**  and  59** 
Fahr.,  and  whose  average  annual  temperature  is  68°,  includes  nearly  all 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  the  islands  of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Malta,  and 
Crete,  all  Greece,  and  Italy  south  of  Rome.  The  Mild  Zone,  between 
the  isotherms  of  SO**  and  41",  and  with  an  average  annual  temperature 
of  50**  Fahr.,  comprises  all  Central  Europe  (including  France  and  the 
British  Isles),  the  Faroe  Isles,  Scandinavia  and  Russia  south  of  a  line 
drawn  through  Bergen,  Christiania,  Stockholm,  Riga,  Moscow,  and  Oren- 
burg. The  Cool  Zone,  between  the  isotherms  of  41"  and  82",  and  with 
an  average  annual  temperature  of  36"  Fahr.,  includes  nearly  all  Iceland, 
together  with  a  broad  belt  of  the  continent  lying  between  the  Mild  Zone 
and  a  line  passing  through  Hammerfest,  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tomea, 
Arkhangel,  and  Tobolsk  in  Siberia.  The  Cold  Zone  embraces  all  the 
remainder  of  the  continent  together  with  Spitzbergen,  is  bounded  by  the 
isothermal  curves  of  32°  and  5",  and  enjoys  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
18"  Fahr. 

Rain. — The  Quantity  of  Rain  varies  greatly  in  the  different 
countries,  but  most  of  the  variations  can  be  traced  to  known  laws: — 

(1.)  It  decreases  as  we  proceed  from  S.  to  N.  At  the  equator,  96  inches 
fall  in  the  year;  in  Italy,  45;  England,  37;  in  North  Germany,  22^;  and 
at  St  Petersburg,  16  inches. 

(2.)  It  decreases  as  we  proceed  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  east- 
ward. On  the  coast  of  Portugal,  the  amount  is  118  inches ;  on  the  west 
of  Ireland,  47  inches ;  but  at  London,  24  inches  ;  Paris,  21  inches ;  East- 
em  Europe,  15  inches. 

(3.)  In  Western  Europe,  and  as  far  E.  as  Moscow,  the  rain- winds  are 
from  the  S.W. ;  but  farther  E.  and  N.  they  come  from  the  contrary 
direotioD. 

(4.)  In  the  Warm  Zone  it  rains  most  in  winter ;  in  the  Mild  Zone,  south 
of  the  Alps  and  Carpathians,  most  in  autumn ;  in  all  the  remainder  of 
Europe,  most  in  summer. 

(5.)  The  number  of  rainy  days  decreases  as  we  proceed  from  the  west 
to  the  east  side  of  the  continent :  thus,  in  Ireland  (west  side),  rain  falls 
on  208  days ;  Netherlands,  170  days ;  west  of  Scotland  (Cape  Wrath), 
250  days ;  east  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh),  165  days ;  whereas  in  the  north 
of  Germany  and  Gulf  of  Finland,  it  falls  on  152  days ;  Poland,  168  days ; 
basin  of  the  Volga,  90  days ;  in  the  interior  of  Siberia,  60  days. 

(6.)  The  number  of  days  on  which  snow  falls  increases  from  south  to 
north :  thus,  at  Palermo,  in  Sicily,  on  1  day ;  Rome  and  Florence,  2 ; 
Venice,  6 ;  Milan,  10 ;  Paris,  12 ;  Copenhagen,  30 ;  St  Petersburg,  171 
days.  At  Gibraltar  snow  is  rare,  and  Malta  is  never  visited  by  snow- 
flakes. 

The  average  amount  of  rain  over  all  Europe  is  34  inches.  The  rainiest 
localities  in  Europe  are,  Coimbra,  in  the  vallev  of  the  Mondego,  where 
the  extraordinary  amount  of  118  inches  falls  annually;  the  Alps ; 
Bretagne ;  Cornwall ;  the  south  of  Ireland ;  and  the  north-west  comer 
of  Scotland.  In  regard  to  the  variation  from  the  tme  north  of  the  mag- 
netic needle,  the  whole  continent,  except  a  small  part  of  Russia,  has  a  W. 
declination,  at  present— while  in  Asia  it  is  £. 


EUKOPE.  79 

15.  Geology. — The  foUowing  condenseJ.  epitome  of  the  geo- 
logy of  Europe  has  heen  carefully  prepared  from  the  "Geological 
Map  of  Europe,"  edited  by  Sir  Roderick  I,  MiirchiBoii  and  Pro- 
feasor  Niool,  and  forming  Plate  IV.  of  the  ntw  edition  ot 
Johnston's  '  Physical  Atlas.'  * 

CrrBtalUne  Strata,  or  MetajnorpluE  Eocka,  prevail  efipoaially  in 
North-western  Euiopo,  wliera  they  coter  the  whole  anrface  of  Scan- 
diuavia  and  Finland,  with  the  eieeption  of  two  entenaive  tracts  in 
the  centre  and  north  of  Norway.  The  other  principal  localities  nrs 
Sootknd,  K  of  the  Grwnpians ;  the  N.  and  N.W.  ot  Irelandj  the 
centre  andW.  of  France;  Bohemia;  Tmuaylraima ;  the  E.  side  of 
^rkey,  Greece,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia ;  and  the  f;reat  monntalu- 
nnKea  of  the  Continent,  especially  the  Alps,  Mount  CaucamiB,  and  the 
Uials.  Wherever  crystalhne  strata  greatly  abonnii,  they  are  pene- 
trated throngh  by  Ghahitic  Kuces  ;  as  in  Portneal  and  Gallcin, 
Bretagne,  the  Grampians,  the  LoEFoden  lales,  Bohemia,  basin  of  the 
Dnieper  and  Bii°,  Corsica,  Saiilinia,  &c.  Trap  Boceh  chiehy 
abouiid  in  Icelsnil,  the  Fari3e  Isles,  Sky  and  Mull,  County  Antrim, 
Wales,  Sweden,  Finland,  the  Urals,  and  Lombardy  ;  and  Volcasic 
£ocKS  in  Naples,  the  Pontifical  States,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Central 
L  france,  aad  the  Carpathiana. 

I  ,  Lower  FalEBDsolo  Btiata— containicg  the  petrified  remains  of  the 
r  earliest  plants  and  animals  yet  discovered — occnpy  the  two  largo 
tracts  in  Norway  above  referred  to ;  an  extensive  belt  S.  of  the  5. 
of  Finland,  and  a  tract  in  the  extreme  S,  of  Sweden ;  the  S.  of 
Scotland,  Westmoreland,  nearly  all  Wales,  and  the  W.  of  Irelaud ; 
BretagiiB  ;  large  areas  in  Southern  and  Central  Spain  ;  the  Julian 
and  Camic  Alps ;  some  parte  of  Bohemia ;  and  a  very  long,  narrow 
belt  in  the  Urals,  extending  tium  the  river  Ural   to   the  Aictic 

Upper  TaJieoiolc  Strata— emhracing  the  Devonian,  Carboniferous, 
and  Permian  systems — have  their  largest  development  in  Riiaaia, 
where  they  extend,  without  a  break,  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Urals, 
and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  Yoronej,  in  the  centre  of  the  Don 
hwio,  and  occupy  another  large  tract  in  the  basin  of  the  Donetz,  na 
affluent  of  the  Don  :  they  thua  cover  nearly  a  half  of  all  Knssia,  but 
eoatain  no  coal,  save  along  the  Donetz,  where  mines  are  wrought  to 
a  cousiilerable  extent  The  next  most  important  tract  occnpied  by 
this  series  ia  in  the  bBsina  of  the  Khlne,  Moaclle,  and  Menae.  within 
fte  kingJoma  of  Prussia  and  Belgium.  Thay  are  Tery  extensively 
developed  in  tlie  British  Islea,  eapecially  in  Ireland,  where  they  cnrer 
four-fifths  of  the  cooutry  ;  and  in  the  larger  island  extend  in  a  broad 
belt  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  Devondiire  (a  tract  which  is  ex- 
tremely rich  in  the  valuable  minerals,  coal  and  ironstone),  and  hue 
the  coast  irom  Aberdeenshire  to  Caitlmess,  extending  to  the  Orkney 
IsJacJa. 
The  Seoondary  Ssiiea,  or  Mesozoic  Croup,  immediately  overlies  the 
•  For  till  PjlBontologjr  of  the  dllTotent  gsolugio  sysWun  uifl  tormatioiiii,  we 
■q  ide  itodant  to  paces  41-S2  above. 


80  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Palaeozoic,  but  differs  from  it  widely  in  the  character  of  its  fossilsi 
It  embraces  the  Triassic,  Oolitic,  and  Cretaceous  systems,  and  occu- 
pies a  very  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  Europe  S.  of  lat.  65°;  but 
rarely  occurs  ]N .  of  that  parallel,  except  in  three  detached  tracts  in 
the  N.  E.  of  Russia  (in  the  basins  of  the  Petchora  and  Vychegda).  In 
the  S.  of  Russia  it  occupies  extensiye  areas  in  the  basins  of  the  Ural, 
Volga,  and  Don,  as  well  as  of  the  Pripet  and  Desna,  affluents  of  the 
Dnieper.  In  Turkey  and  Greece  it  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the 
territory  S,  of  the  Danube  and  Save,  and  the  island  Canma ;  South- 
ern Italy  and  Sicily;  in  Spain,  a  broad  belt  commencing  at  Gibraltar, 
and  extending  first  N.E.  and  then  N.  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  the  "W. 
of  Portugal ;  the  greater  part  of  France  E.  of  Bretagne  and  N.  of 
the  Gironde ;  nearly  all  Germany,  from  Hanover  to  the  Danube  ; 
and  more  than  a  half  of  England,  especially  the  E.,  centre,  and  S. 
Secondary  strata  also  cover  the  Northern  Carpathians,  and  large  por- 
tions of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

The  Tertiary  Series,  like  the  Secondary,  prevails  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  S.  of  lat.  55°,  while  the  Palaeozoic  and  Crystalline  strata 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  N.  of  Europe.  Tertiary  strata  extend,  with 
few  interruptions,  in  a  broad  zone,  which,  beginning  at  the  North  Sea 
and  Baltic,  proceeds  in  a  S.E.  direction  to  the  Black  Sea  and  Cas' 
pian,  and  extends  in  breadth  from  the  Niemen  to  the  Carpathians. 
In  Asia  they  cover  the  immense  basin  of  the  Obi,  and  the  equally 
large  continental  or  internal  basin  of  the  Caspian.  To  the  W.  and 
S.  of  the  great  belt  above  referred  to,  they  cover,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
the  basins  of  all  the  great  rivers,  as  the  Danube,  Po,  Ebro,  Tagus, 
Garonne,  Seine,  and  Thames — the  last  two  including  the  celebrated 
Paris  and  London  basins.  The  other  localities  where  the  Tertiaries 
prevail  must  be  learned  by  inspecting  a  good  geolo^cal  map,  as  no 
description  can  convey  an  accurate  impression  of  their  actual  position 
and  extent.  Such  inspection  cannot  fail  to  result  in  the  conviction, 
that  Central  and  Southern  Europe  remained  submerged  under  the 
ocean  for  many  ages  after  the  northern  portion  existed  as  dry  land, 
and  that  during  those  ages  the  Black  Sea  and  Caspian  were  united. 

16.  Minerals. — ^The  mineral  treasures  of  Europe  are  of  the 
highest  importance,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  precious 
metals — ^in  which  it  is  inferior  to  other  continents — as  for  the 
abundance  and  utility  of  its  more  common  minerals.  Our 
limits  will  only  allow  us  to  specify  the  principal  localities 
where  the  most  important  minerals  occur. 

Metals. — Gold  is  chiefly  found  in  the  Ural  and  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains (where  more  gold  is  obtained  than  in  all  the  rest  of  Europe), 
especially  at  Kremnitz  in  Hungary,  and  in  the  Russian  governments 
of  Perm  and  Orenburg,  where  the  mines  yield  72,000  lb.  annually. 
Other  localities  are,  Transylvania,  Salzburg,  Piedmont,  Ireland,  and 
the  sands  of  the  Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone,  Garonne,  Tagus,  and  other 
rivers.  Mercury^  chiefly  at  Almaden  in  Spain,  and  at  Jdria  in 
Camiola.    Silver — ^British  Isles  (Cornwall,  &c.),  Germany,  Hungary, 


EUROPE.  SI 

SoTway,  BoLemio,  TransjlTania,  Turkey.  Cflj^ier— Coruwall,  Devott- 
iMre,  Angiesea,  Cork,  Waterford,  UraJ  Mountains,  Hungary,  Styrin. 
Norway,  Prussia,  Andalucia,  Pyrenees,  and  Chesay,  near  Lyou. 
rill— Comirall,  DevanshirB,  Saxony,  Bohemia.  Zead—hesdhUla  in 
Scotland,  Cnmwall,  the  Sierra  Hevado,  the  Eaatem  Alps,  Sasony, 
and  Bohemia.  Zinc — Nowhere  pleutiful,  bot  chiefly  found  in  the 
Riesengehirge,  Cobalt — In  Germany,  almost  eielosiyely.  AnCijiumii 
and  .sSmuH-— Hare,  but  chiefly  in  Gennaiiy.  Arimic — Schemnitz, 
in  the  Carpathians.  Iron — Widely  distributee!,  and  generally  wher- 
ever the  coal-measures  are  found  ;  but  most  abundant  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  Cereniioa,  Vosgea,  Jura,  Eastern  Alps,  Mountains  of  Norway, 
the  Riesengebirge. 

RreoiouB  Btones.— iJiamondB  in  the  goremment  of  Perm  ;  jasper, 
eholeedony,  agate,  and  garnets,  in  Scot&nd  and  Germany ;  topaa  in 
the  Urals,  Scotland,  England,  Bohemia,  and  Saxony ;  the  opal  in 
Hungary  ;  rubies  in  France. 

Inllanmiable  UlneralD. — Cool— Generally  wherever  the  Upper 
Palffiozoic  strata  are  found,  especially  in  England,  the  S.  of  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Belgium  and  N.  of  France,  Germany,  Prussia,  Anetria,  S.  of  ' 
Bu^ia.  Sulphur —  In  volcanic  regions,  as  the  Solfataraa  of  Naples, 
Sicily,  Iceland.  Amber — On  the  Pruaaian  shores  of  the  Baltic. 
pBirofewm — In  W^les,  Italy,  and  WaUachia. 

lUueral  ielte.— Common  Salt— In  England,  Germany,  Hungary, 
Poland,  Spoin,  Moldavia.  Brine  Springs  very  numerous  in  loenlitiea 
where  Secondary  strata  prevail ;  Epsom  Salts  at  Epsom  in  England  j 
Borai  in  Hungary;  Saltpetre  in  Spain,  Naples,  Hungary,  and  Eus- 
sia ;  Alum  in  the  crystalline  rocks  of  Sweden,  Norway,  Britain,  and 
in  the  volcanic  formations  of  Sicily,  Lipari  Islands,  tmd  the  Azores. 

17.  Botany. — The  flora  of  Europe  does  not  probably  contain 
a  single  mdigenous  plant  peculiar  to  itself.  TMa  striking  fact 
is  BufBciently  accounted  lor  \iy  its  geogi«phical  poaitiou ;  for 
not  only  is  it  in  close  proiimity  to  Northern  A&ic4,  but  the 
entire  continent  is  a  mere  prolongation  of  Western  Asia.  Of 
the  twentj'flye  Phjto-geographic  Regions  into  ivhioh  Schouw 
ilivides  the  vecetation  of  tie  globe  (see  p.  54),  Europe  embraces 
a  portion  of  tte  first  three — viz.,  the  Arctic-AlpiuB,  the  Nordi 
European,  and  the  Mediterranean  Bcgion& 

The  ArctlC'Ab>lne  Begloii,  which  is  also  caUed  the  region  of  ^oa!ei 
a-iul  Saxifragei,  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  proviueea — tho  Polar 
and  Alpine;  the  first  embracing  the  north  polar  lands  of  iHnrope, 
Asia,  and  America,  between  the  limits  of  ice  and  the  region  of  trees; 
and  tho  second,  all  the  higher  elevations  of  Europe  and  Asli  south  of 
the  polar  circle,  which  eitand  from  tho  line  of  porpetnal  congelation 
to  the  first  appearance  of  trees.  Both  provinces  are  chamcteriaed  by 
a  profusion  of  lichens,  mosses,  and  soxiirages  ;  hy  the  total  absence 
-  ' — BB  properly  so  called,  though  numerous  slmiba,  especially  the 
V  and  dwarf-birch,  make  their  apiiearanco  iu  the  Polar  pro- 
s,  and  junipers,  alders,  willows,  rhodudcndions,  whortlcherriei^ 


82  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  cranberries,  in  the  Alpine.  Dwarf  perennial  herbs,  with  large 
flowers  of  bright  colours,  are  also  abundant ;  but  annual  plants  are 
rare,  and  tropical  families  are  wholly  wanting.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  of  the  polar  provinces,  wh^ch  corresponds  with  the  Cold 
Zone  (described  at  p.  78),  is  18°  Fahr.,  and  hence  cultivation  is  im- 
possible. 

The  North  European  Region,  also  called  the  region  of  the  UmheUv- 
fercB  (mean  temp.  29° — 46°  Fahr.),  embraces  the  wide  space  between 
the  Arctic  Circle  and  lat  45° — or  the  Mild  and  Cool  Zones  described 
above — ^being  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Asia  K.  of  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  Black  Sea,  Caucasus,  and  Altai  Mountains,  not  included  in 
the  former  region.  It  is  characterised  by  the  prevalence  of  the 
natural  orders  UmbeUifersd,  Cruciferse,  Graminese,  Caricese,  Fungi, 
and  Cichoracese.  The  predominant  trees  are  tiie  Conifer»  and 
Amentacese  (or  the  cone-bearing  and  catkin-bearing  families),  as  the 
fir,  yew,  and  cypress,  willow,  poplar,  hazel,  birch,  plane,  alder,  oak, 
and  beech ;  the  pastures  are  luxuriant,  and  the  forest  trees  lose 
their  foliage  in  winter. 

The  M^terranean  Region,  or  region  of  the  LaUaitB  wnd  Ccuryo' 
pJvyllecB  (mean  temp.  55° — 73°  Fahr.),  embraces  all  the  remainder  of 
Europe,  together  with  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Africa  N.  of  the  Sahara, 
the  Azores,  and  Canaries.  It  is  specially  marked  by  the  predomin- 
ance of  the  orders  LabiataB  and  Caryophyllse ;  by  some  representa- 
tives of  tropical  climes,  as  palms,  terebinths,  and  laurels  ;  oy  many 
evergreen  treeq  and  shrubs;  by  the  families  of  the  second  region 
becoming  less  numerous,  their  place  being  occupied  by  a  greater  num- 
ber of  woody  plants ;  and  by  the  existence  of  a  winter  flora.  The 
pastures,  however,  are  less  luxuriant  than  in  the  former  region,  and 
are  interspersed  with  copses  of  the  heath  tribe. 

Food-Plants. — Among  Food-Plants  the  cereals  are  cultivated  20**  far- 
ther N.  in  Europe  than  in  America ;  their  northern  limit  being  nearly 
coincident  with  that  of  the  Cool  Zone  described  under  the  article  Climate. 
Seven  distinct  species  are  cultivated,  each  of  which  requires  a  climate 
peculiar  to  itself ;  but  the  zones  of  territory  occupied  oy  them  merge 
mto  one  another  like  the  seven  colours  of  the  rainbow,  and,  like  the  lat- 
ter, preserve  the  same  invariable  sequence.  Beginning  at  the  N.,  the 
order  is  as  follows : — Barley,  rye,  oats,  wheat,  millet,  maize,  and  rice ; 
the  four  last  of  which  extend  southward  to  the  tropical  regions.  No 
species  of  grain  can  be  brought  to  maturity  in  Iceland ;  but  b^ley  grows 
in  the  Far5e  Isles,  and  on  the  continent  as  far  N.  as  Hammerfest  and  the 
mouth  of  the  White  Sea.  Rye  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  N.  of  Europe, 
especially  in  Russia,  Germany,  and  part  of  France,  where  it  forms  the 
principal  food  of  the  people ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  it  sustains  one- 
third  of  the  population  of  Europe.  Oats  are  extensively  grown  in  Scot- 
land, Norway,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  other  places  between  the  lat.  of  Paris 
and  65°  N.  Wheat  extends  over  a  very  wide  area— from  lat.  64°  in  Nor- 
way to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn ;  in  Great  Britain  it  is  grown  with  ad- 
vantage as  far  north  as  the  Moray  Firth ;  millet  is  raised  in  Bretagne, 
Tuscany,  and  a  few  other  localities  S.  of  lat.  45'';  maize  in  Eastern  and 
Southern  Europe,  especially  Hungary,  Spain,  and  N.  Italy.  Few  Euro- 
pean countries  afford  the  requisite  heat  and  moisture  for  the  successful 


I 


eollivation  of  rice;  but  It  is  grcmi  in  Spain,  Greece,  and  Italy.  Of  olhtr 
Axxtp^uuti  grcwn  in  Europe,  the  princiiialaretlie  potato,  cablHige,  turnip, 
backwliBat,  iie  awset  potato,  and  the  various  leguminona  plants,  as 
pease,  beona,  lentils,  and  curoba  or  St  John's  bread.  The  potato  can  be 
raised  Dt  a  considerably  higher  latitude  tbsii  nuy  of  the  cereals,  and  it 
forms  the  highly-ralishHl  food  of  millions  of  the  people  from  Iceland  to 
Greeee.  Fmit  Traea  are  numerous,  especioll;  to  the  S.  of  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees.  The  Tine  eirtenda  N.  to  lat  60° — 53°,  but  the  beat  wines  are 
produced  between  30°  and  45°.  Farther  north  its  place  is  in  it  great 
measure  supplied  by  the  various  kinds  of  orchard  fruits,  as  apples,  pears, 
cherries,  ploms,  and  walnuts ;  and  in  still  higher  latitudes  by  the  goose- 
berry, currant,  rasp,  and  strawberry,  and  by  malt  Uqnora.  The  principal 
fruit-trees — figs,  almonds,  pomegranates,  olives,  lemons,  oranges,  peaches, 
apricots,  mulberries,  citrons,  stone-pines,  and  date  palnia — are  conflned 
to  the  Warm  Zone  (p.  78). 

16.  Zoology. — The  Fauna  of  the  globe  is  neually  daasified 
into  six  zoological  kingdoms,  and  subdivided  into  fourteen  pio- 
vinces,  of  which  one  kingdom,  including  thiee  provinces,  em- 
braces  all  the  animals  belonging  to  this  continent.  The  three 
Itrovinces  referred  to  are  the  Northern,  Middle,  arid  Soutkerti, 
the  respective  limits  of  which  harmonise  pretty  closely  with 
those  of  the  three  botanical  regions  described  at  p.  81..  The 
Isothenn  of  41°  divides  the  nottnem  from  the  centra  province, 
and  the  latter  is  aeparated  from  the  southern  by  the  Pyrenees 
and  Alps. 

The  following  table  presents  a  synopsis  of  the  Fanna  of  Europe  as  pre- 
sently knovm — its  Uammals,  Birds  and  Keptiles— the  Grst  column 
showing  the  name  of  the  order;  the  second,  the  total  number  of 
apeciea ;  the  third,  the  total  European  species ;  the  fourth,  tifth, 
uid  Btitb.thentimbers  found  in  theNorthem,  Central,  and  Southern 
provinces  reapectivaly. 


.,...„ 

sSr 

•^ 

' 

■ 

Camivora  (Fleab-eating), 
Mnrsupialia  (Ponched  Animals), 
Eodentia  (Gnawing  Animals),   . 
Edentata  (Toothless  Animals), 
PachydeTmata  (Thick-sldnned), 

202 
593 
123 
604 

S9 
ISO 
75 

1 
iia 

6) 

1 

17 
24 

41 
16 

4 

4S 
22 

0 

1 
43 

'is 
"i 

9 

Total  number  of  Species, 

177B 

223 

01 

78 

6B 

TOLITICAL    GEOGKAFBT. 


....„ 

3^ 

B 

M. 

- 

- 

Bap&cea  (Birda  of  Pray),  .... 

Oscmes  (Sonesten) 

GallinaceB  (SamiuiCMnia  Birds),        . 

Hatatorea  (SwimiJiers),     .... 

Total  nnmber  of  Species,      , 

5i 
23 

23 
87 
U3 

ES 
12 

■", 

S2 
81 

37 
14 
123 
21 
£7 
5* 

21 

'1? 

37 

6226 

490 

212 

305 

^4 

Tratnaines  (TortoiBM),      .... 
Saniia  (Lirardal, 

asafSi?-:    :    :    :    ; 

Total  nnmber  of  Species, 

69 

265 
120 

e 

23 

■2 
3 

5 

2 

la 

8 
9 

15 
U 

mi 

73 

10 

81 

51 

—It  will  ba  seen  ftvm  the  above  that  while  tha  entira 
nnmber  of  Enropeaa  Mammam  ia  coiupanttivel;  email,  two  orden — 
the  PoutAtd  and  Toothleu—an  entirely  absent ;  while  other  two— the 
Fosr-iatided  and  Tkiri-iHnjud — are  each  represented  by  one  sotitai? 
species— viz.,  the  Barbary  Ape,  b  Qnadrumaiious  ommal  mhabitLDe  the 
rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  wild  boar,  a  deniien  of  Central  and  SouUiam 
Enro[)6.  Of  the  remaining  orders,  that  of  the  Camraora  ia  by  far  the 
most  important,  not  merely  on  account  of  tha  great  number  of  speciea  it 
contains,  but  also  because  niort  of  them  are  hostile  to  man,  and  bava  in 
all  ages  been  the  objects  of  his  pnrauit, — either  on  account  of  the  dangers 
to  which  they  subject  him,  or  the  commercial  value  of  their  sldns  and  * 
other  products.  The  order  is  represented  in  Enrope  by  five  femiliea,  the 
names  and  principal  species  of  which  are  the  following  : — The  Cheiroptera 
or  bat  family,  including  the  common,  the  horse-shoe,  and  the  bull-diwhat ; 
the  Insectlvora,  or  hedgehogs,  shrews,  desmans,  and  moles;  the  Plan- 
tigrada,  or  bears,  badgers,  and  gluttone ;  the  Di^tigrada,  or  polecat, 
ermine,  weasel,  and  beech-marten,  dog,  wolf,  foi,  jackal,  and  civet,  the 
lyni,  and  wildcat  (the  lion  and  tiger  are  nowhere  fonnd  In  Europe) ; 
the  Piunipedja  or  Amphibia,  or  the  otter,  common  seal,  and  walrus. 
The  Rodtniia  erabiace  the  squirrel,  beaver,  lat,  mouse,  dormouse,  ham- 
star,  mole,  water-rat,  vole,  and  lemming,  porcupine,  hare,  rabbit,  and 
the  pigmy  lagomys.  The  Raminantia  are  rapreaented  by  the  camel, 
deer,  reindeer,  elk,  antelope,  Tockgoat,  wild  sheep,  and  buffalo.  The 
Ctlacea  include  the  common  Greenland  whale,  the  great  northern  rorqual, 
the  spermaceti  whale,  narwhal,  sea -unicorn,  porpoise,  and  commma 
grampus. 

Bmla. — Europe  contains  a  greater  nnmber  of  birds  than  any  otbw 
Mologicol  kingdom,  with  the  exception  of  Tropical  America.    The  M- 


r 


EUKOPE.  S3 

IP  priucipa!  species  in  enah  of  the  sii  onlers  :  Bii-da  of  Pity 
hiBpriBD  vultures,  hanl^,  ai)daw]a.  Clhuhers  iuclude  swifts,  goatsuclieraj 
cuckoos,  woodpeckers,  kuiglisliere,  stid  hoopoes.  Songtla-i—Vtn  night- 
ingale, blaokhinJ,  thrush,  linnet,  and  goldfinch.  OaWtnacsoiu  Birdt — 
the  pigeon,  capercailzie,  red-grouae  (the  only  species  of  hird  peenliar  to 
the  Bntish  Men),  ptarmigan,  partridge,  and  pheasunt.  Wading  Birds— 
■torks,  herona,  snipes,  ploTera,  cranes,  rails,  hustardii,  runners,  and 
flunlngOBS,  fiisimmsri— the  duok,  swan,  goose,  grehe,  loan,  auk,  and  teni. 
SaptilBB. — European  reptiles  are  all  uf  iiisi^itluant  siie  as  compared 
with  the  gigantic  crocodiles,  alligators,  and  boas  of  the  other  loological 
provinces.     Onl^  six  species  of  Torioiie  are  fonnd,  and  these  are  Dearl]' 

I'Dooflned  to  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  the  marsh  tortoise  is 
*lnlld  as  far  N.  as  the  middle  of  (iarmany,  the  leathery  tort^.ise  on  hoth 
^es  of  the  English  Channel,  and  the  hawk'a-bill  turtle,  according  to  Dr 
JiBming,  in  Shetland.  The  £izan/»  comprise  the  dianieleon,  gecko,  iguana, 
.true  Itaird,  ajid  skink— the  last  two  of  which  are  found  in  the  British 
Idea.  SerpiaU  are  very  few  in  number,  and  include  only  two  venomoua 
apeeies,  both  of  which  belong  to  the  genus  viper.  All  the  really  formid- 
wle  species  are  unknown  in  this  continsnt.  There  are  twenty-three 
qwciea  of  Frogs,  of  which  eight  are  found  in  the  Bcitish  Isles.  They  are 
found  in  higher  latitudes  than  any  other  order  of  reptiles,  extending  as 
br  north  as  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.     The  European  species  com- 


n  EaCB,  which  is  by  far  the  most  numerous,  derives 
its  Dame  from  the  region  of  the  Caucasus  and  Annenis,  the  ancient 
centre  from  wliich  all  the  existing  varieties  of  men  have  sprang. 
Tbia  region  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  Old  World,  and  in  the 
North  Temporato  Zone  ;  is  surrounded  by  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian, 
the  Ked  Sea,  and  Mediterranean  ;  is  connected  by  its  noble  rivers 
with  the  Persian  Gnlf  and  Indian  Ocean ;  enjoys  a  climate  of 
rare  aslnbrity,  a  soil  of  f^at  richness,  and  a  vegetation  of  almost 
unrivalled  luxuriance.  Its  inhabitants  have  ever  constituted  the 
highest  type  of  humanity,  and  near  it  were  located  all  the  most 
iUnstrions  ontions  of  ancient  and  modem  times.  The  Caucasian 
race  now  extends  from  Iceland  and  the  Atlantic  to  the  Ganges  and 
BrBhniBpntra.  and  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  ; 
it  embiBces  Europe,  South- Western  Asia,  and  the  Korth  of  Africa, 
;ind  comprehends  lie  greater  part  of  the  posterity  of  Japheth  and 

The  Hoaeollaii  Race  consists  of  the  remaining  tribes  of  the  two 
great  families  now  mentioned  :  they  people  all  the  remainder  of 
Asia,  together  with  certain  isolated  localities  of  Europe,  which  they 
entered  at  a  much  later  period,  and  generally  in  the  character  of 
tnuideiing  hordes.  The  following  are  the  principal  Mongolian  tribes 
that  belong  to  this  continent :— The  Finns  (inclnding  the  Finns 
Proper,  Lapps,  Quinians,  Esthonians,  Wogula,  Permians,  Tchu- 
waaches,  Mordwins,  and  Tcheremesses),  eitending  from  the  Cra! 
Mountains  to  the  Gnlf  of  Bothnia  and  the  river  Niemen  ;  the  Sak- 
DIZDZS  between  the  White  Sen.  and  the  river  Kara  :  the  Magyaiu  or 


86  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Htmgariaus,  in  Hung^ary,  allied  in  form  and  language  to  the  Finns  ; 
the  Tabtars,  inhabiting  the  region  north  of  the  Black  Sea  and 
river  Kuban  ;  the  Kalmucks,  N.  of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  between 
the  mouths  of  the  Vol^  and  Don ;  and  the  Turks,  in  Rumelia,  who 
form  a  connecting-link  between  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian  racet, 
more  closely  allied  to  the  Tartar  branch  in  appearance,  but  to  the 
Caucasians  m  language. 

II.  Languages. — ^All  the  languages  presently  spoken  in  Europe 
belong  to  two  great  families — ^the  Indo-European  and  Finno- 
Tartarian.  Nations  belonging  to  the  Caucasian  race  speak  the 
former,  those  of  Mongolian  origin  the  latter.  The  Indo-Euro- 
pean tongues  spoken  in  Europe  are  subdivided  into  four  groups 
or  classes — ^viz.,  the  Celtic  in  the  W. ;  the  Teutonic,  in  the  N. 
and  N.W. ;  the  Greco-Latin,  in  the  S.;  and  the  Sclavonic,  in  the 
centre  and  E,  All  these,  together  with  the  remaining  branches 
of  the  Indo-European  famify  presently  spoken  in  Asia,  are  de- 
rived from  the  Sanscrit,  an  ancient,  copious,  and  highly-refined 
language,  spoken  at  a  very  remote  penod.  by  a  Japnetic  nation 
who  invaded  India  from  the  nortn-west,  driving  the  original 
inhabitants  either  to  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula,  or  to 
the  mountain-fastnesses  of  the  interior,  where  tney  continue  to 
speak  their  original  barbarous  tongues.  The  original  seat  of 
these  invaders  has  not  been  definitely  ascertained  ;  but  a  kin- 
dred tribe,  who  spoke  the  closely-allied  Zend  language,  were 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Bactria  (Persia) ;  and  boSi  were  pro- 
bably nearly  allied  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Celts,  Teutons,  Sclaves, 
and  Hellenes,  who,  before  the  dawn  of  history,  penetrated  into 
Europe  in  separate  bodies  and  at  diverse  times — ^thus  origi- 
nating the  four  groups  of  lan^ages  above  enumerated.  All 
these  languages  are  polysyllabic,  mghly  inflexional,  systemati- 
cally refined,  copious  in  their  vocabulary,  phonetic  (not  ideo- 
graphic) when  >vritten,  are  read  from  left  to  right,  and  bear 
many  other  indications  of  a  common  origin. 

Celtio  Languages. — Of  the  four  groups  now  enumerated,  the  Celtic 
appears  to  be  the  most  ancient.  It  differs  very  considerably  from  the 
Sanscrit,  and  more  from  each  of  the  other  three  groups  than  tbey 
differ  from  each  other.  Celtic  nations  formed  the  vanguard  of  the 
great  Japhetic  army  that,  before  the  dawn  of  history,  migrated  west- 
ward, and  became  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Europe.  For  the 
most  part  they  entered  that  continent  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Mediterranean  ;  ascended  the  Danube  and  Save  ;  settled  in  lllyria, 
the  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  France,  and  the  British  Isles  ; 
though  some  of  their  number  migrated  westward  along  the  south 
side  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  entered  Spain  by  the  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar. This  migration  occupied  many  centuries,  and  before  it  was 
concluded  the  main  body  became  divided  into  two  great  sections 


i 

I 


EUROPE.  87 

(the  Gatl  and  the  ST^/inrt),  wlio,  iu  the  coarse  of  ages,  cnme  to  apeak 
langoasea  unintelligible  to  ench  other,  thoogh  closely  allied  both 
fzlossanftllj  Dud  gr(imniB.ticall7.  These  are  the  Gaelic  and  the 
ETDuic ;  each  of  wMch,  in  the  course  of  time,  branched  off  inU 
Biree  dialects  (p,  lOfiJ  :— 

Oaelic  ov  Era  Bnmck,  laclndiog 
Irish,  spoken  in  Ireland. 
Scottish  Gaelic,  in  North  and  West  of  Scotland. 
Maox,  in  Isle  of  Man. 
Ej/mrit  Branch,  or  Andntt  Bntiih; 
Welsh,  in  the  principality  ot  Wales. 
Cornish,  in  Corawnll  (now  extinct). 
Breton  or  Annoric,  in  Bi'etagne. 
Anamt  ioco(t(ies.— Thougli  the  Coltio  languages  ore  now  conDned 
IU  the  British  Isles  and  the  north-western  comer  of  France,  they  were 
jpohen  at  one  time  OTer  a  large  portion  of  Europe.    At  tlie  oomnionce- 
ntent  of  the  Christian  era,  Celtic  nnd  Gothic  nations  divided  all  Western 
£QTope  between  them ;   and  were  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
Khine,  which  BtUl,  in  a  great  meaanre,  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
races,  though  not  between  the  languages.     For  a  lengtboaed  period  both 
branches  of  the  Celtic  have  been  diaappeu^ng  before  the  more  highly 
cultiTated  English  and  French.      Yet  they  are  highly  expressive  and 
ouphonioua  tongues ;  they  conie  down  to  us  ait  mouumeols  of  tho  most 
Temote  antiquity,  and  of  late  liave  become  objects  of  the  deepest  interest 
to  philologislSj  who  discover  in  them  most  precious  materials  for  iUus- 
tralmg  the  science  of  comparative  gmmmar.    From  five  to  six  millions 
ol  penons  preaently  speak  dialects  of  Geltio— viz.  Irish,  3,000,000  at 
htmie,  and  I,000.<H>U  abroad ;  Scottish  Gaelic,  400,000  !□  Scotland,  and 
100,000  in  the  colonies;  Welsh,  700,000  in  Wales,  and  50,000  in  the 
ciUes  of  Bagland  ;  Armoric,  800,000  in  France. 

Phi/nola/ttal  and,  Intetleeiual  CAarmfsr.— The  pnre  Celt  is  of  middle 
size  and  sjender  make ;  sallow  complexion ;  block  hair,  rarely  curled, 
bnt  turning  grey  at  an  early  age ;  grey  or  dark-brown  oyea ;  face  and  upper 
part  of  the  aknll  oval ;  chest  narrow  ;  legs  slightly  curved  innards ;  ftet 
anall;  temt^erament  bilicus,  or  bilious-nervous.  Quick  In  perception, 
with  great  powers  of  combination  and  application ;  sensitive,  proud, 
irasdble,  but  easily  calmed;  fond  of  equality,  society,  and  military 
glorr;  polite,  hospitable,  brave,  but  superstitious  ;  incautious  and  iiu- 
pmdent. 

Teutonic  Langnages. — These  bare  all  a  cloae  resemblance  to  each 
other,  both  in  tiieir  roots  and  inHi^ions,  and  are  intimately  allied  to 
the  Sanscrit.  Anciently  they  were  highly  inflexional,  like  the  Greco- 
Latin  family,  but  nov  employ  auzUiaries  for  the  conju^tion  of 
-  .Verb*  and  prepositions  for  the  infiexions  of  noana.  Though  not  so 
"    "    as  the  Greek,  or  even  the  Sclavonic  tongues,  they  are  bold, 

„ i,  andcai>able  of  expressing  all  shades  of  thoaght.     We  first 

jd  Teutonic  nations  in  the  region  S.  of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  the  eighth 
ntDT]''  before  Christ.  It  was  to  this  region  that  the  ten  laraelit- 
lll  tlibes  were  transported  by  the  King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  721.  In 
U  likelihood  the  two  peoples  amalgamated.  Then  commenced  their 
~  ■  t  nlisTation  westnard,  so  ably  delineated  by  Sharon  Turner  in 


88  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

his  •  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.'  Possessed  of  indomitable  energy 
and  force  of  character,  the  Teutonic  nations  either  subjugated  or 
drove  before  tiiem  such  Celtic  tribes  as  they  came  in  contact  with. 
In  the  fourth  century  they  overthrew  the  great  Roman  Empire, 
and  they  have  almost  invariably  been  able  to  retain  possession  of 
the  territories  they  have  once  acquired.  Their  deep  and  patient 
reflection  has  led  to  the  most  important  inventions  and  sublimest 
discoveries  of  modem  times,  as  the  watch,  gun,  steam-engine,  art 
of  printing,  and  the  law  of  gravitation ;  and  to  this  race  belong 
the  brightest  names  of  modem  science  and  literature,  as  Newton, 
Milton,  Shakespeare,  Bacon,  Luther,  Goethe,  Humboldt,  and  Liebig. 
The  Teutonic  languages,  like  the  Celtic,  branch  off  into  two  main 
sections. 

Oerman  Branch,  including 

German,  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  United  States. 
Dutch,  in  the  Netherlands  and  Cape  Colony. 
Flemish,  in  the  North  of  Belgium  and  N.  Brabant. 
English,  in  British  Isles,  British  Colonies,  and  United  States. 

Scnndmavum  Branch,  including 

loelandio,  in  Iceland. 
Faroese,  in  the  Faroe  Isles. 
Norse,  in  Norway  and  Denmark. 
Swedish^  in  Sweden. 
Scotch,  m  Lowlands  of  Scotland. 

JSxtinct  Langttages  of  this  Class. — Gothic,  Alemannic,  Old  Saxon, 
and  Anglo-Saxon,  the  last  of  which  is  the  parent  and  basis  of  the 
modem  English. 

Ancient  Localities. — Media,  Germany,  between  the  Rhine  and  Elbe ; 
the  southern  part  of  Scandinavia ;  Bulgaria  and  Servla.  The  Teutonic 
tribes  that  most  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Middle  Ages  were,  the 
Franks,  Burgundians,  Alemans,  and  Visi-Goths,  in  Gaul ;  Gfoths,  Longo- 
bards,  and  Hemli,  in  Italy ;  Vandals  and  Ostro-Goths,  in  Spain;  Angles, 
Jutes,  and  Saxons,  in  England. 

Physioloffical  Character. — ^Above  middle  size,  and  disposed  to  coipu- 
lency ;  chest  broad ;  bones  thick ;  legs  straight ;  feet  often  huge  and 
clumEHT ;  great  strength  of  muscle ;  fair  complexion,  with  flaxen,  reiddish, 
or  golden-coloured  hair ;  large  blue  eyes ;  ruddy  cheeks ;  broad,  high 
brow ;  skull  larger  and  rounder  than  the  Celtic  variety ;  temperament 
sanguine  and  phlegmatic 

InteUecttud  and  Moral  Charader. — Slow  but  accurate  in  perception ; 
great  depth  and  penetration  of  mind,  but  not  so  sparkling  and  bnlliant 
as  the  Celt ;  strong  desii*e  for  personal  independence  and  political  self- 
government;  cautious,  reserved,  and  provident;  hospitaole.  but  not 
very  sociable ;  fond  of  titles  and  social  distinctions ;  haughty,  over- 
bearing disposition,  and  reckless  of  the  rights  of  other  nations ;  sincere: 
forgetful  of  injuries ;  skilful  seamen ;  fond  of  spirituous  liquors ;  great 
musical  talent. 

Sclavonio  Languages. — This  family  of  languages  belongs  to  the 
centre  and  east  of  Europe.    With  the  exception  of  Hnngaiy,  Mol-  ' 
davia,  and  Wallachia,  they  extend  without  interrnptioii  £ci>m  thtt 


I 

I 


EUROPE.  89 

filack  Sea  to  tlie.  Baltio,  and  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Yenisei ;  they 
(icaup7  more  than  a.  third  part  of  Europe,  and  are  spolcea  by  about 
70,000,000  of  people.  Though  not  immediately  doriyed  from  the 
Sanaciit,  thej  bear  to  it  a  very  close  affinity,  and  resemble  it  more 
neatly  than  any  other  Indo-European  family,  esceptthe  Greco-Latin 
and  Indian  branches.  They  are  distinguiphed  by  the  lichneas  of  their 
TDcaholary,  by  their  fjreat  abundance  of  aynonyms,  and  by  their 
numerans  inflesiona,  irhich  are  placed  bnth  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  nords.  The  laat-mentionEd  property  imparts  to  them  a  great 
facility  of  creating  from  each  radical  an  extraordinary  number  of 
derivatiTes  ;  from  uatiTe  roots  tboy  easily  form  all  tboae  technical 
and  Bciontifie  terms  n-bich  the  languanea  of  Weatem  Europe  derive 
Iromthe  Greet  and  Latin.  In  the  number  of  their  declensions,  tensea. 
Bad  participles,  they  excel  all  other  European  languages  ;  and  they 
posaesa  such  expressiveness  and  energy  that  they  are  capable  ofre- 
preaecting  every  object  of  the  imagination  in  a  manner  not  inferior 
to  the  most  highly 'Cultivated  modern  tonguee.  The  inferior  eEtimate 
usually  formed  of  their  euphony  and  sonoronBuees  mainly  arises  from 
the  attempt  to  express  in  Itoman  letters  sounds  that  are  wholly 
peculiar  to  the  Sclavonic  languages.  Like  the  two  former  families, 
the  Solavonio  tongues  are  arranged  under  two  brauehes. 
•SaK&-Eailxrji  Brandt,  including 

Husaian,  in  the  great  plain  of  North-Eaatem  Europe. 

Ruasmak,  in  Galicia.  Hungary,  Volhynln,  Podolia. 

Balgoriim,  Senian,  Dalmatian,  CroatiaQ,  Bosnian— all  in  the  basin 
of  the  Lower  Danube,  and  on  the  Drave  and  Have. 

Weodiah,  middle  of  Lower  Germany. 

JV'ortA-  Weilem  Branch- 
Polish,  in  Poland,  on  the  Vistula  and  Siemen. 
Bohemian,  or  Tchelihian,  in  Bohemia  and  Muravla. 


A  nia,  Vaitdah,  Fenrti,  and  FeiuSi,  all  of  whom  were  descendanta  of  the 
ancient  Sarmnts.  In  the  stith  century  of  our  era  they  began  to  ascend 
the  basin  of  the  Danube,  and  to  form  aettlements  on  both  aides  of  that 
river :  since  then  they  are  frequently  mentioned  by  tbs  Byzantine  histo- 
riam  aa  performing  an  important  put  in  European  history. 

fhytiologicai  Character. — In  stature  stout,  broad,  and  squat-built ; 
Deck  short  and  thick ;  bardy  in  constitution,  with  strong  hooes  and 
(todght  muscular  limbs ;  coraplaiion  sallow,  forming  a  mean  between 
tha  Gothic  and  Celtio  races  ;  eyes  erey  or  hazel-brown,  and  deeplv  set  in 
tha  head  ;  hair  bristly,  dark,  of  dinecent  abades,  and  rarely  cnrled;  skull 
and  faoQ  square  and  angnlar ;  chsek-bonea  promiuent ;  brow  low,  and  tlie 
bail  growmg  far  down  on  it ;  temperament  phlegmatic,  or  sanguine- 
IhIIous. 


90  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Tntelleetucd  and  Moral  Character. — Great  mechanical,  musical,  and 
imitative  talent ;  frank  and  open  when  in  the  enjoyment  of  freedom,  but 
cunning,  deceitful,  and  revengeful  when  subjected;  their  statesmen  be- 
come admirable  diplomatists ;  originally  leading  a  nomadic  life,  they  are 
still  attached  to  the  patriarchal  form  of  government ;  blindly  obedient  to 
their  sovereign,  who  is  regarded  as  a  father ;  extremely  tenacious  of  the 
manners  and  prejudices  of  their  ancestors.  They  are  further  characterised 
by  a  want  of  cleanliness ;  by  their  love  of  lyrical,  and  especially  elegiac, 
song ;  and  above  all,  by  their  invincible  hatred  of;the  Teutonic  race,  who 
have  oppressed  them  for  a  thousand  years,  as  well  as  by  their  long- 
cherished  aspirations  after  Pansclavism. 

Greco-Latin  Langnages. — ^These  comprehend  all  the  languages 
derived  from  the  ancient  classical  tongues  of  Greece  and  Borne.  They 
are  spoken  over  the  entire  south  of  Europe,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Dniester,  and  from  the  southern  limits  of  Germany  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean— ^with  the  exception  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Hellenic 
peninsula,  the  Basque  Provinces,  and  Bretagne.  All  the  larger 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  except  Malta,  are  peopled  by  nations 
speaking  Greco-Latin  tongues.  The  origin  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins, 
in  common  with  that  of  tne  Celts,  Goths,  and  Sclaves,  is  lost  in  the 
darkness  of  the  pre-historic  period.  Modem  ethnographic  science, 
however,  leaves  little  doubt  that  the  two  nations  referred  to  were, 
respectively,  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  Italy ;  that  they 
stood  to  each  other  in  the  closest  affinity,  both  of  them  being  the 
immediate  descendants  of  the  Pelasgi,  who  appear  to  have  formed 
the  first  great  wave  of  population  that  broke  on  the  shores  of  south- 
eastern Europe,  and  tnat  permanently  covered  Asia  Minor,  Thrace, 
Macedonia,  Greece,  and  Italy.  This  migration  probably  took  place 
about  2000  B.C.,  but  was  succeeded  by  numerous  similar  migrations 
of  the  same  stock  of  nations  (including  the  Hellenes,  who  were  no 
doubt  nearly  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the  Pelasgi)  down  to  1350 
B.C.  In  subsequent  centuries  other  great  bodies  of  colonists  appear 
to  have  entered  Europe  from  other  parts  of  Asia,  forming  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Celtic,  Teutonic,  and  Sclavonic  nations ;  but  the  Pela^ 
formed,  from  the  very  first,  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  of  Itaty 
and  Greece.  The  part  of  A^sia  from  which  the  Pelasgi  set  out  appears 
to  have  been  Korthem  India ;  for  the  Sanscrit,  the  ancient  and  sacred 
language  of  India,  has  a  marked  and  very  decided  affinity  to  both 
Greek  and  Latin.  The  Greek,  especially,  is  more  closely  allied  to  the 
Sanscrit  than  any  other  European  tongue.  In  some  respects,  how- 
ever, the  Latin  sui*passe3  the  Greek  in  retaining  the  features  of  its 
venerable  parent,  and  it  is  in  no  way  to  be  regarded  as  a  descendant, 
far  less  a  corraption,  of  the  language  of  Greece.  They  are  sister- 
tongues,  deriving  from  their  common  parent  every  feature  in  which 
they  resemble  each  other ;  but  exhibiting  many  differences,  arising 
from  the  different  fortunes  of  each.* 

*  For  the  precise  relation  in  which  the  two  ancient  classical  tongues  stand  to 
each  other,  we  may  refer  to  Bopp's '  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Indo-European 
Languages ; '  to  Latham,  *  On  the  English  Language ; '  and  (what  is  more  in- 
teresting and  satisfactory  than  either) to  the  article  "  Language"  in  the  *  Fenny 
Cyclopsedia.' 


EUROPE.  91 

I    Ortil,  or  Eattern  BiimrJi— 

Ancient  Greek— Spokan  in  Greeca  fiom  the  Earliest  times,  and  afl*r- 

vrarda  in  numerous  other  countries. 
Modem  Greek  or  Romaic— Greece,  the  ArcMpalaEO,  and  parts  of  Die 
Tnrkish  Enjpira. 
liOiin,  or  Western  Bra-tek — 
^K  ^cient  Iiatin — Now  a  dead  language,  ivas  tlie  original  langni^  of 

^h  Ttaly,  and  afteroards  spread  over  lie  greater  port  of  Uie  Bmoan. 


Empire. 

Italian — Italy,  part  of  Switzerland,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  &0. 

Spanish — Spain,  Canaria,  Cuba,  Mexico,  Spaniih  Aiuriea,  Philip- 
pine liUi,  &c. 

PortngnaBB— Portagal,  Madeira,  Ainres,  Brnat,  io. 

French — ftance,  (mannel  Isles,  parts  of  Belgium  and  Bwitzerland, 
Lovee  Canadii,  LouirUinfi,  A  Ipsria,  W.  ladies,  fi^enj^h  GuiaMa, 

Willachian— Wallachia,  Uoldavis,  Bessarabia,  TnmsylTania. 


Aneient  Lecalitia. — No  other  language,  ancient  or  modem,  has  bean 
TO  widely  diffused  ss  tlie  Greek,  cseept  Arabic  and  Englisli.  Gm««, 
'  na  Minor,  Macedoaia,  Thsasaly,  and  Epims  were  its  earlieat  eeats  :  it 

w  difioaed  by  the  early  Greek  colonies  along  both  eides  of  the  Mediter- 

-  ■  1,  m  Cjrene,  SyrBcnsB,  Tarentum,  and  Srajrna  ;  was  extended  by 
nder  and  his  enccessDis  to  a  large  portion  of  WEstem  Asia,  inclnd- 

ig  AeitL  Minor,  Syria,  and  the  cities  of  Palestine  ;  and  was  Epoken  in 
manj  parts  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies.  The  conquest  of  Greece  hy 
the  R(nnanB,  B.O.  146,  tended  still  further  to  its  difioBlon,  while  luider 
tha  C^eaari  it  was  more  erteneively  oultivateil  than  at  any  fonuer  time. 
Alter  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  and  the  extinction  of  learning  in 
tlui  West,  Greek  Lt«rature  and  plulosophy  found  an  asylum  in  Constan- 
tbMipie,  till  that  city  was  taken  by  the  lurks,  A.I).  1463  ;  at  which  tima 
it  erased  to  be  spoken  in  its  purity  anywhere.  It  utill,  however,  re- 
mained a  living  languid  in  its  original  home  ;  and  even  to  this  day  the 
modem  Grcfllca  can  peruse  with  comparative  ease  the  pToductions  of 
Homer,  Xenophon,  and  Demosthenes.  In  short,  ithaaiemainedaliviug 
loJ^ni^  for  the  aatoniahing  period  of  3000  years.  The  Latin,  in  like 
manner,  was  the  principal  language  of  Italy  from  the  earlieat  times.  As 
the  Bomao  power  extended,  it  hecame  more  and  mora  widely  diffused,  in 
many  cases  mingling  with  and  remoulding  tho  dialects  of  Uie  conquered 
nstlonB,  and  thus  originating  the  modem  languages  of  Sonthem  Europe. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Boinan  Empire  It  ceased  to  be  a  spokeu  language, 
but  during  the  lengthened  period  of  the  miridle  ages  it  continued  to 
maintain  its  supremacy  as  the  langua^  of  llteniture,  philosophy,  legis- 
lation, and  religion.  Since  the  eatabUshiiient  of  the  papal  hierarchy  to 
■'■■-■-  ant  day,  it  has  maintained  its  place  as  the  liturgical  languago  of 
iah  Church  ;  and  it  ifl  stOl  eitensively  cultivated  by  every  civUiaed 
m  account  of  the  treasures  contained  in  the  vast  repoeitones  of  Its 

■n  Lai^vagee  helmrning  to  tkii  Slaci. — The  Romaic  differs  little 
re  &oia  ancient  Greek  tten  some  of  the  dialects  of  that  language  dif- 
)d  tnm  each  other ;  and  the  changes  that  have  ariaon  are  more  per- 
lUble  In  the  grammar  than  in  the  vocabulary.  Ttie  mahi  differences 
' '~"~g  between  the  various  languages  of  the  Koman  branch  arise 


92 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUV. 


mainly  from  the  different  character  of  the  languages  spoken  in  these 
localities  before  the  Latin  was  engrafted  on  the  original  stock.  Italian^ 
Spanish,  and  French  have  diverged  from  the  parent  stem  far  more  widely 
than  the  Romaic  from  the  ancient  Greek.  The  French  has  effected  the 
widest  separation,  and  the  Italian  and  Spanish  the  least ;  while  the  Por- 
tuguese may  be  regarded  as  almost  a  dialect  of  the  Spanish,  the  two 
languages  being  radically  identical.  Though  the  basis  of  the  Wallachian 
is  altered  Latin,  about  one-half  of  its  words  are  derived  from  Greek, 
Turkish,  and  Sclavonlan  sources.  The  Albanian  is  so  different  from  every 
other  member  of  this  family  that  it  seems  doubtful  whether  it  can  claim 
a  place  among  them.  It  contains  the  remains  of  a  language  now  long 
extinct,  but  which  probably  formed  a  connecting-link  between  various 
families  of  tongues,  more  especially  between  the  Greco -Latin  and 
Sclavonic 

III.  Religions  op  Europe. — These,  thougli  extremely  nu- 
merous, may  all  be  reduced  to  three  classes,  which  harmonise 
in  a  very  remarkable  manner  with  the  races  and  groups  of  lan- 
guages above  described.  The  Caucasian  race  are  Christians ; 
the  Mongolian  race.  Heathens ;  while  the  Turks,  who  form  a 
connecting-link  between  these  races,  profess  Mohammedanism — 
a  religion  which  equally  connects  Christianity  with  Paganism  ; 
and  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  Teutonic  nations  have  em- 
braced Protestantism — ^that  is,  Christianity  reformed  from  the 
abuses  of  centuries  ;  the  Celtic  and  Greco-Latin  nations  profess 
Catholicism  ;  while  those  speaking  Sclavonic  tongues  belong  to 
the  Greek  Church. 

To  the  latter  generalisation,  however,  there  are  some  important 
exceptions  ;  because  language  does  not  strike  so  deeply  into  the  roots 
of  humanity  as  race  does.  Language  shares  in  the  fortunes  of  the 
nation  that  speaks  it,  and  is  subject  to  numberless  vicissitudes; 
while  the  stamp  derived  from  race  remains  indelible  for  ages. 
Accordingly  we  find  considerable  sections  of  the  Celtic  nations  be- 
coming Protestants,  as  the  Scottish  Gael  and  the  Welsh ;  Austria, 
though  speaking  a  Teutonic  language,  largely  professes  OathoUcism  ; 
the  Magyars,  a  Mongolian  race,  and  speaking  a  Mongolian  language, 
are  to  a  large  extent  Protestants  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  Greece, 
instead  of  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholic,  are  stanch  adherents 
of  the  Greek  Church.  The  following  table  shows  the  estimated 
numbers  belonging  at  present  to  the  different  races  and  religious 
denominations  of  Europe :— 


BaC£. 

Religiok. 

Celtic,  pure  and  mixed  . 
Teutonic         do. 
Sclavonic        do. 
Mongolian  and  Tartar    . 
Jewish    .        .        .        . 
Gypsies,  Ac.  . 

80,000,000 

103,000,000 

72,000,000 

28,000,000 

4,400,000 

1,249,000 

Bonian  Catholic     .        .  140,000,000 
Greek  Church         .        .    68,000,000 
Protestant              .        .    68.600,000 
Mohammedan  &  Heathen    6,600,000 
Jews,      ....      4,400,000 
Gypsies,  &c.  .       .        .      1,149,000 

Total  of  Europe,      . 

288,649,000 

288,649,000 

H                            THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

■*    The  Britiali  Empire  ia  the  largest,  the  most  powetfiil,  and 

■  with  one  eiception,  the  moat  populoua  on  the  surface  of  the 

■  'Carth.    In  extent  of  territorj  it  even  exceeds  the  BusEion  Em- 
r  pire ;  in  point  of  popidation  it  is  eeooiid  only,  to  the  Chinese  , 

■while  in  wealth,  civilisation,  and  moral  influence,  it  has  no 
rival.    Its  ma^tude,  however,  will  be  more  eaaOy  realised  hy 
comparing  it  with  the  other  largest  states  in  both  hemispheres 
According  to  the  most  recent  statistics,  the  dates  of  which  are 
giTen  ill  detail  in  the  following  table,  the  area  of  the  BritiBh 
Empire,  inclnding  the  Protected  Statea  of  India,  amounts  to 

next  largest  empire  is  that  of  £iis^ia,  which  has  an  area  of 
nearly  8,000,000  eq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  83,260,000 ;  the 
area  of  the  Chinese  Empire  is  estimated  at  4,423,000  sq.  m.,  and 
the  popniation  at  435,000,000  ;  while  the  fourth  in  size  ia  the 
United  States  of  America,  with  an  area  (including  Alaska)  o 

■Ve  include  the  Tributary  States  of  India,  the  Empire  embraces 
1  full  sixth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  and  a  Sfth  of  tho 

Table  of  Bkitish  PosaESSiONS. 

Niuna 

Capitol. 

Englisll 
sq.m. 

in  ISTl. 

Britiah  Isles  or  United  1 

nSiS.  .  *. 

Qibraliar,      . 

Malta,   .... 

London 
VBletta 
Calcutti 

as? 

Victoria 

122,550 

G 

2 

142 

31,817.108 

1,913 

25,218 

149,084 

Total  in  Europe,  •     . 

122,699 

31,993,321 

Aden  and  Perim.   . 
Britah  India  [18721,      . 
Protected  St«tes,  , 
Straits  Settlemeuts,       . 

Hong  Kong,  . 

20 

»0i,D49 

648,695 

1,208 

2i,i5i 

32 

45 

29.730 

190,663,048 

48,267,900 

308,097 

ai05,287 

124  193 

4:898 

1 

Total  in  Asia, 

1,476.B01  [241,703,168 

1 

:■  •ForCTPnn,u™HdtoUieBritisJj»iJplreiElBT8,ieepp.S6(lMii«». 

«l 

94 


POLITICAL  6E0GKAPHT. 


Name. 

Capital 

Area  in 

English 

sq.  m. 

Popnlfttion 
inlSTL 

Oambia, 

Bathurst 

21 

14,190 

Sierra  Leone, 

Freetown 

468 

38,681 

Gold  Coast  and  Lagos,  . 

Lagos 

11,000 

582,091 

Cape  Colony,  includ-'\ 

ing  British  Kafraria,  f 
Basntnland,  Griqua*  f 

Capetown 

218,410 

720,000 

land  West,  1875,       ) 

Natal,    .... 

Pietermaritzburg 

11,172 

298,832 

Mauritius,  Amirantes,  ) 
Seychelles,  &c.   .       ) 

Port-Louis,  &c. 

708 

330,460 

St  Helena  and  Ascen-  )^ 
sion,                          j 

Total  in  Africa, 
Dominion  of  Canada — \ 

Jamestown,  &c. 

82 

6,268 

241,861 

1,985,622 

Canada,  Nova  Sco- 

tia, New  Bninswick, 

Prince  Edward  Is- 
land,   British    Col-  / 

Ottawa 

3,513,325 

3,718,745 

tunbia,     Manitoba, 

and  N.   W.   Terri- 
tory,                        / 
Newfoundland, 

St  John's 

40,200 

146,536 

Bermudas,     . 

Hamilton 

24 

15,809 

British  Honduras, 

Balize 

13,500 

24,710 

West  India  Islands, 

Spanish  Town,  &c 

13,109 

1,061,040 

British  Guiana, 

George  Town 

76,000 

193,491 

Falkland  Isles, 

Total  in  America,     . 

New  South  Wales  (1874), 

Stanley  Harbour 

Sydney 
Melbourne 

6,600 

803 

3,662,758 

5,160,634 

323,437 

503,981 

Victoria  (1874),      . 

86.831 

729,868 

South  Australia  (1874), 

Adelaide 

383,328 

188,995 

West  AustraUa  (1874),  . 

Perth 

978,000 

24,785 

Queensland  (1874), 
North  Australia  (unco- ) 
Ionised),                    j 

Brisbane 

678,000 

160,000 

623,531 

Tasmania  (1874),   . 

Hobart  Town 

26,215 

98,455 

New  Zealand  (1874),      . 

Wellington 

106,259 

340,000 

Aukland  &  Norfolk  Isles, 

166 

481 

Fiji  Isles, 

Total  in  Oceania, 

Total  British  Empire, 

8,034 

148,040 

3,118,801 

2,194,605 

8,617,620 

283,037,240 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLES. 

Position  and  Boundariea. — The  British  IbIgb,  or  United 
Kingdom,  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  form  an  extensive  arclit- 
pelago  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  at  a  email  distance  &oni 
the  western  ahorea  of  Central  Enrope,  from  whinh  it  is  aeya- 
rated  hv  the  Nortli  Sen,  the  Strait  of  Dover,  and  the  Englisk 
Channel.  It  consists  of  two  large  islanda^Great  Britain,  ajid 
Ireland — and  of  nboat  6500  smaller  ialanda  and  rocks.  Of 
these,  600  are  contiguous  to  Great  Britain,  and  5000  to  Ireland, 
At  the  date  of  the  last  general  census,  only  420  of  them  were 
fovmd  inhabited — 175  of  which  were  adjacent  to  Great  Britain, 
and  246  to  IteUnd. 

Fonn. — The  general  ontline  is  very  irregiiUr ;  hut  omitting  the 
Shetland,  Norman,  and  Scilly  Isles,  it  appi'oxiins.t«s  to  the  form  of 
a  scalene  triangle,  vrith  its  longest  side  turned  to  the  eRst,  and  its 
shortest  to  the  south.  The  group,  as  a  whole,  is  broken  up  into  n 
unmber  of  smsllec  ones,  which  aminge  themselves,  either  singly  or 
in  clusters,  aronad  the  larger  islands.  Thus,  Great  Britain  is  sur- 
roandfld  by  the  Otkoey  and  Shetland  lalea,  the  Outer  and  lunar 
Hebrides,  Bute  and  Arran,  Isle  of  Man.  Anoleaaa,  Seilly  Tales,  and 
Isle  of  Wight;  while  Ireland  is  in  like  mannar  accompanied  by 
Bathlin  Island,  Tony  Island,  Arraomare,  AchU  Island,  Clare  Islam!, 
Valencia,  and  Cape  Clear.  The  east  coast  of  Great  Britain  is  singu. 
Inriy  destitute  of  Islands ;  and  the  arrangement  into  clusMrs  is  mors 
Dharaeteristio  of  the  British  than  of  the  Irish  Islands. 

Aisa  and  DtmenBtani. — Situated  between  49"  13'  and  SO*  iV  K., 
and  between  1°  46'  E.  and  10°  Sff  W.  Ion.,  the  entire  archipelago  oo- 
ciipieBlli''of  laC  and  12i°Ion.  The  trapezium  formed  by  thepaial. 
lela  and  meridians  that  pass  through  its  extreme  points  is  thus  3D0 
milea  lone,  from  north  to  Bouth,  with  an  avenigB  breadth  of  490 
miles.  The  square  content  of  this  trapezium  is  about  392,000  square 
miles,  but  more  than  two-thirds  of  it  is  covered  with  water ;  ana.  the 
actual  area  of  the  land  is  only  I22,BB0  square  miles,  or  Jf  of  the 
area  of  continental  Europe.  Great  Britain  is  the  largest  island  in 
Europe,  and  the  seventh  largest  in  the  world,  being  only  exceeded 
by  Anstralia,  Berueo,  Papua,  Sumatra,  Niphon,  and  Madagascar. 
Its  length  is  60S  miles,  breadth  280  ;  area  83,826  sq.  mOea,  or.  in- 
duding  the  adjaceot  islands,  90,033  aq.  miles  =  58,000,000  imperial 
acres,  or  ^  part  of  Enrope. 

Extrems  Points. — Unst,  in  Shetland,  is  the  most  northern  part 

of  the  British  archipelago ;  Jersey,  in  the  Channel  Isles,  the  most 

■onthem  ;  Lowestoft  Ness,  in  Suffolk,  the  most  esstcm ;  and  Bias- 

Hint  I.,  in  Kerry,  the  most  western. 

f  The  lODBBrt  day  in  Jeisey  is  three  hours  shorter  than  m  Shetlaud, 


96  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

where,  at  the  summer  solstice,  it  is  19  hours  long.  Here  a  "bright  twi- 
light continues  all  night,  and  books  of  a  small  type  may  be  easily  read  at 
midnight.  The  sun  rises  on  the  E.  coast  of  England  49  minutes  earlier 
than  on  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland.  Greenwich  time,  therefore,  which  is 
now  followed  on  all  the  railways  of  Great  Britain,  would  be  greatly  at 
fault  if  extended  to  the  sister  island. 

Comparative  Position. — The  parallel  of  latitude  which  passes 
through  Unst,  in  the  extreme  N.  of  the  archipelago,  proceeds  east- 
ward through  Christiania,  Stockholm,  St  Petersburg,  and  Yakutsk ; 
and  westward  across  C.  Farewell  in  Greenland,  and  Mount  St  Elias 
in  Alaska;  the  parallel  of  Jersey  in  the  extreme  S.  proceeds  east- 
ward to  Paris  and  Vienna ;  and  westward  along  the  northern  boun* 
dary  of  the  United  States  :  while  the  central  parallel  of  55"  passes 
over  Londonderry,  Newcastle,  Copenhagen,  Moscow,  Tomsk,  and 
Nain  in  Labrador.  The  central  meridian  (of  4°  23'  W.)  runs  con- 
siderably to  the  east  of  the  FarSe  group,  through  Anglesea  and  Corn- 
wall, between  Brest  and  Madrid,  and  1**  E.  of  Gibraltar. 

Population. — In  1801,  the  year  of  our  first  regular  census,  the 
population  of  the  British  Isles  amounted  to  15,942,646.  By  the 
census  of  1871,  the  population  amounted  to  31,817,108,  being  one- 
tenth  of  the  population  of  Europe,  or  259  persons  to  each  sq.  m. 
Thus,  while  in  the  United  States  the  population  doubles  itself  in 
25  years,  in  the  United  Kingdom  it  scarcely  doubles  itself  in  70 
years.  This  comparatively  slow  rate  of  increase  arises  from 
various  causes,  the  principal  of  which  have  been  emigration  and 
famine.  In  the  year  last  named,  the  population  of  Eneland  was 
22,704,108;  that  of  Scotland,  3,360,018;  and  that  of  Ireland, 
6,402,759. 

An  immense  tide  of  emigration  is  constantly  leaving  our  shores.  In 
1867  there  emigrated  from  the  British  Isles,  195,953 — or  537  per  day.  Of 
these,  159,000  went  to  the  United  States^  14,000  to  Australia^  and  15,600 
to  British  America.  Since  the  year  ISlo,  the  number  of  emigrants  from 
the  United  Kingdom  has  amounted  to  6,302,345 ;  while  in  the  ten  years 
1858-67,  it  averaged  162,000  per  annum.  The  destruction  of  the  potato 
crop  in  1846-7,  and  the  consequent  famine  in  Ireland  and  the  Hignlands 
of  Scotland,  had  a  mighty  effect  in  reducing  the  population.  In  Ireland 
alone  it  is  estimated  that  1,000,000  of  the  people  died  of  famine  and 
disease  in  two  years,  while  a  million  more  emigrated.  In  Great  Britain 
alone  the  population  has  more  than  doubled  during  the  last  half-oentury. 
In  1801  it  was  10,578,000,  including  the  adjacent  islands;  it  is  now 
26,062,721.  This  gives  289  persons  to  every  sq.  m.,  and  2f  acres  of  land 
to  every  person.  This  dense  population  is  equally  divided  between  town 
and  country,  there  being  about  124  millions  in  each.  The  number  of 
cities,  county  towns,  and  market  towns  in  the  island  is  815,  of  which  580 
are  in  England  and  Wales,  with  an  average  population  of  17,300 ;  and  225 
in  Scotland,  with  an  average  population  of  8000. 

Climate.— As  compared  with  other  countries  of  the  same  latitude, 
the  climate  of  the  British  Isles,  though  variable,  is  remarkably  mild 
and  salubrious.  There  is  no  country  in  Europe  where  a  working 
man  can  prosecute  his  employment  out  of  doors  for  a  greater  number 
of  days  in  the  year,  or  of  hours  in  the  day.  Surrounded  by  the 
ocean  on  all  sides,  and  having  a  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream  flowing 


THE    RRITISH    ISLES.  07 

■loug  its  western  sbores,  the  Bemi  iiiinual  temporature  is  greatly 
liigher  than  its  geographital  position  in  tlie  middle  of  tlie  North 
Tetnpomts  Zona  would  iudicato.  Or  the  six  isothermal  nones  inlo 
■which  thfl  meteorologist  divides  onr  hemiBphBre — viz.,  the  oqua- 
torial,  WBm,  mild,  cool,  cold,  and  friffid — the  United  Eingdoni  is 
I  ritnatad  ia  that  one  which,  on  the  whole,  is  most  desirable. 

1  bounded  by 
mean  annnal 
ipentnre  of  49°.  The  mean  teinperatnrfl  of  Unst,  in  ShetlBiid,  Is 
.7,  and  of  Penzance  in  Coruwail,  o3°;  thus  showing  a  difference  of 
in  annnal  temperature  between  the  two  estreraitiBs  of  the  amhipelago 
7*  Fahr.,  and  a  general  average  for  the  whole  of  iS".?.  In  no  other 
— ' —  either  in  the  Old  or  New  World,  does  so  Sigh  a  mean  tompeni- 

Sond  with  so  hi^h  a  latitude.  For  Biample,  Edmbureh,  Mos- 
lin  in  Labrador,  are  situated  nearly  on  the  same  panilie] :  bnt 
-while  the  mean  temperature  of  Edinburgh  is  17°.13,  at  Uoacow  it  is  40°, 
Bud  at  Nsin  27°.S.  Hence  it  appeals  that  the  Britisli  Isles  possess  a  mean 
temparature  of  7°  higher  than  correapondiDg  latitudes  on  the  eastern,  and 
of  90*  higher  than  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  western  coocinent. 
The  winter  teifiperatura  is  slil]  more  dissimilar,  being  at  Edinburgh 
38°,16,  at  Moscow  15°.e,  and  at  Nain  3°. 7.  Our  winter  is  therefore  33° 
Tiia.  warmer  t);an  at  Moscow,  and  Sfi"  warmer  than  in  the  corresponding 
latitude  of  the  eastern  side  of  North  America. 

The  lutherm  of  SO*,  which  nearly  expresses  the  mean  annual  tempei- 
mture  of  the  British  leles,  in  no  part  of  the  world  attains  eo  high  a  fati- 
tnda  aa  in  Ireland,  where  it  ascends,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  nearly  ■ 
to  the  paxallel  otDublin,  in  lat  63°  21'.  From  this  ^mt  it  rapidly  de- 
icenda  m  its  passage  eastward  and  westward— in  the  tormer,  passing  near 
London  61°  am,  Paria  48°  SO',  Vienna  48°  13',  Astrakhan  16°  13',  and 
P«kin39°68';  and  in  the  latter.  New  York  41° 6',  and  the  mouth  ufthe 
Colombia  46°.  These  places  are,  on  an  averse,  8^°,  and  one  of  them 
(Pflkin)  no  less  than  13^°,  farther  south  than  Dublin.  So  great,  indeed, 
is  the  inBuence  of  onr  insular  situation,  of  our  mild  westerly  winds,  and 
of  the  general  drainage  and  cultivation  of  our  soil,  that  the  British  Isles 
are  fully  as  healthy  as  any  country  in  the  world,  and  onr  vegetation  un- 
rivalled under  the  same  degree  of  latitude.  Not  only  is  our  mean  tem- 
Cture  very  high,  but  the  ransi  of  Itmperatyri  is  very  small ;  the  dif- 
ice  between  the  temperature  of  the  hottest  and  coldest  mouths  being 
only  about  34°,  while  at  Berlin  it  is  38°,  and  at  Moscow  and  St  Pete:«- 
bnrg  no  less  than  57°.    Hence  we  are  exempted  from  those  v'  '"' 


iniurions  to  health  and  to  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
in  Ireland  the  >— — ■  ' -■ "- " 


Accordingly,  v  .         „  ,      . 

ur  aa  in  Portugal,  com  will  not  ripen  in  Labrador  under  the  same  lati< 
tude,  and  only  hardy  kitchen  vegetablea  can  be  raised.  Summer,  in 
the  British  Isles,  comprises  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  Aof^st ; 
antnmn,  September,  October,  November,  and  tiie  first  half  of  Decem- 
ber; winter,  half  of  December,  Januai?,  February,  and  the  half  ol 
March  ;  and  spring,  the  latter  half  of  March,  April,  and  May.  July  ia 
the  hottest  month. 

The  Prevailing  Tinds  am  westerly  for  nine  months  of  the  year ;  but 
In  March,  April,  Slay,  and  Nov.  they  are  often  easterly  or  nortiierly,  and 
tW«  aaason  of  the  year  is  peculiarly  trying  to  invalids,  especially  to 
tbrae  afflicted  with  consumption.  Tlie  average  taH  of  Tain  over 
■Uie  mtlre  archipelago  is  above  40  in.,  but  it  ia  much  greater  on  the  W. 


98  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

than  on  the  E.  coast  of  both  Great  Britain  and  Ireland — the  mean  fall  of 
rain  on  tiie  east  coast  of  the  former  being  27.4  inches,  and  of  the  latter 
29.7  inches ;  while  on  the  west  coast  of  the  larger  island  it  is  45.5,  and 
of  the  smaller  47.4  inches.  The  average  number  of  rainy  days  on  the 
east  coast  is  165,  and  on  the  west  208.  This  great  difference  of  climate 
between  the  E.  and  W.  sides  arises  from  the  configuration  of  the  land 
and  the  general  prevalence  of  westerly  winds  charged  with  va^ur  from 
the  Atlantic.  These  winds,  striking  against  the  colder  mountam-ranges, 
lose  their  moisture  and  originate  nearly  all  the  principal  rivers  in  both 
islands.  In  some  parts  of  Westmoreland  and  Cumberland,  as  much  as 
100  inches  of  rain  fall  annually ;  at  Seathwaite,  in  the  latter  county,  the 
fall  amounts  to  141  inches ;  whereas  at  London,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  island,  it  is  only  24,  at  Cambridge  20,  Shields  26,  Edinburgh  25, 
and  Dubl^  80.8  inches.  The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the  S.  of  the 
archipelago  is  estimated  at  6334  feet,  on  the  central  parallel  5034  feet, 
and  in  Shetland  3818  feet. 

The  mean  Height  of  the  Barometer  at  London  at  sea  level  and  at 
32^  Fahr.  is  29.956  inches,  at  Glasgow  29.829  inches,  and  in  Orkney 
29.791  inches.  The  barometric  range  is  very  great,  especially  in  the 
N.  of  the  archipelago,  being  in  Orkney  3  inches.  The  varicUion  or 
declination  of  ike  magnetic  needle  is  much  greater  on  the  W.  coast  than 
on  the  E.  At  London  in  1580  the  needle  showed  an  E.  declination  of  IV 
36' ;  in  1663  it  was  at  zero.  From  that  year  it  gradually  tended  west- 
ward till  it  reached  its  maximum  declination  of  24°  41'  in  1818. 
Since  then  it  has  steadily  diminished,  being  22°  30^  in  1850,  and  20*16' 
W.  in  1868.  -Calculating  from  these  data  we  learn  that  in  our  country 
the  needle  makes  one  complete  oscillation  of  49"  22'  in  810  years.  The 
dip  or  inclination  undergoes  a  secular  variation  of  a  similar  land.  At 
London,  in  1820,  it  was  70°  3',  and  in  1868,  67°  54',  diminishing  by 
about  2'. 6  annually.  Lastly,  the  magnetic  intensity,  which  is  found  to 
increase  with  the  latitude,  is  at  London  1.372;  at  the  equator,  1.087; 
Naples,  1.274;  Paris,  1.348;  St  Petersburg,  1.410;  Spitzbei^en,  1.567. 

Geology.  —  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
British  Isles  is  occupied  by  sedimentary  and  fossiliferous  strata, 
ranging  from  the  Silurian  to  the  Tertiary.  Igneous  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks  prevail  mainly  in  Scotland — a  country  which  is 
also  characterised  by  the  preponderance  of  Silurian  strata,  by  the 
extent  and  importance  ol  its  newer  Palaeozoic  rocks,  embracing 
all  the  formations  from  the  Devonian  to  the  Permian,  and  by 
the  absence,  for  the  most  part,  of  strata  belonging  to  the  Mesozoic 
and  Tertiary  series. 

England  possesses  in  greatest  abundance  those  formations  of 
which  Scotland  is  most  destitute  ;  for  while  only  a  small  portion  of 
her  surface  is  covered  by  the  older  Palaeozoic — viz.,  the  north- 
western and  south-western  counties — the  Secondary  formations  are 
widespread  and  highly  developed,  as  are  also  the  newer  Palaeozoic 
strata,  to  which  her  unrivalled  coal-fields  belong.  The  Chalk  and 
Tertiary  series  are  mainly  confined  to  the  south-eastern  counties, 
especially  to  the  basins  of  the  Thames  and  Ouse.  The  Oolite,  Lias, 
and  Trias  occupy  nearly  all  the  remainder  of  the  country,  especially 
the  north-eastern  and  central  counties  from  the  eastern  frontier  of 


THE    BRITISH    ISLES,  99 

°  Wales  to  the  Noiili  Sea  ;  but  tho  north  of  England,  from  Dcrliy  to 
Berwiuk,  id  covered  with  the  Coal-measures  and  tho  Ciirboaiferoiia 
limestone.  WaJea  conaists,  for  the  moat  part,  nf  Silurian  and 
DevaDiBit  Btrsta,  hut  tlie  Coal-measures  in  the  south  Ota  extensive 
tuid  valnable. 

A.  most  intflroBting  cin^aniBtAnee  connected  with  the  geology  of  Eog- 
Und  and  Wales,  and  one  which  will  ^eatly  facilitate  the  mastering  of  the 


details,  is  the  order  in  which  the  diffen  . 
ciidly  in  the  broadest  part  of  the  kingdom.  Supposioe  a  geologist  (o  set 
oat  from  the  Cambrian  rooks  of  the  west  want  of  PemlirokeahirB,  and  to 
lavel  eastward  till  he  arrives  at  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  Norfoll:,  he  will 
o  passed  in  review  all  the  systems  and  formations  of  the  entire  fos- 
IB  series,  and  that,  too,  precisely  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
,  .,  d  in  geological  treotiaea,  or  in  which  they  would  he  seen  were  a 
■wmplEte  geoloracal  section  of  the  earth's  crust  pi'Bsenlfld  to  his  viewl 
^^iB  order  would  ho  precisely  the  sams  should  ho  make  another  escuision 
Irom  Berwick  to  London  along  the  coast,  or  even  in  a  direct  line,  save 
that  a  few  of  tho  lower  terms  of  the  series  would  be  wanting.  Probably 
there  is  no  coautry  in  the  world,  of  equal  extent,  in  which  a  siniilar  snc- 
cesilon  conld  he  fomid. 

Ireland  ia  essentially  a  Palaeozoic  country.  Carhoniferous  lime- 
itone  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  surface,  and  the  Silurian  nad 
Devonian  the  remainder ;  only  that  sjiteDslve  tracts  of  trap  and 
granite  prevail  atone  the  coasts  —  the  former  covering  the  entire 
north-east  of  ITlater  between  the  Lagan  and  Lough  Foyle,  and  the 
latter  the  greater  part  of  the  counties  Wicklow,  Carlow,  Galwav, 
and  Donegal.  Coal  is  found  in  many  places,  hnt  the  workable  hedg 
are  of  inconsiderable  extent,  and  the  quality  is  oommonlj  inferiort 
The  geology  of  the  British  Isles  presents  an  admirable  epitome  of 
the  geology  of  the  friobe  ;  and  it  has  been  more  thoroughly  investi- 

Ci  than  any  other  equally  extensive  portion  oE  the  earth's  sur- 
Details,  however,  would  be  nut  of  place  here,  more  espe<;ial!y 
after  the  somewhat  ample  consideration  given  to  the  subject  at 
pp.  41-S2  ;  hut  the  prevailing  character! ptics  of  the  geology  of  each 
of  the  coanties  will  be  found  briefly  indicated  in  the  "  Descriptive 
Notw"  to  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.* 

Idmuls. — The  minercils  of  the  United  Eingdom  are  a 
Bonrce  of  immBnae  wealth,  and,  both  in  i^nantity  and  commerciail 
value,  greatly  surpasa  those  of  any  other  countrj'.  The  chief  of 
ihae  are  coal,  iron,  salt,  limestone,  building-Btonea,  copper, 
lead,  tin,  silver,  and  zinc. 

i^onotnii;  valne,  is  found 
;  though  some  of  them, 
in  BQch  small  qusntltiea 


as,  for  eiarople,  gold  and  quicksilve 

•  Tia  tarthet  details  we  mast  refer  the  stndent  to  the  works  of  BLr  Boderick 
Ifniclilsan,  »r  Clisrlea  Lvi-11,  Mr  Hugh  Miller.  Dr  Vug'-  ^od  Barectnllylo  the 
huntiflil  "  Geological  and  Pileonlulugieal  Hap  of  the  BrlClBb  IsLuida,''  edited 
tivDr  Keith  Johnitnn.  from  matecinls  supplied  by  the  IsteUunenl  '"  " 
Blwanl  Furhes,  forming  Mate-  "    --  ''■    -'  ■'--  —  -" 


fsr/,"; 


it  deposits  of  eiceUeat  coal  were  discovered  at 


r  Walettort  ia  vai. 


100  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

as  scarcely  to  repay  the  labour  of  extracting  them.  Coad  and  inm  are 
the  two  commodities  that  have  contributed  most  largely  to  raise  our 
country  to  the  high  eminence  to  which  it  has  attained  among  neigh- 
bouring  nations.  The  coal-fields  are  not  confined  to  any  special 
locality,  but  are  distributed  in  all  directions  over  both  the  main 
islands.  In  England  they  commence  at  Northumberland,  and  ex- 
tend through  Durham,  York,  Lancashire,  and  Staffordshire  into 
South  Wales.  In  Scotland  they  form  a  broad  belt  across  the  country 
where  it  is  narrowest,  from  the  coast  of  Ayrshire  to  Fife-ness^ex- 
tending  on  the  west  coast  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Doon,  and  on  the 
east  from  the  Eden  to  the  Tyne.  Detached  tracts  also  occur  in  the 
counties  of  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  and  Dumfries.  Ireland  is  not  rich 
in  coal.  Her  six  coal  districts  are  situated  in  the  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone which  covers  the  great  central  plain,  and  do  not  yield  more 
than  about  55,000  tons  annually. 

The  total  area  of  the  Coal-measures  in  the  British  Isles  is  esti- 
mated at  about  8000  sq.  m. ;  and  it  is  calculated  that,  at  the  present 
rate  of  consumption  (125  million  tons  per  year),  the  supply  will  last 
for  1000  years.     The  number  of  collieries  at  work  in  1873  was  4268, 
giving  employment  to  393,000  males.     The  value  of  the  coal  is  im- 
mensely enhanced  by  its  being  associated  with  beds  of  iron  ore. 
The  ore  could  not  be  fused  without  the  coal,  nor  without  the  aid 
of  the  mountain  limestone,  which  acts  as  a  flux  and  pomotes  its 
speedy  reduction.     In  other  countries  where  the  coal  is  not  asso- 
ciated with  those  other  deposits — as  in  Silesia  and  France — the 
value  of  the  mineral  is  restricted  to  its  employment  as  an  article  of 
fuel. 

ScJi  occurs  chiefly  in  the  county  of  Cheshire,  where  vast  beds  of  rock- 
salt  and  brine-springs  occur.  LimestoM  is  abundant  in  almost  ever^part 
of  England  and  Irekind ;  sandstone  and  granite  in  numerous  localities  in 
Scotland;  roofing -slate  in  Wales,  Cumberland  and  Argyllshire;  and 
excellent  statttary  marble  in  Donegal  and  Galway.  Copper  is  most  abun- 
dant in  Cornwall,  but  occurs  also  in  Staffbrdshn^e,  Anjglesea^  Waterford, 
Cork,  and  Kerry.  Lead  is  chiefly  found  in  Derbysh&e,  Wales,  and  in 
the  two  most  northern  counties  of  England ;  in  the  Lowther  Hills  in  Scot- 
land; and  in  the  southern  counties  of  Munster.  Lead  ore  generally 
contains  a  small  quantity  of  silver.  Tin  occurs  only  in  Cornwall  and 
Devon,  where  it  has  been  worked  for  ages ;  and  these  mines  supply 
about  H  of  all  the  tin  produced  in  Europe.  Mines  of  calamine,  or  zinc  ore, 
are  worked  in  Derbyshire.  Antimony,  manganese,  arsenic,  plumbago, 
fuller's  earth,  and  numerous  other  minerals,  occur  in  various  parts  of  uie 
kingdom. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  value  of  the  mineral  productions  of  the 
United  Kingdom  for  the  year  1873  was  nearly  £60,000,000  sterling, 
more  than  £47,000,000  of  which  belong  to  the  single  article  of  coiu, 
124,600,000  tons  being  dug  annually.  The  value  of  the  iron  ore  for 
the  same  year  was  estimated  at  £7,573,000 ;  of  copper  and  lead, 
about  £1,900,000;  of  tin,  silver,  and  zinc,  collectively,  £1,580,000; 
and  of  other  minerals,  including  building-stones,  about  £7,000,000. 

Botany. — The  flora  of  the  British  Isles  is  wholly  embraced 


THE    BRITISH    ISLEB.  101 

■■  witiin  ScIiouw'b  secOTid  pliyto-geogtaphio  or  Nortli  European 
region,  deacnbed  above  (p,  82). 

So  clouly  does  the  TcgEtation  of  th^se  islands  resemble  that  of  the 
Dsi^tHiiiriiig  continent,  that,  tcith  two  or  tliree  exceptions,  it  dees 
not  oantaiii  a  single  plant  nhicli  is  not  to  be  fonnd  in  one  or  other 
of  the  comttrica  beyond  the  Channel.  The  exceptions  referred  to  are 
the  three-toothed  cinqne-foil  {Potmtilla  trideniata),  the  jointed  pipe- 
wort  [EriocaMlon  leptangulan),  and  a  nater-wepd  named  Anasharsit 
attimulrun.  Even  these  are  probably  not  indigenous  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  appearto  have  migrated  aerosa  the  Atlantic  from  the 
Sew  World.  The  British  Isles  cannot  be  regarded  a9a"centre  of 
vegetation  "  (p.  5S),  but  as  having  been  colonised  by  a  succession  of 
TSffetable  migrations  from  the  continent  of  Europe.  Edward  Forbes 
and  others  regard  these  migrations  as  having  commenced  as  early 
a*  the  epoch  of  the  Middle  Tertiary  formation — when  one  nnbroken 
continent  eitended  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  British  ehoree — 
and  Bs  having  been  continued  tUl  the  present  time. 

Our  entire  flora  may,  howevor,  be  divided  Into  four  groups  of  plants, 
corTBBponding  with  the  continental  regions  from  which  tliey  are  auppoaed 
to  have  migrated.  Thna,  we  have — I.  Tlie  Oemumic  gro^ip,  which  lorma 
the  grand  staple  of  our  vegetation,  and  embraces  our  trees,  shrubs,  weeds, 
and  common  wild-flowers,  all  of  which  are  equally  abundant  in  Germany, 
the  Netherliuids,  Bel^om,  and  north  of  Fiance ;  3.  The  Samdiiia'eian 
pronn— fonnd  chiefly  m  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  more  spMingly 
In  the  mouataina  of  Cumberland,  Walex,  and  Ireland,  consisting  of 
liaheni,  mosses,  gnisaes,  some  flowering  plants  of  great  beauty,  and  seve- 
ml  berry -bearing  sliraba,  as  the  cranberry,  bilberry,  and  clondberry — 
plants  which  are  abundant  in  the  mountains  of  Scandinavia  and  in  the 
lowland  regions  of  Arctic  Europe  ;  3.  Tlio  AnaorTcait  group  in  the  S.E. 
of  Ireland  and  S.W.  of  England,  where  tbe  vegetation  la  closely  allied  to 
that  of  Brittony  and  Normandy,  the  ancient  jinmoriea,-  4.  The  H««rion 
group,  in  the  S.W.  of  Ireland,  where  about  12  species  of  plants  are  found 
which  are  common  in  the  mountains  of  Northern  Spain,  though  occurring 
nowhere  else  in  tiie  British  Isles,— as  St  Patrick's  cabbage  (Saxifrigu 
iHxJruKt),  the  Btraviberry-ti«e  {Arintuj  tinedo),  and  various  species  of 

Botanists  vary  considerably  in  their  estimates  of  the  total  number 
of  species  belonging  to  our  native  flora,  owing  to  the  nncertatnty 
that  attaehea  to  many  species  as  to  whether  tbej  are  really  native, 
or  hava  been  introduced  by  man.  Thus  Professor  Balfour,  in  his 
'Manual  of  Botany,'  considers  our  indigenous  species  to  amoant  to 
4400,  ofwhich  3230  are  common  to  Englandand  Scotland.  He  states 
the  ntunber  of  flowering  plants  at  1600,  and  of  the  non-flowering 
or  dyptogomtc  (embrHcing  alga  or  tea-tnetdi,  femt,  numes,  liAtnt, 
mA/aiigi}  at  2800  species.  The  '  Physical  Atlas '  gives  the  number  of 
oar  flowering  plants  as  1371,  of  which  310  are  monocotyledons  and 
1031  dicotyledons.  Of  the  £000  known  species  of  ferns,  about  00 
■re  fonnd  in  the  British  archipelago,  ond  of  the  1100  mosses  wa  have 
aboat  300.  We  have  also  nnmerous  species  of  lichens,  fungi,  and 
Migai,  though  the  statistics  are  less  precise. 


102  POLITICAL   6E0GBAPUY. 

Of  forut-treet  acknowledged  to  be  of  British  origin,  the  principal 
are  the  oak,  ehn,  birch,  beech,  ash,  alder,  pine  or  Scotch  fir,  poplar, 
willow,  yew,  mountain-ash,  maple,  holly,  and  hawthorn.  Of  trees 
that  are  known  to  have  been  introduced  by  man  from  foreign  coun- 
tries may  be  mentioned  the  chestnut,  lime,  walnut,  Norwegian 
spruce,  larch,  weeping-willow,  Lombardy  poplar,  mulberry,  and 
cedar.  Our  principal /ruii-^rec*  are  the  apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum, 
peach,  walnut,  currant,  gooseberry,  strawberry. 

Agricnltiire. — ^British  farming  has  attained  to  an  unrivalled 
degree  of  perfection.  The  general  study  of  agricultural  chemis- 
try, and  the  consequent  adoption  of  rotation  of  crops,  together 
with  the  adoption  of  a  thorough  system  of  drainage,  have  mainly 
contributed  to  this  result ;  but  the  vast  number  of  good  roads, 
canals,  and  railways  that  intersect  the  kingdom  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  enable  the  agriculturist  to  convey  the  produce  of  his 
farm  to  the  best  market,  has  also  very  powerfully  contributed 
to  bring  about  the  same  result. 

Estimating  the  area  of  the  entire  archipelago  at  122,550  sq.  m.,  or 
78,000,000  acres,  we  learn  from  the  Board  of  Trade  Report  for  1868 
that  there  were  in  that  year  45,652,000  acres  under  cultivation,  of 
which  11,659,000  acres  were  under  com,  4,865,000  under  green  crops, 
5,690,000  under  clover  and  "rotation  grasses,"  and  22,164,000  under 
permanent  pasture.  In  every  100  acres  in  England  42  are  in  pas- 
ture ;  in  Wales,  56  ;  in  Scotland,  23 ;  and  in  Ireland,  64.  The 
greater  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gi*eat  Britain  are  engaged  in 
manufacturing,  mining,  and  commercial  pursuits,  while  Ireland  and 
Wales  are  strictly  agricultural  countries.  The  industrial  pursuits  of 
a  country  depend,  to  a  great  extent,  on  its  geological  character.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  most  ancient  geological  formations  are  the  richest 
in  minerals,  while  the  more  recent  are  the  best  adapted  for  agriculture. 
Accordingly,  if  we  draw  a  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tees,  in  Dur- 
ham, to  Leicester,  and  thence  to  Gloucester  and  the  river  Exe,  we 
shall  find  that  nearly  all  the  mining  and  manufacturing  districts  of 
England  lie  to  the  W.  of  it,  and  all  the  agricultural  districts  to  the 
E.  In  like  manner,  if  we  draw  a  straight  line  from  Dundee  to  Dum- 
barton, and  another  from  Berwick  to  Girvan,  we  shall  have  the 
limits  of  all  the  coal-fields  and  iron-mines  of  Scotland  :  all  the  great 
centres  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  as  also  the  principal  harbours 
of  the  country,  are  found  between  these  lines. 

The  cereal  crops  of  the  United  Kingdom  consist  of  wheat,  barley, 
bigg,  and  oats.  The  total  quantity  of  com  of  all  kinds  annually  pro- 
duced is  estimated  at  51,480,000  qrs. ;  while  the  annual  value  of  real 
property,  as  assessed  under  the  Property-tax  Act  in  1864,  was 
£323,000,000.  Other  cultivated  plants  comprise  the  potato,  turnip, 
mangold,  carrot,  radish,  beet,  cabbage,  pease,  beans,  hops,  flax, 
hemp,  vetches,  clover,  and  rye-grass. 

Zoology. — The  faima  of  the  British  Isles  is  wholly  embraced 


THE    BRITISH    I6LES.  103 

'■^jthiii  the  middle  province  of  the  first  or  Eiiropean  Zoological 
Kingdom— (see  above,  p.  57). 

L  Thk  VEf.TEBKiTi,  oT  Maminds,  Birds,  Eeptilea,  tmd  Fiihes. 
The  Mammftlla  of  the  DmtEd  Eingdom  are  tepresEHted  by  on!j 
H^bor  orders — viz.,  the  Camivom,  Ilodentia,  Kntninantia,  and  Cetaeea  ; 
^■Ae  other  funr  being  HboUy  Hhaent— vis.,  the  Qnadrumsna,  Mar- 
^^Hnialia,  EJentata,   and   FBchydennatB-      The  lasC-namad  order  il 
^Bhideed  Tepreeeiited  b;  the  horse,  aes,  and  sciw  ;  bnt  as  the;  are  no 
H^Jnnger'ioaDd  here  in  tbeir  wild  rtate,   ire  do  not  tahe  th«m  into 
•saount.     The  orders  actually  represented  embrace  60  Epecies;  bnC 
if  we  deduct  the  bate  uid  the  mariire  iDBnunalB,  not  muie  than  40 
^Mcies  will  remain— a  mere  JraKment  of  oot  maiomalian  fuunn  dar- 
ing like  epoch  of  the  Boulder  Cluy,  irhen,  in  addildon  to  the  eating 
~    jea,  these  ialanda  contained  the  elejihant,  Thinooeros,  hippopota- 
1,  tiger,  hyiesa,  the  great  ellt,  the  gigantie  deer,  two  apeuiei  of 
ctrer,  andtl^e  species  of  bear.  Sevenil  species — as  the  heaver,  bear, 
't,  wild  ox,  and  wild  boai' — have  been  dtingiiished  during  Hit 
mistil  era  by  the  cutting  down  of  the  forests,  the  cultivation  of 
le  Kiil.  and  the  destnietirB  efli<cts  of  the  chase ;  while  not  a,  few 
ot^iera  have  became  vaty  rure,  a9  the  badger,  polecat,  and.  sgnirreL 
The  Camivrrra  are  repreBaiitad  by  the  foi,  dog,  weasel,   ermine,  foo- 
nuut,  martin,  polecat ;  the  hedirehog,  mole,  £rev,  and  badger  ;  the 
Otter,  seal,  and  walrus  ;  and  by  D  Bpecies  of  bat       The  badger  is 
WfonndK.  oftie  Wedouian  Canal,  nor  the  mule  N.  of  the  Pent- 
^d  Filth,  or  in  Ireland.      The  Jlodentia  embrace  the  squirrel,  hare, 
Abit,  dormouse,  3  speciefi  of  mouse,  2  of  rat,  and  i  of  arvicoU. 
*ie  Evmiiumlia  are  3  Bpeciea  of  deer — the  red,  roe,  and  fillow  deer  i 
it,  and  sheep.    The  Cetacea  embrace  the  porpoise,  gram- 
>w,  and  variona  species  of  whales  and  dolphins. 
_      li  are  comparatively  numerous  in  the  Biitiah  lales  ;  for  wHle 
H  total  number  of  spedea  heloncinK  to  Europe  is  onlj4S0,  no  fewer 
jmh  ST*  are  found  in  the  United  Euigdom,  of  which  23(1  are  known 
I  Ireland.     £ach  of  the  mi  orders  is  lorfrely  Tepreaenled.    The 
'  faerta,   or  Birds  of  Fi'ey,  include  the  golden  eagle  and  earue, 
B  luurk,  kits,  faluoD,  and  varions  species  of  uwL     Tbe  Climben 


Oallinaeeout  £irdt  include  the  red-BTOuse  (peculiar  to 
s  ouuntiy),  the  ptarmigau,  blackcocl,  partridge,  common  qitail, 

•  — • •  —  ■■-"cBon.     The  capercailzie,  or  cocli  of  the  wood, 

_  1,  has  been  reintroduced  reeeatly  Irom  Koi- 
aniy.  The  ]>Gacack,  turkey,  common  fowl,  Guinea  hen,  and  pheas- 
ant, are  all  of  foreign  origin.  The  Woden  are  represented  by  the 
fanrtard.  oraik,  crane,  plorar,  snijw,  heron,  and  stork ;  and  the  Saitii' 
aura  by  tbe  eormotaut,  eannet,  gull,  petrel,  duuk,  and  guoBe. 
,  OftiieTSBpeciflsofturopBauRajitQBB.  only  IJ  occur  in  tbe  Brit- 
'"fc  lales.  Of  the  ftrnr  orders  boloupng  to  this  doss,  the  first,  or 
K  order,  has  DO  repreeeutative  iu  oui  arcliipelitgo,  asTe  that  the 


104  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

hawk's-Lill  tortoise  has  been  occasionally  seen  in  the  Hebrides,  and 
the  leathery  tortoise  in  ComwalL  Of  the  Sauriaru  there  occur  only 
3  species — viz.,  2  lizards  and  1  skink  ;  but  numerous  other  species 
belonging  to  the  order — some  of  them  of  most  gi^intic  dimensions 
— existed  here  in  the  geological  eras,  as  the  crocodue,  megalosannu, 
iguanodoD,  ichthyosaurus,  and  plesiosaurus.  Of  the  15  European 
SerperUs  only  3  are  found  in  the  United  Kingdom — viz.,  the  bund- 
worm,  snake,  and  adder  or  common  viper,  the  last-named  .of  which 
is  alone  venomous ;  and  of  the  23  European  Batrackians  there  occur 
only  the  eft,  toad,  and  frog. 

Fishes. — Of  the  twenty-five  provinces  of  marine  life  into  which 
the  late  distinguished  Professor  Edward  Forbes  proposed  to  divide 
the  waters  of  the  globe,  the  British  seas  form  a  part  of  the  third,  or 
Celtic  province.  This  province  is  confined  to  tne  European  side  of 
the  Atlantic ;  embraces  the  Baltic,  North  Sea,  English  Channel, 
Irish  Sea,  and  the  entire  western  shores  of  the  British  Isles ;  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.,  W.,  and  S.  by  the  Boreal,  Virginian,  and 
Lusitanian  provinces,  respectively.  Its  population  is  of  a  very 
mixed  character,  owing  to  numerous  colonists  from  the  regions  lying 
to  its  N.  and  S  ;  but  it  is  distinguished  as  being  the  great  field  of  the 
herring  fisheries,  and  for  the  thorough  investigation  which  its  fauna 
and  flora  have  received  at  the  hands  of  British,  Danish,  and  Swedish 
naturalists.  Of  the  8000  fishes  already  known  to  the  ichthyologist, 
the  seas,  rivera,  and  lakes  of  the  United  Kingdom  embrace  263 
species.  Fishes  are  usually  divided  into  two  orders — ^the  cartUagin- 
Otis  and  the  osseous  ;  the  former  embracing  only  a  few  British  species, 
as  the  sturgeon,  ray  or  skate,  shark,  dogfish,  lamprey,  pride,  ha^, 
and  sailfish  ;  and  the  latter  a  very  great  number,  including  the  ssd- 
mon,  trout,  char,  herring,  pilchard,  pike,  carp,  gudgeon,  cod,  ling,  tusk, 
whiting,  sole,  turbot,  fluke,  halibut,  eel,  perch,  mackerel,  and  minnow. 

II.  Invertebrated  Animals. — Our  limits  forbid  our  enlarging 
on  the  invertebrated  fauna  of  the  British  Isles ;  and  we  can  only 
state  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  facts,  referring  the  student  for 
details  to  works  on  natural  history. 

MollUBca. — This  division  of  the  Invertebrata  consists  of  animals 
having  bodies  composed  of  soft  parts,  without  any  internal  skeleton, 
some  of  which  are  protected  by  shells,  while  others  are  naked ; 
having  white,  cold  blood ;  breathing  organs,  lungs,  gills  or  branchiw ; 
and  of  limited  senses  and  instincts.  They  are  usually  divided  into 
five  classes — viz..  Cephalopoda,  Pteropodky  Gasteropoda,  Acephala, 
and  Brachiopoda.  These  are  subdivided  into  about  200  genera,  and 
probably  embrace  20,000  species  (see  p.  56).  Of  the  shell-bear* 
ing  molluscs,  892  species*  (or  232  univalves  and  160  bivalves)  fre- 
quent the  British  seas  ;  the  most  plentiful  genera  being  Trochus,  La- 
cuna, Patina,  Bissoa,  Pullastra,  and  Acidia.  Though  greatly  inferior, 
both  in  size  and  beauty,  to  species  inhabiting  tropical  seas,  our 
shell-bearing  molluscs  are  often  highly  ornamental ;  others,  again, 
are  largely  used  as  articles  of  diet,  as  the  oyster,  mussel,  cockle, 

*  Now  about  520  species  (see  p.  21). 


I 


TUE    BUITISII  ISLES.  105 

'lielk,  and  limpet.  The  yudibranchiaia,  or  molloscs  destitute  of  u 
shall,  are  also  very  mtmenms  in  the  Celtic  prorince. 

ArttimlBtB,  or  jointed  animals,  aleo  comprisa  five  classea — viz., 
^nnulata,  Crtistacea,  Cirrhnpoda,  Arachnides,  and  Tiaccta  ;  the  Gret 
of  which  ia  represented  by  the  earth-wiirm  aud  the  leetih,  the  secouit 
hj  the  crab  and  lobster,  the  third  by  the  barnacle  and  balauus,  the 
tonrth  by  the  spider  and  mite,  and  the  Sfth  by  the  dragon-fly,  bee, 
bntterfly,  niuth,  fly,  and  gnat.  The  number  of  British  insects  al- 
ready known  exceods  10,000  species,  oae-third  of  which  extend  ta 

The  Badlata,  so  called  from  harinz  their  limbs  or  members 
branching  oiT  front  a  common  centre.  Tike  the  apokea  of  a,  wheel, 
also  comprise  Gve  classes — viz.,  EchinodsTiaata,  Entoxoa,  Aixclepka, 
P^tmn,  and  Infiaaria,  which  are  represented  respectively  by  the 
Starfish  and  sea-nrchin,  the  tape-worm,  the  medusa,  the  loopbyta 
or  coral  inseat,  an3  the  Broall  microscopie  animals  named  animal- 
cules, which  embrace  the  lowest  forma  of  animal  life,  and  enlist  in 
eouutleas  numbeis  in  vegetable  infusions. 


v 


The  Celts  -ware  probably  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  neighbonr- 
In^  continent,  more  especially  of  its  western  aide  ;  and,  at  a  period 
prior  to  the  dawn  of  histoiy,  migrated  into  Britain,  and  formed  its 
earliest  inhabitants.  The  ereat  Celtio  family,  before  arriving  at 
their  ultimata  destination,  became  divided  into  two  main  sections, 
the  Oael  and  tlie  Kymri,  who  «-ere  mutually  hostile,  and  apoke 
widely-different  languages.  The  Gael  seem  to  have  been  the  earliest 
settlers  In  this  island,  but  to  bavs  been  speedily  dislodged  by  the 
more  powerful  Kymri,  and  driven  into  Scotland,  Ireland,  the 
BebriJea,  and  the  Isle  of  Man, — thus  forming  the  ancestors  of  the 
Scottish  Highlanders,  the  Irish,  and  the  MaoK.  The  Eymri  occn- 
pied  S.  Brilaio  as  far  north  as  the  Grampians,  and  became  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Welsh  and  the  Cornish.  The  Kymri  more  resembled 
the  inhabitanta  of  Ceitio  Gaul  in  their  laugn^e  than  the  Gael  did  ; 
md  some  of  our  most  eminent  ethnologists  maintain  that  the  ancient 
Picta  and  Caledoniana  were  Kymric  tribes,  though  others  insist  on 
their  Gothic  origin  (p.  86).  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  population 
bclonjfa  to  the  Tentonlc  Race,  partly  to  its  Gothic,  and  partiy  to  its 
Scandinavian  braiiL-h.  To  the  farmer  beIougt.'d  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
whosa  original  home  wra  the  country  lying  S.  of  the  Caspian,  and 
sftorwards  Germany,  between  the  Eyder  and  the  Weser,  and  who 
began  ta  invade  the  east  of  England  in  the  year  A.s.  449,  contin- 
uing their  inctirsiona  for  a  ccntiirv  afterwarda.  Tliey  overcame  the 
Ceitio  tribes  that  then  occupied  the  land,  and  drove  them  into  the 
mountain-fastnesses  of  Wales  and  Ceniwall.  The  nest  invaaiou  of 
I   firitaiu  took  place  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  and 

■eigned  over  the  A 


106  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

1017  to  A.D.  1036.  The  last  invasion  of  our  shores  was  also  by  a 
Gothic  tribe — viz.,  the  Normans,  who,  under  William  the  Conqueror, 
established  their  rule  by  the  battle  of  Hastings,  A.D.  1066,  and 
changed  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  of  the  population  into  the  mo- 
dem English.  Gothic  tribes,  therefore,  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 
present  population  of  England,  of  Scotland  south  of  the  Grampians, 
of  the  N.£.  coast  of  Scotland,  including  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Isles,  the  N.  and  E.  of  Caithness,  and  Ulster.  They  have,  moreover, 
largely  commingled  with  the  Celtic  race  in  all  the  remainder  of  the 
British  Isles,  so  that  it  is  now  very  difficult  to  find  an  unmixed 
Celtic  population  anywhere.  The  following  is  an  approximation  to 
the  relative  proportions  of  the  two  races  as  they  exist  at  present  in 
the  British  Isles : — Of  Celtic  blood,  pure  and  mixed,  11,470,000 ;  Teu- 
tonic blood,  pure  and  mixed,  IS,  200,000  ;  completely  intermingled, 
1,345,000. 

Languages. — ^The  lan^ages  presently  spoken  in  the  British  Isles 
are  five  in  number — Irish,  Welsh,  English,  Lowland  Scotch,  and 
French.  The  two  first  belong  to  the  Celtic  Stock,  and  represent  the 
most  ancient  language  in  Europe.  The  Scottish  Gaelic  and  the 
Manx  are  mere  dialects  of  the  Irish  ;  and  the  Armoric  of  Brittany, 
and  the  now  extinct  Cornish  of  Cornwall,  are  nearly  identical  with 
the  Welsh.  But  the  Irish  and  Welsh  branches  are  widely  different, 
though  their  affinities  are  so  numerous  and  close  that  they  must  be 
referred  to  the  same  stock.  The  English  and  the  Lowland  Scotch 
belong  to  the  Teutonic  Stock  of  languages — the  former  to  the  Ger- 
manic, and  the  latter  to  the  Scandinavian  branch. 

The  three  Teutonic  tribes  above  alluded  to — ^the  Jutes,  Saxons,  and 
Angles — who  invaded  Britain  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  all  spoke 
dialects  of  the  same  language.  The  Union  of  these  dialects  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,— a  language  which  maintained  its 
purity  till  about  a.d.  1258,  when  it  began  to  amalgamate  with  the  Nor- 
man French,  which  had  been  introduced  about  two  centuries  previously 
by  William  the  Conqueror.  The  result  of  this  amalgamation  was  the 
modem  English,  less  refined,  indeed,  in  its  structure  than  some  other 
tongues,  but  more  widespread,  and  containing  more  literary  and  scien- 
tific treasures  than  any  other,  ancient  or  modem.  It  is  essentially  a 
compound  language,  and  borrows  freely  from  all  sides,  but  still  preserves 
to  a  great  extent  the  lineaments  of  its  parent  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  the 
groundwork  and  substratum  of  the  English  ;  and  however  extensive, 
therefore,  our  knowledge  may  be'  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  we  can  never 
thoroughly  understand  our  own  language  without  an  acquaintance  with 
the  Ano;lo-Saxon  and  other  kindred  Gothic  tongues.  The  Lowland  Scotch 
is  no  dialect  of  the  English,  and  is  not,  like  the  latter,  descended  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  is  a  parallel  and  sister  tongue.  Its  tme  parent  is 
the  Norse — a  Scandinavian  and  not  a  Gothic  language.  In  Caithness, 
Orkney,  and  Shetland,  the  geographical  names  are  nearly  all  Norse ;  and 
throughout  Scotland  generally  the  language  of  the  people  is  more  akin  to 
the  Icelandic  than  to  the  Saxon.  Instead  of  being  regarded  as  a  mere 
comiption  of  the  English,  it  has  all  the  qualities  of  a  regular  and  cul- 
tivated language,  and  is  possessed  of  a  highly -fascinating  literature, 
French  is  spoken  in  the  Channel  Isles, — the  only  portion  of  Normandy 


TDE   BRITISH   ISLEB. 


BBUgloiiB  Bellaf. — Cliristianity  i^  profeased,  nndel'  some  one  or 
other  or  its  ToniiH,  by  nearly  nil  the  popnlation  or  the  British  Isles  ; 
lint  in  no  other  country,  with  perhaps  the  eseeption  of  tlio  United 
SUtea,  ia  the  religious  community  divided  into  so  many  socta.  Ko 
fewer  than  146  dcnominationa  exist  in  Britjiiu  alone  ;  snd  for  the 
entire  kingdom  there  are  at  least  150.  Perfect  freedom  of  ojiinion 
on  all  aabjBcta,  and  mora  especially  complete  toleration  of  all 
Tarieties  at  creed,  are  tha  main  caiiaes  that  originate  this  nnparalleled 
mnltiplieation  of  sects — tha  great  and  standing  rBproact  of  Pro- 
testantism. The  150  denominations  may,  however,  he  reduced  to 
two  great  diTisions — viz.,  Protestanl.a  and  Roman  Catholics.  The 
proportion  of  the  population  belonging  to  each  of  these  divisions  ia 
■s  follows:— Protestants,  23,817,000  ;  Roman  Catholics,  6,490,000. 
The  Protestants,  therefore,  are  to  the  Eoman  Catholics  as  4^  to  ], 
tile  Utter  being  found  chlellj  in  Ireland,  where  they  amouat  to 
■4,490,000.  The  total  Eoman  Catholic  population  of  Great  Britain  in 
1M8  was  about  3,000,000. 
I'  The  principal  Protestant  denominations  in  the  British  tales  are,  the 
■ftuBcapBlians,  Presbyterians,  Iniiependenta,  Baptists,  and  Methodists. 
Btnie  general  cenaua  of  ISTl  does  not  furuiah  religious  statistics  for  Eng- 
Pltad  Bnd  Wales.  Hera  Episcopacy  is  establiBhed  by  law,  and  the  Quetii 
'  la  the  Buprema  governor  of  the  Church.  There  are  two  arthbiahopa— 
vii.,  of  Canterbury  und  York,  the  foriuer  of  whom  is  Primate  of  all  Eng- 
lani  He  enjoys  tlie  privilegs  of  crowning  the  sovereign  of  tha  realm,  anil 
of  being  the  usual  channel  of  communication  with  the  Crown  on  constitn- 
tioDsI  questions  affecting  tha  interests  of  the  Church.  The  province  of 
Cantarbury  embraces  21  dioceses,  each  of  vihicli  is  presided  over  by  c 
bishop.  These  dioceses  are,— London,  Winchester,  Lichfield,  Eieter, 
Worceater,  Lincohi,  Norwich,  Rochester,  Gloocesler  aud  Bristol,  Oiioi'd, 
pBterborougli,  Ely,  Canterbury,  8t  David,  iJath  and  Wells,  Llandaff, 
Salishury.  Chicbester,  St  Asaph,  Hereford,  itnd  Basgor.  The  provinio 
of  York  contains  7  dioceses, — Manchester,  Chester,  Ripon,  York,  Dur- 
liam,  Carlisle,  Sodor  and  Man.  Preshyterianism  is  established  in  Scot- 
land. The  Scottish  Church  has  no  hierarchy — all  the  clergy  are  on  an 
ttjOBllty,  and  the  body  ia  governed  by  kirfe-eessions,  presbyteries,  pro- 
yinctol  synods,  and  by  the  General  Aaaembly  which  meets  annually  in 

it  up 

,a'nd"i623' parishes.  '"pi^"irioua"to  1843,  the 
Establisiierl  Cbutcb  etobraced  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  ;  but  in 
that  year  it  great  disruption  took  place,  in  consequence  ol  the  interference 
otthe  civil  courts  with  the  apWtnal  privilcEcs  of  the  members,  especially 
inthe  matter  of  election  of  ministers.  The  body  thus  formed  is  kuownaa 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  which  in  doctrine,  discipline,  and  govern- 
meat  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  Eatabliahed  Church,  oicopt  in 
the  matter  above  refBrred  to.  The  Eatahlislied  Church  end  the  Free 
CSiurdh  have  each  about  a  third  of  the  population.  The  United  Preaby- 
— ■—-iiin  Chnreh  ia  also  very  numerously  attended,  embracing  600  coagrega- 

.D8  and  about  1 80,000  membara— nearly  a  fourth  of  the  entire  population. 

M  only  other  religious  bodies  of  Importance  are  the  Scottish  Episcopal 


108  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Churcli,  the  CoDgregationalists,  and  the  Eoman  Catholics.  Tn  Ireland, 
the  hitherto  Establ^hed  Church  is  a  branch  of  the  Church  of  "RnglftTid^ 
presided  over  by  two  archbishops  (Armagh  and  Dublin)  and  12  bishops. 
It  embraces,  however,  little  more  than  a  seventh  part  of  the  popu- 
lation (being,  in  1871,  683,295),  and  consequently,  as  the  Church  of  the 
minority,  it  was  disestablished  and  disendowed  by  Act  of  Parliament 
in  1869.  Those  in  communion  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were 
4,141,933 ;  Presbyterians  and  other  Protestant  Dissenters,  618,018. 

Form  of  Goyemment. — ^Th.e  Government  of  the  United  Kingdom 
is  a  limited  monarchy.     The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  the 
Sovereign  and  Parliament,  which  consists  of  a  House  of  Peers  and  a 
House  of  Commons ;  and  the  concurrence  of  these  three  estates  is 
necessary  to  the  enactment  of  new  laws,  or  the  repeal  of  tliose  already 
existing.    The  crown  is  hereditary.     The  House  of  Peers  consists  of 
about  490  members,  including  lords  spiritual  and  temporal,  and  is 
composed  of  princes  of  the  blood- royal,  2  archbishops,  24  English 
bishops,  20  dukes,  19  marquesses,  110  earls,  22  viscounts,  214  barons, 
with  16  Scotch  and  28  Irish  representative  peers.     The  House  of 
Commons  consists  of  652  elected  members,  of  whom  487  are  for  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  105  for  Ireland,  and  60  for  Scotland.     This  gives 
1  member  to  each  50,000  of  the  population.     Parliaments  are  sep- 
tennial, but  generally  expire  sooner,  and  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons  are  elected  for  a  single  parliament.     Any  l^islative  mea- 
sure may  originate  in  either  House,  but  the  House  of  Commona^pos- 
sesses  the  exclusive  privilege  of  originating  money-biUs,  and  voting 
money  out  of  the  revenue.    In  this  single  privilege  lies  the  palladium 
of  the  commonwealth ;  for  though  the  monarch  may  declare  war  with 
a  foreign  power  and  levy  armies,  the  war  cannot  be  prosecuted,  nor 
the  army  paid,  but  by  the  consent  of  the  representatives  of  the 
nation. 

Army  and  Navy. — The  extent  of  the  British  empire  renders  it 
necessary  to  kee^  up  a  large  naval  and  military  force  ;  but  owing  to 
our  insular  position,  our  unrivalled  navy,  the  equity  of  our  laws,  the 
purity  of  our  religion,  and  tl^e  happiness  and  contentment  of  our 
people,  there  is  no  European  nation  that  maintains  so  small  a  stand- 
ing army,  in  proportion  to  its  population.  In  1853,  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Russian  war,  the  royal  navy  numbered  545  ships 
of  all  classes,  which  carried  18,080  guns,  58,000  seamen,  and  18,616 
maiines.  The  army  numbered  214,421  men,  exclusive  of  militia; 
and  the  annual  cost  of  both  army  and  navy  was  £24,000,000.  In 
1872  the  total  strength  of  the  anny  amounted  to  196,065  men  and 
officers,  of  whom  62,864  were  in  India,  and  28,333  in  the  colonies. 
Besides  these,  we  have  128,900  militia,  costing  £952,700;  volunteers, 
199,000,  costing  the  Government  £414,000.  Our  naval  force  in  the 
same  year  amounted  to  398  vessels,  including  54  armour-plated 
ships,  4  floating  batteries*  44  ships  of  the  line,  and  82  frigates ;  num-« 
ber  of  marines,  63,300.  The  total  cost  of  the  army  was  £14,280,400, 
and  of  the  navy,  £9,996,641 ;  total,  £24,227,041.  In  1814,  during 
the  wai*  with  France,  the  expense  of  our  army  and  navy  cost  the 
country  £71,686,000.     Our  principal  naval  arsenals  and  dockyards 


r 


^^ 


» 


TllE    BRITISH    ISLES.  109 

homo  are  those  of  Deptrord,  Woolwich,  Cliatliam,  Shetrnpsa, 
Portsmouth,  Devonport,  Pcmbrolce,  uid  naulbawliae;  and  Bhroni!, 
those  of  Gibndtar,  Malta,  Halifax,  Bermuda,  Antiguo,  Jamaica, 
Aacensiou,  Sieira  Leone,  Cape  Toith,  Trincomalee,  Singapore,  and 
Hong  Eong. 

KULnfactnrea  and  Commorce. — Britain  stands  Qririralled  amojip 
the  nations  both  m  the  ejitent  of  her  commercB  and  the  Tariety  of 
her  manufactures.  Several  causes  concur  in  rendering  her  commerce 
■nperior  to  that  of  other  counlriea.  By  referring  to  a  teiTestrial 
globe,  it  nill  be  eoeu  that  her  melTopalia  stands  almost  exactly  in  the 
centra  of  the  land-surface  of  tlie  globa.  But  this  favonrable  position 
would  he  of  little  avail  were  it.not  that  she  is  BurrcnudBd  by  eeoa  on 
all  sides,  and  thus  placed  in  circumstances  to  prosecute  her  commerce 
in  all  directions  without  encountmng  any  physical  obstacle.  In 
additioQ  to  her  insular  position,  she  further  enjoys  tiiB  ndvantaga  of 
numeiouB  eicellelit  harbours,  canala,  roads,  railways,  and  navigabla 
riyera,  by  which  her  indostrial  products  can  be  readily  and  cheaply 
conveyed  to  the  Beahoard,  But  perhaps  the  greatest  physical  advan- 
tage that  Britain  enjoys  over  other  conntries  consists  in  theuunTalled 
extent  and  variety  ot  her  mineral  treasures — especially  thoae  of  coal 
and  iron,  nhich  are  usually  found  i]i  close  juxtaposition,  the  one 
affording  the  material  of  her  manufacturing  machiueir,  and  the 
other  the  means  hy  which  that  machinery  can  he  wrought  with  ad- 
vantage. Accordingty,  all  the  great  manufacturing  centres  of  the 
kingdom  ara  situated  in  or  near  the  great  coal-Sdda  (see  above, 
nncSr  "Minerals").  Onrtwo  moat  important  manufactures  ore  those 
of  textile  fabrics  and  of  metallic  goo^  A  large  proportion  of  the 
population  depend  directly  on  these  for  support.  The  inoollen  manu- 
fictare,  though  the  oldest  in  the  kingdom,  la  now  second  in  import- 
ance to  the  cotlan,  of  which  upwards  of  10  millions  of  cwt.  are  annu- 
«lly  imported,  in  the  form  of  cotton  wool,  then  wrought  up  into  a 
""  st  variety  of  fabrics,  and  eiported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Export!  and  ImportB. — Our  imports  are  chiefly  of  two  claases — 
*     '  "  people,  and  raw  material  for  our  mannfaotnring  ii 


bemo 


The  home  supply  of  the  former  is  annually  decreasing  ii 

in  to  the  population,  partly  owing  to  deficient  harvests,  ant 

ly  from  less  land  being  devoted  to  the  growth  of  cereals,  pasture 


,  dnriug  the  lost  few  years  we 
have  been  obliged  to  import  about  one-half  of  the  entire  food  of  our 
people.  In  1873  alone  we  paid  for  foreign  com  no  less  than 
25^000,000.  Five-eighths  of  this  supply  came  from  distant  conn- 
tries  (chiefly  from  N.  America  and  Russia),  and  three-eighths  from 
tlw  nearest  polls  of  Europe.  Our  total  imports  for  IS73  amotmted 
in  Talne  to  £371,257,668,  of  which  £290,700,000  were  from  foraigu 
cenntries,  and  £81,010,617  from  British  poaaesaions.  Of  foreign 
eomitries  the  United  States  stand  firat,  that  conntiy  having  sent  tts 
to  the  value  of  £71,000,000,   chiefly  cotton  ;  then  come  Francs 

1^3,800,000),  Kuaaia  (£20,000,000),  Egypt  (£1*,000,000,  including 
ansit),  China  and  Netherlands,  £12,000,000  each.  The  six  prin- 
pal  articleB  of  import  are  cotton,  com,  sugar,  wool,  timber,  and  tea. 


110  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

In  the  same  year  our  exports  amounted  to  £311,000,000,  of 
which  £250,060,000  were  to  foreign  countries,  and  £61,000,000 
to  our  colonial  possessions.  The  foreign  countries  to  which 
we  export  most  are  Germany  (£27,000,000),  United  States 
(£35,800,000),  France  (£17,600,000),  Netherlands  (£16,700,000),  and 
liussia  (£9,000,000).  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  cotton, 
woollen,  and  linen  goods,  metallic  goods,  machinery,  coals,  and 
appareL  Speaking  generally,  one-thim  of  our  exports  and  imports 
together  is  carried  on  with  our  own  possessions  abroad.  From  India 
we  get  rice,  cotton,  silk,  sugar,  jute,  indigo,  tea,  spices,  and  fine 
woods;  from  the  West  Indies,  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  rice,  and  mm; 
from  the  Australian  colonies,  gold,  copper,  and  wool ;  from  our  N. 
American  possessions,  gold,  timber,  fui-s,  fish,  and  oil.  Our  mercan- 
tile marine  greatly  exceeds  that  of  any  other  country.  In  1869  the 
number  of  British  vessels  that  entered  our  ports  was  25,074,  carrying 
8,761,899  tons;  and  of  foreign,  17,611  vessels,  carrying  4,123,878 
tons;  total  42,685  vessels,  and  carrying  12,776,777  tonjB.  In  the 
same  year  there  left  our  shores  29,629  British  vessels,  and  19,582 
foreign,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  14,345,317. 

Finance.— The  estimated  revenue  for  1870  was  £72,855,000,  the  chief 
items  of  which  were  customs,  excise,  taxes,  stamps,  property  and  income 
tax :  the  expenditure  was  £68,223,000,  of  wMch  the  interest  on  the  Pub- 
lic Debt  amounted  to  £22,454,000 ;  army  and  navj',  £24,227,000 ;  and 
the  expense  of  the  expedition  to  Abyssinia,  £5,000,000.  The  National 
Debt  amounts  to  the  enormous  sum  of  £737,400,000,  or  upwards  of  £23 
stg.  for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  com« 
menced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  (in  1689),  and  from  that  period, 
owing  to  our  numerous  wars  with  foreign  States,  has  been  constantly  in- 
creasing. In  1697  it  amounted  to  about  £5,000,000 ;  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  American  War  of  Independence,  in  1774,  itdid  not  exceed  £128,000,000; 
at  the  conclusion  of  that  war  it  amounted  to  £250,000,000 ;  while  at  the 
termination  of  the  French  war  it  amounted  to  £848,282,477.  Notwith- 
standing its  decrease  during  the  lost  50  years,  it  is  still  half  as  laige  as 
the  combined  debt  of  all  other  European  Stat^,  except  France. 

Inland  Commnnlcation,  in  proportion  to  area,  is  also  greatly 
superior  to  that  of  any  other  country.  Our  turnpike  roads,  canals, 
and  railways,  form  a  perfect  network  of  communication,  which  ex- 
tends to  the  remotest  parts  of  both  the  main  islands.  On  the  first 
January  1875  there  were  16,449  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  of  which  11,622  were  in  England,  2700  in 
Scotland,  and  3127  in  Ireland.  The  total  cost  of  construction 
amounted  to  £610,000,000,  being  £37,078  per  mile.  The  number 
of  passengers  annually  conveyed  by  them  exceeds  360,000,000  ;  and 
the  total  receipts  for  passengers  and  freight  amount  to  upwards  of 
£60,000,000  annually.  So  great  is  the  safety  of  railway  travelling, 
that  only  one  traveller  out  of  every  sixteen  millions  is  killed,  and 
one  out  of  every  half  a  million  injured.  Our  turnpike  roads  now  ex- 
ceed 35,000  miles,  all  of  which  are  kept  in  excellent  repair,  and 
about  150,000  miles  of  cross-roads.  Asides  these  we  have  1800 
miles  of  river-navigation  that  have  been  opened  by  artificial  means, 


THE   BRITian   MLES. 


Ill 


I 


I 


s  of  navigable  canala.  Dui-ing  the  Inst  twenty  jeors, 
,000  miles  of  tsIegrapli-Tirea  huve  been  lB.id  down,  tlius 
connaoting  bj  instantaneona  canunimicatiQa  all  the  cities,  tawiia,  and 
great  maritiiiie  ports  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  connectint;  the 
countrj  by  Bubmarine  cables  with  the  continent  of  Europe,  India, 
and  Amerieo.  On  the  Eth  February  1870,  tlte  GoTertuneiit  took 
into  its  oivn  hands  all  the  telegrttphs  of  the  conntry.  These  amonnted, 
in  1874,  to  107,000  miles;  while  on  the  Continent  there  are  100,000 
miles,  and  70,000  in  America.  Another  mighty  engine  for  furthering 
thfl  interests  of  commerce  and  for  promoting!  the  intelligence  of  Uie 
people  is  the  Post-Offiee,  which  lias  its  btanciiea  and  Tauiiliciitions  in 
all  comeis  of  the  land.  The  number  of  letters  transmitted  in  1S70 
VBS  600,000,000,  or  28  letters  per  annum  for  Svery  individual  of  tha 
population.  Mr  Rowland  Hill's  pennj-poBta^  scheme  for  inland 
letters  came  into  operation  in  1340  ;  and  a  unifarm  rate  of  sixpence 
now  suffices  for  carrying  letters  to  the  most  distant  of  the  British 
oolonics.  Books  can  be  tranamittfid  by  post  to  any  jiort  of  the 
kingdom  at  the  rate  of  fonrpence  per  lb. ,  and  to  the  colonies  at  three- 
pence or  fonrpence  per  4  oi. 

Hlrtortcal  akBtoh.— The  British  Tales  were  peopled  by  the  Goal 
and  Kjmri  long  before  the  dawn  of  authentic  history.  It  was  not 
till  B  late  pei-ind  that  the  Oreeka  and  Romans  obtained  any  know- 
ledge of  them;  but  in  early  times  the  PhienicianB  visited  the  Scilly 
laUnda  and  the  coasts  of  Cornwall  for  tin.  Ailstotle,  the  disciple  of 
Fbto  and  tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great  (h.c.  342),  is  the  first  to  re- 
Mrd  the  existence  of  "  two  large  islands  in  tbe  ocean,  named  Albion 
and  Erin."  The  Komana  knew  nothing  of  thetn  personally  till  the 
Gillio  war  of  Julius  Ctesar,  who  twice  invaded  Biitain  (h-c.  5S,  £4). 
Casar's  stay -was  of  limited  duration,  and  accompanied  by  no  import- 
ant result !  and  the  Ramans  made  no  farther  attempt  to  cononer  the 
ialandfor  100  years.  In  the  reign  of  Claudins  they  again  landed, 
and  permanently  sabdned  the  conntry  south  of  the  Thames.  la  the 
year  61  A.n.  the  Britons,  under  Bosdioea,  sustained  another  decisive 
defeat ;  and  the  conq^uest  of  south  Britain  was  Snally  completed  by 
Agiiuola  (a.d.  78-84).  In  order  to  protect  his  newly-acquired  terri- 
tory from  the  iucursiona  of  the  northern  Colta,  he  erected  a  series  of 
forts  between  the  Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth,  calling  the  country 
lying  to  the  south  of  it  Britannia  Rama'aa,  and  that  to  the  north 
Caledonia,  or  Britannia  Barbara.  The  Eomans,  however,  gave  up 
the  northern  conquests  of  Agricola  in  the  lei^in  of  Adrian  (a.h. 
121),  and  caused  a  wall  to  be  built  from  the  Solway  to  the  month 
6f  the  Tyna  ns  the  extreme  limit  of  the  Roman  province. 
Early  in  the  fourth  century  the  Caledonians,  who  now  appear  under 
the  names  of  Picta  and  Scnts,  broke  through  the  wall,  and  Gothic 
tribes  began  to  infest  the  coasts ;  but  the  declining  power  of  the 
Kmpire  wag  nnahle  to  afford  the  province  any  effectual  assistance, 
nnd  in  the  rei;^  of  Honorius  all  the  Roman  troops  were  withdrawn 
^m  the  island  (a.d.  418}.  About  30  yeoi's  after  the  departure  nf 
the  Romans,  the  Jntea,  Saxona,  and  Angles,  successively  invaded 
•onth  Biitain,  and  drove  the  Kymri  into  Wales  (a.d.  449).    These 


112  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUlf. 

Gothic  nations  divided  England  into  seven  parts,  each  of  which  had 
its  own  chief ;  and  their  government  is  called  the  Saxon  Heptarchy, 
which  began  in  582,  and  maintained  its  ground  till  the  Danes  under 
Sweyn  invaded  the  country  in  1013.  The  Normans,  from  France, 
subdued  the  country  half  a  century  afterwards ;  the  battle  of  Hast- 
ings was  fought  in  the  year  1066,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  reduced 
to  a  state  of  slavery. 

Of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  British  Isles  we  can  only  enume- 
rate a  few  of  the  most  important  facts.  Ireland  was  subdued  by 
Henry  II.  of  England,  a.d.  1172.  Richard  I.,  King  of  England, 
engaged  in  the  Third  Crusade  in  1189.  The  Afagna  Charta  was 
signed  by  King  John  in  1215.  Wales  was  subdued  and  added  to 
England  by  Edward  I.  in  1282.  The  first  House  of  Commons  was 
summoned  to  convene  in  1265,  and  there  has  been  a  regular  succes- 
sion of  parliaments  since  1293.  Wickliffe's  translation  of  the  Bible 
was  executed  in  1880,  and  Caxton  introduced  the  art  of  printing 
into  England  in  1471.  In  1468  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands 
were  bestowed  by  the  King  of  Denmark  on  James  III.  of  Scotland. 
In  1525  Tyndale's  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  publi^ed 
at  Wittemberg,  and  nine  years  afterwards  in  England.  The  Refor- 
mation began  in  Scotland  under  Patrick  Hamilton  in  1528,  and  in 
England  in  1536  ;  in  1584  Virginia  was  taken  possession  of  for  Eng- 
land by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh ;  and  in  1588  the  Spanish  Armada  was 
destroyed  by  the  English.  In  1603  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scot- 
land were  united  in  the  person  of  James  VI. ;  and  Barbadoes,  Bri- 
tain's first  colony,  established  in  1604.  A  civil  war  in  Britain  ter- 
minated  in  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  in  1649,  and  Oliver  Cromwell 
became  dictator  for  eleven  years.  In  1662  the  Royal  Society  was 
instituted ;  in  1665  the  plague  broke  out  in  London  ;  and  Newton's 
Philosophy  was  published  in  1687.  The  celebrated  Revolution  took 
place  in  1688,  and  William  III.  was  called  to  the  throne.  The 
legislative  Union  of  England  and  Scotland  took  place  in  1707 ;  and 
the  first  and  second  rebellions  in  Scotland  in  1715  and  1745  respec- 
tively. The  American  War  of  Independence  began  in  1774  and 
terminated  in  1 783.  The  war  with  Revolutionary  France  commenced 
in  1793,  and  terminated  by  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815.  The 
legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  took  place  in  1801, 
and  was  followed  the  same  year  by  the  first  regular  census  of  tiie 
British  Isles.  Coal-gas  was  first  used  for  lighting  apartments  in 
1792  ;  the  Surrey  tram-railway,  the  first  in  Britain,  was  constructed 
in  1801;  and  in  1812  Henry  Bell's  diminutive  steadier,  **The 
Comet,"  the  commencement  of  European  steam-navigation,  was 
launched  on  the  waters  of  the  Clyde.  The  Catholic  Emancipation 
Act  was  passed  by  the  British  Legislature  in  1829,  and  the  Reform 
Bill  in  1832.  In  1842  the  Tariff  Reform  was  begun,  which  has 
resulted  in  Free  Trade ;  and  the  first  Industrial  Miibition  of  all 
nations  took  place  in  London  in  1851.  In  1854,  Great  Britain,  in 
alliance  with  France,  declared  war  against  Russia,  in  consequence  of 
its  encroachments  on  Turkey ;  and  in  1855  Sebastopol  was  taken  by 
the  allied  armies  of  Britain,  France,  Turkey,  and  Sardinia.     In 


AND    WALES. 


ii; 


ZSLS,  OuiLq  waE  aunexed  to  British  India,  and  in  the  year  lollon'in); 
the  great  rebellioa  broke  out,  by  ths  Sepojs,  aX.  :&leerut,  ehooting 
their  officers  and  massacring  all  Buropeiuis,  In  1S68,  the  rebellion 
Laving  been  Bupprassed,  the  Queen  of  England  became  Empress  of 
India.  A  treaty  of  conunerca  between  Great  Britain  and  TrancB 
•aaa  signed  in  18CI0,  and  peace  was  established  with  China.  The 
iUnBtrions  Prince  Albert  died  in  1S61 ;  in  1862  the  second  Interna- 
tional Eibibitinn  was  opened  in  London ;  in  this  year  great  distress 
was  eiperieneed  in  the  maimfncturing  districts  of  England,  America 
having  ceased  to  enpply  nswith  cotton,  owing  to  the  civil  war,  and  to 
the  Boulhem  porta  of  the  Uniou  being  blockaded  by  the  U.S.  Navy. 
In  1863,  the  Prince  of  Wales  married  the  Princess  Alexandra  of 
Denmark,  and  in  the  year  following  the  Ionian  Islands  were  finally 
ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  Greece.  The  year  1885  was  marked  by 
the  death  of  Lord  Palmeraton  and  of  Kicliard  Cobden,  by  the  com- 

Imencoment  of  Fenianiam,  and  of  the  cattle  plagne  in  England,  and 
liy  the  Jamaica  insurrection.  In  1867,  thenewHeforra  BUI,  which 
KTMtly  extended  the  franchise,  received  the  Royal  sanction  ;  in  1808, 
'r  Bobert  Napier,  with  a  British  farce,   captured  Magdala  and 


I  the  Disraeli  M 


I 


rescued  the  Abyssinian  capti^ 
Mr  Gladstone  oecnme  Prime 
was  disestablished ;  while,  in  1S70,  Oavemment 

.  of  the  various  Knes  of  electric  tele^^aph  throughout  the  king- 
dom, and  obtained  the  sanction  of  Parliament  to  a  measnre  regnlat- 
urc  of  laud  in  Ireland. 


ENGLAKD  AND  WALES. 


Position  and  Boundaries. — EngLind,  including  Wales,  fonne 
the  south  part  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  situated  between  lat.  49° 
sa"  and  55°  47'  N. ;  and  between  Ion.  1"  46'  E.  and  b°  43'  W. ; 
thus  occupying  5°  49'  of  lat,  and  7°  28'  of  Ion.  It  is  hounded 
on  lie  N.  by  Scotland,  from  which  it  is  separated  bv  the  Tweed ; 
on  the  E.  by  the  North  Sea  ;  on  the  S.  by  the  English  Channe!, 
which  separates  it  from  France  ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic, 
St  George's  Chaimd,  and  the  Irish  Sea. 

Form,  CaaEt-Uue,  and  Extreme  Points. — In  fona  it  approaches 
to  a  scalene  triangle  :  the  base,  from  Land's  End  to  South  Foreland, 
is  817  miles  ;  the  cast  side,  from  South  Foreland  to  Berwick,  316 
miles ;  and  the  west  mde,  from  Berwick  to  Land's  End,  42S  miles. 
LiEBTd  Point  fonns  the  extreme  soath  of  the  meinland;  Lowestoft 
Jfess,  in  SoSbUc,  the  exireme  east ;  Berwick  the  extreme  north ;  and 
I'b  End  in  Cornwall  the  eitreme  west.  The  perimeter  of  the 
igle  above  mentioned  isl087  miles;  but  when  the  principal  ia- 


• 


114  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHT. 

dentations  of  the  coast  are  included  the  sea- margin  is  at  least  2000 
miles,  affording  1  mile  of  coast  to  every  29  sq.  m.  of  surface.  The 
principal  indentations  are  on  the  W.  side,  especially  the  Bristol 
Channel,  Cardigan  Bay,  Morecambe  Bay,  and  the  Solway ;  those  cm 
the  E.  side  are  the  Humber,  Wash,  and  the  estuary  of  the  Thames. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  58,320  sq.  m. ;  being  50,9^ 
for  England,  and  7398  for  Wales ;  and  amounts  to  a  little  more  than 
I  of  the  area  of  the  entire  island,  which  is,  in  turn,  -^  of  the  area  of 
Europe.  In  1871  the  population  was  22,704,108;  or  21,487,688  for 
England,  and  1,216,420  for  Wales ;  while  in  the  year  1801  it  only 
amounted  to  8,892,536,  and  in  1821  to  12,000,236.  It  has  thus 
nearly  doubled  itself  in  the  half -century.  The  population  per  sq.  m. 
is  389,  or  422  for  England  without  Wales,  which  is  thinly  peopled. 
England  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  countries  in 
the  world.  The  most  populous  counties  are  Middlesex,  Surrey,  Lan- 
cashire, and  Yorkshire.  There  are  9036  persons  to  every  sq.  m.  in 
Middlesex,  and  1560  in  Lancashire ;  while  there  are  only  85  in  West- 
moreland, and  60  in  Radnor. 

Political  Divisions. — ^England  is  divided  into  40  counties, 
and  Wales  into  12.  The  English  counties  are  most  conveni- 
ently arranged  into  7"  eastern,  10  southern,  7  western,  and  16 
midland  coimties. 

In  the  following  table,  which  includes  all  towns  above  1000  inhabitants 
(680  in  number),  the  population  is  given  in  every  case  where  it  amounts 
to  5000,  as  also  the  river  on  which  the  town  sfcrnds.  Towns  between 
1000  and  5000  are  put  in  small  type,  while  the  rivers  on  which  they  stand 
wiU  be  found  in  the  River  System  of  England,  p.  138.* 

Seven  Eastern  Counties. 

Northumberland.  —  Newcastle,  128,+  Tynemouth,  including 
North  Shields,  39  (Tyne),  Morpeth  5  (Wansbeck),  Ahiwick  7  (Aln). 
Berwick,  13  (Tweed). 

Hexham,  Haltwhistle,  Bellingham,  Blyth,  Wooler,  Otterhum. 

*  Durliam. — ^Dubham  14,  Sunderland  with  Wearmouth  98,  Biahop« 

*  The  student's  attention  is  particularly  requested  to  the  order  in  which  the 
towns  and  rivers  are  given.  It  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  that  in 
the  extended  table,  entitled  "Table  of  Rivers  and  Towns"  (p.  187).  The 
capital  of  the  county,  however,  stands  firsts  and  is  followed  by  all  the  large 
towns  standing  on  the  same  river  as  the  capital,  beginning  at  the  mouth  and 
proceedmg  upwards,  or  beginning  as  near  the  mouth  as  the  boundary  of  the 
county  will  allow.  Should  the  capital  stand  on  a  tributary  river,  all  the  other 
towns  in  the  county  on  that  tributary  are  placed  immediately  after  it ;  and  then 
those  on  the  main  river,  beginning  at  its  mouth ;  and,  lastly,  those  on  the  other 
tributaries,  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  the  River  System  at  page  188. 
Thus  all  the  towns  in  any  county  belonging  to  one  river-basin  are  enumerated 
before  those  belonging  to  any  other  river-basin  are  entered  on.  The  name  of 
the  river  is  put  within  parentheses. — The  order  of  the  small  towns  is  precisely 
the  same  as  that  of  the  large. 

t  The  numerals  following  a  city  or  town  denote  so  many  thousands :  thus 
Newcastle  128,  signifies  that  the  population  of  Newcastle  amounts  to  128, OOU  : 
n.  means  near  the  river  the  name  of  which  follows. 


EXGLAND   AXD   WALEa.  115 

AucUimil  e  (Weat),  S.  Shields  45,  Jatrow  18,  Gatesbead  49  (Tyne), 
Stocktoa  28  (Tees),  Darliugton  28  (Skame),  Haitlepool  13  (E.  coaal). 

Cliester-la-StraeC,  WolMUgliam,  BBnmrd  Caitle,  HDUBbton-la-Spring. 

Torlolilra.— YOBK  44,  Goole  9,  Selby  5  (Ouse),  EipoD  7  (Ura),  Hull 
122,  Beverley  11  (HullJ,  Doucaater  19,  Sheffield  240  (Don),  Bamsley 
23  (Dcarna),  Eotherham  8  (Kotber),  Pontefraot  5  n.,  Lofda  259, 
Bradtonl  146  b.,  Eeighley  15  {Aire),  Wakefield  28,  Dewslrary  25, 
Halifax  65  (Calder),  Hudderafield  70  (Colne),  New  Maltoa  8  (Der- 
went),  EoareaborougliQ  (Nidd),  Tbirsk  6  (Codbeck),  Scarborough  24 
(east  coast),  Wbitby  13  (Eek),  Middleaborougb  39  (Tees). 

North  and  South  Cave,  Great  Drifflold,  Kilham,  Howdan,  Bingly, 
Skipton,  Aldborangli,  BorDUg-b bridge,  Mosham,  Eawea,  Leybum,  Thome, 
Ponuimtone,  Soaith,  CaetleforU,  Fooklineton,  Market-Weigh  ton,  Piukar- 
ing,  HsImaW,  Kirthy,  Tadoiialar,  WBtbarby,  Otlay,  Eaaiagwold,  Her- 
roiste,  fiednJe,  Richmond,  Reetb,  Tickbill,  Bridlington,  GuiBborougb, 
3MU^  Btoke^ey,  Northallerton,  Sedbergh,  Ouiseley,  Yeodon,  Batley. 

UneoIiuUre,— Ijncoln  £7,  Boston  16,  Spaldine  7,  Stamford  8 
(Withara),  Louth  11  (Ludd),  Great  Grimsby  20  (Huniber),  Gains- 
borough  7  (Treat). 

SlBttford,  Mnrkot-Eaeen,  Crowlnnd,  Bourne,  Wainfleat,  Splkby.  Alford, 
Barton,  Epworth,  Brigg,  Caiator,  Crowlo,  Homoaatle. 

Hoifolt— NoBwioH  80,  Yarmoutb  42  (Yare),  Lynu-Eegis  IB 
(Great  Quae). 

Wells,  Wymondham,  Hincrbun,  Aylesbani,  Ifortb  Wolsbam,  Harles- 
ton.  Dim,  Attlaborougb,  Thetford,  Cromer,  Holt,  Downbam-Market, 
SwaffhaiD,  Walton,  Dereham. 

SaffifllE.— Tpswicb  43  (Orwell),  Sudbury  7  (Stour),  Loweatoft  II 
(east  ooaat),  Eye  2  a.  (Waveney),  Bury  St  Edmuttd'a  IS  (Larke). 

Baoolea,  Woodbridge,  Stow-market,  Long  Molford,  Haverhill,  Had- 
Imgb,  FnuDlingham,  BaleaiTortb,  Buaga;,  Brandon,  MildenhalL 

Euex. — Chelmsfobd  6  (Chelmer),  Maldon  6,  Saffroo-Walden  6 
(Blackwater).  Colcheater  26,  Halstead  6  (Coliie).  Harwich,  6  (Stour). 
now,  Tbaited,  Brentwood,  Coggeaball,  braintree,  Fillmry  Fori, 
i,  Eppiug,  Waltbora  Abbey,  Romford. 

Ten  SoirraEiu)  Coukties. 

Sent.— Maidstosb  26,  Sheemeas  12  (in  the  lale  ot  Sheppey), 
Chatham  36,  Rocheater  18,  Tuabridge  6,  Tunbridge  Wells  14  a. 
(Medway),  Polkeatono  IS  (aouth  coast),  Dover  28  (Strait  of  Dover), 
Deal  8  (east  coast),  Bamsgate  21,  Canterbuiy  21  (Stour),  Maigate  12, 
Fftvernham  7  (north  coast),  Gravesend  21,  Woolwidi  42,  Greeuwiob 
168,  Deptford  28  (Thamea),  Dartford  5  (Darent). 

Hytbe,  Sandwich,  Asbford,  Herae  Bay,  Whitstahle,  Baveu  Oaka, 
Westerham,  Sydanbam,  Bromley,  Tentarden,  Cranbrook,  Milton. 

BiUHDE. — Lewes  11  (Ousel,  Chichester  8  (Lavant),  Worthing  6. 
^ghton  90,  EaatbouroB  6,  Hastings  29  (aouth  coast),  Midhurat  7 
(Wnt  Bother),  Horsham  7  {Adur]. 


116  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHr. 

Bosuor,  Little  Hampton,  Arundel,  Petwortli,  Newliaven,  Cuckfield, 
Hailsnam,  Rye,  Battle,  East  Grinstead,  New  Shoreham. 

Surrey. — Guildford  9  (Wey),  part  of  Deptford,  Southwark  and 
Lambeth  (parts  of  London),  Kichmond  17,  Elingston  15  (Thames), 
Croydon  27  (Wandle),  Reigate  16  (Mole). 

Godalming,  Famham,  Chertsey,  Epsom,  Leatherhead,  Dorking,  Ejgham, 
Wandsworth. 

Berks. — ^Reading  32,  Newbury  7  (Kennet),  Windsor  12,  Abing- 
don 6  (Thames). 

Hungerford,  Lamboum,  Maidenhead,  Wallingford,  Hurst^  Woking- 
ham, Wantage,  Great  Faringdon.  • 

Hampshire  or  Hants. — Winchester  15,  Southampton  54  (Itchin), 
Christchurch  9  (Hampshire  Avon),  Lymington  3  (tne  Solent),  An- 
dover  5  n.  (Test),  Portsmouth  113  (Portsmouth  Harbour),  Peteisfield 

6  (Rother).     In  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  Newport  8,  Cowes  5  (Medina), 
Ryde  11  (north  coast). 

Titchfield,  Odiham,  Ringwood,  Fordingbridge,  Romsey,  Whitchuroh, 
Bishop's  Waltham,  Farebam,  Havant,  Alton,  Basingstoke,  Kingsdere. 
In  Isle  of  Wight — Osborne,  Ventnor. 

THlts. — Salisbury  13,  Devizes  7  (Avon),  Trowbridge  13,  Malmes- 
bury  7  (Lower  Avon),  Westbury  6  (Were). 

Wilton,  Mere,  Melksham,  Marlborough,  Highworth,  Amesbury,  War- 
minster, Bradford,  New  Swindon,  Calne,  Chippenham. 

Dorset. — Dorchester  7,  Poole  10,  Wareham  7  (Frome),  BridportS 
(Brit),  Weymouth  and  Melcombe-Regis  13  (Wey),  Sherborne  6  (Ivd). 

Shaftesbury,  Lyme  Regis,  Blandford,  Beaminster,  Wimbome,  Stur- 
minster-Newton,  Cranbome,  Stalbridge. 

Somerset.— Taunton  15  (Tone),  Bath  53  (Lower  Avon),  Frome  10 
(Frome),  Wells  6  (Axe),  Bridgewater  12  (Parret),  Yeovil  8  (Yeo), 
Weston-super-Mare  9  (Bristol  Channel). 

Glastonbury,  Shepton-Mallet,  South  Petherton,  Crewkeme^omertou, 
Milverton,  Wellington,  Milbome  Port,  Ilminster,  Chard,  Wincanton, 
Bruton. 

Devon. — Exeter  35,  Exmouth  5,  Tiverton  10  (Exe),  Plymouth 
68,  Devonport  50  (Plymouth  Sound),  Tavistock  9  (Tavy),  Dart- 
mouth 5  (Dart),  Teignmouth  6,  Newton  Abbot  5  (Teign),  Torquay  18 
(Tor  Bay),  Barnstaple  12  (Taw),  Bideford  7  (Torridge). 

Topsham,  Crediton,  Cullompton,  Totness,  Ashburton,  Chudleigh,  St 
Mary  Ottery,  Honiton,  Sidmouth,  Colyton,  Axminster,  Ilfracombe,  Hart- 
land,  South  Molton,  Torrington,  Hatnerleigh,  Brizham,  DawUsh. 

ComwalL — Bodmin  5  (Camel),  Camborne  7,  St  Agnes  7,  St  Ives 

7  (W.  coast),  Penzance  10  (Mount's  Bay),  Falmouth  5,  Truro  11,  Red- 
ruth 8  n.  (Falmouth  Harbour). 

Helstone,  St  Just,  Stratton,  Marazion  or  Market-Jew,  Peniyn,  St 
Austell,  Fowey,  East  Looe,  St  Germans,  Saltash,  Callington,  liskmrdy 
Launceston. 


ESGLAND   iKD   1 


Seven  Webteeh  Counties. 
-MoNMOUTU  6  (Wye),  Newport  27  (Oak),  Tredegar  9 
<Ebwy). 

Chepstow,  Abergavenaj,  UEk,  Pontypool. 

HerelOra.— Heueford  18  (Wye),  Leomioster  6  (Lag^. 

KoAS,  Brorayard,  KiogtoDi  Ledbury. 

Saloi)  or  SliropahlTB. — SHHEwaBuav  23,  Eridgenorth  6,  Madi- 
Wenlock  20  n.,  Madeley  9  n.  (Severn),  Ludlow  6  (Teme),  Welling- 
ton 6  n.  (Tern),  Osweatry  7  (Ferry). 

Market-Dmyton,  Sbiffool,  Wem,  WhitchTirch,  Broselay,  ElleBmere, 
Hawport,  Bishop's  CbhUBj  Ironhriiige,  Dawley. 

CSeBllre.— CHESTEK36(Dee),  Birkenliead  66,  Runcorn  10,  Stock- 
port 63,  Hyde  14,  Staley  Bridge  21  (Mersey),  Nautwich  6,  Crewo  8 
(Wraver),CoQgletonll(DaDe),Altringliiim7,Maoole8ael.l36(Bollm). 

Malpaa,  Neaton,  Now  Brighton,  Middlewich,  Sandbaoh,  EnuUford, 
T&rporley,  EoUington,  MiddlBwich. 

LancMblre. — Lancastqh  IT  (Lunc),  Ulverstone  7  (Morecambe 
B»y).  Preston  SS,  Clitheroe  8  (Ribble),  Elaokburo  76  n.,  Over- 
Darwen  14  Q.,  Aocrington  14(Darwen),Burnley32,  Colne  0,  Paddi- 
luun  6  n.  (West  Calder),  Wigaa  30,  Leigli  11  (Douglas),  Ctorley  15 
(Uhor),  Onusfcirk  6,  Preacot  7  (Alt),  Liverpool  493,  Warrington 
32,  AHhton-nuder-Lyne  32  (Mersey),  St  Helens  IS  (Sankcy),  Man- 
cheater  and  Salford  481,  Bury  42,  Endingden  7  (Irwell),  Oldliani 
83  (Medlock),Middloton  10  (Irk),  Bolton  83,  Famworth  S  n.,Eindley 
S  (Crole),  EooMale  45,  Baeup  U  (Eoehe),  Todmorden  12  (Calder). 

Dalton,  Kivkham,  Lytlinni,  Fleetwood,  Widnes,  Blackpool,  TjldeBle}-, 
Cburohj  Ileotwood,  Muuh-Wolton,  Great  Harwood,  Heywood,  Droylsdeu, 
Newton  in  Makor&eld. 

WeEtmoreland.— Apflesv  3  (Eden),  Kendal  13  [Ken). 

Kkkby-Stephen,  Kirk  by -Lonsdale,  Orton. 

Cumherland.— Cabosle  31  (Eden),  Pewith  7  (Eamont),  WJiite- 
haven  18  (west  coast),  Maryport  0  (EUen),  Workington  6,  Cocker- 
month  7  (Derwent). 

IWigton,  Brampton,  Longton,  Keswick,  Egremont,  Aldetone. 
f  Sixteen  Midlasd  Coitnties. 

I  Derby.— Dehbt  60,  Belper  10  (Derwent),  CheaterfieU  11  (Eother). 
eioaaop  19  n.  (Etkerow). 

Matlock,  BakewolljTidBBWell,  Bull  "" 

fidd,  UaitiugtoD,  AifretoQ,  Clay  Croi 

MottB  or  Mottlngham. — Nottik 
UanaGeld  8  (Idle),  Workaop  7  (Byton). 
~    ~  it  Ketford,  Southwell,  Bingham,  Kirkby-in-ABbfield. 
r  ttaSOrd.— Staffoes  14  (Sow),  Btirton-on -Trent  16,  Newcutia 


1  87,   Newark  12  (Trent). 


118  POLITICAL  QEOGRAPHT. 

under-Lyne  16,  Stoke-upon-Trent  131*(Trent),  Leek  ]0  (Chturnet), 
Lichfield  7  n.,  Wednesbury  15  n.,  West  Bromwich  17  n.,  Walsall 
46  (Tame),  Wolverhampton  68,  Bilston  24  n.  (Smestow). 

Tamworth,  Eccleshall,  Rugeley,  Stone,  Tutbory,  Uttoxeter,  Cheadle, 
Penkridge,  Cannock,  Brewood. 

Leicester. — ^Leicester  95,  Loughborough  11,  Hinckley  6  (Soar). 

Melton-Mowbray,  Ashby-de-la-Zouche,  Market-Harborough,  Lutter- 
worth, Market-Bosworth. 

Rutland. — Oakham  3  (Wreak),  Uppinriiam  2  (Welland). 

Worcester. — ^Worcester  33  (Severn),  Evesham  5  (Upper  Avon), 
Bromsgrove  5  (Salwarp),  Kidderminster  19,  Stourbridge  8,  Dudley 
44,  Stourport  10  (Stour). 

Bewdley,  Upton,  Droitwich,  Pershore,  Tenbury,  Great  Malvern,  Hale- 
sowen, Eedditch. 

Warwick. — ^Warwick  11,  Rugby  8  (Upper  Avon),  Leamington  15 
(Learn),  Coventry  39  n.  (Sow),  T^uneaton  5  (Anker),  Birmingham 
344  (Rea). 

Stratford,  Alcester,  Henly-in-Arden,  Atherstone,  Coleshill,  Solihull^ 
Sutton-Coldfield,  Kenilworth,  Bedworth. 

Northampton. — ^Northampton  41,  Peterborough  17,  Welling- 
borough 6  (None),  Kettering  5  (Ise). 

Daventry,  Oundle,  Rothwell,  Brackley,  Towcestcr,  Ncueby,  Father' 
ingay. 

Huntingdon. — Huntinodon  4,  St  Ives  3,  St  Neots  3  (Great 
Ouse). 

Ejlmbolton,  Ramsey,  Godmanchester. 

Cambridge. — Cambridge  30  (Cam),  Ely  6  (Great  Ouse),  Wis- 
beach  9  (Nene). 

March,  New  Market,  Whittlesea. 

Gloucester. — Gloucester  18,  Tewkesbury  5  (Severn),  Bristol  183 
(Lower  Avon),  Stroud  39  (Stroud),  Cheltenham  45  (Chelt),  Ciren- 
cester 6  (Chum). 

Thombury,  Minchin-Hampton,  Lydney,  Coleford,  Berkeley,  Wotton- 
under-Edge,  Stow,  Bisley,  Tetbury,  Dursley. 

.Oxford. — Oxford  32  (Thames),  Banbury  4  (Cherwell),  Wood- 
stock 8  (Glyme). 

Henley,  Bampton,  Thame,  Deddington,  Bicester,  Witney,  ChippiDg- 
Norton. 

Bucks  or  Buddngham. — Buckingham  4  (Great  Ouse),  Great  Mar- 
low  6  (Thames),  Aylesbury  6  (Thame). 

Eton.  Olney,  Newport-Pagnell,  Stony  Stratford,  Chesham,  Slou^, 
High  Wycombe,  Amersham,  Ivinghoe,  Wendover,  Princes-Risborou^ 

Bedford. — Bedford  17  (Great  Ouse),  Luton  10  (Lea). 

Potton,  Biggleswade,  Leighton-Buzzard,  Dunstable. 

Herts  or  Hertford. — Hertford  7,  Ware  5  (Lea),  Bishop-Stort- 
ford  5  (Stort),  St  Albans  8  (Cohie),  Hitchen  6  (Hiz). 

*  Inclndlng  Hanley,  Bnrslem,  and  LoDgton. 


r 


EKCLiXD   AND   WALE9.  119 


H  idloea  3  (Sev 
^k.  OaiOtgui.- 

■fcveo).  Ten 
^B     CamiarUu 


Bamot,  Watford,  fleniBl-Raaipslod,  BertLampstead,  TAag,  Baldock. 

Middlesex. — London  3252 — inoluding  tha  City,  WeatminBter, 
Maryleboae,  Finsbury,  Tower  HamletB.Southwark,  and  Lambeth — ■ 
Brenifowj,  the  county  town,  9  (ThameB). 

HonnElow,  Twickenhnm,  Hampton,  Stainei,  Totteohara,  Enfield,  0i- 
itnidfTS,  Harrow,  Fulbam. 

L  TwELTB  'Welsh  Cockties. 

PUnt— Mold  3  (Allen),  Holywell  6,  Flint  4  fDee),  Rhyl  3  (Clwyd). 

Toma  behceen  1000  and  2500.— Rhyddlao,  St  Asaph,  Unnordsn. 

Deabl^— Dehbioh6,  EathinS  {Clwyd),  Wresham 9,  Llangollen 
S  (Dee),  Abergele  3  (comt). 

Obziibxvoil — Carsartoh  9.  Bangor  7  (Menai  Strait),  Oonway  3, 
LlanrwHt  3  (Conway),  Pwllheli  3,  Llandudno  2  (Coast). 

An^eRBS.— Beauuahis  2  (Aleuiti  Strait),  Amlwch  3  (i^.  coast), 
Holyhead  6  (Holy  L) 

Merlonett—DoLOELLT  2  (Maw),  Eala  2  (Dee). 

■antEOmar?. — Mohtooueby  1,  Wekhpool  T,  Kewtowu  6,  Lltm- 
idloea  3  (Severn). 

-     -■  Camjiqan  4  (Teify),  Aberystwith  7  (Yatwith). 

-Pkmbp.okk  14,  Haverfordwest  7,  Milford  3  (Milford 

_.  _  j),  Teoby  4  (S.E.  Coast). 

OBMoartlien.— Caemabthbn  10,  Llandeilo  6  (Towey),  Llanelly 
11  (S.  Coast). 

eiaanarsiui.— Cabdifp  40  (Severn),  Swansea  52  (Tawy),  Neath  9 
(Neath),  Merthyr-Tydfil  97  (Tatf). 

BroClnuick.— Brecon  6  (Dak),  Haj;  2  (Wye). 

Sadnor. — New  EiUHoa  2  (SomergiU),  Preateign  2  (Lngg). 

DBBcriptlTe  Botes, — By  thecenaos  of  1871  there  were  in  England 
and  Walea  fourteen  towns  having  upwarda  of  100,000  population — 

(London,  Liveqiool,  Mancheater,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Sheffield, 
Bristol,  Greenwich,  Bradford,  Newcastle,  Salford,  Hull,  Portamonth, 
and  Stoke -upon-Trent) ;  twenty  between  100,000  and  50,000  (Sun- 
derland, Leicester,  Brighton,  Praaton,  Mertbyr-Tydfil,  NottioE- 
ham,  Oldham,  Bolton,  Norwich,  Elackborn.  Huddersfield,  Plymoutfi, 

ffoivorhampton,  Halifas,  Southampton,  Bath,  Stockport,  Swansea, 

"erby,  Devonport);  forty-eight  between  60,000  and  20,000,  eighty 
itween  20,000  and  10,000,  and  one  htmdred  and  twenty  between 

Kl,000  and  6,000. 

The  Sevek  Eastern  Coukties. 
NoRranMBERLASO,  the  m 
ths  Twood  on  the  JJ.  and  II 
limeatona  in  the  N.  and  W.,  millstone  erit  and  the  ooal-meEaures  in  the 
S.E.,  extending  southnard  to  thaTeea  In  Durbani,  and  forming  tho  most 
eelebrstod  coal-field  in  the  world,  and  the  source  of  immBneo  woalth  to 
Oie  mining  and  mannfHOturing  population  of  the  N.E,  of  the  kinijdam. 
Tha  Tyna  flovra  tlirough  tLe  centre  of  tbia  precioua  mineral  deposit,  and 


120  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  towns  in  its  basin  are  all  prospering.    The  Cheviot  breed  of  sheep  is 
celebrated.    Newcastle,  on  tne  Tyne,  10  miles  from  its  month,  is  the 
centre  of  the  coal  trade  in  the  north  of  England,  and  the  fifth  commer- 
cial city  in  the  kingdom;  being  only  excell«i  by  London,  Liverpool, 
Bristol,  and  Hnll.    There  are  50  coal-pits  within  a  distance  of  8  miles  of 
it,  yielding  upwards  of  3,000,000  tons  annually,  and  large  manufactories 
of  steam-macninery  and  glass.    It  is  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Aken- 
side,  and  of  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon.    Tynemouth  and  Shields  are  the 
seaports  of  Newcastle.     Morpeth,  on  the  Wansbeck,  with  manufactures 
of  woollen  goods  and  leather.     Berwick,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Tweed, 
famous  in  the  annals  of  border  warfare,  was  long  independent  of  both 
kingdoms,  and  still  enjoys  the  privileges  of  a  county.    Ottetbnrn,  a 
village  of  Northumberland,  near  which,  in  1388,  was  fought  the  battle 
of  Chevy  Chase,  between  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Earl 
Douglas. 

Durham,  between  the  Tyne  and  the  Tees:  Millstone  Grit,  coal- 
measures,  permian,  and  trias.  Famous  for  its  rich  coal-deposits,  and  the 
Teeswater  breed  of  short -homed  cattle.  Lead,  iron,  and  grinding- 
stones  are  largely  exported.  Surface  mountainous  in  the  W.,  and  covered 
with  heath.  A  large  portion  of  the  land  belongs  to  the  bishOT)ric  of 
Durham.  Durham,  on  the  Wear,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  four  ^glii^ 
Universities,  contains  a  celebrated  cathedral,  a  castle  built  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  has  valuable  collieries  in  the  vicinity.  Sunderland, 
one  of  the  principal  ports  of  England  for  the  shipment  of  coal.  Ship- 
building is  extensively  carried  on  j  has  an  immense  cast-iron  bridge  over 
the  Wear,  whose  single  arch  is  237  feet  in  span.  Bishop-Aucidand, 
the  residence  of  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  whose  See  was  the  wealthiest  in 
the  kingdom  till  lately,  wnen  the  revenue  was  reduced  from  £22,000  a- 
year  to  £8000.  Gateshead,  a  suburb  of  Newcastle,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Tyne ;  a  great  fire  in  1854  destroyed  much  life  and  property. 
Stockton  and  Darlington  are  united  by  one  of  the  earliest  constructed 
railways  in  the  kingdom.  Hartlepool — steam  navigation  to  Hambuig, 
Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  and  Scotland. 

Yorkshire,  the  largest,  and  one  of  the  most  populous,  counties  of 
England  (area  5981  sq.  m.,  pop.  2,436,113),  lies  between  the  Tees  and 
the  Humber ;  consists  of  three  divisions  called  Ridings  {thirds,  in  Anglo- 
Saxon) — viz.,  the  North,  East,  and  West  Ridings,  which  all  meet  at 
York.  It  embraces  all  the  geological  formations,  in  rc^gular  succession, 
from  the  mountain  limestone  in  the  W.  to  the  chalk  and  tertiaries  in 
the  B.  The  West  Riding  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  mining  and  manufac- 
turing industry  of  England,  the  coal-measures  being  more  accessible 
there :  its  fine  broadcloths  and  other  woollen  fabrics  are  unrivalled 
throughout  the  world :  cotton,  flax,  and  silk  mills  are  also  very  nume- 
rous. The  North  Riding  is  principally  oolitic,  and  is  chiefly  famous  as 
a  grazing  country.  The  East  Riding  is,  for  the  most  part,  cretaceous 
and  tertiary,  and  comprises  the  hilly  district  called  "  the  Wolds."  York, 
on  the  Ouse,  near  the  centre  of  the  county,  where  the  three  Ridings  con- 
verge, is,  in  point  of  ecclesiastical  rank,  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom, 
— ^the  Archbishop  of  York  being  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitary  next 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  and  the  cathedral,  called  York  Min- 
ster, is  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind  in  England.  Goole,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Ouse  and  Don,  and  at  the  termination  of  the  Aire  and  Calder 
navigation.  Selby,  the  birthplace  of  Henry  I.  Ripon,  where  a  conference 
took  place  between  the  English  and  Scottish  Commissioners,  with  a  view 
to  adjust  the  diflerences  between  Charles  I.  and  his  Scottish  subjects,  in 


ESGl-iND    ASH    WALES,  121 

■W4D-  flail,  or  Kingfiton-npon-Hail,  Ie  tbe  fonrtb  comTnerTxal  city  in 
aigland ;  in  ISSS,  3ir3B  fihii-a  eulCTsd,  carrj-iiig  abont  700,000  tooB— iu 
Bnnual  erfiurts  excaad  £12,000,000  Btorlinj^  Iwing  the  great  outlet  for 
the  DUiiinfiLctiuH  of  the  West  Riding.  Baverl;,  cBpitol  of  the  Eaet  lad- 
ing, eontiuae  a  beautiful  iniiieteT,  dutjng  from  the  ISOs  century — vhiDli, 
like  Bolyrood,  Ima  the  privilege  of  aanetniiiy.  BonDarter,  ou  the  Dotj, 
fianDOEfaritfliuiniuiJ  rw^^E-  fiheffleld, aoted  lorcntleT^'Bnd  platedgaode, 
'in  which  it  in  necand  only  to  Binuinfliani.  SBriiBle;,Dnthe  r>Ganie,tbB 
chief  Best  of  the  linen  trade.  BotTiBTbnni,  at  the  coiiSuenoe  of  the  I>Dii 
and  Bother,  hu  mauufuctun^  of  all  kinds  of  inin  goods,  including  cim- 
naat,  machinery,  t.c  Fontefraot  {Fom&etl,  vjth  a  famnus  castlt  dl-» 
ID  mins,  where  Richard  IL  died.  LeedE,  Bradfcird,  HKlifos,  and  Httd- 
ihrnr^pMi  vttli  the  other  tcwM  in  the  buain  of  the  Aire,  are  the  principal 
■est  of  the  woollen  trade,  for  wlikh  the  "West  Riding  ie  no  celeteited. 
IiBBdB  alone  has  106  woollen  miUs.  Xradfinrd  has  coIlegsE  for  Ba,ptiBt£, 
IndepGiidBntf,  and  Wesii^yanE,  and  ie  the  jiruicipik]  eest  •.tt  tlie  warEtei3- 
jBm  iDBmifnciure.  EnBreBboron|rh ;  in  the  Tiainilj  is  the  far-famed 
"  diopjuug-wall, ' '  of  strongly  pfltrilying  qnalitj'.  Bcaxborongi  and 
■■nSgate,  fimiouB  for  their  mineral  wate™,  which  are  Jiiglily  luiSicinal. 
WlStij,  an  important  Beaport  tovm,  on  the  Esk,  the  hiitlij^sce  of  Cop- 
liiin  Oook,  tbe  navigntnr. 

iJUUXajmBmE,  betrceea  the  Hnmber  and  the  Wseb,  contsinB  aU  the 

-  - '     ■    1  f ormationfl  in  regular  eucoeBsion,  from  tbe  lina  in  the  W.  to  Iba 

n  the  E.  and  S,;  it  oonsiete  of  three  widely  differei^t  districte — 

aiDon  in  the  W.,  the  aaidi  in  tbe  N.E.,  and  the  feat  in  liie  B. 

d  E.  TbafiKi  ore  a  yeit  of  tbe  oelebmt«d  Bedford  Level— on  inmiBUsB 
[p  pBTtiaOy  drained  two  centuries  ago  liy  tlie  Ead  of  Bedford,  and 
Bw  TflBiftinder  lecentlj  by  tbe  Rritinh  G-DvemmBnl — -and  form  tbe  best 
}mtiu«-land  in  £u^lBiid.  Tbe  wo^tfi  ore  a  line  of  chalk  downs,  nbich 
oxtSDdt  from  namboroncb  Bead  to  tbe  coast  of  DoiTCtshire.  The  viimn 
■n  now  moatl}' cultiTHted,  LincDiiL,  tbe  uBpital,  on  tbe  Withsm.  is  noted 
for  its  beantihJ  catliedral,  wbich  ccntaiiu'  a  pLgaiitie  hell  called  Turn 
Of  Lincoln.  At  the  time  of  the  Conqueat,  tbe  "■  itimio  was  naTlgnWe  for 
laree  -reaselB  np  to  the  town,  and  Lincoln  formed  then  one  of  the  prind. 
dbT  Bea]iorte  in  tbe  kingdom.  BoBtus  has  a  fine  chorcli,  with  a  tower 
that  lerveB  be  a  ligbthouBe  for  the  nayigation  of  tbe  "Wash.  '  '  " 
was  a  place  of  aome  coLBequBUce  even  in  Baion  ttir—  "*~ 
lonfl]  Bend  large  quantltiea  of  com  to  London.  GrBai  uruueoj  nus  a 
fine  barbonr  and  cilGiialve  docks.  GaiaBborDagli.  on  the  Treot.  with 
BDaaidernble  irJand  trade,  eiporls  hardware  and  maunlactnred  goods. 

SOKltiLK,  batweentheWaah  and  tlie  Wavenej. — Priiidpally  crelaoenns, 
bitttertiEty  in  the  E.;  ooaat-lino  low,  sncface  level;  ami,  a  ligbt  eandy 
Inus,  well  fitted  for  barley  at^d  tnmips,  which  coiistitnte  tbe  principal 
CTop«  ;  eitaiuyvE  nianufactnreB  of  wooUen  and  sHk  fabrics ;  great  nuni- 
Imn  of  tnrkeys  and  geeiie  art  reared  for  the  London  market.  Horwinb. 
aa  the  Tare,  Qie  fin^  city  in  the  £.  of  England,  was  tbe  birthplace  of 
Ut  £amufl]  Clarke  and  of  Ambbisborh  Poj^m'.  long  famous  for  its  woraUd 
mamifactareb.  first  introdaeed  \<y  the  Flemings  in  Ibe  eiiteentb  centur;-, 
sod  now  for  ii«  bominsineE  and  crape  ;  has  a  liuge  cathedral,  with  a  epire 
Klg  fset  h'gb.  Tanmniiili,  aJao  on  tbe  Xars,  noted  for  its  hacriDg- 
fiahBiy,  tbe  most  important  in  £uglaud,  and  for  he  roadstead,   lying 

f^weeD  the  coent  and  a  dangerous  amdlmnk  in  the  viciuity.    Ijim-Begu, 
Eing'a-Lviui,  on  the  Oisat  Onse,  here  lOOO  feet  broad. 
Jtraroii,' between  the  Waveneyaiid  the  Btonr— Chalk  in  thf  "W..  ta- 
TS  in  the  £. ;  soiface  level,  nod  soil  well  cultivated,  pioduuiDg  wheat. 


122  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

barley,  beans,  oats,  turnips,  "hemp,  and  hops.  Lpswich,  with  extennTO 
iron  and  silk  manulactures,  is  the  birthplace  of  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Sud- 
bury, on  the  Stour,  sent  two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons,  but 
was  lately  disfranchised  for  bribery.  Lowestoft,  the  most  eastern  town 
in  the  British  Isles.  Bury  St  Edmund's  has  a  large  com  and  cattle 
market,  which  lasts  for  three  weeks. 

Essex,  between  the  Stour  and  the  Thames. — Almost  wholly  tertiary; 
surface  flat  and  marshy  in  the  S.,  but  richly  wooded  and  beautifufiy 
diversified  in  the  centre  and  N. ;  soil  rich,  and  famous  for  its  wheat  crops. 
Chelmsford,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Chelmer  and  Cann,  and  on  the  Great 
Eastern  Kailway.  Maldon  exports  fish  and  agricultural  produce.  Saf- 
firon-Walden,  so  named  from  the  saffron  plant,  formerly  cultivated  here. 
Colchester,  on  the  Colne,  crossed  here  by  seven  bridges ;  its  manufac- 
tures of  silk  are  declining.  Halstead,  with  manufactures  of  silks, 
velvets,  satins,  and  straw-plait.  Harwich  has  the  finest  harbour  on 
the  east  coast  of  England,  and  steam  communication  with  Rotterdam. 

The  Ten  Southebn  Cou^TIES. 

Kent,  between  the  Thames  and  the  Rother. — Tertiary  in  the  N.,  chalk 
and  greensand  in  the  centre  and  E.,  and  the  wealden,  a  fresh-water 
deposit,  in  the  S. ;  surf'ace  hilly — two  small  ranges  traverse  the  county 
from  W.  to  E. — but  the  S.  low  and  level,  containing  Romney  Marsh  and 
•'the  Weald ;"  soil  and  climate  excellent,  and  agriculture  in  a  highly 
advanced  state,  with  products  more  varied  than  any  other  English  county; 
wheat,  barley,  and  hops  of  very  superior  quality,  and  numerous  orchards 
of  cherries,  plums,  and  filberts.  Maidstone,  on  the  Medway,  the  chief 
seat  of  the  hop  trade.  Sheemess,  Chatham,  Woolwich,  and  Beptfordv 
with  royal  dockyards  and  arsenals.  Tunbridge  Wells,  with  medicinal 
waters,  a  fashionable  resort  for  the  Londoners.  Hythe,  Dover,  Bomney, 
and  Sandwich,  four  of  the  five  Cinque  Ports  (Hastings  in  Sussex  being 
the  fifth).  Eolkestone,  the  birthplace  of  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  Dover,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  is  only  21  miles 
from  the  French  coast,  and  is  the  chief  point  of  communication  between 
England  and  the  Continent.  Deal,  near  the  Goodwin  Sands,  maintains 
a  numerous  staff  of  pilots  for  steering  vessels  tlu'ough  the  Downs.  Sams- 
gate,  Margate,  and  Gravesend,  convenient  resorts  for  tbe  population  of 
London.  Canterbury,  the  ecclesiastical  cap.  of  England,  was  a  place  of 
some  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  the  cap.  of 
the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Kent.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  the 
primate  of  England,  and,  after  the  royal  family,  ranks  as  the  first  peer  of 
the  reiJm.  weenwich  is  celebrated  for  its  naval  hospital,  and  its  royal 
observatory,  from  which  the  longitude  on  all  British  maps  and  charts  is 
reckoned. 

Sussex  ("  South  Saxons  "),  between  the  Rother  and  Chichester  Harbour. 
The  wealden  in  the  N.  and  E.,  greensand,  chalk,  and  tertiary  in  the  W. 
and  S.;  surface  diversified;  "the  Weald"  is  level,  moderately  fertile, 
and  from  time  immemorial  famous  for  its  forests ;  the  South  Downs — 
a  range  of  chalk  hiUs — traverse  the  cretaceous  portion  from  W.  to  E., 
terminating  at  Beachy  Head.  South  of  the  Downs  there  is  a  considerable 
tract  of  fertile  soil  belonging  to  the  tertiary  formation.  Climate  mild, 
and  harvests  early,  but  agriculture  in  a  rather  backward  state ;  hops  ex- 
tensively raised  in  the  E.  The  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  in  high 
repute.  Chichester,  on  the  Lavant,  in  the  S.W.  of  the  county,  occupy- 
ing a  fine  situation  at  the  foot  of  the  South  Downs^  is  the  birthplace  of 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES.  123 

.11  Collins.     Brighton,  a  romantic  nnd  benutifnl  town,  the  gayest 

of  English  watering- places,  wilh  an  estensivt  uiarine  promenade.  Hart- 
iaga,  the  prindpul  of  the  CinquF  Ports,  the  scene  or  s  famons  battle,  in 
1066,  between  Harold  11.,  the  Inat  Saion  kdng,  and  William  the  Con- 
qneror.  laWM,  where  Siniun  do  Montfort  and  the  bttrans  defeated  Henry 
III.  in  1264    Eastbonma,  a  rspiiUj  rising  watering-place. 

SUBBET,  between  Snaaei  and  tho  Thames.— Weald  in  the  8.,  greensand 

>nd  chalk  in  the  centre,  sod  tertiar;  in  the  N.    The  North  Downs  run 

from  W.  to  E.;  the  W.  largely  covenid  with  heath,  biit  rertila  soil  in  the 

tertiary  part,    A  large  pDrtionnndBTtillage,  and  hops  esteusivoly  raised; 

another  large  portion  hiid  ont  as  kitchen-gardens,  for  supplying  the  nietra- 

''■  polls  with  yegetablea ;  woods  eiteiisite,  butngricnltnre  backwari   Gnild- 

%  on  tha  Wey,  and  17  milea  from  London,  has  considerable  tralEo  in 

__-3,  maJt,  and  coals.     Qeptibrd,  partly  in  Kent,  with  large  naval  araenal 

■jIUid  docbyarda.    Sontliwark  and  Lambeth  now  form  parts  of  London ; 

K.JB  the  latter  ie  Lambeth  Palace,  the  residence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 

Iwbnry.    Eidunond,  with  a  celebrated  park,  lathe  burial-place  of  Thorn - 

m  tha  poet,  and  of  Kean  the  tragedian,     Kingston,  where  the  lirst 

rmed  force  in  the  Parliamentary  war  assembled. 

■n i._.._gg^  Hampahire  and  the  TluiTues-     Coral-rag  in  the  N., 

„ chalk  in  the  centre,  and  tertiary  in  the  B.     A  tract  o( 

cbatk  downs  eifenda  through  the  centre  ;  Windsor  forest  and  park  in  the 
E.;  aoil  lertilo;  agricnltnre  backward;  niannfactnrea  nnimiiortant,  hnt 
exteneiTB  trade  in  iaricultural  produce.  Beading,  the  birthplace  of 
Arohbiabop  Laud.  'WlndMr,  celebrated  for  its  palace  and  park;  the 
former,  the  most  magnllicent  regal  palace  in  the  lEingdom,  was  founded 
by  the  Conqueror,  aud  is  the  favourite  residence  of  tho  sovareigu;  the 
tatter,  containing  Windsor  Forest,  is  SB  miles  in  circumference. 

EAHia,  chiefly  included  between  Chichester  Harbour  and  the  Hamp- 
■hire  Avon.  Chalk  in  the  K.,  tertiary  in  the  8.  The  North  and  South 
Downs  traverse  tho  county,  and  tha  south  coast  ia  deeply  indented ;  for 
the  most  part  well  wooded,  with  eitonsive  forests  of  oak  and  birch  ;  soil 
good,  ami  panerally  well  cultivated,  producing  excellent  hops;  its  cider 
and  bacon  in  high  repute.  The  Isle  of  Wight,  which  ia  tertiary  in  the  N. 
and  greensand  and  weald  in  the  S.,  is  considered  the  garden  of  England. 
■WlnchBitBT  was  long  the  capital  of  England;  here  many  of  the  SflKcn 
princei  are  interred.  Soathamjiton,  the  entrepfit  for  some  of  tha  greatest 
oe«an  steam  lines  in.  the  world :  here  the  maila  are  made  up  and  de- 
■patched  to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  China,  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Udorer,  one  of  the  largest  cattle-markets  in  England.  Fortsmoath,  tho 
headqnarlers  of  the  British  royal  navy,  with  ertensive  dockyards  and 
mnenal ;  the  harbour  unequalled  in  the  kingdom,  and  the  fortress  con- 
^ered  impregnable.    Newport,  the  capital  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

Wilts,  N.W.  of  Hants  and  8,  of  the  Thames.  Oolitic  inN.  and  W., 
cretace<yns  in  the  5.  and  K  The  centra  ia  occupied  by  the  elevated  tabla- 
land  of  Salisbnry  Plain,  in  which  nearly  all  the  rivora  of  tho  county  rise; 
Hril  highly  fertde,  eapecially  in  the  eitreme  N.  and  S.,  hut  the  central 
plateau  produces  only  scanty  herbage  ;  the  most  remarkable  nhjects  here 
■re  tbe  far-famed  Dnddical  remams  of  Stoncbeugo  and  Avebury,  oti 
which  mueh  antiquarian  reaearoh  has  been  espended.  Sftlisbury,  with  a 
magniflcent  Gothic  cathedral ;  the  spire,  the  highest  in  Britain,  rises  to 
aMigbt  of  W4feet,  Be viiei,  Bradford,  Trowbridge,  Chippennum,  and 
VonbniT,  have  extensive  niannfaetnres  of  woollens  and  line  cloths. 
'"  "  '  ■  StoMlieage,  and  Million  Eeotory,  the  birthpUce 


otAddJaon. 


124  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Dorset,  on  the  English  Channel,  for  the  most  part  between  the  Hamp- 
shire Avon  and  the  Lyme. — Cretaceous  in  the  E.,  and  oolitic  in  the  W, 
Surface  level  in  the  N.,  but  traversed  by  chalk  hi1l«  in  the  centre,  where 
numerous  flocks  of  sheep  find  pasture.  Dairy  produce  highly  important, 
and  large  commerce  in  rortland  and  Purbeck  stone,  coarse  marble,  and 
potter's  clay.  Dorchester,  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  with  the  remains 
of  a  huge  Roman  amphitheatre.  Poole,  a  large  seaport,  lai^ely  engaged 
in  the  Newfoundland  fishery.  Bridport ;  shipbuildmg,  cordage,  fiBning' 
nets,  and  sailcloth.    Sherborne,  the  residence  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh. 

Somerset,  between  Dorset  and  the  Bristol  Channel — Greatiy  diversi- 
fied, and  embracing  all  the  formations  from  the  old  red  to  the  oolite. 
Coast-line  and  surface  in*e^lar ;  the  Mendip  and  Qaantock  hills  divide 
the  county  into  three  divisions ;  fertile  along  the  rivers,  and  there  dairy 
husbandry  is  pursued  with  great  success,  but  in  other  jparts  there  are 
extensive  wastes,  as  Exmoor  in  the  W.  Coal,  calamine,  iron,  lead,  and 
fuller's  earth  are  obtained :  the  principal  manufactures  are  wooUens, 
silks,  linens,  paper,  glass,  and  iron-wares.  Many  antiquities.  Tannton, 
where  Judge  Jefi&eys  held  the  bloody  assize  after  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor. 
Bath,  on  the  Lower  Avon,  long  the  most  fashionable  watering-place  in 
the  kingdom,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  Europe.  Frome,  long 
noted  for  its  ale.  Wells,  with  a  noble  cathedral,  erected  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  Bridgewater,  the  birthplace  of  Admiral  Blake,  is  noted  for  its 
high  tides.  Weston-super-Mare,  from  an  insignificant  village,  has  risen 
into  a  favourite  watering-place. 

Devon,  between  the  English  and  Bristol  Channels. — The  centre  and  W. 
carboniferous,  and  the  seat  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  mines  in  Eng« 
land,  especially  copper  and  tin ;  the  S.  and  extreme  N.,  Devonian;  New 
red  and  greensand  in  E. ;  surface  greatly  broken,  but  generally  fertile, 
except  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor.  The  climate  in  winter  is  very  mild,  the 
average  temperature  being  44*.  Most  kinds  of  grain  are  raised,  and  the 
county  is  famed  for  its  cider.  The  red  Devon  breed  of  cattle  is  highly 
valued.  Herring,  pilchard,  mackerel,  and  dory  fisheries  important. 
Exeter,  a  fine  old  town  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  with  manufactures  of 
paper,  gloves,  and  lace.  Plymouth  and  Devonport,  closely  contiguous, 
are  principal  stations  of  the  royal  navy ;  noted  for  a  naval  arsenal,  and  for 
a  stupendous  breakwater  which  cost  £1,200,000.  Tavistock,  the  birth- 
place of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  and  of  William  Browne  the  poet.  Torquay 
(Torke^),  on  Tor  Bay,  the  resort  of  numerous  invalids.  Barnstaple  has 
considerable  trade  in  timber  with  Canada  and  the  Baltic. 

Cornwall,  in  the  extreme  S.W.  of  the  kingdom. — Devonian  for  the 
most  -p&Ttf  interspersed  with  i^eous  rocks,  but  carboniferous  in  the 
N.E. ;  surface  rugged ;  soil  indifferent ;  scantily  timbered ;  climate  mUd, 
salubrious,  but  very  humid.  Its  tin  mines  are  the  most  celebrated  in 
the  world,  and  have  been  wrought  from  remote  antic[uity.  The  metalli- 
ferous district  extends  from  Dartmoor,  in  Devonshire,  to  Land's  End; 
but  the  richest  mines  are  in  the  S.W.  of  the  county.  Copper  is  also 
abundant ;  and  lead,  silver,  zinc,  iron,  manganese,  antimony,  cobalt,  and 
bismuth  exist  in  many  localities.  Bodmin,  on  the  Camel,  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  coarse  woollen  stufl^.  Camborne,  Bedmth,  and  Mara- 
zion,  with  valuable  copper-mines.  St  Ives  and  St  Agnes,,  famous  for 
their  unriv^ed  tin  mines.  Penzance,  Tmro,  and  Lannceston,  are  called 
the  "Stannery  towns,"  being  those  to  which  the  miners  carry  their 
blocks  of  tin,  in  order  to  be  stamped  by  Government  agents.  Falxnontii, 
a  &vourite  resort  of  our  fleets  in  time  of  war,  and  a  mail-packet  station. 


TliE   SeTBN  "WaSiTEEK   COCKTIBB. 


r 

^H  MoNuonTH,  between  tLe  Wye  and  the  EoiDiiey.  —  UeToaian  for  tlie 
^f  most  part,  but  carboniferons  in  tie  estreme  W.  and  E. ;  surface  pic- 
^  tnnBijael  j  varied  vpith  faill  and  dale,  snd  Hnely  woDdsd ;  coal,  ironstouc, 
and  luneBtaue  abundant ;  Hannel  the  cbief  manufacture ;  man;  Britiiin 
and  Bonian Teuioina  ;  the  "Welsh  lan^age  and  manners  prevalent;  and 
in  general  the  coim^  may  be  considered  aa  rather  Welsh  than  English. 
Koninontli,  on  the  Wye,  the  birthplace  of  Heniy  V.,  and  of  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  the  amialist ;  with  extensive  manufactures  of  bar-iron,  tin- 
]ilatea,  and  paper.  Seirport  exporU  cool,  iron,  and  tin,  which  are  coii- 
Teyed  hither  from  South  Wales ;  large  trade  in  shipbuilding  and  iton- 
foundriet.    Tredenir,  noted  for  its  eoal-minea  aad  ironworks. 

Heeeeoed,  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn. — Almost  wholly  Devonian  ;  sur- 
face beautifully  diversified,  and  presenting  sotne  of  the  Uneat  scenery  in 

ancT  admirably  aikpted  for  agriculture;  climate  remarkably  healtliy  ; 
iqtples,  lions,  and  oak  bark  are  important  arliclea  of  commerce ;  and  tho 
breeda  of  iheep  and  cattle  are  celebrated  for  their  excel]  eacB.  Heretbrd 
(Her'.e-ford)  on  the  Wye,  the  birthplace  of  David  Ganick,  tho  comedian, 
uid  of  Nell  Gwynn,  the  favourite  miatresB  of  Charlca  IL  IieominBter 
JLem'-Bter),  famed  for  the  quality  of  its  cider,  and  for  manufactures  of 
leather,  gloves,  bata,  and  woollen. 

SalOe,  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn.  ^ — Silurian  strata,  containing  lead 
minei  in  the  S.W.,  new  red  sandstone,  with  rock-salt,  in  the  N.,  and 
Devonian  beds  and  coal  in  the  remainder ;  snrface  mountainous  in  the  fi., 
comparatively  level  in  the  N. ;  Sua  meadow.huida  near  the  Severn;  hops 
and  orchards  in  the  S.,  coal  snd  iron  in  the  £.,  lead  in  the  W.,  and  salt 
in  the  N.  The  manofacturea  are,  chioa  ware,  flannels,  carpete,  linen, 
gloves,  and  paper.  Agood  deal  of  cheese  is  made,  and  large  flocks  of 
turkeys  are  reared.  Sfirewabury,  on  the  Severn,  where  a  bloody  engagB- 
ment  took  place,  in  1JU3,  between  tho  troops  of  Henry  IV.  and  the 
Pecciea,  in  which  Hotspur  was  killed.  Bridgenortb,  eite^isively  engaged 
in  the  carpet  manufacture.  BrDseley,  noted  for  its  iron-foundries  (luiown 
at  tbe  Colebtookdale  works) ;  a  suapenslon-hridge  over  the  Severn  here 
WBB  the  fliBt  erected  in  England ;  near  it  is  Colebiookdale,  famous  for  its 
petroleum  or  tar  springs. 

CHraHiHB,  a  maritime  county  between  the  Mersey  and  the  Dee.  — Nearly 
all  of  new  red  aandstone,  containing  an  ineihaustible  supply  of  roeis- 
salt ;  euiface  level,  well  wooded,  and  etuddcd  with  many  sniall  lakes ; 
(Oil,  clay  or  sandy  loam;  climale  moist.  The  county  is  noted  for  its 
dairy  produce,  and  especially  for  its  cheese.  Coal,  copper,  lead,  rock- 
utt,  and  cobalt  are  among  its  mineral  products,  and  the  principal  manu- 
&otares  are  cottons  and  silks.  Chester,  on  the  Dee,  exports  cheese  in 
large  qmotitics,  and  is  the  burial-place  of  Matthew  Benry  the  commen- 
tator, and  of  the  poet  FamelL  Biikenliead,  a  now  town  on  the  estuary 
of  the  Mereey,  opposite  Liverpool,  fast  nsing  into  importance.  Stock 
port  has  coal  abundant  in  the  vicinity,  and  t^e  manufactures  of  cotton, 
silk,  machinery,  brass,  and  iron  goods.  Etaley  Bridge,  extensively  en- 
gaged in  the  cotton  inannfacture.  Blaocleafield  employs  10^000  bands  in 
■iUi-weaving.  Crewe,  on  the  London  and  North- Weetem  Bailway,  is  ■ 
great  railway  depAt. 

LuiCABalEiE,  a  maritime  county  between  the  Mersey  and  Uorecambe 
Bay.  —  Mainly  carboniferons,  but  new  red  sandfitone  in  the  W.,  lined 


126  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

with  post-tertiary  deposits ;  mountainous  in  the  N.  and  along  the  K 
border,  elsewhere  generally  level ;  climate  mild  but  very  humid ;  i>astare- 
l^ids  more  extensive  than  the  arable ;  potatoes  extensively  cultivated, 
and  horticulture  largely  pursued.    Copper,  ironstone,  and  lead  ore  pre- 
vail extensively ;  but  the  county  owes  its  celebrity,  wealth,  and  popular 
tion  to  its  manufactures  and  commerce.    It  is  the  grand  seat  of  the 
cotton  manufacture,  which  has  increased  since  1770  with  a  rapidity  alto- 
gether unparalleled  in  the  history  of  industry.    Woollen,  fla^  and  silk 
ifactories  are  also  numerous.    During  the  last  hundred  years  the  popula- 
tion (now  2,818,904)  has  increased  eightfold.    A  complete  network  of 
rdlways,  and  several  important  canals,  afford  means  of  rapid  conveyance 
to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.    Lancaster,  on  the  Lune,  with  a  superi> 
aqueduct  over  the  river.    Liverpool,  a  large  and  flourishing  city,  and  the 
second  commercial  port  in  the  kingdom,  is  situated  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Mersey,  about  four  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  32  miles  from  Manchester, 
vnih  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.    It  carries  on  a  vast  maiithne 
trade,  especi^y  with  the  United  States,  importing  thence  cotton  wooL 
and  exporting  cotton  cloth.    In  1869,  23,938  ships  entered  and  deajed 
the  port,  with  a  tonnage   of  9,277,714   tons.     In  1860,  before  the 
American  war  began,  the  cotton  imported  into  Liverpool  amounted  to 
1,417,000,000  lb.    Liverpool  is  the  chief  outlet  for  the  manufactures  of 
lAucashire,  Staffordshire,  and  the  west  of  Yorkshire.    Manchester,  on 
the  Irwell,  across  which  it  communicates  by  six  bridges  with  Saluid, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  its  suburb ;  united  population,  480,000.    It  is 
the  great  centre  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  and  probably  the  greatest 
manufacturing  city  in  the  world.    The  other  principal  "  cotton  towns  " 
in  the  county  are  Preston,  Blackburn,  Burnley,  Wigan,  Chorley,  Ash- 
ton-under-Lyne,  Oldham,  Bury,  Middleton,  Bolton,  and  Rochdale. 
Westmorlai9T>,  between  the  Pennine  Hills  and  Morecambe  Bay,  is 
only  very  partially  a  maritime  county. — Cumbrian  strata  in  the  W., 
Silurian  in  the  centre,  carboniferous  in  the  E.,  and  Permian  in  the  N. ;  a 
country  of  mountains,  lakes,  and  picturesque  scenery  ;  climate  humid ; 
soil  various,  and  agriculture  improving ;  cattle  of  large  8i2e,  sheep  nume- 
rous, their  wool  being  sent  to  the  Yorkshire  woollen  manufactories ;  great 
flocks  of  geese  raised  for  exportation ;  slate  is  quarried  in  great  quanti- 
ties, as  also  granite,  marble,  copper,  and  lead ;  char,  and  other  lake  fish, 
extensively  exported.    Appleby,  on  the  Eden ;  the  castle  held  out  long 
against  the  Parliamentarj'  army  under  Oliver  CromwelL    yfti><la.|^  on 
the  Ken,  one  of  the  oldest  manufacturing  towns  in  the  kingdom ;  its 
cloths,  manufactured  by  Flemish  weavers,  were  famous  in  l£e  time  of 
Richard  II. 

Cumberland,  a  maritime  county  in  the  extreme  N.W.,  between  the 
Pennine  chain  and  the  Irish  Sea.  An  extensive  area  of  Cumbrian  strata 
in  the  S.,  with  igneous  rocks  interspersed ;  carboniferous,  Permian,  and 
triassic  in  the  centre  and  N. ;  sui&ce  rugged  and  mountainous,  inter- 
spersed with  beautiful  lakes,  presenting  the  most  magnificent  scenery  in 
^gland.  Climate  extremely  moist :  Seathwaite,  where  183  in.  of  rain 
fell  in  1861,  and  at  the  Stye  224  in.  in  1866,  are  perhaps  the  rainiest  dis- 
tricts in  Europe.  In  consequence  of  this  extreme  moisture,  agriculture  is 
chiefly  confined  to  stock-breeding ;  and  green  crops  attain  to  great  perfec- 
tion, especially  Swedish  turnips.  Principal  minerals  are  silver,  copper, 
lead,  iron,  and  coal.  Near  Whitehaven  are  extensive  beds  of  coal  and 
hffimatite,  and  at  Borrowdale  there  is  a  mine  of  plumbago.  The  chief  man- 
ufactures are  cottons,  coarse  linens,  checks,  and  woollens ;  and  the  lakes 
yield  abundance  of  char,  trout,  pike,  and  perch.    Carlislei  an  episcopal 


ENGIAKD   AKD   WAIXS. 


Fmudth  haa 


eUand  BiDiy  under  Prince  Clinrles. 
f  cottcm,  linea,  Bud  wuDlleD  gDnda. 
of  coaJ,  mtd  of  t.he  inm-ore  called 
ouf  wsf  under  the  sea.  KarTport 
'  --'      CockEniumtk,  the 


Lnve  cnnaiderable  trade  i 
1  tiie  potit  'WordswDTtli.     Stewiek  mmmlBCtiLres  bIa<:k-!BBd 
the  plumhaf-D  miueb  of  Barrowdole.    Heie  Southty  the  poet 


The  Sixteen  Midlasb  CorKTiEB. 

a  central  connt;  in  the  bssm  of  the  Trent.     Ouofl;  carbonifer- 

[lew  red  eaudstone  in  the  S.     Stufoeii  momitiiii^aB  in  the  S., 

fi  ihe  Pennine  nrngB  ifirminatet  in  the  Peak  of  Derby ;  elsewiierE 

ThePeak  district  ahcmnds  in  rtimontic  BceneiT,  in  nBtiir&l  corioaj- 

ud-mines.     Climate  bracing  and  fialnhrioDH;  soil  reddiflh 

D  th£  S.,  when  grmn  and  great  goantitiue  of  choeae  are 

is  Ehigularly  rich  in  niinerBle ;  coal,  lead,  iron, 

ir^Bpar  are  urought  to  a  great  erlHnt.    Collieries 

.  IS ;  principal  maiiuiBctures.  eilk,  uouon,  metallic 

porcalBiu.    DerW,  on  the  Derwent,  at  tlie  ertreniity  of  a 

,      Td  on  the  Sidlaud  EaCwiij,  is  t'HVnurablj  situated  for  ibbud- 

s  and  CniilB — nolBd  for  its  ailka,  porcelain,  marble  aud  fiuur-Bpar 

Bdiier,  vith  lar^  Dotton  botories  and  pottcriea.     Chener- 

ind  bIUe  nmnulactures ;  with  mines  of  ijva,  cool,  and  lead  iu 

r.     eloB»i^,near  the  Peak  of  Derby,  is  the  ciaeS  seat  of  tlie 

D  niBnufactnre  lu  the  comity.     SatloGk  and  Burton,  celebrated  for 
aineial  watera,   VirkEwortlh,  viUi  an  extensive  and  valuabie  lead- 

—  a  Duntrol  county  in  the  liotdn  of  the  Trent,     Cuol  and  Pemuan 

.,  liss  in  ri,  £,,  and  millatone  pit  in  the  remainder,     Burtace 

I;  climate  remariiably  dry,  prDbably  owing  to  the  Derbjaliire 

Is  intoru^ititig  the  uiuist  B.'W.  wiucU  ;  soil  eilliei'  d^ey  or  h^i^  and 

'    ;  agriciUture  wall  advanced ;    minoralB  abnndant,  eapeoi^y  Goal 

'    is  tiie  prinuq^al  seat  ol  the  cuttnn  hosiety,  and  OT  laoe- 

..    .       -DttiiiglUBn,  on  the  Trent,  is  tlie  pieat  oantte  of  liiB 

s  roanafactBrE.    B'ewark.  where  CkarlaB  I.^after  liu  defeat  at  fiaaeby. 

"eld.  mandhcirnree  uf 

Voiksop,  in  H  difr- 


,  a  central  cciinly  iu  the  basins  oE  the  Trent  and  SevcnL , 

I;  corliDuiferauB,  hut  new  red  t>uud»toue  iti  the  oeutre ;  Buiiiics 

,he  centre,  iilly  in  the  S.,  mooriaud  iu  N.K    Cbninte  chilly. 

io  tlie  ekcation ;  much  tain  in  some  parts ;  iHo-thirds  of  the  aor- 

Itirautd,  Imt  farming  lass  iuipurtant  than  the  mininc  ojnnatiouE, 

lb  thit  county  holdE  the  third  muk  in  England.     Xoeie  are  twu 

limlile  coal-fields,  one  in  the  K.,  called  the  potteiy  coal-field, 

«tiie  great  numbar  uf  potteries  that  liavebseu  eatabLslied  on  it; 

I  othBT  in  the  B.,  called  the  Dudley  coal-field,  celebrated  for  the 

n  ^jts  semus  of  coal,  and  for  the  eicelleuce  and  lichuess  of  its 

_H.      BesideB  coal,  the  moEt  importuut  mineral  pj'oduct  is  tiiu 

7  clay,  which  1ms  made  the  county  so  celebrated  for  its  eartheo- 

~    ~     ■      p  tlie  Bow,  the  birthplace  ol  Isaac  Walton.    Bnrtaa- 

lor  iti  ales,  haa  a  bridge  cier  the  stet  iBckooBd  the 


128  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

longest  in  England,  with  thirty-seven  arches.  Newcastle-under-Lyiie. 
noted  for  its  hats — near  it  Etmria,  the  famous  pottery  establishment  of 
Josiah  Wedgwood.  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Haalev,  and  Bnnlem,  with 
some  other  towns  in  the  vicinity,  are  ctdled  '*  The  Potteries,"  owing  to 
their  immense  manufacture  of  earthenware.  Lichfield,  the  birthplace  of 
Samuel  Johnson.  West  Broziwich,  WalsaU,  and  Bilstoxiy  wita  gresfe 
ironworks.    Wolverhampton,  noted  for  its  furnaces  and  hardware  mnliB. 

Letoester,  an  inland  county  in  the  basin  of  the  Trent.  Some  coal  in 
the  W. ;  new  red,  with  igneous  rocks,  in  the  centre,  and  lias  in  the  K 
Surface  undulating— a  fine  grazing  county,  noted  for  its  sheep,  horses, 
and  cattle^  and  for  Stilton  cheese.  It  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  woollen 
hosiery  manufacture.  The  principal  minerals  are  coal,  iron,  and  lead. 
Leicester  (Les'-ter),  on  the  Soar,  the  principal  seat  of  the  woollen  hosiery 
manufacture.  Longhborotigh,  nosiery  of  all  kinds.  Hinckley,  cotton 
and  worsted  stockings. 

Rutland,  the  smallest  county  in  England  (area  152  sq.  m.),  in  thA 
basins  of  the  Trent  and  Welland.  Lias  in  the  western  half,  and  oolite  in 
the  eastern.  Surface  undulating  and  diversified  with  parks  j  the  eastern 
half  chiefly  under  tillage,  and  western  half  under  pasture ;  soil  everywhere 
loamy  and  rich ;  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  sheep  and  oxen. 
Oakham  manufactures  silk  shag  for  hats.  Uppingham,  a  small  town  on 
the  Welland. 

Worcester,  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn.  New  Bed  in  W.,  lias  in  centrBy 
and  oolite  in  the  E. ;  some  coal  found  in  N.  Surface  generally  level,  but 
having  the  Malvern  Hills  in  S.W.,  and  the  Bredon  Hills  in  S.K  Soil 
fertile,  well  watered,  and  richly  wooded ;  wheat  and  hops  extensively 
raised,  and  orchards  numerous.  Principal  minerals  are  coal,  found  at 
Dudley,  building-stone,  and  clay.  The  Kew  Bed  at  Droitwicn  contains 
brine-spring.  Manufactures,  carpets,  elass,  ironware,  gloves,  porcelain, 
needles,  and  fish-hooks.  Worcester  (Woos'-ter),  on  the  Severn,  a  hand- 
some  and  very  ancient  city,  noted  for  its  porcelain,  reckoned  the  finest  in 
England,  ^dderminster,  producing  the  finest  carpets  in  England. 
Stourbridge  has  manufactures  of  glass  and  earthenware.  Dudley,  in  the 
**  Black  Country,"  has  a  famous  coal-field,  part  of  which  has  been  on  fire 
for  a  century ;  is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  iron  trade.  Stonrport 
is  the  seat  of  a  busy  trade  in  com,  coal,  and  timber. 

Warwick,  in  the  basins  of  the  Severn  and  Trent.  Lias- in  S.,  new  red 
in  the  centre,  carboniferous  and  Permian  in  the  N.  Surface  elevated,  and 
diversified  by  gentle  hills  and  vales ;  climate  mild  and  salubrious ;  soil 
generally  very  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  and  a  great  part  of  it  in  per- 
manent pasture.  The  most  valuable  minerals  are  coal,  limestone,  sand- 
stone, blue  flagstone,  and  marl.  Manufactures  very  important,  especially 
hardware,  arms,  watches,  jewellery,  silk,  and  ribbons.  Warwick  (Wor- 
ric),  on  the  Upper  Avon.  The  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  is  the  most  complete  specimen  of  a  feudal  fortress  in  the  king- 
dom. Stratford,  also  on  the  Avon,  the  birthplace  of  the  immortal 
Shakespeare.  Bugby,  with  a  celebrated  school,  tne  scene  of  Dr  Arnold's 
labours,  stands  in  the  exact  centre  of  England.  Leamineton  (Lem'-ing- 
ton),  a  fashionable  watering-place,  with  sulphureous,  saline,  and  chaly- 
beate springs.  Coventry  and  Nuneaton,  the  chief  seat  of  the  ribbon 
manufacture.  Birmingham,  on  the  Bea,  an  affluent  of  the  Tame,  and  a 
sub-tributary  of  the  Trent,  is  the  second  manufacturing  city  in  England, 
and  for  hardwares  the  flrst  in  the  world.  It  has  been  called  ''the  great 
toy-shop  of  Europe,"  but  it  is  equally  famous  for  all  descriptions  of 
h£u*dware,  firearms,  and  crown-glass.    It  is  surrounded  by  extensive  cosIp 


lLEB, 


129 


Ill-works,  and  is  one  of  the  main  centres  of  cnnal  aoA  railway 
cmonmnicatJon  in  Englaud.  Here  eiectro-plttting  was  invEnled ;  and  at 
Boho  In  the  ricinity  is  the  greatest  manufactory  of  steam-eneines  in  the 
iTorld,  condacUd  by  a  firm  of  wbicb  the  celebiated  Jamee  Watt  vks  a 

NOBlHAkPTON,  B  Mntral  county,  drainsd  by  the  Nen,  Wetland,  and 
Oose.  AlmofC  wholly  oolite  and  lias.  Surface  diTcreined  and  richly 
wooded;  eoil mostly  aatitF productive Inani ;  climate  healthy ;  agricultnia 
well  advanced,  the  chief  staple  beirg  tbe  breeding  of  heavy  black  horses, 
jhort-homed  cattle,  andeheep;  chief  manufactures— Bhoes,  hobbin-lacc, 
and  woollen  stD&.  Horthamptan,  on  the  Nen,  the  chief  seat  of  the  bout 
and  shoe  manufacture.  Paterborongli,  au  cpiscopul  see.  the  birthplace 
of  Dr  Paley ;    the  cathedral,  a  splendid  edifice,  conlains  the  tomb  of 

Seen  Catharine,  fint  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  'WelUngborongb,  with  hoot, 
he,  and  lace  manufactures.  Kettering,  aiUt- wearing,  plush,  and  wool- 
oombing.  Haaeby.a  country  pariah,  12  miles  N.N.W.  of  Northampton  ; 
here  in  IMS  the  troops  of  Charles  I.  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Pnrlia- 
mentary  array.  Fotfieringay,  3*  milea  N.  N.E.  of  Onndle  ;  its  castle  is 
ramoui  as  the  birthplace  of  KlcTiacd  III.,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  Im- 
priaonment,  trial,  and  eiecution,  in  1587,  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 

HcnnSGDON,  sometimes  called  Hunts,  an  inland  cuunty  in  the  basin  ot 
the  Oose.  Almost  wholly  oolitic,  but  post-tertiary  in  H.E,  Suifacs 
gently  varied  where  the  oolite  prevails,  the  rest  level,  and  forming  a  part 
of  "The  Fens."  Chmate  mild  and  healthy,  except  in  the  fens  ;  eoil  good 
■inl  aJnioat  wholly  under  cultivation,  with  agriculture  iu  an  advanced 
state,  especially  In  the  Bedford  Leyel  or  fens  district ;  horses  extensively 
linid,  ana  much  "Stilton  cheese"  made.  Manufactures  unimportant. 
EiUltlii|[dan,  on  the  Great  Ouse,  the  h. -place  of  Oliver  Cromwell  in 
IGM ;  luB  extensive  breweiies,  and  considerable  trade  in  com,  wool,  coals, 
■sd  timber.     St  Ives,  large  sheep  and  cattle  markets. 

CaKbrIDOE,  in  the  basmg  of  the  Great  OuM  and  Nen.  Post-tertiary 
Id  tbe  N.,  oolitic  in  the  centre,  greenaand  and  chalk  in  the  S.  and  K 
SnrCaoe  level,  marshy,  and  thmly  wooded,  and  the  fens  liable  to  inun- 
datlDD ;  about  a  tbii^  of  the  county  luidcr  tillage,  tbe  rest  fanning  ex- 
cellent pOBtuia.  The  butter  of  Camhridge  and  Epping,  and  the  cheese  of 
Cottenham,  are  highly  valued  ;  but,  on  tbe  whole,  agricnlture  if 

■backward,  and '^- ■— -'.i.-- ■  •  ■■ 

if  some  pottei 
on  the  C^,  L 

owrtnry,  and  ct „ ^ _. 

raaowned  for  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  Ely,  a  bishop's  see, 
nrfth  ■  splendid  catbedral— tbe  only  episcojHl  city  in  England  which 
sends  no  member  to  Farliunent.  'Wlsbeaoh,  an  active  river  port,  en- 
gaged in  shipbuilding. 

Olouqebter,  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn.  Frind[)at1y  oolite  and  lias,  but 
earbonlferons  and  new  red  in  the  W.  ;  naturally  divided  into  three  divi- 
■to»— viz.,  the  valley  of  the  Severn  in  the  middle,  the  Cotswold  Hills  in 
the  E.,  and  the  forest  of  Dean  in  the  W.  Tbe  first  is  highly  fertile,  and 
Ihe  iconery  beautiful ;  the  second  is  celehrated  for  its  sheepfarming. 
The  county  is  cbieHy  agricultural,  but  It  is  also  noted  for  its  cheese, 
whieh  is  nowhere  snrpassed.  The  principal  minerals  are  coat  and  iron  ; 
and  the  manufactures  chiefly  woollen  and  cotton  cloth.  Bloncester 
<01os'-ter),  a  bishop's  see,  on  tbe  Severn,  has  a  flue  cathedral,  and  mann- 
factnres  of  cutlery,  soap,  and  pins.  Tewkesbury,  the  scene  of  a  decisive 
battle  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  in  1471,    Bristol,  on 


130  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Lower  Avon,  is  the  tliird  seaport  in  England,  and  the  commercia] 
metropolis  of  the  west.  The  fine  nanuels  of  Wales  are  finished  here ;  ex- 
tensive iron  and  brass  foundries ;  the  biithplace  of  many  eminent  per- 
sons,  among  whom  William  of  Worcester,  Sebastian  Cabot,  Chatterton, 
Bayley,  and  Southey.  Stroud,  on  a  river  of  same  name,  the  water  of 
which  is  peciUiarly  adapted  for  dyeing  scarlet,  is  the  centre  of  the  Glou- 
cester wool-manufacture.  Cheltenham,  with  its  saline  medicinal  springs, 
is  the  rival  of  Bath  as  a  watering-place.  Cirencester,  (Sis'-e-ter),  a  very 
ancient  town,  had  some  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Berkeley, 
the  birthplace  of  Dr  Edward  Jenner,  the  discoverer  of  vaccination. 

Oxford,  in  the  Thames  basin.  Principally  oolite  and  lias,  but  green- 
sand  and  chalk  in  the  S.E. ;  surface  mostly  level  or  undulating,  except  in 
the  S.,  where  it  is  traversed  by  the  Chiltem  Hills ;  soil  a  fertile  loam  in 
the  N.,  elsewhere  gravelly  ;  four-fifths  of  the  county  under  cultivation ; 
stock  of  sheep  large;  dairy  produce  excellent;  minerals  unimportant; 
manufactures — ^lace,  gloves,  and  blaiJcets.  Oxford,  on  the  Cherwell,  with 
a  celebrated  university  consisting  of  nineteen  colleges  and  five  halls,  prin- 
cipally renowned  for  classical  learning ;  annual  revenue,  £457,000.  The 
Bodleian  library  contains  220,000  printed,  and  20,000  MS.  volumes. 
Oxford  formed  the  headquarters  of  Charles  I.,  and  the  scene  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Cranmer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer.  Banbury,  noted  for  its  cheese, 
and  for  cakes,  which  bear  its  name.  Woodstock,  celebrated  for  its  gloves ; 
gives  name  to  one  of  Scott's  novels :  near  it  Blenheim,  the  magnificent 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Bucks,  in  the  basins  of  the  Great  Ouse  and  Thames.  Oolite  in  the 
N.,  greensand  and  chalk  in  the  S.  ;  surface  undulating  in  the  N.,  occu- 
pied by  the  Chiltem  Hills  in  the  S.,*  and  in  the  centre  by  the  rich  vale 
of  Aylesbury,  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  kingdom;  well  wooded; 
yields  large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese,  with  sheep  and  poultry— the 
sheep  being  noted  for  the  weight  and  fineness  of  their  fleeces ;  minerals 
of  little  importance,  but  manufactures  considerable,  consisting  of  paper, 
straw-plait,  and  thread-lace.  Buckingham,  on  the  Great  Ouse,  which 
nearly  surrounds  it,  has  manufactories  of  paper  and  bobbin-lace ;  near  it 
is  Stowe,  the  splendid  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.  Eton,  the 
seat  of  the  most  famous  school  in  England,  founded  by  Henry  VL  in 
1440.  Great  Marlow,  silk,  lace,  and  paper.  Aylesbury,  in  the  centre 
of  the  county,  has  a  better  right  than  Buckingliam  to  be  regarded  as  the 
county  town. 

Bedford,  in  the  basin  of  the  Great  Ouse.  Oolite  in  the  N.,  greensand 
and  chalk  in  the  S. ;  surface  level,  except  around  the  Chiltem  Hills  in 
the  S. ;  soil  vaiious,  from  the  stiffest  clay  to  the  lightest  sand ;  chiefly 
under  tillage,  but  agriculture  not  in  an  advanced  state ;  culinary  vege- 
tables extensively  cultivated  in  the  sandy  and  chalky  districts  for  tne 
London  and  Cambridge  markets ;  onions  and  cucumbers  of  the  best 
quality  are  extensively  raised  ;  minerals  unimportant ;  and  the  manu- 
factures chiefly  consist  of  straw-plait  for  hats,  reckoned  but  little  inferior 
to  that  brought  from  Tuscany,  and  of  pillow-lace.  Bedford,  on  the  Great 
Ouse,  noted  for  its  straw-plaiting ;  near  it  Elstow,  the  birthplace  of  John 
Bunyan ;  and  Cardington,  where  John  Howard  resided.  Luton,  Kggles- 
wade,  Leighton-Buzzard,  and  Dunstable,  all  extensively  engaged  in  the 
straw-plait  and  straw-hat  manufacture. 


« 


The  office  of  Steward  of  the  Chiltem  Hundreds,  though  now  a  sinecure,  Is 
still  retained,  to  enable  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  vacate  their  seats 
bv  accepting  it,  as  it  is  unconstitutional  for  members  to  demit  their  oflEloe  more 
directly. 


EKClLANll    AND    WALES. 

Herts,  in  tba  baaina  of  tlia  Tlinmea  and  Great  Ouse.    Keai-ly  all  ci 
caoua,  but  tertiaij  in  the  S. ;  soil  Tariona,  often  jntenniied  with  t 
■nd  of  niecage  fertility ;  principal  cropa — wheat,  bailey,  turnips,  itpple 
»nd cherry  orcharda;  minerab  --'*""  imTirtv^-inro  .  r^ny^^r-ai  n^amita^^iT^b — 
paper  and  straw-plait;  much  „  _..._.., 

DO  the  Lea;  near  it  Haileybury  College,  where,  till  18SS,  young  men 
were  trained  for  the  servii:e  oC  the  East  India  Company.  Ware,  at  the 
head-aprings  of  the  Sew-River,  which  suppliea  the  north  of  London  with 
water.  St  Albaoa,  an  ancient  town,  was  tlie  scene  of  two  battles  between 
the  riTal  houaea  of  York  and  Lancaster  in  UbB  and  1461;  the  church  eon- 
taina  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  Lord  Bacon. 

Mtodlbbes,  in  the  Thames  baain.  Wholly  tertiary,  beine  the  lower 
eocene  or  London  clay,  which  consiats  of  atenaoiona  brown  or  bluiah-grey 
clay  replete  with  fossils,  especially  at  UiKbgate  HUl,  near  London  ;  sur- 
face almoat  pErfectiy  IbybI,  eiceut  the  Blight  eminences  of  Hampetead, 
Highgate,  and  Harrow-on-tbe-Hill ;  soil  various ;  agriculture  in  a  back- 
ward state,  but  improving ;  grass-farms,  tor  the  supply  of  London  with 
hay  anil  milk,  gntatly  exceed  in  extent  the  arable  portion ;  market- 
gardena  extenaive,  and  a  lat^  portion  oiicupied  by  villas,  commons,  and 
plBasura-grounda ;  minerals  of  no  importance,  except  clav  for  brick- 
making.  London,  on  the  Thamea,  the  capital  of  England,  and  the  me- 
■tropoba  of  ^e  British  empire,  is  probably  the  largest,  and  certainly  the 
^— Ithiast  andmoat  commercial  city  in  the  world.  Population  (in  1871), 
■2,000  ;  occupying  a  surface  of  122  a^.  m.    This  immenae  population 

nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  entire  kingdom  of  Scotland,  and  exceeds 

B  ^gr^ate  population  of  the  15  next  largeat  towna  in  England.     The 

[wpiilation  doublea  itself  In  about  40  years.  There  are  900  churches  and 
cbapala,  250  public  and  ISOO  private  Hchools,  150  hospitals,  166  alms- 
lunuea,  2S0  other  inatitntiona  of  a  aunilar  chuacter,  £50  public  offices,  Ji 
ptiMni,  S2  theatres,  S4  markets,  100,000  eatablishments  of  trade  and  in- 
dustry, besides  an  immense  number  of  public.bonaea,  hotela,  eating- 
house*,  and  beer-ahopa.      The  foreiini  eiporta  in  ISfiO  amnuTitiid   tn 

£30,837,000,   and    f-    = '-   —    "="«"n/inn 

Inl8 

_.,._., isburdan.    There  are  sii  bridges  across  theTliaL__      _., 

London,  Southwark,  Waterloo,  Westininaler,  Blackfriara,  and  Vauihall 
bridges  ;  three  railway  bri^a,  and  two  tunnels  under  the  bed  of  the  river 
— one  two  miles  below  London  Bridge,  and  the  other  (ope  oed  in  1870)  at  the 
Tower,  The  most  conapieuoua  pHhlio  buildinga  are  St  Paul's  Cathedral 
(a  noble  structure  of  Grecian  architecture,  610  feet  long,  2S0  broad,  with  a 
dome  370  feet  high) ;  the  Mansion  House  ;  the  Bonk ;  Koyal  Exchange  ; 
General  Poat-OfGce;  India,  Custom,  and  South-Sea  Houaes;  Mint;  Christ'a 
and  Bartholomew's  Hoapltala ;  Westminster  Abbey ;  Bouses  of  Parlia- 
ment; British  Museum;  Dnivereity  College  and  Hoapitol;  Somerset 
Hcnue;  St  James's  and  Buckingham  Palaces.  Among  its  principal 
scientific  aaaouiationa  are  the  ttoy^  Society,  Royal  Antiquarian,  Linnean, 
BmloDltural,  Medical  and  CbirnrBical,  Qeological,  Gec^raphical,  Aatro- 
nomieal,  Asiatic,  Zoological,  Ethnoloeical,  and  Statiatical  Societies. 
There  are  IS  daily  newapapers,  and  130  others,  with  500  other  perio- 
dicab.  Breweries  and  distilleries  are  on  an  immenae  scale ;  but  Sbuth- 
wuk  and  Lambeth  are  the  great  workshops,  with  large  iron-works, 
tauieriei,  breweries,  glass-works,  patent  shot  and  steam-engine  manufac- 
toiiN.  Silk-weaving  is  confinea  to  Spitatfialds ;  watcb-making  chiefly 
to  Oleriieiiwell;  shipbuilding  to  Wapping,  Kotherhithe,  Depltord,  ond 
Blaekwalli  cutlery  of  the  finest  quality  is  produced  in  many  parts.    In 


Hw»raal' 


132  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Dniidical  times  Londinioxn  was  first  the  capital  of  the  Coutil,  and  after- 
wards of  the  Trinobantes.  It  was  called  Ang^ta  in  Roman  times,  and 
was  the  central  point  from  which  all  the  Roman  roads  in  Britain  diverged. 
After  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  East  Saxons 
till  A.D.  871,  when  it  became  the  capital  of  England  under  Alfred  the 
Great.  It  obtained  its  first  royal  charter  from  William  the  Conqueror  in 
the  eleventh  century ;  in  1665  the  great  plague  cut  off  100,000  of  the  in* 
habitants,  and  one  year  afterwards  it  was  nearly  all  destroyed  by  fire. 
The  other  towns  in  Middlesex  are  of  little  importance.  FaUumi  is  the 
site  of  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of  London.  Brentfiord,  the  nominal 
capital  of  the  county  Middlesex.  Chelsea,  4^  miles  from  St  Paul's,  noted 
for  its  hospital  for  superannuated  soldiers. 

The  Twelve  Welsh  Counties. 

Flint,  a  maritime  county  in  the  N.E.,  bounded  by  the  Dee  and  Clwyd. 
Chiefly  carboniferous,  with  a  patch  of  new  red  in  the  N.W.  Surface 
level  in  the  N.,  and  elsewhere  diversified  by  a  range  of  hills  running  from 
S.  to  N.  Soil  fertile  in  the  low  grounds,  and  but  only  partially  under 
tillage.  Its  lead-mines  are  the  most  valuable  in  the  empire,  and  those 
of  copper  and  coal  of  great  importance.  Manufactures,  cotton  and  some 
flannel.  Mold,  on  the  Allan,  a  small  town,  with  coal  and  iead  mines. 
Holywell,  with  rich  copper  and  lead  mines ;  the  well,  which  gives  the 
town  its  name,  is  the  most  copious  spring  in  Britain,  giving  out  twenty- 
one  tons  of  water  per  minute.  Flint  exports  coal  and  lead,  and  imports 
timber. 

Denbiqh,  a  maritime  county,  between  the  Clwyd  and  the  Conway. 
Silurian  for  the  most  part,  but  carboniferous  and  new  red  on  the  east 
border ;  surface  rugged  and  mountainous  ;  soil  fertile  in  the  valleys,  but 
in  the  hilly  districts  consisting  of  peat  covered  by  heath,  and  affording 
pasture  to  great  numbers  of  sheep,  goats,  and  black  cattle.  Principiu 
minerals — coal,  lead,  iron,  flint,  and  slates;  manufactures — stockings,  flan- 
nels, coarse  woollen  cloth,  gloves,  and  shoes.  Denbigh,  on  tiie  Clwyd, 
with  manufactories  of  tanning,  shoemaking,  and  woollen  plaids.  Wrex- 
ham ;  paper-mills,  flannel  manufactories,  coal  and  lead  mines.  Llangol- 
len, with  a  noble  aqueduct  across  the  Dee  for  the  EUesmere  Canal ;  it  nas 
fifteen  arches,  and  is  126  feet  high ;  a  castle  of  great  antiquity.  Aber- 
gele, a  resort  for  sea-bathing. 

Caernarvon,  a  maritime  county,  between  the  Conway  and  the  Irish 
Sea.  Silurian ;  surface  the  most  mountainous  in  South  Britain,  being 
traversed  by  the  Snowdon  range,  3590  feet  high ;  but  many  tracts  of  low 
and  fertile  land,  affording  excellent  pasturage.  The  chief  branch  of  rural 
industry  is  dairy  produce  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Its  slate- 
quarries  are  the  most  valuable  in  Britain ;  other  minerals  are  copper  and 
lead.  Caernarvon,  on  the  Menai  Strait,  exports  slate  and  copper  ore ; 
has  an  ancient  castle  erected  by  Edward  I.  to  secure  his  conquest  of 
Wales.  Bangor,  also  on  the  Menai  Strait,  with  two  stupendous  viaducts, 
each  of  which  is  a  triumph  of  engineering  skill.  One  of  these  is  a  huge 
suspension-bridge,  660  feet  long,  with  the  roadway  100  feet  above  high- 
water  mark,  erected  by  Telford ;  the  other,  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge, 
Stevenson's  greatest  achievement,  forming  apart  of  the  Chester  and 
Holyhead  Railway,  consisting  of  two  lines  of  iron  tubes,  each  1513  feet 
long,  supported  on  three  towers,  and  100  feet  above  the  sea-leveL 
Llanrwst  contains  the  tomb  of  Llewellyn,  the  last  prince  of  Wales  belong- 
ing to  the  Celtic  race. 


133 

Anqleska,  an  inBularconnty  in  the  K.W.    CI liefly  Silurian,  but  Da- 
i  catboDiferous  in  the  teiitre,  aurface  comparatively  Hat;  eli- 
'e  to  tha  Browth  ,  •  ■'    '  ...... 

ea  inaignincant ;  nr 
sUvor  ores,  coal,  marble,  and  granite.  Many! 
DiBili,  a  Saa  iowa  on  the  Uenai  Strait,  much  frequented  as  a.  bathing;- 
pUce.  Amlwch  exports  copjier  obtained  from  the  Parysand  Mona  mines. 
Holyhead,  connected  with  iungatoD  and  Dabhn  hy  a  eubmarine  telegraph 
70  miles  long. 

MebioNETH,  b  Diaritirae  county  between  Caernarvon  and  the  Dovey. 
Wholly  Silnrian ;  surface  mountalnons,  well  wooded,  with  fine  valea  and 
oisDy  small  lakes ;  soil  poor,  and  only  fitted  for  pastn re-lands ;  Welsh 
pdniea,  oalled  "Merlins,"  are  reared;  minerals,  slatoa  and  lime,  with 
aome  lead  and  copper  ;  maniifacturea,  ooarse  llEmiiels ;  considemble  ehip- 
ping.  Dolgelly,  on  the  Gwynion,  near  its  junction  with  the  Maw ;  it 
came  into  possession  of  the  famous  Owea  Glendoncr,  during  hia  rebellion 
in  1400.    Bala,  on  the  lake  of  same  name,  the  largest  in  North  Wales, 


copper,  lead,  and 


MoHiaoMEai,  an  inland  county  in  the  haaiu  of  the  Severn.  Wliolly 
Silurian;  aarfaoe  monntainoM  and  well  wooded,  a  amall  portion  under 
tillage,  the  rest  occupied  with  sheep-walks ;  the  sheep  are  celebrated  for 
their  mntton  and  wool.  Here  also  the  famous  "  Merlins,"  a  iinre  breed 
of  Welsh  ponies,  are  reared.  The  principal  mineral  is  state,  and  the  chief 
article  of  manufacture  is  flannel.  Montgomery,  on  tbe  Severn,  the  scene 
of  the  last  atmggiB  between  tha  Welsh  and  the  English  in  1291.  Wellb- 
p«ol,  considered  the  capital  of  North  Wales,  has  tanneries  and  wool- 
mills.  Vewtown,  with  manufactures  of  Qannela.  Llanidloes,  where 
Uewellyn  was  defeated  by  Edward  L 

C&BDiBAN,  a  maritime  coauty  between  the  Dovey  and  Teify.  Strata 
Silurian ;  aniface  level  on  the  coast,  where  the  ground  is  highly  fertile ; 
monntaiaous  in  the  interior ;  scarcely  ouB-third  under  cultivation ;  prin- 
cipal industry,  rearing  cattle ;  minerals— slates,  silver,  copper,  and.  lead ; 
manafactures,  gloves  and  flannels.  Cardigan,  on  the  Teify,  exports 
elatea,  Dalj,  and  butter.  Aberystvrith,  a  gay  bathing-place;  large  export 
trade  to  Liverpool. 

Pbmbboee,  a;peninsular  county  in  the  S.  W.  Silurian  In  the  N. ,  Devon- 
ian and  carboniferous  in  the  S. ;  mountainous  in  the  Silurian  tract,  but 
tame  elsewhere ;  coast  bold  and  deeply  indented ;  climate  mild  and  very 
rainy;  soil  everywhera  fertile,  but  chiefly  used  as  pasture;  minerals— 
antnTBCite,  coal,  lead,  lime,  slate,  and  marl;  manufactures  unimportant, 
bnt  (ishenea  valuable.  PembrDU,  on  Milford  Haven,  with  a  Govern- 
luent  dockyard,  and  a  castle  stormed  by  Oliver  Cromwell.  Haverfaid> 
WMt  (Haifurdwcst),  ou  the  Cleddy,  ha-i  a  great  local  trade.  leiiby,  on 
the  BOBth  coast,  a  favourite  watering-place;  commodious  and  well- 
■beltered.  hart)our. 

Cabruastbeh,  the  largest  county  in  Wales,  lying  chiefly  In  tha  basin 
of  theToway.  SilnrianiuN.,  Devonian  and  carbonil'orous  in  the  S.;  sur- 
face hilly,  with  numerous  fertile  valleys,  and  well  wooded ;  the  uplands 
aSbrd  pasture  to  herds  of  small  cattle  ;  minerals — iron,  lead,  coal,  and 
lime;  manufactures,  tinned  iron-plates  and  other  articles.  Caerniu- 
then,  on  the  Towey,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in  Wales  ;  has  a 
Presbyterian  college,  docks,  and  large  export  trade  in  lead,  elates,  bark, 
com,  and  butter.  Llkndello  has  rich  coal  and  irnu  mines,  stanneries,  and 
mannfactnrea  of  flannel.  Llanel!y,with  several  docks  and  copper- works, 
and  a  lai^e  export  trade  in  coal. 


134  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Glamorgan,  the  most  important  county  in  the  principality,  situated 
on  the  British  Channel,  between  the  rivers  Burry  and  Rumney.  Nearly 
all  carboniferous ;  surface  mountainous  in  the  N.,  level  elsewhere ;  sou 
highly  fertile ;  minerals— inexhaustible  quantities  of  coal  and  iron,  both 
of  which  are  wrought  on  an  immense  scale.  The  coal-field  is  the  largest, 
and  the  iron-mines  the  most  important,  in  the  empire.  Cardiff,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Taflf  and  Severn,  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  first 
ports  in  the  empire ;  splendid  docks,  with  45  acres  water-area,  give  great 
facilities  for  shipments.  Swansea  is  fast  rising  in  importance:  the 
copper  ore  of  Anglesea,  Cornwall,  and  Ireland  is  smelted  and  refined 
here.  ITeath,  with  iron  and  copper  foundries  and  coal-mines.  Herthvr- 
Tydvil,  the  largest  town  in  Wales ;  though  recently  a  small  village,  it  nas 
now  a  population  of  50,000.  This  prosperity  is  owing  to  its  position  near 
the  centre  of  the  great  coal-field  of  South  Wales ;  numerous  smelting^ 
furnaces,  iron-foundries,  and  coal  and  iron  mines. 

Brecknock,  an  inland  county  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn.  Silurian  in 
N.  andW.,  all  the  rest  Devonian;  surface  mountainous  —  the  Beaooi^ 
which  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  South  Wales,  rises  to  a  height  of  2862 
feet ;  soil  various,  and  only  about  a  half  cultivated,  producing  oats, 
barley,  wheat;  the  remainder  in  pasture,  yielding  wool,  butter,  and 
cheese;  minerals— copper,  lead,  iron,  coal,  and  limestone,  most  of  which 
are  extensively  wrought;  manufactures,  worsted  hosiery  and  coarse 
woollen  cloth.  Brecon,  on  the  Usk,  has  extensive  markets  and  a  con- 
siderable  general  trade :  it  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  was  the  birthplace 
of  Mrs  Henry  Siddons  in  1755. 

Radnor,  an  inland  county  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn.  Wholly  SUur- 
ian;  surface  mountainous,  except  in  the  S.E. ;  staple  products,  sneep  of 
a  small  hardy  breed,  and  cattle.  Much  of  the  surface  is  covered  with 
bog  and  moorland,  the  ancient  forests  of  Radnor  having  long  since  dis- 
appeared.   New  Radnor,  once  a  fortified  town,  is  now  a  mere  village. 

Capes.— Flamborough  Head  and  Spurn  Head,  E.  of  Yorkshire ;  Gib- 
raltar Point,  E.  of  Lincoln ;  Lowestoft  Ness,  in  Suflfolk,  the  most  eastern 
point  in  Great  Britain ;  the  Naze  in  Essex  ;  N.  Foreland,  S.  Foreland, 
and  Dungeness,  in  Kent ;  Beachy  Head  and  Selsea  Bill  in  Sussex;  Dun- 
nore  Head  and  the  Needles  in  Isle  of  Wight ;  St  Alban's  Head  and 
Portland  Point  in  Dorset;  Start  Point  in  Devon;  Lizard  Point  in 
Cornwall,  the  southernmost  point  of  Great  Britain  ;  Land's  End,  the 
most  westerly  point  of  England  ;  Hartland  Point  in  N.  of  Devon ; 
Worms  Head  in  W.  of  Glamorgan ;  St  Goven*s  Head  and  St  David's 
Head  in  Pembroke  ;  Brach-y-Pwll,  the  most  western  point  of  North 
Wales ;  Holyhead  in  Anglesea  ;  St  Bees  Head  in  Cumberland. 

Islands. — Holy  I.  or  Lindisfame,  Feme  Is.,  and  Coquet  L,  on  the 
E.  of  Northumberland;  Sheppey  and  Thanet  in  estuary  of  the 
Thames ;  Isle  of  Wight,  S.  of  Hants  ;  the  Channel  or  Norman  Ides 
—viz.,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Aldemey,  and  Sark — on  the  N.W.  coast  of 
France,  capital,  St  ffelier,  the  seat  of  the  local  Parliament,  and  the 
most  southern  town  in  the  British  Isles,  pop.  30,000  ;  Scilly  Isles, 
140  in  number,  off  Land's  End ;  Lundy  Island,  at  the  entrance  of 
Bristol  Channel ;  Stockham,  Skomer,  and  Ramsey,  W.  of  Pembroke ; 
Bardsey,  off  Brach-y-Pwll  Head  ;  Anglesea  and  Holyhead,  a  county 
in  N.W,  of  Wales;  Isle  of  Man,  a  large  and  populous  island  in  the 
Irish  Sea,  containing  Douglas,  Castleton,  Ramsay,  and  Peel, 


I 


ENOLAKD   AND    WALES,  135 

Bays  Had  StraJta-^Hnmber  Mouth,  bet,  York  and  Lincoln ;  tlia 
Wash,  bet.  Lincobi  and  Norfolk ;  Tarmonth  Bonds,  E.  of  Norfolk ; 
eatusiy  of  the  Tbames,  bet  Essex  and  Kent;  the  Downs,  bet.  Keut 
Hid  the  Goodwin  Sanda;  Strait  of  Dover,  het.  Dover  and  Calais, 
SI  milea  broad ;  Portsmouth  Harbour,  Spithead,  Southampton 
Water,  and  the  Solent,  S.  of  Hants  ;  Pool  Bay  and  Weymouth  Bay, 
B.of  Doraet;  TorBay,  Start  Bay,  and  Plymouth  Soand,  S.  ofDsvon; 
St  Aurtell  Bay,  Falmouth  Harhour,  and  Mount's  Bay,  S,  of  CornwHll ; 
Bt  Ires  Bay,  W.  oE  ConiwsU ;  Bidofuiyl  Bay,  N,  of  Devon  ;  Bristol 
Channel,  bet.  Somerset  and  Wales;  Swansea,  Bay  and  Caerniiirthea 
Bar,  S.  of  Waliia  ;  Milford  Haven,  St  Brida'a  Bay,  Cardigan  Bay, 
and  Caernarvon  Bay,  W.  of  Wales;  Wenai  Strait  bet  Caernarvon 
and  Anglesea;  StQeorgo's  Channel,  bet  Wales  and  Ireland,  Wmilaa 
broad  ;  estuaries  of  the  Dee  and  Mersey,  on  either  side  of  Cheshire  ; 
Lancaster  Bay  and  Moreeambo  Bay,  in  the  N.W,  of  Lancashire ; 
Solwaj  Firth,  bet.  Cumberland  and  Scotland. 

Mountain  Syatem. — England  is  far  from  being  a  monntainons 
country.  Strictly  apeaking,  there  is  only  one  mountain-range  of 
moderate  elevation  in  the  ii^ole  country.  TMa  range,  commencing 
with  the  monntoina  on  the  Scottish  border,  pursues  a  southerly  course 
throogh  Derbyshire  ta  Glouceatershire,  and  then  deflects  westward 
till  it  temiinHtfis  at  Land's  End  in  Cornwall,  The  position  of  this 
lengthenedand  nearly  con tinnooa  chain  ia  a  fine  example  of  the  well- 
known  law  that  mountain-ran  gee  follow  the  direction  of  the  gi'eatest 
length  of  land  in  whiT;h  they  are  situated.  This  range  is  ahont  500 
miles  long,  has  few  interruptions,  and  forms  the  main  water-parting 
of  England.  Here  nearly  all  the  large  rivers  have  tlicir  origin ;  and 
bj  this  range,  and  the  lateral  branches  which  proceed  frain  it  on  both 
Bides,  the  direction  of  the  rivers  and  the  extent  of  the  river^busins  are 
Uatermined.  Aa  it  lies  much  nearer  to  the  weatern  than  to  the  east- 
ern side,  the  great  majority  of  the  rivets  have  an  easterly  direction. 
However,  as  there  is  a  considerable  gap  atout  the  middle  of  the  range, 
and  as  two  important  rivets  (the  Trent  and  the  Upijer  Avon)  intersect 
it  in  opposite  di^e(^tions  in  that  depression,  it  is  more  convenient  to 
consider  the  two  portions  as  separate  and  independent  ranges.  Then 
tile  mouBtains  of  Wales  will  rank  as  a  third  range  ;  and  the  lateral 
T&ngea  that  branch  oS  in  an  easterly  direction,  the  fourth  and  last. 

1.  The  Forthem  EtmEe,  extending  from  the  extreme  N.  of  England 
to  the  Peak  ot  Derhy  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  embracoa  three  differ- 
ent chains — viz.,  the  Cheviot  Uills,  the  Pennine  Chain,  and  the  Cnmbriao 

Mountains,     The  CAsoiof  i/i'ti  eitend  about  35  m"      '         

"nabet.  thel ..._ 

id  the  Tyno 
t,  Cheviot  Peak,  2888  feet.     The  J'tan-ins 

a  Cheviots,  extending  from  their  western 

.0  the  Peak  of  Derby,  270  milea  |  and  forming  the  great  watcr- 

>t  the  North  of  England  :  it  sends  to  the  North  Sea  the  Tyiie, 

_,  -eea,  Yorkshire  Ouse,  and  the  left  affluents  of  the  Trent  (Dove, 

rwent.  Idle,  and  Tarn);  and  to  the  Irish  Sea,  the  Edeo,  Lune,  Kibble, 

id  Mwsey.    Piincipal  summiU,  Cross  Fell  (2901),  Bow  Fell  (2911),  In- 


136  FOLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

gleborough  (2361).  The  Cumbrian  Mountains,  in  Comberland,  thou^li 
an  ofbhoot  from  the  principal  chain,  contain  the  loftiest  mountainB  in 
England  proper.  They  are  separated  from  the  Pennine  Chun  by  the 
Eden  flowing  northward,  and  by  the  Lune  flowing  southward— Bending 
to  the  Irish  Sea  the  Ehen,  £sk,  and  Dudden^  the  Leven,  Ken,  and  Lime, 
and  containing  the  celebrated  lakes  which  are  the  favourite  resort  of  the 
English  tourist.  Principal  eminences— Scawfell,  3229,  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  England  ;  Helvellyn,  3056  ;  Skiddaw,  3022. 

2.  The  Devonian  Bangs  extends  from  the  S.E.  of  Worcestershire, 
through  Gloucester,  Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall,  and  terminates  at 
the  Land's  End  in  the  extreme  S.W.  of  the  kingdom.  It  forms  the  prin- 
cipal water-parting  of  the  south  of  England,  separating  the  great  basin 
of  the  Severn,  with  its  continuation  the  Bristol  Channel,  from  the  rivers 
that  flow  to  the  E.  and  S. — viz.,  the  right-hand  affluents  of  the  Trent, 
those  flowing  into  the  Wash,  the  Thames  with  its  tributaries,  and  those 
which  find  their  way  to  the  English  Channel,  Its  differentparts  receive 
particular  names.  Thus  :  The  Bredon  Hills,  in  the  S.E.  of  Worcester,  900 
leet ;  the  Cotswold  HillSf  in  Gloucester,  1134  feet ;  the  Mendip  Bills,  in 
the  N.E.  of  Somerset,  1000  feet;  the  Quantock  Hills,  in  the  N.  of  Somerset, 
1428  feet ;  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor,  in  Devon,  where  the  range  attains  its 
maximum  elevation  in  Caws  and  Beacon,  1792  feet ;  the  Cornish  Moun- 
tains, in  Cornwall,  where  Brown  Willy  rises  to  a  height  of  1364  feet. 

3.  The  Cambrian  Bange,  of  very  irregular  form,  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  principality  of  Wales.  Properly  speaking,  it  forms  an  off- 
shoot from  the  Pennine  range,  and  the  contiDuity  of  the  water-parting 
bet.  the  two  chains  can  be  easily  traced.  It  consists  of  two  parallel 
ranges,  one  along  the  north  coast  of  Wales,  the  other  along  the  south, 
with  a  connecting-bar  between  their  centres,  running  N.  and  S. — the 
whole  forming  a  figure  like  an  inverted  capital  I.  The  northern  range 
contains  the  highest  mountain  in  South  Britain — viz.,  Snowdon  in  Caer- 
narvon, 3590  feet,  the  culminating-point  of  England  and  Wales.  The 
central  chain,  at  right  angles  to  it,  contains  Cader  Idris,  2950,  Plynlim- 
mon,  2463,  in  Merioneth ;  and  the  sovihern  chain  has  Brecknock  Beacon,  in 
Brecknockshire,  2862  feet,  and  the  Malvern  Hills,  in  Herefordshire,  1396 
feet  high.  These  last  closely  approach  the  Cotswold  Hills  in  the  Devo- 
nian range,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Severn,  a  river  which  rises  in  Plyn- 
limmon,  and  derives  its  head- waters  and  right-hand  tributaries  from  the 
Cambrian  range,  which  is  therefore  the  connecting-link  between  the  Pen- 
nine and  Devonian  ranges.  In  general  this  range  forms  the  water-parting 
between  the  Severn  and  Bristol  Channel  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Irish  Sea  on 
the  other.  The  Dee,  Clwyd,  and  Conway  flow  to  the  N.,  the  Dovey,  Yst- 
with,  and  Teify  to  the  W. ,  all  into  the  Irish  Sea;  the  Towey,  Taw  v,  and  Taff, 
into  the  Bristol  Channel ;  the  Rumney.  Usk,  and  Wye,  into  the  Severn. 

4.  The  Lateral  or  Secondary  Brancnes  are  of  no  great  elevation ;  but 
as  they  play  an  important  part  in  the  direction  of  the  rivers,  and  deter- 
mine the  dimensions  of  the  river-basins,  they  require  special  attention. 
Nearly  all  of  them  proceed  in  an  easterly  direction  from  the  Devonian 
range.  The  first  branches  off  from  the  Cotswold  Hills  in  a  north-eastern 
direction,  separating  Warwick  and  Leicester  from  Oxford,  Northampton, 
and  Rutland:  it  terminates  in  the  N.W.  of  Lincoln,  and  divides  the 
basin  of  the  Humber  and  Trent  from  that  of  the  Wash.  The  second 
diverges  from  the  Devonian  range  at  Salisbury  Plain,  in  Wiltshire,  and 
pursues  a  north-eastern  course  till  it  arrives  at  the  N.  coast  of  Norfolk : 
it  bears  different  names  in  different  parts,  as  the  ChiUem  Hills  in  Oxford 
and  Bucks,  the  Gogmagog  Hills  in  Cambridgeshire,  and  forms  the  water- 


I 


ENOLAND   AND  WALES.  137 

parting  between  tlie  basins  of  ilie  Wash  ajid  tlie  Thames.  Tlie  thii-d 
coDsiata  of  a  double  range  of  cbalk-MIls,  called  the  JVer^and  South 
Dmmu,  Batting  out  from  Bababury  Plain,  and  terminating,  the  one  at 
Polliestone,  and  the  other  at  Beachy  Head.  They  enclose  the  distrint 
called  "The  Weald,"  and  divide  lie  Thames  basin  from  the  Ei^lish 
Ohuinel. 

RlTer-BsilnB. — There  is  a  necessary  connection  between  the  monn- 
tsin-chains.  as  above  enumerated,  and  the  more  or  less  extended 
valleys  or  river-basins  lying  between  them.  As  the  principal  moun- 
tain-rango  runs  Stom  N.  to  S.,  and  is  situated  much  cearer  to  the  W. 
than  to  the  E.  coast,  it  follows  that  all  the  larger  rivers  have  an  east- 
erly ilireotiot).  The  Severn,  even,  which  is  the  only  exception  to  thia 
rule,  pursues  an  easterlj  direction  For  a  ^ent  part  of  its  course  ;  and 
wera  it  not  for  the  obstacle  interposed  by  the  Cotawold  Hills,  which 
deflect  it  westward,  it  would  find  its  way  to  the  Thames,  and  empty 
itself  into  the  German  Ocean. 

Of  the  100  river-basins  of  England  and  Wales,  only  20  have  any  con- 
siderable magnitude.  Thew  occupy  three-fanrtha  of  the  entire  surface, 
and  contain  41  out  of  the  63  capitals.  Only  four  of  these  basins  are  very 
Bitensivo— viz.,  the  Humber,  the  Wash,  tba  Thames,  and  the  Severn, 
Thdr  Dombined  area  is  reckoned  at  30,000  eq.  m.,  or  more  than  half  the 
entire  surface,  and  they  contain  S8  capitals  of  counties.  The  first  three 
dope  towards  the  North  Sea,  and  the  fourth  towards  the  Atlantic, 

or  these  four  liasins,  that  of  the  Hnmher  and  Trent  is  the  largest,  being 
one-sixth  of  tiie  entire  Idnedom  (area,  9550  sq.  m.)  It  fomis  a  qnadn. 
lateral  figure,  the  longest  side  of  which  extends  from  the  W.  of  Warwick. 
shira,  a  little  3.  of  the  lawn  of  Birmingham,  to  the  N.  frontiers  of  York- 
shire ;  on  the  W.  side,  opposite  Morecam.be  Bay,  it  approaches  within 
S2  miles  of  the  coast.  It  consists  of  three  parts— viz.,  the  basin  of  tiie 
Humber  proper,  H78  8q.  m.;  of  the  Trent,  4082  sq.  m.;  and  of  the  York- 
ehire  Ou.se,  429n  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  basin  of  the  Tees, 
on  the  W.  by  those  of  the  Bibble  and  Mersey,  on  the  8.W.  by  that  of  the 
Bevem.and  on  the  S.E,  by  the  basin  of  the  Wash.  The  Buin  of  the 
Vaeh  is  of  an  irregDlnr  form,  consists  of  the  subordinate  basins  of  the 
Great  Dose,  Nen,  Welland,  and  Witham,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and 
N.W.  by  the  Humber  basin,  on  the  W.  by  the  Thames  and  Severn  basins, 
on  the  8.  and  S.  E.  by  the  Thames  and  Yare  basins :  area,  SBSO  sq.  m. 
The  Thames  Baaia  is  bouuded  on  the  N.  by  those  of  the  Wash  and  Black- 
water;  on  the  W.  by  the  Severn  basin,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Cotswold  Bills :  and  on  the  B,  by  the  slope  which  Inclines  towards  the 
English  Channel:  area  6180  sq.  m.  The  Severn  Basin  commences  at 
Plynlimmon,  about  13  miles  from  the  W .  coast ;  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  basins  of  the  Dee  and  Mersey  |  on  the  E.  by  those  of  the  Humber 
and  Thames  :  on  the  W.  by  the  small  ttreama  that  enter  Cardigan  Bay ; 
and  on  the  8.W.  by  those  that  flow  into  the  Bristol  Channel.  As  this 
Channel,  however,  Is  in  reality  only  the  estuary  of  this  river,  the  real 
tDuthem  bonndary  is  the  Devonian  range:  area,  8530  sq.  m. 

Table  of  Rivera  and  Tawii*.— The  followinf;  table,  the  result  of 
niDch  labour  and  research,  presents  in  one  connected  view  all  the 

,  rivers  and  towns  of  England  and  Wales  possessing  the  least  degree 

L  dI  impori^ance. 

No  fewer  than  100  main  rivers  and  200  tributiry  streams  are  ennmeratod 


138 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


in  the  left-hand  column ;  while  in  the  other  will  be  found  800  towns^  amount- 
ine  to  or  exceeding  1000  inhabitants,  including  350  large  towns  of  5000 
inhabitants  and  upwards.  The  rivers  are  given  in  the  order  in  which  their 
mouths  would  occur  to  one  sailing  round  the  coast  from  the  Solway  Firth 
to  the  Tweed  ;  and  the  towns  and  tributary  rivers  in  the  order  in  which 
he  would  observe  them  in  his  passage  up  the  river.  Main  rivers,  or  those 
entering  the  sea,  are  placed  to  the  extreme  left,  as  the  Sark,  Eden,  and 
"Wampool ;  tributaries,  or  rivers  of  the  second  rank,  one  place  further  to 
the  right,  as  the  Caldew,  Irthing,  and  Eamont ;  sub-affluents,  or  affluents 
of  tributaries,  two  places  to  the  right,  as  the  Chor,  Medlock,  and  Irk. 
The  letter  I  denotes  that  the  affluent  after  which  it  stands  enters  the 
main  river  on  the  left;  those  without  any  affix  enter  on  the  right  side. 
Capitals  of  counties  are  distinguished  by  small  capitals  ;  towns  of  5000 
inhabitants  and  upwards,  by  Roman  letters ;  and  those  between  1000  and 
5000  by  Italics,  B.  denotes  bay ;  Co.,  coast ;  Hr.,  harlxmr;  and  Sd.,  sound. 

Basins  inclined  to  t?ie  Irish  Sea. 


Rivers.  Tovms. 

Sark,  Gretna    Green,   on  the 

boundary. 

Esk,    Longtown,  Langholm. 

Liddel,  L... New  Ca^tleton, 

Eden,   Carlisle,  Appleby, 

Eirkby-Stephen. 
Caldew,  I  . .  Carlisle. 

Irthing, Brampton. 

Eamont,  I . .  PenritiL 

Wampool, Wigton. 

Poebeck,   Whitehaven. 

Ellen, Maryport. 

Derwent Workington,  Cocker- 
mouth,  Kesioick. 

Ehen, Egremxynt. 

Horecambe  Ulverstone,  DaUon,  n.. 

Bay,  Cartmell,  n. 

Leven  and  L.Hawkshead,  n. 

Windermere, 
Ken  or  Kent,  Kendal. 

Lune, Lancaster,  Kirkby- 

Lonsdale,  Sedbergh. 
Dent, 2   ....Dent. 

Wyre, Fleetwood. 

Ribble, Kirkham,  Preston,  Clith- 

eroe.  Settle. 
Douglas,  i..Wigan,  Leigh. 

Chor Chorley. 

Darwen,  I  ..Blackburn,  n.,  Over-Dar- 
wen,  n.,  Acerington,  n. 
W.  Calder,  I  Burnley,    Colne,    Padi- 
bam,  n. 

Alt, Ormskirk,  Prescot. 

Mersey  and  Liverpool,     Birkenhead, 
Tame,  Much  Wolton,  n. ,  Run- 

corn, Warrington,  NeiD- 
ton-in-MakerHeldf  n., 
Stockport,  Hyde,  Ash- 
ton-under-Lyne,  Staley 
Bridge. 
Weaver,  i  ..Frodsham,  Crewe,  n., 
Nantwich. 
Dane,  ....Middlewich,  Congleton. 


Rivers.  Towns. 

Sankey, . . .  .Warrington,  Newton,  n., 

St  Helens. 
Bollin,  I,... Altringham,    BoUington, 
n.,  Macclesfield. 

Irwell Manchester,  Salford, 

Bury,  Haslingden,  Hey- 
wood,  XL ,  Droylsden,  n. 
MedIock,{  Oldham. 
Irk,  I  .... Middloton. 
Crole, ....  Bolton,   Tamwarth,    n., 

Hindley,  n. 
Roche,  I . .  Rochdale,  Todmorden,  n., 
Bacup,  n. 
Gk)yt,  I  . . . .SiockpoTt. 
Etherow,  ..GIossop,  n. 

Dee,    Holywell,  Flint,  Hawar- 

den,  n.,  Neston,  Ches- 
ter, Wrexham,  n.,  Mai- 
pas,  XL,  Llangollen, 
Corwen,  Bala. 
Allen, 2  ....Mold. 

Clwyd,   Rhyl,   Rhyddlan,    St 

Asaph,     Denbigh, 
Ruthin. 
N.   Co.   Den-  Abergele. 

high, 
Conway,    ....  Conway,  Llanrwst. 
Menai  Straits,  Beaumaris,     Bangor, 

Cabrnarvov. 
Co.  of  Anglesea Amlwch,  Holyhead. 
Co.  o(  C&emax-Nevin,    Pwllheli,    Llan- 
von,  dudno. 

Maw, Barmouth,  Dolobllt,  n. 

Gwynion,  I   Dolgelly. 

Dovey,    Machynlleth 

Ystwith,    ....  Aberystwith. 

Teify, Cardigan,  Lampeter, 

Tregaron. 
Co.  Pembroke,  N  e  wport,     Fishguard, 

Tenby. 
MilfordHaven,Milford,  Pembroke.  Hav- 
erfordwest, Narberth, 


^^" 

Eatini  incifntd  Co  1A«  BriXol  Cli 

27HHI. 

Ritm. 

K.,;:::: 

.GLoncEbTEB,       NeveDL 

.  CAEKiuBTBBH.Llandsilo, 

CUslt  I 

.Cheltenham. 

Uprerjvo 

p.Teitltesbiirv,     Fcnhnrt, 

Sidwll]/,  LlaneUy. 

EvHhain,      SfmO'ord 

B.jr. 

W.EWitK.  Hogby. 

Tiwy, 

:N«sr- 

■*a!S 

.Alealer,  Reddltch. 

««iii. ..;. 

HenlBj-in-Arden. 

)e^i^'.'.'.'. 

So™'!' 

'.a^^l^.'n.'°^d,mrSi 

.CARDinr,   CAepXow.   n., 
BtHtiey.  a.,  Ladnaji, 

BwKt,.. 

Ttma.^.. 

,  WoacesTEB,  n.,  Teabvru, 
hadlowTSnighhrn. 

iSiSTifss 

8»lw»rp.  i 
aionr,  1.. 

.Btoat^      Kid^in- 

Biidgenorth.  Braaeli;/, 
Uacfi.Wenlock.  n..  Hk- 

alat,  Stourbridge,  Ho/t- 
tavan.  DndW.  n. 

dBl«y,n.aH>,K™™y, 

SnieBtox 

Wel»h,KH.l,   MontoOM- 

n. 

ERY,  LtanldlOEB. 

WBff,  I    .. 

A«,    .... 

.iiciridiW,  WellB. 

Dawlfy,    ' 

T.H    .,- 

.  CiRnTrr.Merthyt-TSdvU. 

Tb™,  .... 

■  Wellicglon,  n.,  Jtfortel- 

Kly,.... 

Cik.   .... 

.Newport,    JfterjoDeniiy, 

RodeD. 

.ft-eB^    ITAi-MAitrc*.    n.. 

£U«™!«,n. 

Bbwy, 

.Tredi^.'iL 

M«!^.^ 

.Jieaiport. 

Af  on 

Terry,  (.. 

.Oawestry. 

Llwyt 

.LiaVaii". 

C£iB,I 

.LtoiWHfn. 

on,  1 

flrUB, 

Jfofiii,     CattUcart'f, 

hun.  MslniesLury. 

Bnmf™. 

Lr.FrOBi 

e,Bri>lo1,    ChippJiB-Sod- 

Parrot,  .... 

.  Brldgewater,    £oiisi)ort, 
5.    Pethtrten,    Crca- 

Pmme,! 

ttme,  Beatai-ntler. 

Ware.  I 

'JtMbiny.      "■ "" 

Camj..... 

.Snmerbm. 

Muden, 

Cofn*. 

Tons,!  .. 

.Tjdbtos,  Hiletrlm,  n.. 

TTje.  ...: 

.  ChcpHoa,  Cid^ord.  Mds- 

ITiUinaEon. 
.Langpai.  leovU,  Shet- 

""r^  flo»t'  ^«W," 

boiDB. 

Rtaysder. 

me.  I.... 

.iImiT«(«-,CTard. 

I^ffi.  I 

.Leoniinster,      Freeteign, 

a  el. 

Bartlind- 

ra^sSl"""'"'  "^ 

Taw 

.  Bamalaple,  CItumleigh. 

Mol 

B<ni»[ 

Tortldgo,  .. 

.BidefoRi.  TtrringHin. 

B«rlteHi]P 

StrattoiC 

£B*efey,  irot(orM.n<fer- 

Cimtl,"":: 

.Fai>tov>.  BoMiH. 

£(^.  ' 

W.  Co.   Com 

-  Cainbome,  n.,  Bt  Agnea, 

P.^™'l 

.Slmqci. 

BtIy»,S(Jt«t 

.jrwcAin-Sampton. 

Aosi'iu  iitrtincd  to  t 

<  £nS(«fc  C»o«™[. 

ltoimf»B>y 

.PenHiBce,Jfa««(m,£fel. 
((OTW,  n. 

FlyuDuth  Sd 

.Pl^^noQtb,  Devnnport,  St 

SU»<rntl>H 

Falnioulh.J'enrini.Traro, 

.StGermaai,  CaUi-nglon. 

fUdrnth.  D. 

Tnvj, 

lOo,Ooinw«Jl«^i«teil. 

Taiiar 

'-Saliaih,     Launesttan. 

hwej 

iSTiSSS. 

»«», 

140 


POLITICAL   GEOOBAPHY. 


Bdsins  inclined  to  the  English  Channel  (continued). 


Jtiven. 
Dart, 


Tor  Bay, , 
Teign, . . . 


Exe, 


Crede, , 
Otter,  .. 


Sid 

Axe, 

Lyme, 

Bride  or  Brit,. . 

Wey, 

Foole  Harbour 
and  Frome, 
Hampshire 
Avon, 


Btonr,, 


Allen,  I . . 
Cayle,  I . 


Tovms. 

Dartmouth,  Totness,  Ash- 
burton. 

Brixhamt  Torquay. 

Teignmoutb,  'Newton- 
Abbot,  Chudleigh, 
Moreton-Sampstead. 

Exmouth,  Topshdmy  Exe- 
ter, Tiverton,  Dwwr- 
ton. 

Crediton. 

St  Mary,  Ottery,  Honi- 
ton. 

Stdmouth. 

Colyton,  Accminster. 

Lyme-Begis. 

Bridport,  Beaminster. 

Weymouth. 

Poole,  Corfe  Castle^  n., 
Waretaam,  Dorchestee 

Christchurch,  Ringwood, 
Fordingbridge,  Salis- 
bury, Ainesbury,  De- 
vizes. 

Christchurch,  Wimhomey 
Blandford,  Sturmin- 
8ter,  Shaftesbury. 

Cranboume. 

Stalbridge,  Wineanton. 


Rivers, 


Toums. 


Wily, Salisbury,    Wilton, 

Warminster. 
The  Solent,  ...Lymington. 
Southampton  SouUuumpton. 
water. 

Aire,  2 Titehfteld. 

Hamble,  { . ..Bishop's  Waltham. 
Itchin,  I.... Southampton,  Winghes- 
TER,  Airesford. 

Test, Romsey,     Andover,    n., 

Whitehureh. 
Portsmouth  H.Portsmouth,  Fareham. 
ChichesterHr.  Havant,  Chichester. 

&  B.  Jjavant, 
Sussex  Co.,  ...Bojjrnor,      Worthing, 
Brighton,  Eastbourne, 
Hastings. 

Arun, Little  Uainpton,  Arwi- 

del. 
W.  Bother,. .Pdtworf  A,     Midhurst, 

Petersfie^* 
Adur, NewShoreham,  Horsham 

Ouse, Newhaven,  Lewes,  Cuek- 

field,  n. 

Bother, Rye,  BaUle,  n. 

Crane,  { Tenlerd»n,  n. ,  ChwnXiTOOk, 

S.  Co.  Kent, . .  Hy the,  Folkestone. 

E.  Co.  Kent,.. Dover,  DeaL 


Basins  inclined  to  the  North  Sea. 


Stour, Bamsgate,       Sandynch, 

Canterbury,  Ashford. 

N.  Co.  Kent,.. Margate,  Heme  Bay, 
Whitstahle,  Faversham, 
Milton,  YL 

Thames, Sheemess,      Gravesend, 

Woolwich,  Greenwich, 
Blackwall,  Deptford, 
London,  Fulham, 
Brentford,  Bichmond 
Twickenham,  Kingston, 
Hampton,  Chertsey, 
Staines,Eton,WindBor, 
Maidenhead,  High 
Wycombe,  Great  Mar- 
low,  Henley.  Beading, 
n.,  Wallingford,  Abing- 
don, Oxford,  Bavnpton 
n.,  Ot.  Farringdon,  Cir- 
encester, n. 
Medway,....  Sheemess,  Chatham, 
Strooa,  Bochester, 
Maidstone.  Tunbridge, 
Tunbridge  Wells,  n.. 
East  Grinstead,  n. 

Darent, Dartford,    Seven    Oaks, 

Westerham. 
Pym,     or  Romford. 

Bourne,  I. 
Boding,  /  ...Barking,  Epping,  n. 


Lea,  I Blackwall,      Tottenham , 

n.,  Enfield,   n.,    Wal- 
tham     Abbey,    Ware, 
Hertford,  Luton. 
Stort,  I  ...Bishop's  Stortford. 
B  a  y  e  n  s  -    Deptford,  Bromley. 

bourne, 
Wandle, ....  Wandsworth,  Croydon. 

Brent, Bren^ord. 

Hogsmill, . .  .Eangston,  Epsom. 

Mole, Leatherhead,     Dorking, 

Beigate. 

Wey, Guildford,  Oodalming, 

Famham,  Alton. 
Bourne, ....  Chertsey,  Chobham. 

Colne,  { Staines,  Usebridge,  Wat-' 

ford,  St  Albans. 
Misboume,.  .ATnersham. 

Chess, Chesham. 

Yorlan,  ,..HtAlhanB,nemel-Hemp' 
stead,  n.,  Berkham^ 
stead,  n. 

Wick,  I Great  Marlow,  High  Wy- 

eowi>e. 

Loddon, Henley,  n.,  Hwst,  Baa* 

ingstoke,  Kingselere.  n. 
Kennet, ....  Beading,  Newbury,£fuii- 
gerford,  Marlborough, 
Lam-       Newbury,  Lambowm 
bourne,  I 


ENGLAND   AND    WALES.                                141                  1 

Baiiiu  inclliud  to  thi  ifortfi  Sea  (co 

nllDued).                                              ' 

K             n.-Mr.. 

Tovni. 

■         Ttaunc... 

,  rftame,  Ayleatnry,  IVinn, 

(JroioloBd.     Petsr- 

■ 

n.,  /tiiflftws,  li. 

InroiiEb,  Oundli.  Wel- 

V      oi^ 

"■'ffi^wp'ri^sl^S*.^" 

UaKburunEh,     Nqrtu- 
iMMOji,    Damnlry. 

■ 

Cherwell, 

..OiroKD,  Bantury. 

Jtf(uelV,n. 

.^il 

.'.ciuirlbvrs. 

.KBtUnng,J!p(A>«Z2. 

WellMld,*.'.'* 

Glynn.! 

WinElrMh 

tWitney- 

ITppinsiam,  n.    Jfar- 

fct^H8^iD^ou^^, 

^f     Bt^^tii,' 

.MoldDi),     ffriSoin.    Cog- 

Glen.  .... 

WitLiun 

:««j;i,™.„,  »^». 

^H       Clialinsr,. 

.Chblmbforii,    JJuTintow, 

aieaford  . 

.Slci^fi^ 

^B 

Tka^d. 

Bain,    . 

^H              CHU3,.. 

..ChelDiiCunl,    BrentKoad, 

I-ngwDrtl 

IMarlut-Rasen. 

BtMplng,.,. 

.,Trai5yl«l,  Si>il»0!/. 

..ColehMtor.  HBlalsid. 

WitHsrn,. . . 

«ft;™.„H..., 

^H    CnlDS, 

^H    Mmt     .. 

.Hajwirfi,  Sudbnry,  Long 
KiCfi^.  HavtfhiU. 

iSnt,  "" 

KIngitoD,    Sarton, 
JVorAoiuI^oiUhCan, 

V  "^' 

^         Bnt.t.... 

.BudO^ 

ap«.or(A,  Gain.bu- 

Orwell.  .. 
Delmi     ... 

.IpswioH,  Btow-JUrket 
.Oi:/iii4  FramliTigluim. 

Zfi.fJSji^n*; 

Jildi^ 

BljOi- 

.SOttlAwcW,  HoiHttwtft, 

KKQ,rwt 

BBltDlk  Co,. 

Lowestoft. 

Tun....... 

.yumonth,    NoBWioH. 

rt^St^i^S^^JeiX: 

Bam.  i... 

.AyLlIU.     ' 

.North  W.I»li«ni. 

LuM,.... 

.LouSl^''^''"''  ^"^°"'- 

.BtcOts.  Bu»ga«.  Barle,- 
urn,  EyB,i..,lii«. 

Hull.!,... 

.KlBgaton  or  Hull,  Sever- 

,Ql»nrotdBrigg,Coi«or,II. 
Ooolo,   Eaviden,    Selby, 
TonK,aUi>otheOq«.- 

k,Oon«r,  lf«(ta. 

Anoh^ln... 

U.CaNotfo 

[■.Lynn-Regis.   DoOTlAilm- 

OiueiUn 

u^'6;^; 

JforiBi,  Ely,  St   /cm, 

bTidge    liipon,    JfMA. 
am.  floMs. 

chaUr.  n..  S(  Jf««, 

BmreBD,  Oi»tv,  Si«>- 

Don,  .. 

.Tkfrnc.    Donea.ter, 

si^a-vsss; 

Penniilom. 

BAH.  Bract  ley. 

N.r     or 

Lyna-Begls,S^(i/Aflm,n. 

Betchj, 

n„  ChBBtertleld. 

Aire,.,. 

.Boadm,B.,Saaiih,  Pon- 
t6fmi.t,n.,Leeds.BraU- 

Ut.  OnsB, 

.Brandon.  TA^V""!. 

ford.    n.,    Binglty. 

-.JfiWdtftnlf.  Burj  8t  Ed- 
mnnd-i. 

CMder 

CiHacfBrd,'  Wa^aflsld, 

Quo,..  . 

Batten,  n..   DBwabniy. 

■Rn»i,   SbIAvu-WoI- 

Hodder.HeId,n.Ha]irai, 

Todmorden. 

o«.t-. 

""m*"""^""'  '^'"'' 

Eye,. 

.nelm^y.E.MiJS^X 

Uable.a. 

Wliaife, 

.TaSxwttr,     WttkiAy. 

Tow,,   ... 

,Tmu>eilir. 

QniaUy,  n..  r«da», 

«™. 

.March.    JjBBiws,    Wl.- 

Ottel., 

boicb,  ffAfCIIdeo, 

ros»,  i. . 

.Tout,  SuinuiMld,  n. 

142 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Basins  inclined  to  tJie 
Jtivers.  Towtis, 

Nidd, Enaresborough,    Harro- 
gate. 
Swale,  I  ,.Bedale,    n.,  Richmond, 
Reeth. 
Cod-       Thirek. 

heck,  I 
"Wwke,  INorthallerton. 
Old  Don,  L.Crowle,  TickhiU. 

Idle,  I E.  Ret/ord,  Mansfield. 

Ryton,  ;.. Worksop. 

Devon Newark,  Bingham. 

Erwash,  I .  .Ilkeston,  Aljreton,  Kirk- 
hy-in-Ashfield. 

Soar, Loughboro',    Leicester, 

Hinckley. 
Wreak, . .  .Melton-Mowbray,    Oak- 
ham. 
Derwent,  Z.. Derby,  Belper,  if a^toct. 

Wye, BakeweU^     Tideswell, 

Buxton. 
Dove,  I Tutbury,  Uttoxeter,  Ash- 
bourne, Hartington. 
Chuinet,.. Cheadle,  Leek. 
^choo,  I.. Ashbourne f  Wirksworth. 

Mease,  Ashby-de-la-Zou^h. 

Tame, Lichfield,  n.,  Tamworth, 

Wednesbury,  n..  West 
Bromwich,  n.,  Walsall. 
Anker,  ...Atherstone,  Nuneaton. 
Blithe,  .. .Coleshillf  Solihull. 


North  Sea  (continued). 

Rivers.  Toicns. 

Rea, Birmingham. 

Sow, Stafford,  EcclesluJl. 

Penk, Penkridge,     Cannock, 

BrevHtod. 
Yorkshire  Co.,  Bridlington,Scarborough. 

Esk, Whitby. 

Tees, Middlesboroogh,  Ouis- 

boroughy  n.,  Stockton, 
Barnard  Castle. 

Leaven, Stokesley. 

Skeme,  I  ...Darlington. 
Durham  Co.,.. Hartlepool. 

Wear, Sunderland,    Houghton' 

le-Spring,  n.,  Durham, 
Bishop- Auckland,  Wol- 
singhatn. 

Tyne, Tynemouth,    S.  Shields, 

N.  Shields,  Newcastlk, 
Gateshead,     Hexham, 
Haltwhistle,  Aldstone, 
North  Tyne,  IBellinqham. 

Allen, Allendale. 

Blyth, Blyth. 

Wansbeck Morpeth. 

Coquet, Rothbury. 

Aln, Alnwick. 

Co.  of  North-  Record,  n. 
umberland, 

Tweed, Berwick. 

Till, Wooler. 


Lakes. — The  English  lakes  are  few  in  number,  very  small  in  di- 
mensions, and  mostly  confined  to  the  Cumbrian  group  of  mountains. 
Windermere,  the  largest  of  them,  is  10^  miles  long,  and  is  drained 
by  the  Leven.  TJlleswater,  in  the  same  county,  is  the  second 
largest ;  whilst  Bala,  the  largest  in  Wales,  is  4  mUes  long,  and  is 
drained  by  the  Dee.  They  are,  however,  celebrated  for  their  beaul^, 
for  being  the  resort  of  tourists,  and  for  containing  a  species  of  fresh- 
water fish  called  the  char,  peculiar  to  the  north-west  comer  of  Eng- 
land, and  considered  a  high  luxury  of  diet.  The  other  principal 
lakes  are  BassenthwaitCi  DerwerUwateT,  Thirlemerc,  Crummockwater, 
Loweswater,  Ennerdale  WateVy  and  Wastwater,  in  Cumberland ; 
Haweswater,  Orassmere,  and  Rydal,  in  Westmoreland ;  and  ConiS' 
tone  Water,  in  Lancashire. 

Internal  ConununicatioiL — England  stands  unrivalled  among  the 
nations  for  the  number  and  extent  of  its  railwaj^s,  canals,  navigable 
rivers,  and  turnpike  roads.  In  January  1871  there  were  58  main 
lines  of  railway  in  operation,  with  a  vast  number  of  branches,  afford- 
ing 10,773  miles  open  for  traffic,  and  the  total  cost  of  construction 
amounts  to  about  £365,000,000.  The  whole  kingdom,  indeed,  with 
the  exception  of  central  Wales  and  a  small  portion  of  the  S.W.  of 
England,  is  one  huge  network  of  railways.  The  Surrey  iron  railway, 
between  Wandsworth  on  the  Thames  and  Croydon  in  Surrey,  was 
the  first  railway  in  England  intended  for  public  use,  and  was  opened 
in  1805  ;  but  the  Stockton  and  Darlin^on  railway,  opened  in  1825, 
was  the  first  to  employ  locomotive  engines,  and  to  excite  the  general 


rved,  blnnt,  and 


I 


ENULiNR    AND    WALLS,  1-13 

interest  of  tlio  puMiu.  Euglnnd  is  further  iutcrsected  in  every  direc- 
tion by  eanalB,  nftviijaljlo  rivers,  and  rivera  rendered  navigable  by 
artiGcial  means,  llie  last  mentioned  are  called  navigations.  The 
oldest  canai  is  the  Sankey  Brook  Vfcaal  in  laneashire,  finjahed  in 
17S8  i  and  the  total  length  of  all  the  canals  u  estiniated  at  about 
2100  miles,  besides  2000  miles  of  rivers  rendered  navigable  by 
artificial  meana.  fineland  is  also  traversed  by  2a,  000  miles  of  Turn- 
pike Beads,  and  by  about  100,000  mOea  of  cross-roads,  by  means  nf 
which,  and  by  the  numerous  canals  and  railways,  commodities  of  all 
kinds  are  so  easily  and  expeditiously  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  tha 
kingdom,  that  they  everywhere  fetch  about  the  same  prices. 

National  CharactBr.  — The  most  striking  characteristics  of  an 
Englishman  are  hia  love  of  liberty,  justiee,  and  independence,  his 
hiah  sense  of  honour  and  fair-dealing.  To  think,  apeak,  and  wiite 
as  ne  pleasea  on  all  subjects — so  long  as  he  keeiis  within  the  bounds 
of  tmtli  and  charity — ^he  claims  as  his  inalienable  right ;  and  to 
maintain  this  liber^  he  evinces  indomitable  courage,  persi 
and  self-deniaL  To  a  stranger  he  appears  cold,  I 
haughty  ;  but  his  candour,  probity,  and  verawity  secure  uiiii  me  lo- 
speot  of  all.  His  humanity  and  philanthrapy  are  of  a  highly  ]>racti' 
cal  character,  as  is  evinced  by  the  estraoiiiinary  nnmber  of  chari- 
table, benevolent,  and  religious  institutions  with  which  his  couutry 
abonnds.  He  is  unrivalled  for  good  taste  in  domestic  architecture, 
and  his  home  is  always  a  model  of  cleanliness,  neatness,  and  com. 
fort ;  while  his  frugality,  economy,  and  providence  ate  evinced  by 
his  vigorous  support  of  savings-banks,  friendly  societies,  and  insur- 
ance oSiceB, 

UtenLtOTfl, — There  is  perhaps  no  nation,  ancient  or  modnm,  that 
excels  England  in  the  number  of  distinguished  literary  names.  Tha 
foUowing  IB  a  list  of  some  of  her  most  eminent  and  gifted  sons  in 
the  Tanous  departments  of  science  and  literature :  Poetrt — 
Chancer,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Herbert,  S.  Butler,  Waller, 
Prior,  Dryden,  Pope,  Young,  Oowper,  Crabbe,  Bvron,  Kogers,  Cole- 
ridge, Southey,  Wordsworth,  Tennyson.  Histohv— Clarendon, 
Gibbon,  Coxe,  Roacoe,  Napier,  Lingard,  Thirlwall,  Hallani,  Grote, 
Mac ftuJay,  Freeman,  Fronde,  Philip  Smith.  Science  and  Fnii.osoPHY 
—Bacon,  Boyle,  Newton,  Ray,  Locke,  Hobbes,  Cudworth,  Tncker, 
Malthas,  Bentham,  Davy,  C.  Hatton,  Faraday,  George  and  Robert 
Stevenson,  Whewel!,  Sedgwick,  Professor  Owen.  Tueulooy— 
Bede,  WycliSe,  Hooker,  Jerei^  Taylor,  Chillingwortb,  Bishop 
Boll,  Barrow,  Walton,  Patrick,  Bishop  Lovth,  Owen,  Howe,  Bax< 
ter,  Bnnyan,  Foole,  Doddridge,  Henry,  Lardner,  Butler,  Samuel 
Clarke,  Paley,  Scott,  K.  Hall,  Foster,  Whately,  I.  Taylor,  Deau 
Alford.  MEDtciNB — Hnrvey,  Jenner,  Heberden,  Gooch,  Hall, 
■Willan,  Bateuian,  Cooper.  Tbavfls— Drake,  Frobisher,  Dam- 
jder,  j^loD,  Byron,  Cook,  Becham,  E.  and  J.  Laniier,  Parry,'  Frank- 
lin, Speke,  and  Burton.  Fine  Aets — Wren,  Hogarth,  Bevuolds, 
Oian'bey,  Hayman,  Gainsborough,  Wilson,  Opie,  Komney,  Wright. 
Notthoote,  Morland,  Lawrence,  Hay  don,  Turner,  Landseer,  Purcell. 
MwCEi.i.ANBorH — Addison,  Johnson,  Bentley,  Sydney  Smith.  Dp 
Foe,  Ficldiiif^  Warren,  Thackeray,  Dickeos,  Geo.  and  Sir  U..  ^'wVluotx. 


144  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


SCOTLAND. 

Position  and  Boundaries. — Scotland  forms  the  north  part 
of  Great  Britain ;  the  mainland  extends  from  lat.  54**  2&  to 
SS*'  40'  north,  and  from  Ion.  1"  46^  to  6"  14'  west ;  thus  occupy- 
ing 4'*  1'  of  lat.  and  4°  28'  of  Ion.  It  is  boimded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Pentland  Firth,  on  the  E.  by  the  North  Sea,  on  the  S.  by 
England,  and  on-  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic. 

Form,  Coast-Line,  and  Extreme  Points. — Of  an  oblong  but  ex- 
tremely irregular  form,  with  numerous  deep  indentations,  especially 
on  the  west.  The  extreme  points  are,  the  Mull  of  Galloway  in  the 
S.,  Dun  net  Head  in  the  N.,  Bnchanuess  in  the  E.,  and  the  Point  of 
Ardnamurchan  in  the  W.  Including  the  islands,  the  most  northerly 
point  is  Unst,  in  lat.  60°  49' ;  and  the  most  westerly,  St  Elilda,  in 
Ion.  8°  84'  west.  The  coast-line  is  so  extremely  irregular  as  to  sug- 
gest the  idea  that  the  country  is  about  to  separate  into  fragments : 
length,  including  the  main  iolets  of  the  ocean,  2500  miles,  or  1  mile 
of  seabord  for  every  11  square  miles  of  surface.  This  ratio  is  un- 
paralleled in  any  other  European  country  except  Greece. 

Area  and  Population. — Including  the  islands,  the  area  is  80,685 
sq.  m.,  or  19,639,377  acres,  being  considerably  more  than  one- third 
of  the  area  of  Great  Britain  with  the  circumjacent  186  isles.  Extreme 
length  of  mainland  276  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  &om  80  to 
175  miles;  but  from  the  Mull  of  Galloway  to  the  extreme  north  of 
Shetland  about  450  miles,  and  from  Peterhead  to  St  Eilda  about  250 
miles.  In  1871  the  population  was  3,360,018,  being  nearly  107  per- 
sons for  every  sq.  m. ;  while  England  has  389  persons  to  the  sq. 
mile,  and  Ireland  166.  In  1801  the  population  was  only  1,608,420; 
it  has  therefore  fully  doubled  itself  in  the  last  seventy  years.  The 
population  is  about  equally  divided  between  town  and  country,  there 
being  225  cities  and  towns  with  an  average  population  of  6654. 
The  counties  containing  the  largest  population  are,  Lanark,  with 
765,339;  Mid-Lothian,  328,000;  Aberdeen, 245, 000;  while  Kinross 
has  only  7198,  and  Nairn  10,225.  The  most  densely  peopled  coun- 
ties are,  Edinburgh,  which  has  894  persons  to  every  sq.  m.,  Lanark 
861,  and  Renfrew  854;  whereas  Sutherland  has  only  13  persons 
to  the  square  mile,  Inverness  21,  and  Argyll  23. 

Political  DiylsionB. — Scotland  is  poUtically  divided  into  33  conn- 
ties,  13  of  which  are  southern,  10  central,  and  10  northern.  The 
central  counties  are  separated  from  the  southern  by  the  Firths  of 
ForUi  and  Clyde  and  the  Grand  Canal  connecting  tiiem ;  and  from 
the  northern  by  the  Grampian  chain. 

Thikteen  Southern  Counties. 

Edlnbnrgli  or  Mld-LotUaiL — Edinburgh  198  n.,  Leith  44,  Porto- 
bello  5,  Musselburgh  8  (F.  of  Forth),  Dalkeith  6  (Esk). 

Bdvem  1000  and  2500  inkaJbUanU, — Penicuik,  Newhaven,  Loanhead. 


U3 


„ T  £.  Lothian. — Hadbisotos  4  ^Tyne),  Dunbar  3 

(F.  of  Forth). 

Sortli  BBTviDli,  Tranent,  PreEtacpmia. 

Benrl^. — GBSsyiAW  1  (BUckaildeT),  Dnnse  3  (WMteadder). 

Coldstream,  Eydmoalh,  EuMod,  laudet 

BaHmri^— JzDBintea  3  (Jed),  Hawick  11  (Teviot),  Kelw)  S 
(Tweed). 

UelroBS,  New  CBBtletctn,  Wiltnn. 

Smnfiiai. — DrHTiUBS  15  (Nitb),  Annan  3  (Annan). 

Thorntaill,  Lockerbj,  Lochmahen,  LaDgtiolm,  MoSal 

lDAnaeSirlgb.i. — Kibscudbbicht  2  (Dee),  Maiwelltown4(NM). 

CbsUe  Douglas,  Creetuwn,  Gatehuoae,  Dalbeattie. 

mgUnm. — WigtownE  (Wigtown Bay), Hewton Stewart 3 (Cree), 
Stranraer  6  (L.  Bjnn). 

Whithorn,  Glenluce,  Port  Patrick. 

AjT.— Ats  is  (Att),  SaltooatB  S,  Ardrosaan  i,  Largs  3  (F.  of 
Clyde),  trvine  7,  KilmarDock  34,  QcJatOD  5,  Now  Mills  3  (Inine), 
Xll  wiimiiig  4,  Dairy  5.  KilbimieS  (G-amock),  Stcwartoa  3  (Annock), 
GirraD  6,  Hajbole  4  (airvaa),  Beith  4  (Black  Cart). 

Muirkiri,  West  KUbridE,  Waterside,  Manchiine,  Tnxra,  DalmBllinetan. 
CalrinB,  Cumnock,  Andunlecfc,  Crossliill,  Darvel,  Eglijiton,  Hurfiori, 
Kihuaora,  Feeaweep,  Tarbolton,  Btereustcm, 

aBnftBW.— aKKFKEW  4,  PortfllaBBOw  II,  Greenoci  58  (P.  of 
Civde),  PaiHley  48,  PoUockuliawB  9  (White  Cart),  JolinBton  8,  Kil- 
barchan  3  (Blank  Cart),  Barrhead  6  (Levern). 

Gnuroct,  Busbf,  Linwmd,  LDChwinnoch,  NeilEton,  EagleEhani,  Tbom- 
IJebank,  Bridge  of  Weii,  NitiOulL 

TjMvfc  — Lakahe  5,  Glasgow  548,  Butherglen  9,  Hamilton  1 1 . 
Caduke  3  s.,  Motherwell  7  n.  (Clyde),  Airdrie  17,  Coatbridge,  10 
(N.  Calder),  Wiahaw  9  (S.  Oalder),  Strathaveo  4  (Avon). 

CaldeT.Cflidcrbank.BellBhill,  BaillieBtoD,  BhHttlcEton,ToUorom,BpriIlg- 
■    -J;  Kirkfidd  Bank,  ChnpeihsU.  New  Lanark,  Roaehail,  UddinptoD, 


Caifin,  Holrtoim,  Newarthill,  C 

UnlttfaCDW  OF  v.  LoOilaa. — LiNUTsaow  4,  Bathgate  5  (A-ron), 
Bo'neM  4  (F.  of  Forth). 

South  QueausTerr^,  Whitborn,  Craftbead,  Ammdale,  Broxlium. 

PMblM.— PlEBLEB  3  (TwBod),  Innerleithen  2  (Leithen). 

■dldik.— Bbleibx  5  (Ettrick),  GslaBhiele  10  (Gahi  Water). 

TbK   CKIITEiL    COTJHTIEB. 

Fife.— CdpakS,  6t  Aiidren^  C  (Bden),  Kirkcaldy  12,  Bnrtiahuid 
3  (F.  of  Forth),  Dunfermline  15  (Lynel,  Leven  3  (Leven). 

Talkhmd,  Anuhttirmnchty,  Lochgelly,  Marklnch,  Oakley  Prinlaws,  Bt 
■ananoe,  Anstruther,  Pittflnweem,  Buckhaven.  Wemyss,  Kinghotn,  In- 
vRfcMhiDg,  Dyson,  Ferry-Fort-oD-Craig,  Newbnr^  Covdanbeath, 
"— — '-1,  Leslie. 


146  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Snross. — Kinross  2,  Milnathort  2  (Leven). 

Clackmannaxi.— Clackmannan  1  (Black  Devon),  Alloa  9,  Tillie- 
coultry  4,  Dollar  2  (Devon). 

Stirling.— Stirling  14  (Forth),  Grangemouth  3,  Falkirk  12,  Den- 
ny 4  (Oarron),  Kilsyth  5,  Alva  4  (Devon),  Bridge  of  Allan  3  (Allan). 

Bannockbum,  Stenhousemuir,  Carron,  Donipace,  Lauriston,  Milngayiei 
Camelon,  Balfron. 

Dumbarton. — Dumbarton  11,  Helensburgh  6  (Obrde),  Kenton  3, 
Alexandria  5,  Bonhill  3  (Leven),  Kirkintilloch  6  (Kelvin). 
Cumbernauld,  Duntocher,  Jamestown. 
Bute. — KoTHESAY  8  (E.  coast  of  Bute). 
Lamlash  and  Brodick  (in  Arran),  Millport  (in  Cumbrae). 

Argyll — Invebary  1  (L.  Fyne),  Oampbelton  7  (Kilbrannan  Sd.), 
Dunoon  4  (Clyde). 
Tarbert,  Lochgilphead,  Tobermory,  Oban,  Bowmore,.  Port  Ellen. 

Perth.— Perth  26  (Tay),  Crieff  4  (Earn),  Auchterarder  3  (Ruth- 
ven),  Blairgowrie  5  (Ericht),  Kincardine  2  (F.  of  Forth). 

New  Scone,  Dunkeld,  Stanley,  Coupar-Angus,  Aberfeldy,  Errol,  Aber- 
nethy,  Muthill,  Comrie,  Dunning,  Methven,  Alyth,  Blair  AthoU^  Dun- 
blane, Doune,  Callander,  Blackford,  Battray. 

ForfiEur. — ^Forfar  11  (Dean),  Kirriemuir  3  (Gairie),  Broughty 
Ferry  6,  Dundee  119  (F.  of  Tay),  Arbroath  20  (coast),  Montrose  16, 
Brechin  8  (S.  Esk). 

Carnoustie,  Ferryden,  Letham,  Frlockheim,  Southmuir. 

Kincardine.— Stonehaven  3  (coast). 

Luthermuir^  Laurencekirk,  Bervie,  Johnshaven,  Banchory. 

Ten  Northern  Counties. 

Aberdeen. — Aberdeen  88  (Dee),  Woodside  4,  Inverury  3  (Don), 
Huntly  4  (Deveron),  Peterhead  9,  Fraserburgh  3  (coast). 

Kintore,  Old  Meldrum,  Ellon,  Strichen,  Turifif,  Pitsligo^  Bosehearty, 
Balmoral. 

Banff.  —Banff  4,  Macduff  3  (Deveron),  CuUen  2,  Buckie  4  (coast), 
Keith  4  (Isla). 

Portsoy,  Aberchirder,  DuflPtown. 

Moray  or  Elgin. — Elgin  7  (Lossie),  Forres  4,  (Findhorn). 

Lossiemouth,  Fochabers,  Eothes,  Burghead,  Hopeman. 

Nairn.— Nairn  4  (Nairn). 

Inyemess. — Inverness  14  (Ness). 

Fort  George,  Fort  William,  Beauly,  Grantown,  Kingussie,  Portree  (I. 
of  Skye). 

Ross.— Dingwall  2  (Cromarty  F.),  Tain  2  (Dornoch  F.) 
Fortrose,  Invergorden,  Alness,  Evanton,  Plockton,  Maryburgh,  Avoch, 
Stomoway  (in  Lewis). 


BC0TL4ND.  147 

— Obomartt  1  (Cromarty  F.),  Ullapool  1  (Loohbroom). 
— DoKNOca  1  (Domocli  Flrtli). 

Golspie,  Helmsriale. 

CalUmMi.— Wick  8  (K  coaat},  Thurso  4  (PeDtUnd  E.) 

Lybster,  Castletown. 

Orkney  and  Shatlond.— Kikkwall  3,  StramaesB  2  (Orkney),  Ler- 
vrick  4  (Shetland). 

DeHOilptiTe  IToteB.  —  At  the  last  cenaos  there  were  only  three 
biwas  in  Scotland  with  more  than  IW.OOO  inhabitanta  (Glasgow, 
Edinburgh,  and  Dundee) ;  two  bot  100,000  and  50,000  (Aberdeen 
and  Greenock) ;  four  bet.  30,000  and  20,000  (Paisley,  Leith,  Perth, 
and  Kilmarnock),  thirteen  bet.  20,000  and  10,000  (Ayr,  Arbroath, 
Montrose,  Airdrie,  Dumfries,  Stirling,  Hamilton,  Dunfermline,  In- 
Teruesa,  KirkcaJdy,  Dumbarton,  Forfar,  and  Galashiels);  and  twenty- 
seven  bet.  10,000  and  SDOO— being  in  all  furty-nine  towns  of  upwards 
of  5000  inhabitants. 

The  Thihtkex  Southern  Counties. 

Bdikburgh  Ilea  iu  the  bsainof  the  Forth,  sud  on  the  Boutli  side  of  the 
firth  or  eatoary  of  Ihat  name.— Nearly  all  Coal-measorBH,  but  trap  in  the 
Pentlond  EUIb,  and  l^ner  Silniian  in  the  S.E. ;  Surface  hilly,  having 
the  Moorfoot  Hilla  in  the  8.K,  tlie  Peutland  Hilla  in  tlie  centre,  and  the 
Corstorphine  Hilla,  including  Arthur's  Seat,  near  Edinburgh,  in  the  N, ; 
toil  verf  fertile,  and  highly  eultivated  in  the  level  parts ;  extensive 
iiuraeries  and  vegetable  gardena  near  the  capitaL  Mmerala  highly  valu- 
sble.  eipeeiaUy  coal  and  iroustone,  vihieh  are  evteusively  wroueht,  sjid 
aandstone  (at  Craigleith)  of  a  very  superior  quality ;  one  vast  bed  of  eoal, 
between  Carlops  and  Mnssetborgh,  is  15  miles  long  by  8  broad,  and  con- 
tains 33  seams.  Manufactures  less  important,  but  extensive  paper-mills 
on  the  Esk  and  Water  of  Leith,  as  also  several  breweries,  distilleries,  and 
potteries.  Edinburgh,  near  the  Firtb  of  Forth,  the  capital  of  Scotland 
since  the  reign  of  James  II.,  la  one  of  the  most  chastely  bnitt  cities  in 
Europe.    It  is  often  uaUed  the  Modern  Athens,  from  the  taste  and  ele^o 

United  Kingdom,  with  the  ei 

ing  is  carried  on  eitensively,  auu  lubi«  hib  bbvhihi  yuanfliijr  ranB»B  m 
the  first  elais,  10  nenspat^rs,  and  many  other  iieriodical  norks.  But 
Edinburgh  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  Univcisity  (founded  in  1582,  erected 
in  1769).  with  34  pitifessnrs,  from  ISOO  to  2000  students,  and  a  library  con- 
tuning  122,000  printed  books  and  SOO  MS3.  This  University  holds  a  high 
rank  as  a  medical  school,  while  in  mental  and  raorHl  science  it  stands  un- 
rivalled in  Britain.  Among  its  most  illustrious  professora  may  be  named 
Dugald  Stewart,  Thomas  Brown.and  Sir 'Williani  Hamilton.  Besides  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  there  is  another  distinguished  theological  semi- 
nary c^ed  the  New  College,  where  the  miuistei-a  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotlsnd  receive  their  theological  training.    Among  the  most  remarkable 

pBhliC  bnildinga  may  be  mentioned  the  Castl"       ■---■-■ — •- — 

^rpckj  sod  once  a  place  of  great  Btrenoth,— it  <. „  ..    ._  

■kbd,  ■  garrison,  and  banw:ka  for  2000  men;  the  Palace  of  Holj'rood, 
■tended  by  David  1.  in  112S,  which  forma  the  rei^idence  of  the  savereign 
^^nu>  tlaitiog  the  Scottish  capital,  imd  which,  along  with  Beverley  In    , 


148  POLITICAL   GEOGBAPHY. 

Torksliire^  Las  the  privilege  of  sanctuary ;  St  Giles's  Cathedral,  where  the 
Solemn  Lei^e  ana  Covenant  was  subscribed  in  1643 ;  Victoria  Hall, 
where  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotlanu 
holds  its  annual  meetmgs ;  Parliament  House,  where  the  Scottish  Par* 
liament  met  before  the  Union ;  the  Advocates'  Library,  the  lamat  and 
most  valuable  collection  of  books  in  Scotland,  containing  200,000  printefl 
volumes  and  1700  MSS.,  and  entitled  to  a  copy  of  every  book  issued  in 
the  United  Kingdom ;  the Si^et  Library,  containing 50,000  volumes;  the 
Boyal  Institution ;  the  National  Gallery ;  Museum  of  Science  and  Art; 
the  High  School ;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Monument.  Leith,  two  miles 
N.E.  of  Edinburgh,  of  which  it  is  the  seaport,  has  a  commodious  harbour, 
and  considerable  colonial  and  foreign  trade.  In  1869,  4134  vessels,  of 
980,410  tons  burden,  entered  and  cleared  the  i>ort ;  the  exports  amounted 
to  £1,600,000,  and  the  customs-dues  to  £600,000. 

Haddinqton  lies  E.  of  Mid-LothiuK  and  in  the  basins  of  the  Forth 
and  Tyne.  —  Carboniferous  in  the  W.,  Devonian  in  centre  and  £., 
Silurian  in  the  S.,  and  trap  in  the  N.  Surface  hilly  in  the  S.,  where 
are  the  Lammermoor  Hills,  level  in  the  centre  and  N. ;  soil  mostly  a 
clayey  loam,  and  highly  fertile.  Coal  is  worked  in  the  carboniferous 
district,  and  limestone  abounds  in  many  places.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  salt  and  pottery  wares  at  Prestonpans  and  Tranent;  several  extensive 
distilleries  ;  and  fisheries  at  Dunbar.  Haddlng^n,  a  small  town  on  the 
Tyne,  has  the  largest  market  in  Scotland  for  a^cultural  produce ;  the 
b.-p.  of  John  Knox  and  Alexander  II.  North  Berwick:  near  it  i»  Tan- 
tallan  Castle,  an  ancient  stronghold  of  the  Douglases;  and  tiie  Bsoa 
Kockj  at  one  time  the  State  prison  for  the  kingdom,  where  many  of  tibe 
Scottish  reformers  were  incarcerated.  Prestonpans :  here  Charles  Stewart, 
the  Pretender,  defeated  the  royal  forces  under  Cope,  in  1745. 

Berwick  lies  S.E.  of  Haddington,  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed. — Sil- 
urian  in  the  N.,  Devonian  in  W.,  and  carboniferous  limestone  in  S.E. 
Surface  hilly  and  barren  in  the  N.,  where  are  the  Lammermoors ; 
but  the  districts  of  Lauderdale  in  the  W.,  and  Merse  in  the  S.,  are 
highly  fertile  and  well  cultivated;  agriculture  in  a  highly  advanced 
state  ;  wheat  and  turnips  are  the  principal  crops.  Minerals  and  manu- 
factures unimportant ;  but  many  mteresting  remains  of  antiquity,  such 
as  castles,  towers,  abbeys,  and  priories.  Greenlaw  is  the  smallest  county 
town  in  Scotland,  with  the  exception  of  Dornoch.  Bnnse,  the  birth- 
place of  Dims  Scotus.  Thomas  Boston,  and  M'Crie  the  historian. 

Roxburgh,  S.  of  Berwick,  is  nearly  all  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed. — 
Carboniferous  in  S.,  Devonian  in  centre  and  N.,  Silurian  in  W.,  with  an 
extensive  tract  of  trap-rock  in  the  E.     Surface  hilly  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Cheviots,  but  elsewhere  a  level  and  fertile  plain;  agriculture  im- 
proving, but  the  county  is  chiefly  pastoral ;  minerals— coal,  lime,  marl, 
and  freestone ;  the  manufactures  are  chiefly  Scotch  tweeds  and  other 
woollens.    Jedburgh,  near  the  Cheviot  Hills,  is  famous  in  Border  war- 
fare, in  which  it  repeatedly  suffered  by  fire.    Hawick,  on  the  Teviot.  is 
a  thriving  manufacturing  town.    Kelso,  on  the  Tweed,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Teviot,  a  beautiful  little  town,  with  the  remains  of  an  abbey 
built  by  David  I.    Melrose  Abbey,  on  the  Tweed,  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent ruins  of  the  kind  in  Scotland.   Another  famous  abbey  in  this  county 
and  on  the  same  river  is  Jedburgh  Abbey,  founded  in  the  ninth  century; 
also  Abbottford,  the  beautiful  residence  of  the  late  Sir  Walter  Scott 

Dumfries,  S.W.  of  Boxbursh,  in  the  basins  of  the  Nith,  Annan,  and 
Esk. — Chiefly  Lower  Silurian,  but  New  Red  in  the  S.,  and  carboniferous 
limestone  in  the  S.E.    The  county  is  divided  into  three  districts — Niths- 


SCOTLAND.  lid 

dala,  Annauitile,  and  Eskdale.  Surface  genorallv  liillv,  especially  in  th» 
N.  and  N.E.,  where  is  the  Lovrther  ruDge  ;  bdiI  rertUe  In  tha  lowlands, 
and  affording' good  poaturage  on  tha  high  grounds;  niinerala — limaaloiie, 
coal,  and  lead.  Dnm&iet,  with  its  Euhurlj  HazweUtOwn,  is  a  thriving 
town,  and  the  proviDcial  capital  of  tha  south  of  Scotlaud.  Here  are  ia- 
terrad  the  remaina  of  Robert  Bums,  the  Scottisli  poet,  and  of  Joha 
Comyn,  who  was  stabbed  by  Robert  Bmce  in  13133.  Annan,  on  a  rivar 
of  same  name,  with  a  good  natural  harbour  i  shipbuilding,  cotton  (gc- 
tories,  and  rope-works ;  considerabie  eiport  trade.  HoStit.  a  neat  villagB 
mitch  freqnented  by  invalids,  who  resort  hen  to  the  ohalylieate  and  aul- 
phurona  springs. 

KlBXCODEiUOHT,  OT  EoBt  Gallowaj,  W.  of  Dnmfriea,  Fhieftv  in  the  basins 
of  the  Dae  and  Nith.  Nearly  all  Lower  Silurian  ;  surfaea  billy ;  cHmato 
mild  and  moiat ;  soil  productive  in  the  sonth,  bnt  the  main  part  only 
affordinK  pasture  for  sheep,  'which  are  reared  in  great  numbers.  Eirk- 
cndbrigbt,  on  the  Dee,  near  its  month  in  the  Solway,  has  the  best  bar- 
liaur  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  bnt  little  trade. 

WiOTOWN,  or  West  Galloway,  W.  of  Kirkcudbright,  a  peninankr  coanty 
in  the  extreme  S.W.  of  Scotland.  Is  all  Lower  Silurian:  surface  tmdu- 
luting,  with  many  small  lakes ;  soil  fertile,  well  tilled,  or  in  BiceUent  pai- 
turs  :  climate  moist  and  mUd  ;  breeds  of  cattle  very  superior ;  abounds 
ia  Drnidical  antiqaities.  Ti^wn,  n  sniall  town,  with  t.teaui  commnni- 
cation  to  Liverpool.  Newton-Stewart;  hand-loom  weaving,  and  trade 
in  wool  with  Lanoaahira.  StraJU-aor;  hand-loom  weaving,  tanneries, 
nail-factoriea,  steam  conimuniration  with  Glasgow,  Belfast,  and  White- 
tiaven,  and  submarine  telegraph  to  Cnrrickfergns.  Fort-Patriok,  Sljk  m. 
from  Ireland,  a  small  town,  with  a  line  of  submarine  telegraph  to  Don< 

AVB,  N,  of  Wigtown,  Ilea  in  tha  lower  basin  of  the  Clyde.  Carbonifer- 
ous in  tha  N.  and  W.,  Devonian  in  thecentre,  and  Lower  Silurian  with  trap 
iu  the  S.  Surface  monntaioons,  but  fertile  tracts  of  land  alongthe  eoaat ; 
agricnltora  in  an  improved  state,  and  the  soil  extensively  drained ;  iron 
and  coal  mines  numerous;  manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  Btufiii,  and 
embroidered  work.  Ayrshire  consists  of  three  districts — Carrich  in  tho 
S.,  Sgte  in  the  centra,  and  Cunmngham  in  the  N.  Ayr,  a  flna  seaport 
town,  with  large  exports  of  coal,  an  extensive  gsneral  trade,  and  several 
factories,  is  the  scene  of  the  early  achievements  of  Sir  William  Wallace. 
Saltcoats  (so  called  from  its  manufactures  of  salt) ;  shipbnilding  docks, 
weaving  and  embroidery.  Lor^,  memorable  for  tho  victory  obtained  by 
Alexander  III.  over  Haco,  king  of  Norway,  in  1263.  Irvine,  with  Isjge 
export  trade  in  coal  ;  weaving  of  book-muslin  and  jaconela.  EilmBT- 
noek,  hj  tar  the  largest  town  in  the  county,  has  numerous  manufactnres. 
Qirvan  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  cotton  manufacture. 

Bbkfbew,  N,  of  Ayr,  in  the  basin  of  Clyde,  consists  of  ooal-meaanres 
In  the  E. ,  and  all  the  rest  trap ;  surface  level,  except  in  the  W,  ;  cool, 
limoBtona,  and  freestone  abound  ;  the  manufactnras  are  ahawla,  and  silk 
and  cotton  atuffa ;  two-Eftha  arable.  Eenftsw  is  the  nominal  capital  o( 
the  county.  Fort-Slaagow,  a  thrivmg  town,  'with  a  good  harbour  and 
docks,  was  lonff  the  port  of  Glasgow,  and  continues  to  be  the  chief  port  in 
the  Clyde  for  importing  Americon  timber.  Qieenock,  a  largo  thriving 
town  on  the  Clyde,  and  the  greatest  seaport  in  the  west  of  Scotland ; 
tsmona  for  ship  and  steamboat  building;  and  the  birthplace  of  James 
Watt,  who  invented  the  steam-engine.  Fiisley,  an  important  manufao- 
luringtown;  has  been  long  famoaa  for  shawls,  muslins,  and  cotton  thread; 
coal  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity,  which  afford  material  for  its  nuiaex- 


150  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ous  iron-works.    It  was  the  birtlrplace  of  Professor  Wilson,  of  Alexander 
Wilson  the  ornithologist,  and  of  Robert  Tannahill  the  poet. 

Lanark,  E.  of  Renfrew,  in  the  basin  of  the  Clyde.— Carboniferons  in 
the  N. .  Devonian  in  the  centre,  and  Lower  Silurian  in  the  S.  Surface  very 
variable,  and  only  one-third  arable;  coal,  iron,  and  lead  mines  very  exten- 
sive and  valuable.  This  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  county  in  Scotland. 
Lanark,  the  nominal  capital,  has  a  laige  statue  of  Sir  William  Wallace. 
Glasgow,  the  laigest  city  in  Scotland,  and  the  third  largest  in  Britain 
(being  exceeded  only  by  London  and  Liverpool),  is  the  great  seat  of 
Scottish  commerce  and  manufactures.  Cotton  is  the  principal  staple, 
but  there  are  numerous  iron-furnaces  and  large  coal  and  iron  works.  It 
is  especially  famous  for  shipbuilding  and  the  construction  of  machhieTy. 
The  University,  founded  in  1450,  has  26  professors,  about  1200  stndente, 
about  80  scholarships,  a  library  of  59,000  volumes,  and  a  museum  founded 
by  Dr  W.  Hunter,  containing  a  valuable  collection  of  natural  curiosities. 
There  are  many  other  magnificent  public  edifices,  amongst  which  are  St 
Mungo's  Cathedral,  the  only  perfect  specimen  of  the  ancient  Gothic  in 
Scotland,  and  the  new  Royal  Exchange :  pop.  (in  1871)  548,000 ;  in  same 
year,  8830  vessels  of  2,161,050  tons  burden,  entered  and  cleared  theport 
Rntherglen  and  Hamilton,  considerable  manufacturing  towns  on  the  Cqrde. 
Airdrie  and  Wishaw  have  extensive  coal  and  iron  mines  in  their  vicinity. 

Linlithgow,  or  West  Lothian,  N.E.  of  Lanark,  in  the  basin  of  tiie 
Forth. — Almost  wholly  carboniferous  ;  surface  beautifully  varied  and  un- 
dulating ;  soil  generally  fertile,  but  swampy  in  the  south,  and  three- 
fourths  arable ;  coal  extensively  wrought ;  manufactures  imimportanl 
Linlitibgow  contains  the  remains  of  a  royal  palace,  whei*e  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots  was  bom  in  1542.  Bathgate,  with  a  well-endowed  academy ;  here 
is  wrought  the  celebrated  Torbanehill  mineral.  Bo'ness,  with  a  coal  and 
iron  mine  extending  under  the  bed  of  the  Forth. 

Peebles,  E.  of  Lanark,  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed. — Almost  entirely 
Lower  Silurian,  but  a  little  coal  and  Devonian  in  the  N.  W. ;  surface  well 
wooded,  but  full  of  hills  and  bogs ;  one-third  arable,  and  two-fifths  in  pas- 
ture ;  large  numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  reared.  Coal  is  raised  in  the 
N.W. ;  a  few  wooUen  manufactures.  Peebles,  a  small  town  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Tweed  and  the  Eddleston,  with  various  woollen  manufac- 
tures. Innerleithen,  with  a  mineral  spring,  the  "  St  Ronan's  Well "  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Selkibk,  between  Peebles  and  Roxburgh,  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed,  was 
formerly  cailed  Ettrick  Forest. — Wholly  Lower  Silurian ;  surface  mostly 
mountainous,  but  one-half  arable ;  chiefly  a  pastoral  county,  producing 
excellent  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Selldrk,  on  the  Ettrick,  near  which 
is  the  birthplace  of  Mungo  Park,  the  African  traveller ;  long  famoua  for 
the  manufacture  of  shoes,  and  hence  the  corporation  was  called  "  the 
Sutors  of  Selkirk."  Galashiels,  with  highly-flourishing  manufactures  of 
tweeds,  is  rapidly  increasing  in  population. 

The  Ten  Central  Counties. 

Fife,  a  peninsular  county  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Tav. — 
Chiefly  cai-ooniferous,  largely  interspersed  with  trap  ;  surface  diversined; 
two-thirds  under  cultivation.  The  "  How  of  Fife,"  traversed  by  the 
Eden,  is  very  productive.  Minerals,  coal  and  lime;  manufactures, 
linen ;  exports— ^oal,  lime,  and  fish.  Cupar,  on  the  Eden,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  "  How  of  Fife,"  with  spinning-mills  and  linen  manufactures. 
St  Andrews,  a  town  of  great  antiquity,  with  a  celebrated  University^  the 


SCOTLAND.  151 

_      in  Scotlanil,  fonndod  in  lill ;  consists  oE  two  coUegen,  naiiicd  St 

Mai;'>,  which  is  s  diviuitf  hall,  and  &t  Solvaior,  now  united  with  Si, 
Lennoid'B,  with  H  profeaaora,  and  74  bursaiias  of  illOOO  annual  value.  St 
Andrens  was  long  the  ecdesiaatical  capital  af  Scotland,  and  was  the  ncene 
of  mnnyoC  the  most  rematkable  political  aud  leligious  eveiila  in  Scot- 
tish history.  Eiikcsldy  has  conaLderable  trade;  and  is  the  b.-p.  of  Adam 
Smith,  ontbor  of  'Tlia  Wesltli  of  Nations.'  Dnuibrmlliie,  a  place  of 
great  historical  interest,  and  notad  in  modern  times  for  its  linen  inanufac- 
tares;  here  was  bom  Charles  I.,  and  here  Charies  U.  subscribed  the 
Solemn  I«iEH?  ^"^  Covenant  in  1650. 

EiNEiOBS.  W.  of  Fife,  in  the  basin  of  the  Forth,  is  the  second  smallest 

■..county  in  Scotland.— Coal-measures  in  the  S.  and  K ,  aud  trap  in  the  N. 

^ud  W. ;  surface  varied  aud  well  cultivated ;  minerals  and  manufactures 

Hpoiiuiportsnt.    Einrou,  on  Loch  J.even,  a  small  tovm  'with  manui'actnies 

^Mf  cotton,  taiioQ  shawls,  and  damasks. 

r  CuiOKXtsui^,  W.  of  Kinross,  in  the  basin  of  the  Forth,  is  the  smallest 

^■eoluitj'  in  Scotland.— Principally  carboniferous,  but  trap.rocka  in  the  N. 
Tba  nver  Devon,  whose  iinnka  are  highly  fertile^  traverses  the  county  on 
ila  iniy  to  the  Forth.  Principal  minerals— coal,  ironslflne,  and  sandstone. 
Alloa,  the  principal  town,  near  tlie  head  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  has  con- 
nderable  export  trade  and  shipbuilding,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  ale. 
Stibijnb,  W.  of  Clackmannan,  in  the  basins  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde.— 
Carbcmlferous  and  trsu  in  E.  aud  S.,  Devonian  in  the  centre,  and  crystal, 
iinarocki  in  the  W.  Surface  mountainous,  especially  in  the  W.,  whero 
JleB  Lomond  attains  a  height  of  3192  feet.  The  Carae  lands,  along  the 
yorth,  are  level  and  fertile,  and  two-thirds  of  the  whole  county  arable. 
Mineroli — coal,  ironstone,  and  freestone.  Here  are  the  celebrated  Carroll 
iKin-worba.  Manufactures — carpets,  tartans,  tweeds,  winceys,  blankets, 
paper,  and  chemical  products ;  many  cotton-mills,  foundries,  dye-works, 
and  distiUeriea.  Stirling,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Forth,  is  a  place  of 
great  historical  imjiortance  in  the  early  annals  nf  Scotland,  contains  a 
caatle  of  great  antiqnity,  which  ia  one  of  the  fonr  military  depots  still 
upheld  in  Scotland  by  virtue  of  the  Articles  of  Union.  FnlMrk  is  the 
■eat  of  three  great  annual  cattle  -  fairs,  called  "  TiTJsts,"  at  which 
usnally  300,000  cattle  and  sheep  exchange  bands.  Two  memorable 
battles  were  fought  here  ;  one  between  Wallace  and  Edward  I.  in  12B8, 
and  the  other  between  Prince  Charles  Edward  and  the  royal  army  in  1746. 
BionookbiiTn,  famous  for  a  victory  guned  by  the  Scots,  under  Bruce, 
oveitbe  English  in  131 4.  Kilsyth — cotton-weaving,  coal  and  iron  mines  ; 
hen  HontrosB  gained  a  victory  over  the  Coveiumters. 

DCIIBABTOM,  W.  of  Stirling,  in  the  basm  of  Clyde.— Geological  struo- 
tnre  same  as  last ;  surface  mostly  monntainous ;  anil  poor,  but  fertile  and 
well  tultivated  in  the  lowlands  ;  iron  and  coal  mines,  with  quarries  of 
limestone  and  freestone ;  cotton-mills,  g1ass>works,  paper-mills,  and  print- 
fields.  DnmbaTton,  on  the  Leven.  near  its  confluence  witli  the  Clyde, 
with  an  ancient  castle,  one  of  the  four  upheld  by  GovemmenL  EBlens- 
bnrgli,  a  watering-place  on  the  Clydo.  Kirkintilloch,  with  manufactures 
of  luta,  cotton-weaving,  and  iron-foundries. 

BOTB  ANO  Akran,  two  large  islands,  w-ith  severalsmaller,  in  the  Firth 
of  Clyde, — Bute  is  Devonian  in  S.,  Silurian  in  the  middle,  and  mica  slate 
In  N. ;  while  Anan  is  eitremely  varied,  being  almost  an  opitomB  of  the 
geohwy  of  Great  Britain.  Both  islands  are  mountainous  in  the  X,  and 
1indl£ting  in  the  S.     Goatfell,  in  Artan.  attains  a  height  of  287t  feet. 


152  POLITICAL   GEOGBAPHY. 

renders  it  the  resort  of  many  invalids.  Sothesay,  at  tlie  head  of  a  bay 
on  the  E.  side  of  Bute,  is  a  famous  resort  of  invalids  and  sea-hatheirB. 
Lamlash,  in  Arran,  with  a  well-protected  harbour. 

Abotll,  N.  of  Bute,  and  in  the  extreme  west  of  Scotland,  chiefly  con- 
sists of  peninsulas  and  islands. — Metamorphic  rocks,  with  laive  patdles  of 
granite  and  trap.  It  is  the  second  largest  county  in  Scotland,  and  one  of 
the  most  thinly  peopled,  having  only  27  persons  to  each  square  mile. 
Surface  mountainous,  and  only  a  small  part  cultivated ;  catue  largely 
reared  for  exportation.  Inverary,  on  Loch  Fyne,  principally  supported 
by  its  herring-fishery.  Campbelton,  on  the  E.  coast  of  Cantyn,  with 
distilleries  and  malt-houses.  Dunoon,  a  fashionable  watering-place  on  the 
Oyde. 

Perth,  N.E.  of  ArgyH,  in  the  basins  of  the  Tay  and  Forth.— Chiefly 
metamorphic,  but  Devonian  and  coal  in  the  S.  and  E.  It  is  the  tlurd 
largest  county  in  Scotland ;  surface  extremely  diversified,  and  comprising 
both  a  highland  and  lowland  region ;  the  Grampian  range  traverses  it  in 
a  north-easterly  direction.  The  Carse  of  Gowne  is  very  fertile,  but  CMoly 
two-thirds  of  the  county  is  under  culture ;  agriculture  greatly  improved ; 
beautiful  scenery  and  large  plantations.  Minerals — coal,  limestone,  sand- 
stone, marble,  and  slate ;  and  lead  found  in  some  places ;  manufactures 
unimportant,  except  at  Perth.  Perth,  a  beautiful  city  on  the  Tay,  was 
the  capital  of  Scotland  till  1440  ;  had  the  royal  palace  of  Sixme  in  the 
vicinity :  it  is  very  ancient,  and  figures  prominently  in  Scottish  history. 
Crieff,  a  beautiful  little  town  near  the  foot  of  the  Grampians.  Anehtor- 
arder:  here  originated  the  famous  controversy  between  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  comlis,  which  led  to  the  dismemberment  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  in  1843. 

Forfar,  or  Angus,  E.  of  Perth,  in  the  basins  of  the  Tay,  South  Esk,  and 
North  Esk. — Nearly  all  Devonian,  but  metamorphic  in  the  N.W. ;  sur- 
face varied,  and  divided  into  four  parallel  belts—viz..  Braes  of  Angus, 
Vale  of  Strathmore,  Sidlaw  HiUs,  and  the  plain  along  the  Firth  of  Tay. 
Soil  various,  but  agriculture  in  a  highly  advanced  state.  Forfarshire  is 
the  chief  seat  of  the  coarse-linen  manufacture  of  Scotland.  Forfkr,  in 
the  fertile  valley  of  Strathmore,  is  the  nominal  capital.  Dundee,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Tay,  is  the  third  largest  town  in  Scotland,  and  the 
principal  seat  of  the  linen,  jute,  and  glove  manufacture ;  is  a  higUy- 
flourishing  town,  with  a  large  export  trade ;  in  1869,  2543  vessels,  of 
472,015  tons  burden,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  Arbroath,  also  called 
Aberbrothock,  from  its  position  on  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  Brothock 
—a  lai^ge  thriving  town,  with  numerous  manufactures.  Montrose  exports 
more  com  than  any  other  seaport  in  Scotland ;  numerous  manufactures ; 
the  birthplace  of  the  celebrated  Marquess  of  Montrose  and  of  Joseph 
Hume,  ^echin,  an  ancient  Episcopal  city,  with  an  old  cathedral ;  in  its 
vicinity  is  the  residence  of  the  Earl  of  Dalhousie. 

Kincardine,  or  the  Meams,  N.E.  of  Forfar,  between  the  N.  Esk  and 
the  Dee. — Devonian  in  the  S.  and  gneiss  in  the  N, ;  surface  highly  moun- 
tainous, being  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Grampians ;  but  the  **  How  of  tiie 
Meams,"  in  the  S.  and  E.,  is  a  low,  rich,  arable  tract.  The  mountuns 
yield  extensive  pasture  for  sheep,  and  about  half  of  the  county  is  under 
cultivation.  Granite  and  sandstone  are  the  principal  minerals ;  and  the 
chief  manufactures  are  coarse  linen  and  wooden  snuff-boxes.  Stone- 
haven,  a  small  town  between  the  rivers  Cowie  and  Carron,  has  a  herring- 
fishery,  and  some  manufactures  of  cotton  and  linen.  Near  it  is  Dimottar 
Castle,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Earls  Marischal,  and  celebrated  in 
Scottish  histor}'. 


\ 


153 


The  Tes  Noethekn  Couhties. 
Abbbdbek,  N.  of  Kincardine,  tmd  between  tha  Dee  and  Deveron. — 
Oranite  and  metBinorphic  rocka,  with  two  patcbBs  of  Sevanian  in  the  W. 
and  N. ;  sniface  very  iiiountaiiiou<  in  the  S.W,,  along  the  Orampians  ; 
the  rart  level  or  nndulating;  only  one-third  arable,  which  ia  under  the 
most  skilful  cnltivntion  ;  more  fat  cattle  reared  tb an  tn  any  DUiBrcaiuityiu 
Scotland.  The  county  is  espacislly  celebrated  fur  its  beautiful  granite, 
large  quantitiea  of  which  ara  shipped  to  London  ;  there  are  also  important 
■late  ^id  sandstone  qnarriea,  and  extenniTe  salinon-fisberiea.  Mannfac- 
turea  recently  very  flonriahing,  especially  woollen,  cotton,  and  linen,  but 
now  greatly  declined.  Balmoral  Castle,  the  Highland  residence  of  Qneeii 
Victoria,  on  the  river  Dee,  is  in  this  county.  AWdeen,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Dee  and  Don,  ia  the  fonrth  moat  populous  town  in  Scot- 
handsome  city,  bnilt  of  beautiful  Kiey-colonred  granite ;  is 
the  aeat  of  a  flourishing  nniv      


L  place  of  great  trade,  a 

— ' — ore  and  270  soho         .  ,  ,         -   , 

,  entered  and  cleared.  Peterhead,  a  thriving  town  on  the  north- 
eaat  coast,  near  Bucbanness,  the  most  easterly  point  in  Scotland;  has 
>n  important  herring-fisbery,  and  ia  the  great  emporinm  of  the  whale- 

Bauff,  N.W.  of  Aberdeen,  in  the  Moray  basin,  and  between  the  Deve- 
ron and  the  Spey. — Mainly  metamorpliic  rocks  ;  but  granite  in  the  Ji., 
and  Old  Bed  in  the  W.  ;  surface  mnnntamouB,  eicept  along  the  coast, 
where  it  is  level  and  moderately  fertile;  only  about  a  third  is  under  culti- 
vation; cattle-breeding  is  the  principal  branch  of  rural  industry ;  but  there 
are  important  fisheries  carried  on  ui  the  small  towna  and  villages  along 
the  coast.  The  principal  minerals  are  limestone  for  agricultural  purposes, 
ajid  ^nular  qnarti,  exported  from  the  Hill  of  Dum,  near  Portsoy,  to  the 
English  potteries.  Banff  and  Maeduff,  seaport  towns,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Deveron,  with  considerable  export  trade,     CoUen,  Bncbie,  a 


Ly  Firth,  withe! 


■ay,neat  little  towns  oc 

Keith,  the  birthplace  oi  .lames  rcrguson. 

HOOAT,  or  Elgin,  W.  of  BaniT,  in  the  Moray  basm,  between  the  Spev 
and  the  Kndhorn.~OId  Red  m  the  N..  which  is  highly  fossiliferons,  and 
gneiss  in  the  remainder ;  surface,  level  along  the  DrtlL  elsewhere  mouD- 
tainons ;  only  about  one-Hfth  under  cnltivation  ;  soil  a  deep  loam,  or 
light  and  sandy ;  very  fertile  in  the  N.,  and  biglily  cultivated  ;  fine  crops 
of  wheat  Sandstone  is  the  principal  mineral,  and  is  eitenaively  ex- 
ported; other  exports  are  grain,  cattle,  salmon,  and  timbef  from  the 
andent  forests  of  Strathspey  and  Damaway.  The  principal  manufac- 
tnres  are  woollens;  tanneries,  diatilleriea,  and  tilaworka  are  nnmerona. 
Xlgia,  on  the  Losaie,  about  live  miles  &om  its  seaport  (Lossiemouth),  has 
the  remains  of  a  beautifnl  cathedral,  erented  in  1224— one  of  the  finest 
ruins  In  Scotland.  Forres,  a  beantiful  little  town  near  the  Flndbom, 
with  enchanting  scenery;  celebrated  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth." 
■iomontll,  a  thriving  seaport  town  ;  here,  in  1B69,  a  vei7  rich 
yma  discovered,  with  traces  of  copper. 

NitRM,  W.  of  Moray,  in  the  ff 
Plndhora.— Old  Red  in  the  N.,  ( 
W.  Surface,  mostly  mgged  oni 
tivated ;  agricultni    ' 


le  hemng-fisheries. 


:h  vein  of  lead 


iray  basin.  Is  drained  by  the  Maim  and 
in  the  S, ,  and  some  granite  in  the 
ntainons,  but  nearly  one-half  cul- 
ate,  but  no  important  minerals  or 
I  mannfactiSea-  Haira,  an  antiquated-looking  little  town,  with  eiports  of 
I  fish,  stones,  grain,  and  timber;  near  it  Cawdot  Castle,  where,  acGordiog 
I  to  tradition,  King  Duncan  was  murdered. 


154  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Inverness,  S.W.  of  Nairn,  chiefly  in  the  Ness  or  Moray  basin,  is  the 
largest  county  in  Scotland ;  area,  4256  square  miles ;  population  88,888, 
being  21  persons  to  the  sq.  m. — Gneiss  and  mica  slate,  with  a  patcli  of 
Old  Ked  in  the  N.B.,  but  trap  and  Old  Ked  in  Skye;  surface  highly 
mountainous ;  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  Bntish  Isles  (4406 
feet),  is  in  the  S.W.  It  is  well  wooded,  and  a  chain  of  lakes,  connected 
by  the  Caledonian  Canal,  passes  through  the  centre.  Soil  light  and  un- 
productive, with  moie  than  one-half  wholly  waste ;  but  there  are  im- 
mense forests  where  the  red  and  roe  deer  roam  in  safety.  The  county  is 
chiefly  pastoral,  and  the  principal  exports  are  black  cattle,  sheep,  and 
wooL  Here  the  Celtic  language  and  character  are  still  found  in  their 
purest  forms.  Inverness,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ness,  and  near  the 
entrance  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  a  fine,  old,  romantic  town,  r^arded  as 
the  capital  of  the  Highlands,  and  the  most  populous  town  north  of  Aber- 
deen, with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  the  only  important 
town  in  Britain  in  which  the  Gaelic  language  is  usually  spoken  by  all 
classes  of  the  inhabitants.  Near  it,  Cnlloden  Moor,  where  the  preten- 
sions of  the  Stewart  dynasty  were  finally  extinguished  in  1746.  Fort 
G^rge,  the  most  complete  fortification  in  the  kingdom,  has  accommoda- 
tion for  2000  men. 

Ross,  N.  of  Inverness,  and  between  the  Moray  Firth  and  the  Minch. — 
Almost  wholly  metamorphic,  but  Old  Bed  along  the  two  coasts ;  surface 
very  mountainous,  and  only  one-fifth  arable ;  fertile  on  the  Moray  Firth, 
producing  excellent  wheat,  but  the  main  portion  is  pastoral;  exports 
chiefly  sheep  and  wool.  Dingwall,  an  antique-looking  little  town  at  the 
head  of  the  C*romarty  Firth;  near  it,  Strathpeffer,  with  highly  medicinal 
chalybeate  and  sulphurous  springs,  resembling  those  of  Harrogate,  and 
frequented  by  a  large  number  of  invalids.  Tain,  a  neat  thriving  town 
on  the  Dornoch  Firth,  and  the  most  important  between  Inverness  and 
Wick. 

Cromarty  consists  of  fourteen  detached  portions,  scattered  over  the 
northern  half  of  Ross-shire.  This  singular  arrangement  into  patches  was 
formed  at  the  request  of  a  former  Earl  of  Croinuarty,  who  desired  that 
one  county  might  contain  all  his  lands,  wherever  situated.  Its  geologv, 
drainage,  soil,  &c.,  same  as  Ross.  The  Cromarty  Firth  is  completely 
land-locked,  and  affords  excellent  shelter  for  shipping.  Cromarty,  at  the 
entrance  of  Cromarty  Firth,  is  irregularly  built,  and  of  antique  appear- 
ance ;  the  birthplace  of  Hugh  Miller,  who  commenced  here  his  iUusmous 
geological  career. 

Sutherland,  N.  of  Ross,  and  between  the  Moray  Firth  and  the  At- 
lantic.— Nearly  all  transition  and  Silurian  rocks,  with  a  little  Old  Red  in 
N.W.  and  S.E.,  and  an  oolitic  patch  at  Brora  ;  surface  wild  and  moun- 
tainous ;  scenery  in  many  places  singularly  grand,  and  containing  many 
lakes,  which  discharge  their  waters  in  three  directions.  The  interior 
wholly  depopulated,  this  being  the  centre  of  the  far-famed  Highland 
clearances,  vrtiich  commenced  in  1807,  and  were  repeated  at  various  in- 
tervals. A  vast  number  of  the  inhabitants  have  been  expatriated,  and 
the  remainder  reside  in  villages  and  hamlets  along  the  coast,  where  they 
support  themselves  mainly  by  fishing.  The  interior  is  now  let  out  into 
immense  sheep-farms,  which  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  English  capi- 
talists ;  about  220,000  sheep  are  exported  annually.  Dornoch,  on  tne 
Dornoch  Firth,  opposite  Tain,  is  a  mere  village,  and  the  smallest  county 
town  in  the  British  Isles— population,  625.  Gol8lt>ie,  a  beautiftd  village  on 
the  east  coast,  with  Dunrobin  Castle,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  Earls 
of  Sutherland,  in  the  vicinity. 


r 


w 


K 


liighly  fosaiMerana  in  majif  parts, 
leru  pntohes  of  granite ;  snrfacB 
TBI,  aBsutnw  01  trees,  aua  unmiereating ;  soil  Tarions,  a  lai^  portion 
being  hoath-coTOrad  moors,  and  onlyoue-foiirtli  nnJBreiiltirBtioii.  Many 
good  roadfi  and  piers  have  been  recently  conatrueted  for  t^e  acoonunoda- 
tion  of  the  numerous  tishing  villages  and  liamlsts  on  tlie  east  coast. 
Abmrt  200,000  barrels  of  aalted  herrings  are  exporWd  annually;  other 
exports  are  salmon,  oata,  and  flagstones  for  paring.  This  county  was,  in 
tlie  middle  ages,  bsld  by  the  kings  of  Norway ;  most  of  its  inbabitants 
are  of  Scandinavian  descent,  and  speak  a  peculiar  dialect  of  the  Lowland 
Scotch,  coaBidBiably  resembling  that  of  Orkney.  Tick,  including  Pnl- 
WnsTtDWD  wliicli  is  twice  ita  size,  is  a  flauTiabing  town  on  the  east  coast, 
with  an  ImmnnsB  pier  and  breakwater  now  in  couns  of  erection.  Fortlie 
last  halt-century  it  has  been  the  lieadquartera  of  the  Scottish  herring- 
tohery.  Upwards  of  1000  boats  are  here  employed,  chiefly  manned  by 
■■WeWem  Highlanders,  who  in  the  month  of  July  congregate  here  in  vast 
■~      '  Here  are  two  spirited  weekly  newspapers,  and  a  rapidly- 

eiport  trade,   conaiating  chielfy  of  herringa  to   the  Baltic. 

^ beautiful  little  town  on  the  Pentlanif  Firth,  and  the  most 

northerly  on  the  mainland  of  Scotland  Its  position  is  nnfavonrable  to 
its  proaperity  as  a  fishing-town,  being  exroeed  to  the  north,  and  the  rapid 
dangerous  ciurent  of  the  Pentland  Firth,  across  which  the  Orkneys  are 
Ken  in  all  their  bold  grandeur. 

Ohkbet  and  Shetlake  form  an  insular  coonty  N.E.  of  the  mainland. 
The  former  conaiata  of  an  archipelago  of  67  islands  and  ialeta,  the 
piindpal  of  which  are  Pomona,  Seutli  and  Xorth  Ronaldsha,  Hoy, 
Sanda,  Eowea,  and  Weatra ;  shores  bold,  the  interior  generally  undulat- 
iag;  dimatemild;  little  snowfalls  in  winter,  but  the  summers  chill  and 
moist  Geological  atmcture :  wholly  Devonian ;  soil  good,  but  agricnl- 
tnra  vary  backwaid ;  many  of  the  people  employed  In  fishii^t,  or  in 
taking  wild  birda  and  ezga  :  great  quantities  of  lobsters  are  shipped  to 
tha  London  market.  The  Orcadians  are  expert  seamen,  and  many  of 
them  are  engaged  in  the  Greenland  whale  fishery.  Shetland,  48  miles 
N.E.  of  Orkney,  consists  of  an  archipelago  of  about  90  islanda  and  islets, 
of  which  only  26  are  inhabited.  Mainland,  the  largest  island,  contains 
one-half  the  whole  area,  and  more  than  a  half  of  the  population.  The 
next  largest  are  Yell  and  Unst,  the  latter  being  the  most  northern  island 
in  the  British  archipelago  (lat.  fiO°  60"  N.)— Devonian  in  the  3. ;  all  the 
reat  gnHiss,  with  lai^e  patches  of  trap  and  granite ;  climate  rnild,  but 
■very  dainp  and  variable ;  surface  generally  monntainoua,  covered  with 
heath,  and  deatitnte  of  trees :  a  considerable  quantity  of  tolerable  land 
haa  been  made  by  long  culture.  The  Shetland  ponies  are  remarkable  for 
their  small  size  and  hardihood,  and  are  largely  exported ;  other  exports 
■re  ling,  task,  and  cod.  The  only  native  manufacture  is  knitted  hosiery ; 
■nd  tbs  only  mineral  of  importance  is  chromata  of  iron,  which  is  ei* 
ported  for  a  pigment.  Tlie  people  of  both  archipelagos  are  of  Norss 
erttaotioii.  Their  language  is  now  English,  but  indubitable  traces  of 
their  Scandinavian  origin  are  found  in  their  namea,  manners,  customs, 
ropentitions,  language,  and  antiquities.  They  became  subject  to  Norway 
in.  the  ninth  century,  embraced  Christianity  in  the  thirteenth,  and  were 
I  lumexed  to  the  Scottish  crown  in  1468.  Kirkwall,  the  capiljil  of  the 
V  Orkneys  and  of  the  county  above  named,  on  a  bay  on  the  N.E.  side  of 
~         a,  with  an  ancient  cathedral  named  St  Magnus  (built  11371,  and 


156  POUTICAL  OEOGRAPHT. 

some  manufactures  of  linen.  Lerwick,  the  priucipal  town  in  Shetland, 
on  the  S.E.  of  Mainland,  is  the  most  northern  town  in  the  British 
Isles;  has  manufactures  of  straw-plait,  and  whale,  cod,  and  herring 
fisheries. 

Capes  and  Promontories. — St  AbVs  Head,  iu  Berwickshire; 
Fifeness,  E.  of  Fife  ;  Buchanness  (Aberdeenshire),  the  most  £.  point 
of  the  mainland  of  Scotland ;  Kinnaird  Head,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Moray  Firth  ;  Tarbetness,  the  £.  extremity  of  Ross ;  Noss  Head, 
and  Duncansby  Head,  £.  of  Caithness ;  Dunnet  Head,  the  most 
IT.  point  of  the  mainland ;  Oldhead  and  Dennis  Head,  the  S.  and  N. 
extremities  of  Orkney  ;  Sumburgh  Head,  S.  of  Shetland ;  Her^ 
maness,  N.  of  Shetland,  the  most  northern  point  in  the  British 
archipelago ;  Cape  Wrath,  N.  of  Sutherland ;  Butt  of  Lewis,  N.  of 
the  Hebrides ;  Aird  Point,  N.  of  Skye ;  Point  of  Ardnamorchan 
(Argyll),  the  most  western  point  of  Great  Britain ;  Mull  of  Cantyre, 
S.  of  Argyll ;  Mull  of  Galloway  and  Burrow  Head,  S.  of  Wigtown. 

Islands. — The  islands  are  very  numerous,  especially  on  the  north 
and  west  coasts,  and  are  naturally  divided  into  three  groups : — 

On  the  North  Coast.— The  Orkneys,  N.E.  of  Caithness:  principal, 
Pomona  and  Hoy.  The  Shetlanda,  N.E.  of  the  Orkneys :  principal. 
Mainland,  Yell,  Fetlar,  and  Unst.  On  the  West  Coast.— The  Hebrides  or 
Western  Islands,  160  in  number,  of  which  70  are  inhabited,  and  divided 
into  two  clusters,  the  Outer  and  Inner  Hebrides,  which  are  separated  by 
the  Little  Minch.  The  Outer  Hebrides,  called  also  Long  Island,  lie  W. 
of  Sutherland  and  Ross :  the  principal  are,  Lewis,  the  largest  island  in 
Scotland ;  N.  Uist,  Benbecula,  S.  Uist,  and  Barra.  The  Inner  Hebrides : 
principal,  Skye,  Mull,  lona.  Jura,  and  Islay.  Arran,  Bute,  and  the 
Cumbraes,  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  On  the  East  Coast. — May,  Inchkeith, 
luchcolm,  in  the  F.  of  Forth ;  Inchcape,  or  the  Bell  Rock,  off  the  en- 
trance of  the  F.  of  Tay ;  Stroma,  bet.  Caithness  and  Orkney ;  Fair  Island, 
bet.  Orkney  and  Shetland. 

Bays  and  Estuaries. — These  are  also  numerous,  and  generally 
penetrate  far  into  the  mainland,  in  a  N.E.  and  S.W.  direction. 
Those  on  the  east  side  are  called  firths  (from  Scandinavian  fiord, 
pronounced  "  fiurth  "),  those  on  the  W.,  lochs,  corresponding  to  the 
loughs  of  Ireland.     The  principal  are : — 

F.  of  Forth,  bet.  the  Lothians  and  Fife ;  St  Andrews  Bay,  N.E.  of 
Fife ;  F.  of  Tay,  bet.  Fife  and  Forfar ;  Moray  F.  in  the  N.E.  of  Scot- 
land, 75  m.  wide,  bet.  Kinnaird  Head  and  Duncansby  Head  (its  main 
parts  are,  Beauly^F.,  bet.  Inverness  and  Ross ;  Cromarty  F.,  bet.  Ross 
and  Cromarty;  jDomoch  F.,  bet.  Ross  and  Sutherland);  Pentland  F., 
bet.  Caithness  and  Orkney;  Thurso  Bay,  N.  of  Caithness;  Kyle  of 
Tongue  and  Loch  Eribol,  N.  of  Sutherland;  Loch  Laxford  and  Loch 
Enard,  W.  of  Sutherland;  Lochs  Broom,  Greinord,  Ewe,  Gairloch. 
Torridon,  Carron,  and  Alsh,  W.  of  Ross ;  Sleat  Sound,  bet.  Inverness  and 
Skye ;  Loch  Houm,  in  W.  of  Inverness ;  Sound  of  Raasay,  bet,  Skye  and 
Raasay ;  Lochs  Snizort  and  Bracadale,  in  W.  of  Skye ;  Sound  of  Harris,  bet. 
Harris  and  N.  Uist ;  Loch  Sunart  and  Sound  of  Mull,  bet.  Mull  and  the 
mainland ;  Lochs  Iannh€  and  Eil,  forming  the  W.  entrance  to  the  Cale- 
donian Canal ;  Loch  Etive  and  Soimd  of  Jura,  W.  of  Argyll ;  Kilbrannan 
Sound,  bet.  Cantyre  and  Arran ;  Loch  Fyne,  in  S.  of  Argyll ;  Sound  of  BatOi 


r 


SCOTLAND.  157 

bet.  Artan  and  Bute  j  Locli  Long,  btt.  Argyll  nnil  Dmiiliarton:  Firth  of 
Cljde,  eeparating  Amui,  Biil«,  and  Dumbarton  tram  Ayr  and  ftcnfitw  ; 
Loch  Eyan,  Luce  Bay,  and  Wietowii  Buy,  in  Wigtowmhird ;  Solway  F., 
bet.  the  S.W.  of  Scotland  and  the  N.W.  of  England ;  the  Minch,  het.  Uia 
Mainland  and  Lewis  ;  Little  Miiicb,  bet  Skye  and  Long  laland ;  Sound  of 
Islay,  bet.  Islay  and  Jura ;  North  Cbannal,  bet.  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

UDDntRln  BrBtem. — Scotland  is  a  liighly-moDntainous  country, 
there  beia^  few  or  no  localities  where  motiutaiii-rangea  do  not  limit 
the  observer's  view  in  one  or  more  directions,  Proceedlaa;  from  N. 
to  S.,  wa  find  five  principal  ranges,  all  of  which  arc  near^'  pamUal 
to  each  other,  and  follow  the  general  direction  of  N.E.  and  S.W,, 
similar  to  the  principal  estneries. 

Tlie  Vortlieiil  Eig'llluidi,  consieting  of  detached  groups  that  com- 
mence at  the  southern  border  if  Csitbneaa,  and  cover  a  lane  portion  of 
Sutherland,  Boea,  and  Inverness,  separate  the  waters  which  now  into  the 
Moray  Firth  troia  those  that  find  their  way  to  the  Atlantic.  The  prin- 
cipal auminiCs  are:  Ben  Attow,  between  Bo«a  and  Inremesa,  4000  feet; 
Ben  Wyvis,  near  Dingwall,  3422  feet ;  Ben  Dearg,  near  head  of  Luch 
Broom.  3551  feet :  Ben  More,  in  Asajnt,  3281  feet ;  Ben  Cllberieh,  8.  iif 
Loch  Nayer.  Sutherland,  3157  feet;  Morven,  in  9.E.  of  CiitluieiB,  2831 
feet. 

The  Oramplans,  the  loftiest  monnCaina  In  the  British  Isles,  croai  the 
conntry  in  its  widest  part.  They  separate,  for  the  most  part,  the  Hiih- 
lands  from  the  Lowlands,  and  the  basins  of  the  Spey  and  Dee  from  tuat 
of  the  Tay  on  the  east  aide,  and  the  great  vaUey  of  Glenmora  and  the 
Olyde  basin  on  the  west.  Length,  from  StonehBven  to  Loch  Llnnhf, 
■boot  100  mites,  the  height  ranging  from  2000  feet  to  npwards  of  4000 
feet.  Ben  Ketis,  at  the  western  eitramity,  4106  feet  high,  is  the  cnlmln- 
■ting-point  of  the  British  Isles.  The  main  range  send*  on  two  great  later*! 
bnncbea,  odb  \a  the  N.  from  the  middle  of  the  range,  which  soon  bifnr- 
cataa  and  eneloses  a  Urge  portion  of  Banffshire ;  and  the  other  to  the  8. 
r  Loch  BuiDooh,  in  Perthshire,  to  the  isthmus  of  Cowal  in 


AkjIL  PriDcipal  summits:  Ben  Kevia,*  In  the  S.W.  of  Inve 
MMftet;  Loch-ntesr,  tn  AbeideeDshire.  3777  feet ;  Ben  Haedni.ui  ins 
8LW.orAbenlecDibln^4295fMjCe{nigorm,in  BanftaMre,  40BS;  Ben 
Atod,  bet.  Banff  and  Aberdeen,  3626  feet :  Curntoul,  near  Ben  Avon, 
^a  bet ;  Beo  l^weii,  3M4,  and  Sebieballion,  SM4  feet,  in  Perthshire ; 
&BLoB«id,iiiBtiilinb31B21eeti  ficDCnuehan,  in  Argyll,  .1070  ftst.. 
OAQ  Bid  Bdlaw  BaMga,  pacallel  with  the  Gramjrians,  and  Hpanted 
fiOM  than  t»  tlw  vaDey  of  Stnthinin:&^  eonsiits  M  three  small  eha^is. 
vUek  exlend  acniie  the  eonntty  &om  yoffanhiie  to  Stiriinc^iin,  and 
iorm  tkeK.  mter-paitii«  of  the  l^y.  Forth,  and  ayda  bariua.    1^  8id- 

'—  "—-  -^-'  ^- ^-  -* —  "~  *-  '— tasblni,  to  Perth  on  tba  Tay, 

_ , „ sit,  the  Kinaseat,  bring  only 

UeSfatU^    The  Oeiili^  brtweso  Stirlins  and Uw  r.  of  1W,  att^, 
'-  °v  OtA^  eknliaB  of  8300  be^  and  the  Camfn*  Fdit,  in  8tit- 


■aSXiliri   li  t»>eiii|il»att«Ml|y»ah— w.    TIims  iHi»i  laifcii  has 


158 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


of  the  following  members :  the  Lammennxxyr  HilUj  between  Haddington 
and  Berwick— highest  summit,  1763  feet ;  the  Moorfoot  UUU,  a  W.  con- 
tinuation of  the  Lammermoors,  2130  feet ;  the  Pentland  ffilh,  in  Mid- 
Lothian,  1806  feet ;  and  Tinto  Hill,  in  Lanarkshire,  2308  feet. 

The  Cheviot  and  Lowther  Baiige  extends  from  Peel  Fell  in  the 
Cheviots  proper  (for  which  see  "England,"  p.  135),  to  Loch  Ryan  in 
Wigtownsnire,  and  forms  the  great  water-partmg  of  the  S.  of  Scotland, 
separating  the  basins  of  the  Clyde  and  Tweed  on  the  N.  from  those  of 
the  Solway  and  Tyno  on  the  S.  Tlie  highest  summits  of  this  range  are : 
Cheviot  Peak,  2668  feet,  Carter  Fell,  2020  feet,  in  Northumberland; 
Ettrick  Pen,  in  Selkirk,  2200  feet ;  Hart  Fell,  in  Dumfries,  2638  feet ; 
Broad  Law,  in  Peebles,  2741  feet ;  Lowther  Hill,  in  Lanark,  2522  feet ; 
Mt.  Merrick,  2764,  and  Black  Larg,  2890  feet,  both  in  Kirkcudbright. 

BlYer-Baslns. — ^As  the  mountain-ranges  in  Scotland  stretch  from 
N.E.  to  S.  W.,  so  the  intervening  river-basins,  in  their  greatest  length 
and  inclination,  follow  the  same  direction.  The  eight  most  impor- 
tant basins  are  those  of  the  Tay  (2090  sq.  m.),  Tweed  and  Solway 
(1990),  Forth  (1400),  Dee  and  Don  (1230),  Spey  (1245),  Clyde  (1145), 
Linnhe  basin  (1200),  Moray  basin  (about  5000). 

Three  of  the  eight  basins  lie  N.  of  the  Grampian  chain — viz.,  the  Moray 
basin,  and  the  basin  of  the  Dee  and  Don  (tne  waters  of  which  nearly 
unite),  on  the  E.  side,  and  the  Linnhe  basin  on  the  W. ;  and  their  united 
areas  comprise  almost  the  whole  of  the  district  known  as  the  Scottish 
Highlands.  Immediately  S.  of  them  lie  the  basins  of  the  Tay  and  Forth 
on.  the  E.  side,  and  that  of  the  Clyde  on  the  W.  ;  these  touch  each  other, 
and  are  separated  from  the  former  three  by  the  Grampian  cliain,  and 
from  the  Tweed  and  the  Solway  basins  by  the  Lammermoor  and  Lowther 
ranges  :  they  are  fertile  and  highly  cultivated ;  contain  most  of  the  large 
towns,  and  many  rich  mines  of  coal,  ironstone,  and  other  valuable  mine- 
rals ;  and  have  been  called  respectively  the  garden,  the  granary,  and  the 
workshop  of  Scotland.  The  first  is  separated  from  the  second  by  the 
Ocliil  Hills,  and  the  second  from  the  third  by  the  Campsie  FeUs.  Tlie 
basins  of  the  Tweed  and  Solway  constitute  the  Southern  Highlands,  and 
form  an  excellent  pastoral  country.  They  are  separated  from  England 
by  the  Cheviot  range,  and  from  each  other  by  the  Lowthers ;  while  the 
Tweed  basin  is  separated  from  the  Forth  by  the  Lammermoor  Hills,  and 
the  Solway  basin  from  that  of  the  Clyde  by  the  Lowther  range. 

^  Table  of  BlYers  and  Towns.—  For  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the 
following  table,  compare  what  is  said  under  "England,"  the  only 
difference  being  that  here  large  towns,  or  those  printed  in  Roman 
letters,  denote  those  having  2500  inhabitants  or  upwards ;  county 
towns  are  in  small  capitals,  and  all  others  in  italics.  One  hun- 
dred rivers  are  here  enumerated,  33  of  which  enter  the  ocean  directly, 
the  remainder  being  their  tributaries  ;  and  300  towns,  one-third  of 
which  have  a  population  exceeding  2500. 

Basins  inclined  to  the  North  Sea, 


Rivers.  Tovms. 

Tweed Berwick  (England),  Cold- 
stream,   Kelso,   Earl- 
ston,  n^,  Melrose,  In- 
nerleitnent  Peebles. 
Whiteadder,  I  Duuse. 


Rivers,  Totons. 

B I  a  c  kad- Oreeitla  w. 
der, 
Teviot, Kelso,  Hawick,  WiUon, 

J  ed, Jedburgh. 

Leader,  I  . ,  Lauder. 


to  Ilie  Xortb  Sea  (coi 


...Utrrtli  hirwick,  Cocttn- 
tit,  Tnmmt,  n..  Prti- 
tonjunu.  Mnsnlbureb. 
Portobeilo,  IjglCli,  &>- 
iHBtmaH,  XnihaMn, 
eHueatfiny,  Bo'nesB, 
entUKiiwnU,  all  8.  ol 
the  SMh;  CTOil,  Av- 
■tnitJtfr,  St  JTmuhui, 

.DuortKlrltcitdT, 
Viiijlorn,  BnralU- 


:,  AUi 


a 


..L«veii,Vnrl 


ti.  HUnathort. 
..  ,.i,oengeuii. 

. .  .MaiMlbargh.     Dalkallh, 
Loanhead,  Pmieuick. 

. . . .  Dunrermllne,  Croi^fateg, 
CotcdentKoih^  a.,  Oak- 

...LuiLiTuoov.    Batligite, 
Armad^e,  Cmfllimd, 

....OonannDiiiA,  Carran. 
Stenlunaemuir,    Lau- 

Dimipace, 


Aberfetiy. 


Rathven,  Anchtenrder. 
Aluidnd,  ^, .  -  if  0£AHfl- 
Inls.  1 Covper-AnifM. 

Erioht, .  ..BlsJrgowtle,  Jio«ray. 


cbbi,  SouUinuir, ... 
....Xaryiirt. 
I . ..Lathrrmvir,    Lanronce- 


huB^aa 


d,  Srichin,  Pit- 


I.  Banff,  PorOm,  Cullen.  Bqcl 
fuiAafiirji.JtaUu.Ur. 


Findhora Fomw,  n. 

flenuly   Fi'rtii  Fort  Oeorm.jBmft, For. 
andK.NcM,     Irote,  Bxiuly,  IsveR- 

Cromarty  F.,  C 

,ij^  Mtirybvry, 

lather-  Gol^ie,  Htlmldatt. 

Caitli-  Lybitsr,  Wick. 


160 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUy. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Atlantie  (continued). 


Rivers.  Towns, 

KilbrannanSdCampbelton,  Tarhert^ 
and  L.  Fyne,    Lochgilphead^    Inver- 

ART. 

Clyde,  F.  and  MiUport    (C  n  m  b  r  a  e), 
B.,  RoTHESAT(BateX  Ayr, 

Troon,  Irvine,  Salt- 
coats, Ardrossan,  Largs, 
Dunoon,  Oourock, 
Greenock,  Helens- 
burgh, Port-Glasgow, 
Dumbarton,  Dun- 
tocher /Re^xvuew,  Glas- 
gow, ShettlesUm,  Toll- 
cross,  Springhum,  Ru- 
therglen,  Bellshill, 
BothweUfHolytoum,  n. . 
Low  Blantyre,  Hamil- 
ton, Motherwell,  n., 
Carluke,  n.,  Kirkfield- 
bank,  Lanark,  New 
Lanark. 

Doon,  { Ayr,  n. ,  DalmelUngton. 

Ayr,  I Ayr,  Tarbolton,Katrine, 

Muirkirk,  Cumnock. 

Liigar,  I . .  Auchifdeck. 
Ir\-ine,  i..  ..Irvine,  Ealinton,  Hurt- 
ford,  Kilmarnock,  Kil- 
maurs,  Galston,   New 
Mills,  Darvel. 

Gamock,..Kilwinning,  Dairy,  Pees- 
weep,  Eilbirnie. 

Annock, . .  Stewarton. 

Cessnock,  Mauchline. 

Renton, 


Rivers.  TownM, 

Cart,  I Renfrew,  Paisley,  JTitt- 

hiU,  Pollockshaws, 
Bumy,Eagleshaim. 
B  1  a  c  k£r.  <^wevr,  Linwood, 
Cart,  I,      Jonn8tone,Kilbarc]ian, 
Loehwinnoch,  Beith. 
Ley  em,  I..  T?iomHelHtnk,  n.,  Barr- 
head, NeiUion. 
Kelvin,  I.... Kirkintilloch,      Kilsyth, 

Cumbernauld,  n. 
W.  Calder, . .  Colder,  Calderbank,  Air- 

drie,  Coatbridge. 
E.  Calder,  ..Wishaw,  Caanbtunethanf 
CoUness,  n.,  Shotts. 

Avon,  I Hamilton,  Stmtiiaven. 

Nethan,  I. . .  Lesmahago. 
Douglas,  I . .  Douglas. 

Girvan, Girvan,  CrosshUl,   Ifay- 

bole. 
Loch  Ryan,. . . Stranraer. 
W.   Co.  Wig-  Port-Patriek,  Olenluee. 

town, 
Wigtown  Bay,  Whithorn,  Wigtown, 
.  Creetown. 

Cree, Newton-Stewart. 

Fleet, Gatehouse. 

Dee  (Solway  Kirkoudbrioht,  Cattle* 
F.),  Douglas, 

Ken,  I Dairy. 

Urr  (do. ), Dalbeattie. 

Nith(SolwayX  MaxweIltown,DuiaraiEB, 

ThomhiU,  Cumnock. 
Annan  (do.),  ..Annan,     Eeel^echan, 
Loekerby,  n.,  Loehma- 
ben,  Moffat. 


Leven, Dumbarton, 

Alexandria,  BouhiU. 

Lalces. — With  the  exception  of  Switzerland,  there  is  no  country  in 
Europe  more  remarkable  for  its  lakes  than  Scotland.  They  are  in 
general  very  small  in  size,  as  the  deep  inlets  of  the  ocean  prevent  any 
great  collection  of  inland  waters ;  but  they  are  celebrated  for  their 
beauty  and  wild  grandeur.  Loch  Lomond,  the  largest  of  them,  21 
miles  long,  54  broad,  and  with  an  area  of  40  square  miles,  is  justly 
famed  for  its  splendid  scenery.  Arranged  in  the  order  of  the  river- 
basins  in  which  they  are  situated,  they  are  easily  remembered. 

Tweed  Basin— <S><  Mary*8  IjocK^  in  Selkirkshire,  drained  by  the  Yarrow. 
Forth —ZocA  .4  rrf,  in  Perthshire,  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Forth ;  l^tk 
Leven,  in  Kinross,  drained  by  the  Leven  *  and  Lochs  Vennachar,  Ackraji, 
Kairine,  Lttinaig,  and  Voil,  all  drained  by  the  Teitt.  Tay — Lochs  Dock- 
art  and  Tay,  in  Perthshire,  at  the  source  of  the  Tay  ;  Loch  Earn,  at  tiie 
source  of  the  Earn ;  and  Lochs  TutiitmI,  Rannoch,  Ertcht,  Lydoch,  drained 
by  the  Tummel.  Ness — Ness,  Oich,  Garry,  and  ^uovik,  in  Inverness. 
Qonaxi^QUiss,  JjuichaH,  Fannich,  in  Ross.  Oykill — Loch  Shin,  18  miles 
long,  in  Sutherland.  Naver— XocA  Naver,  in  SutherLmd.  Ewe — LoA 
Maxee,  in  Ross.  Moidart — Shiel,  Inverness  and  ArgylL  Linnh€  and 
Spean  Basin — Lochy,  Arkaig,  and  Laggan,  in  Inverness ;  and  Lochs  Awe 
and  Avich,  in  Argyll^  drained  by  the  Awe.  Clyde— XocA  Lomond^  drained 
by  the  lioven. 


SCOTLAND.  161 

Intamal  CommimleaticiiL — Scotlund,  1>ei]ig  a  Iiiglily-iuoui^tninoui 
Cdtilitr;,  cuQ  nercr  vie  icith  the  sister  kingdom  in  the  extent  or  com- 
pleteiidSS  of  her  intemul  comm^micstioii ;  yet  hsr  noble  firtha  anil 
eataaries,  which  indent  the  coast  in  oil  directions,  give  her  important 
natural  ?dTBBtages  ;  while  her  turnpike  roade,  ciinala,  and  railwsja, 
abondantly  attest  the  energy  and  public  spirit  of  her  sons. 

HAlLWita. — Within  the  last  ten  jbhts  raUway  communication  in  Scot- 
land has  made  eitraorfiuary  progreaa.  Tn  IffiS  the  nnmber  of  milen 
open  for  tnfflcwaa  1342;  in  1861  it  was  2105;  while  In  1874  it  amoanted 
to  261S.  In  1359  few  railways  existed  bsjond  the  central  couuties,  or 
the  baahia  of  tte  Forth,  Clyde,  and  Tay ;  bnt  they  ara  now  numer- 
oua  in  the  south  of  Sratland ;  while  in  the  northern  counties  they 
pwietrate  to  the  eitrorae  confines  of  the  mainland — Wick  and  Thnrso 
being  now  the  tenninL  In  north-weslem  ScoClimd  the  only  linea 
yet  constructed  are  from  CaUaader  to  Ohau,  and  from  Dingwall  la 

iCASAtS.  — The jiriucipal  are  the  following:  Caledrmiaa  Canal,  be- 
tween the  Beauly  Pirth  and  Loch  Linnhri,  connects  the  Moray  Filth  with 
the  Atlantic ;  total  length,  60  miles— but  only  23  miles  required  to  ba 
aiecnted,  as  the  canal  passes  through  Lochs  Ness,  Oich,  and  Lochy,  and 
tonDumtes  in  Loch  Eil,  an  arm  of  the  sea.  Inremesa  stands  near  the  ona 
aitramity,  and  Fort  WilUam  near  tlis  other.  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal, 
iTom  Glasgow  to  GraQRemouth  in  Stirling,  unites  the  Irish  with  the 
North  Sea  ;  length,  35  miles ;  finished  in  1700,  and  extended  frum  near 
Falkirk  to  Edinbu:^h  by  the  Uuion  Caiuil,  finished  in  1822,  and  31  niilea 
long.  FaiiUg  Canal,  from  Glasgow,  throngh  Paisley,  to  Johnstone  in 
Renftew;  length,  11  miles.  MojiilaTid  Canal,  between  Glasgow  and 
Aiidrie ;  12  miles.  Crinan  Ca-Mtl,  across  the  isthmus  oC  Canl^re,  con- 
nects Loch  Fyne  with  the  Sound  of  Jura,  f)  miles.  The  total  length  of 
canal  communication  in  Scotland  is  225  milea. 

TuRDPlKB  Bouis. — In  consequence  of  the  eicellent  materials  forroad- 
making  which  everywhere  abound,  and  the  skill  and  science  of  Scottish 
troatees  and  aurveyors,  the  turnpike  roads  of  Scotland  are  unequalled  by 
those  o(  any  other  conntry.  In  1829  there  were  3666  miles  open,  and 
the  nnmber  has  been  since  largely  inoreaaeiL 


and  r^ecting;  in  their  habits  frugal,  industrious,  and  persevermg;  pro- 
Tidence,  honeslr,  and  extreme  caution  are  amoog  their  most  distinguish- 
ing traits  of  chaiacter.  They  do  not  readily  associate,  and  far  leas 
amalgamate,  with  foreigners,  but  will  spare  uo  amount  of  labour  and 
aelt-denial  to  promote  the  welfare  of  their  fellow-countrymen.  They  are 
eminently  reUgiaus,  deeply  attached  to  the  Pi-esbyterion  form  of 
Church  goveniment,  and  stroiwly  avereo  to  Roman  (Stthulicism.  The 
aimals  of  no  other  nation  can  sliow  such  a  resolute  determination  in  de- 
fence of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  The  Hcly  Scriptures  are  daily  read 
in  all  the  common  sSiDoIa,  and  the  poorest  peasaot  can  generally  read 
and  understand  them.  The  great  and  saving  truths  of  the  Hible  aio 
(amiliarto  almost  every  one,  and  the  divine  code  of  moral  law  is  ob- 
■erred  by  all  clBSBes  of  the  community.  The  Lord's  Day  ia  universally  a 
dl7  of  rest  and  religions  observance;  while  life  and  property  ore  s^er 
**—  ~  any  other  country, 

Utraitai& — Scotland,  though  far  from  being  a.a  opulent  country. 


162  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  thongli  her  seats  of  leamine  are  poorly  endowed,  has  produced 
a  cluster  of  names  in  all  branches  of  science,  philosophjr,  and  art, 
that  reflect  on  her  the  highest  hononr.  The  following  are  a  fcfw  of 
her  most  eminent  names : — Poetry  :  Oasian,  Buchanan,  Gawin 
Douglas,  Dmmmond,  Dunbar,  Lyndsay,  Kamsay,  Tannahill,  Hao- 
neill,  Tennant,  Hogg,  Robert  Bums,  Thomson,  Beattie,  Scott, 
Campbell,  Pollok,  J/Montgomery,  Profl  Wilson,  Alexander  Smith. 
History  :  Buchanan,  Burnet,  Hume,  Robertson,  Henry,  Rnasellt 
Watson,  Scott,  Mackintosh,  Alison,  Carlyle.  Physical  Sgisnge  : 
Napier,  Ferguson,  Gregory,  Watt,  Telford,  Rennie,  Playfair,  Madau- 
rin,  Leslie,  J.  Hutton,  Black,  Sir  David  Brewster,  Robert'  Brown, 
Hugh  Miller,  John  Fleming,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  and  Sir  Rode- 
rick I.  Murchison.  Mental  Philosophy:  Keid,  Hume,  Karnes, 
Stewart,  Brown,  Mackintosh,  Adam  Smith,  and  Sir  W.  Hamilton. 
Theolooy  :  Knox,  Leighton,  Burnet,  Boston,  Madaurin,  Macknight, 
Campbell,  Gerard,  Brown  of  Haddington,  Halybnrton,  Witherspoon, 
M'Crie,  and  Thomas  Chalmers.  Medicikb:  Pitcaim,  Munro,  Gre- 
gory, Cullen,  Abercrombie,  W.  Hunter,  BaiUie,  Alison,  Christison, 
A.  Combe,  Abemethy,  J.  Hunter,  John  Bell,  Sir  Charles  Bell,  Sir 
James  Clark,  Sir  Johin  Forbes,  Listen,  Lizars,  Syme,  Miller,  and  Sir 
James  Y.  Simpson.  Tkayels  :  Bruce,  Park,  Clapperton,  Simpson, 
Sir  J.  Ross,  Dr  Livingstone,  and  Captain  Grant.  Fine  Ajeltb  : 
Wilkie,  Nasmyth,  Raebum,  Ramsay,  Jameson,  Sir  J.  N.  Patom. 
Miscellaneous  :  Ruddiman,  BosweU,  Smollett,  Mackenzie,  Adam, 
Blair,  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  Prof.  Wilson,  Sir  W.  Scott,  C.  P.  Smyth. 


IRELAND. 

PoEdtion  and  Boundaries. — Ireland  is  the  second  largest 
island  in  the  British  archipelago.  The  Irish  Sea,  with  its  two 
inlets,  the  North  Channel  and  St  Greorge*s  Channel,  form  its 
western  boundary,  separating  it  from  Great  Britain  ;  while  on 
the  remaining  tlnree  sides  it  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  Lying 
between  lat.  51°  27'  and  55°  23'  N.,  and  Ion.  5°  26'  and  10^  28* 
W.,  the  mainland  occupies  nearly  4°  of  lat  and  a  little  more 
than  5°  of  Ioil 

Form,  Coast-Line,  and  Extreme  Points. — ^The  general  form  is  a  ihom- 
boid,  the  longer  diagonal  of  which,  if  produced,  would  pass  through  the 
most  easterly  point  of  Scotland  (Buchanness).  The  four  sides  are  ninned 
by  lines  passing  through  Fair  Head  in  Antrim,  Erris  Head  in  Mayo, 
Mizen  Head  in  Cork,  and  Camsore  Point  in  Wexford.  Properly  speak- 
ing, these  are  the  extreme  points  ;  but  Malin  Head,  in  Donegid,  is  the 
most  northern  point  of  the  mainland;  Mizen  Head  the  most  southern; 
Ehmmore  Head,  in  Kerry,  the  most  western ;  and  Halbert  Point,  on  the 
coast  of  Down,  the  most  eastern ;  greatest  length,  806  m. — greatest 
breadth,  175  m.  The  coast-line,  which  is  wavy  and  continuous  on  the  £., 
but  deeply  indented  on  the  W.  and  N.  measures  about  2200  mites,  being 


■y  15  fi-i.  . 


d  by  III 


Head  uid  Dobliu ;  but  ijie  coastfl  olonp  the  other  sidee  are  bold  and 

nifkf,  end  fnrro  B  nable  liarrier  agaiiiBt  the  vaves  of  the  AUsotic. 

Area  and  Popnluim.— The  bj^.  uccorduig  to  the  late  Ordnsnce  Snr- 

^mj-,  iB32,51EBq.  m.,  haniE  neorly  tuo-fiftha  dT  the  aiie  of  Great  BrilKii, 

Hpid  oae-BJiteeoth  iBrger  than  BBotlsnd.     The  ponDlatiiui  in  1S41  was 

■UW6.5fl4,  vHle  in  ISH  it  on];'  amoimted  to  5,40^7oe,  Hhuwing  a  decreaw 

nhfijtrty  yeais  of  S,6ES.B25,  or  nearly  tme-baU' ita  jireaHiit  popal&tidii.    It 

'    janeeily  hnjf  lu  densely  peopled  as  Soglond,  hsruiE  1G6  penoDB  to  eaoh 

»q.  m.     The  astonishijig  dBcrease  dmiug  the  Inrt  tliirty  yeacB  is  maiuly 

BttribiriililB  to  the  famine  of  1S45-47.  and  to  the  immsnae  tide  of  emiera- 

tioD  that  has  fiubfiegamitJy  tabfio  place- 

TOUtical  ntvlslimE. — Ireland  is  divided  Into  i  provinmi — vit^ 

I  inner,  LeiuBter,  Mmifiter,  and  Cuniiaiiglit ;  wMc^  are  aulidiTided 

IB  folkrWK  :— 


Antrim. — ReUapt  174,  CarrickferpiB  6 
(Lagau),  Larue  3  (L.  Lome),  BaUynioiiev  ! 
.(Braidl. 

Tumu  fnm.  lOUO   (o  2SO0  :  ■ 


DmriL — DCFWKP*TC.TCE  4  IL,  Sewton-ArdB  10  (L.  Strangford), 
Newrj  11  (5ewry),  Dnnaghndee  S  (X  coast),  Baognr  3  (Balfort  L), 
Iiramore  S  (Lagan).  Gilford  3,  Bauhiidge  i  (Bmui). 

Comber,  Ballynnhmcii,  Poitaferryj  Wairon-Poiiit,  E«tlifryland,  HHk- 
boTDUEh,  Boliywoud. 

ixnagh. — Akuagb  II  (CaUau),  XMrgas  G  c,  Portadinni  E  n. 
(Bann). 

Keady,  TanderairBc,  Market-Mill,  KflTtown-Hamiltoo. 

Oastle  Blaney,  Ballyhay,  CarrickniBcross,  donea. 

Gcran. — CiVAK  S  n.  (Erne), 

EiogBconrt,  Ballieboroagh,  Bctturhet,  CootehilL 

»— """f* — EtTKlSElLLEK  6  (Eme). 

SmMcal-— Lefpuki'  1  (Foyle).  Balljtihaimoii  S  (Erne). 

Killjb^ii,  Saphue,  Bathmeltoii,  Letterkenny,  DooegaL 

bnddndmrr, — LoKDimiEKBy  S5  (Fojle),  Cc^eraise  G  (Banm, 
Stnrtnwn-Limirradj  S  (Koe). 

Uaghenfeh,  MaghenL 
-  TjToaa. — OuACH  3,  Stja^ane  i  (Maime),  'Coatstowti  4  (Bollin- 
~    ly),  DmifiBiiiioii  4  n.  (ElackwatBTl, 
K  Itewtoini-Slerart,  Fintoiak,  Augbna^^toy. 


161  POLITICAL    GEOGBAPUY. 

Leinster,  in  the  S.E.,  12  Counties. 

Louth. — DuNDALK  10  (Castleton),  Ardee  3  (Dee),  Drogheda,  partly 
in  Meath,  14  (Boyne). 
MeatlL — ^Trim  2,  Navan  4  (Boyne),  Kells  3  (Blackwater). 

Dublin.— Dublin  246  (Liflfey),  Blackrock  8,  Donnybrook  2  n., 
Kingstown  12  (Dublin  Bay). 
Sandymount,  Skerries,'  Swords,  Bushi  Balbriggan,  Chapelizod. 

Wicklow. — WiCKLOW  3  (Vartry),  Arklow  5  (Avoca),  Bray  4 
(Bray). 

Bathdram,  Baltinglass. 

Wexford. — ^Wexford  12,  Enniscorthy  5  (Slaney),  New  Robs  7 
(Barrow). 

Newtown-Barry,  Gorey. 

Kilkenny.— Kilkenny  13  (Nore). 

Thomastown,  Urlingford,  Castle  Comer,  Callan. 

Queen's  County.— Maryborough  3  n..  Mount  Mellick  3  (Bar- 
row). 

Portarlington,  Abbeyleix,  Monntwrath,  Stradbally. 

King's  County. — Tullamorb  5  n.  (Cloddagh),  Birr  or  Paiaons- 
town  5  (Lower  Brosna). 

Banagher,  Edenderry. 

West  MeatlL — Mullinoar  5  (Brosna),  Athlone  6  (Shannon). 

Kilbeggan,  CastlepoUard,  Moate. 

Longford. — Longford  5  (Camlin). 

Ballymahon,  Granard. 

Kildare. — ^Athy  4  (Barrow),  Naas  3  n.  (Liffey). 

Monastereven,  Celbridge,  Kildare,  Maynooth. 

Carlow.— Carlo w  8  (Barrow). 

Leighlin,  Tullow,  Bagenalstown. 

Munster,  in  the  S.W.,  6  Counties. 

Waterford.- Waterford  23,  Portlaw  4  n.  (Suir),  Dnngarvan  6 
(Dungarvan  B.) 

Cappoquin,  Lismore,  Tallow,  Tramore. 

CorlL — Cork  79,  Macroom  3  (Lee),  Queenstown  9,  Middletown  3 
(Cork  Harb.),  Skibbereen  4  (Hen),  Clonakilty  3  (Clonakilty  Bay), 
Kinsale  4  (Kmsale  Harb.),  Bandon  6  (Bandon),  Youghal  6,  Fermoy 
6,  Mallow  4  (Blackwater),  Mitchelstown  3  (Funcheon). 

Cloyne,  Bantiy,  Dunmauway,  Millstreet,  Doneraile,  Buttevant,  Kan- 
turk,  Charleville,  "W.  Passage. 

Kerry.— Tbaleb  10  (Lee),  Dingle  2  (Dingle  Bay),  Killamey  5  (L 
KUlarney). 

Listowel,  Cabirciveen,  Castle  Island,  Kemnare. 


IKELAND.  16'^ 

OUre,— Ennw  7  (FeTgna),  Kilnisli  5  (Shannon). 

Killaloa.  KlDteo. 

T^jperuy.—CLONMEL  9,  Carrick-on-Suir  E,  CaMr  3,  Cubel  i, 
ThuilBB  6  (Snir),  TippBrnrj-  6  (ArTa),  Nenngh  6  (Senagli),  Hosctea  * 
(Lower  Brosaa). 

Killenanla,  CloghMn,  Borriaocane,  Fethard. 

Idmmlek.— Lime  KICK  40  (Shannon),  Hathkeale  3  (Deal). 

Aakeaton,  CrooTa,  Eilmalluck,  Bruff,  Kewcaatle. 

CONSAnOHT,    IS  THE  W.,  E  CoUKTIES. 

GHway.— Galwat  13  (Corrih),  Tiiam  S  (aare),  Loughrea  3  (L. 
Bea),  Ballinaflloa  3  (Suck). 

CUfdEn,  Atheniy,  Pottimnti,  Aglirim,  Gort. 

M»yo.— Cahtlebar  3  (Castlebar),  Ballina  S  (Moj),  WeBtjiort  i 
(Clew  Bay),  Ballinrobe  3  (Robe). 

Crossinoliiia,  SiUsIa,  Ballaghadcrreen. 

Bllgo.— Sligo  10  (GttrTOgne). 

leltrtm.—CAiiRicK-ON- Shannon  2  (Shannon). 

ManoT-Hunilton. 

BMoonimcru — Roscommon  3  (Suck),  Boyk  3  (BojIb  Water). 

CasUeieagh,  Elpliin. 

DeKTlpttTS  KotBB.— According  to  the  census  of  1871,  there  were 
ui  Ireland  two  towns  witli  a,  population  abore  100,000 — viz.,  Dublin 
and  Belfast;  between  ICO.OOO  and  60,000  only  oca— Cork;   twelve 


Tralee,  and  Eingatown  ;  and  twenty.ali  between  10,000  and  EOOO. 


luilei  dintaut.  It  k  the  moat  populous,  and  by  far  the  must  imnor!^  , 
of  tba  four  provincBii  into  which  the  kingdom  ia  liirided  ;  area,  B6B5  aq. 
m. ;  population,  1,830,393.  It  ia  deeply  indeated  bv  arms  of  the  aea  on 
the  three  aidea  exposed  to  the  ocean,  ths  principal  indentations  twins 
LoHgh  Strangford,  Belfast  Lough,  Lough  Foyl«,  Lough  Swilly,  and 
Donegal  Bay.  Each  of  these  forma  the  estuary  of  a  more  or  lesa  ezten- 
BiYB  river-lioain.  The  principal  fresh-water  lakes  are  Loughs  Neagh  and 
Erne.  Geoiogical  character:  Metamor]ihic  mcka  in  the  It.,  which  are 
flanked  with  Kranite  on  the  west  aide,  and  with  an  immense  tract  of  trap 
on  the  east ;  Lower  Silurian  in  the  S.E. ;  carboniferous  limestone  in  the 
S.W. ;  and  DeTOHJan  in  the  centre.  The  Ehorea  are  bold  androclty,  with 
remackablB  basaltic  clitfa  in  the  N.  and  E.,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 


tiftlia  under  cultivation.  Ulster  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  Irish  linen 
manofscture,  and  of  othor  hninches  of  Industrv.  The  annual  value  of 
the  limn  eiporl«d  is  estimated  at  £E,000,000  sterling.    The  principal  mia- 


166  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

eral  products  are  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  limestone,  wliich  are  found 
chiefly  in  Cavan.  Tlie  Protestant  religion  prevails,  education  is  well 
attended  to,  and  the  people  enjoy  considerable  comfort  as  compared  with 
the  other  provinces.  Belfast,  generally  regarded  as  the  capital  of  Ulster, 
is  the  second  city  in  Ireland  in  point  of  i>opulation,  and  greatly  exceeds 
Dublin  in  manufacturing  industry,  especially  in  the  linen  and  cotton 
manufacture.  It  has  considerable  foreign  trade,  and  extensive  inter- 
course with  the  west  coast  of  Great  Britain,  especially  with  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow,  and  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  "  Queen's  Colleges."  Carrickftr- 
gus,  with  cotton  and  linen  manufactories,  and  near  it  an  extensive  salt- 
mine discovered  in  1852.  Idshum,  a  handsome  and  populous  town ;  a 
canal  from  Lough  Neagh  here  joins  the  Lagan.  Bimymena,  in  the- 
centre  of  an  industrious,  manufacturing,  and  agricultural  district,  is  an 
active  and  thriving  town.  DownpatriCK,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  meet 
ancient  towns  in  Ireland;  its  noly  wells  are  resorted  to  by  Boman 
Catholic  pilgrims.  UTewry,  the  largest  town  in  the  county,  is  a  flourish- 
ing seaport,  with  considerable  linen  and  cotton  works.  Armaf  li.  tiie 
ecclesiastical  capital  of  Ireland,  with  an  observatory  and  two  catheorals. 
Lurgaa  and  Portadown,  with  manufactories  of  linen  and  cotton  goods. 
Monaghan,  on  the  Ulster  Canal,  which  unites  Loughs  Neagh  and  Eme, 
trades  extensively  in  linen  and  V^gs*  Cavan,  the  head  of  a  poor-law 
union,  has  some  local  traffic.  Imniskillen,  delightfully  situated  in  an 
island  in  L.  Eme,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  linen ;  in  its  town- 
hall  are  still  preserved  the  banners  borne  by  the  EnniskiUeners  at  the 
celebrated  battle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1, 1690.  Ballyshaimon,  near  fhe 
mouth  of  the  Eme,  with  a  salmon-fishery.  Londonderry,  an  ancient, 
flourishing,  and  walled  city  on  the  Foyle,  famous  for  the  si^  so  heroic- 
ally sustamed  against  the  army  of  James  II.  in  1689.  Coleraine  is  one 
of  the  principal  markets  for  the  Ulster  Unen  manufactures.  Omagh,  a 
smull  town  with  trade  in  linen  and  com.  Dnngannon,  the  ancient  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  of  Ulster,  has  a  brisk  linen  trade. 

Leinster  occupies  the  entire  S.E.  of  Ireland ;  area,  7472  sq.  m. ;  popu- 
lation, 1,335,966  The  shores  are  less  indented  than  in  Ulste^  the  prin- 
cipal inlets  being  Dundalk  and  Dublin  Bays  and  Wexford  Haven :  the 
principal  rivers  are  the  Dee,  Boyne,  Liflfey,  Slaney,  and  Barrow:  the 
basins  of  the  Shannon  and  Suir  also  belong  partiaUy  to  this  province.  By 
far  the  largest  portion  is  covered  with  mountain  limestone,  but  there  are 
considerable  tracts  of  Lower  Silurian  along  the  east  coast,  enclosing  a  huge 
belt  of  granite,  which  extends  in  a  S.W.  direction  from  Dublin  Bay  to  the 
junction  of  the  Barrow  and  Nore.  Surface  generally  level,  but  one  moun- 
tain region  in  the  E.  and  another  in  the  W. ;  soil  fertile  and  well  ctilti- 
vated,  and  producing  more  wheat  than  any  other  province :  possesses 
superior  facilities  for  internal  communication  by  means  of  its  large  rivers ; 
but  has  fewer  good  harbours  than  any  of  the  other  provinces.  At  the 
time  of  the  An^lo-Norman  invasion  the  province  was  divided  into  two 

Eetty  sovereignties— viz.,  those  of  Leinster  and  Meath.  Dundalk,  at  the 
ead  of  a  bay  of  same  name,  has  various  manufactures  and  important 
fisheries.  Drogheda,  a  flourishing  town  on  the  Boyne,  and  near  the  scene 
of  the  celebrated  battle  of  that  name,  which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  Stewarts  in  Ireland.  Trim,  a  small  town  on  the  Boyne : 
near  it  Dangan,  said  by  some  to  be  the  birthplace  of  the  late  Duxe  of 
Wellington.  Navan,  with  a  good  export  trade  in  a^cultuTal  produce. 
Dublin,  the  capital  of  Ireland  and  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Europe,  has 
a  quarter  of  a  million  inhabitants,  and  numerous  magnificent  public 
buildings,  among  which   is  Trinity  CoUege,   a  Protestant  university 


I 


fmmded  in  1691  by  Queen  Elizabeth.     Adjoining  tte  city  is  Phcenii  Park, 


reluid.  Kingstown,  theport  of  Dnbjin,  -with  an  B<oellent  har- 
bour and  extensive  comniBrce,  is  the  mail-paclietstatiDti  to  Liveqxtal  and 
Holyhead.  Vicklow,  a.  resort  of  Bea-bathers,  exports  copper-ore  and 
corn.  Waxferd,  a  considerable  town,  with  exports  of  cattle  and  dairy 
produce,  hsa  eitensJTe  nuap  and  dockyards.  Ennlscorthj ;  near  it  la 
Vin^ar  HiU,  wliare  the  Irish  rebels  were  defeated  by  Lord  Lake  in  1798. 
New  Boca,  a  flourishing  town,  with  considentble  eiport  trade  in  aOTicnl- 
tuial  produce.  KiUenny,  a  considerable  town,  the  second  in  population 
in  the  province  ;  the  streets  are  paved  with  hiack  marhle,  which  is  quar- 
ried in  the  ricinity  ;  here  is  a  grauimar  school,  in  which  Swift,  Congreve, 
and  Berkeley  received  the  early  part  of  their  education.  Uarylxmingh 
consiata  for  the  most  ji:irt  of  miserable  cabins,  with  a  few  fine  houses. 
TnllimDn,  the  principal  shipping  station  on  the  Grand  Canal.  Birr,  a 
thriving  town,  famoua  for  Lord  RoBse'a  monster  telescope,  one  of  the 
gnateat  achiaveoiBnts  of  modem  science.  Xalliiigari  on  the  Royni 
Canal,  is  noted  for  its  gntX  cattle  and  wool  market*  AthlonB,  the  prin- 
dpal  military  Btatioii  in  the  west  of  Ireland,  hna  considerable  local  trade. 
Longtbrd,  OD  the  Camlin,  a  busy,  thriving  little  town  ;  rnsar  it  was  bom 
Oliver  GoldBniith  in  1723.  Athj,  on  the  Bairow,  has  considerable  trade 
in  com,  butter,  and  malt.  Haynooth,  with  a  far-famed  Boman  Cathoho 
coUege.  GbtIow,  with  a  Konian  Catholic  cathedral  and  college,  has  con- 
nderable  tmie  in  agricultural  produce. 

HuNBTEH  is  situated  in  the  S.W.  of  Ireland,  aud  is  the  largest  of  the 
four  provinces  ;  ares,  fll74  aq.  m,  ^population,  1,390,402.  The  coasts 
an  very  deeply  indented  on  the  W.  liy  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon, 
Dingle  Bay,  Kcmuare  River,  and  Bantry  Bay.  Tlie  pnncinal  river-basins 
are  those  of  the  Suir,  which  enters  Waterford  Harbour ;  the  Blackwater  ; 
the  Lee,  which  enters  Cork  Harbour  ;  the  Bandon,  which  enters  Kinsale 
Harbaur(allofwhicli  incline  1«  the  S.B.);  and  the  Shannon  basin  in  the 
*' "'      "'  '    "     '    "*  ..--■.      ;  mountain  limestone 

the  S.,   and  Upper 


N.W.,  <mly  partially  in  this  pr 
and  milMoDe-crit  in  the  W., 

Silurian  in  S.W.     Surface  highly  divursified ;  two  rangt  _., 

the  southernmost  of  which  contams  the  loftiest  summits  in  the  kingdom, 
eitend  nearly  across  the  province  from  B.  to  W.,  eneloaing  the  basin  of 
the  Btaclcwater  :  the  eitensivB  plain  of  Tipperary,  Umerick,  and  Cork, 
cempiea  a  large  portion  of  the  surface.  Soil  various,  two-thirds  being 
arable,  and  a  great  portion  under  bog,  which  is  easily  reclainied.  Coal 
is  fouDd  in  Tlpperary,  Kerry,  and  Cork  ;  but  there  are  few  mineraU  ex- 
portad,  thoBgrh  the  harbouis  are  eicellent.  The  population  belongs  almost 
excluiiively  to  tbe  Roman  Catholic  Cburch.  At  the  time  of  the  Anglo- 
Nonnan  eonquest,  the  province  waa  divided  into  the  two  petty  kingdoms 
of  North  and  South  Monster.  Waterfijrd,  a  iargo  and  thriving  city  on 
tL«  Tight  bank  of  the  Sail,  has  a  great  foreign  and  coasting  trade,  the 
eiportB  alone  being  valued  at  £4,000,000  armually.  Cork,  built  on  an 
island  in  the  Lee,  is  the  principal  city  in  Munster,  and  in  popnhitioa  is 
only  exceeded  by  Dublia  and  Belfast.  Cork  is  the  seat  of^oneofthe 
recently  erected  Queen's  CoU^aa.  In  1888,  3630  vessels,  earryine  8^,220 
tons,  entered  and  cleared.  Ita  manufactures  are  nmneroas,  and  sbiphnlld- 
ingiaextenuvelycarriedou.  QueenitowD,  formerly  Cot*  of  Coik,  derived 
iU  present  name  from  thevisitof  Queen  Victoria  in  ISIS  :ii  proUcled  W 
batteries  and  fortificalions.  Kiaiale,  a  fashionable  watering-placs,  with 
valnable  fisheries.  Toughal,  on  the  Blackwaler,  with  valuable  salmon- 
ttlhsrica  :  here  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  flrat  introduced  tbe  culture  of  iht 


168  POLITICAL    QEOGRAPUY. 

potato.  Fermoy,  with  infantry  barracks  and  flour-mills.  Tralee,  near 
the  head  of  Tralee  Bay,  is  the  seat  of  a  brisk  trade  in  grain  and  flour. 
Dingle,  the  westernmost  town  in  the  British  Isles.  KillBniey,  on  a  lake 
of  same  name,  famous  for  its  enchanting  scenery,  and  now  accessible  by 
rail  from  Dublin,  is  a  favourite  resort  for  tourists.  EnniB,  with  a  Gothic 
abbey,  which  is  reckoned  the  finest  in  Ireland,  has  quarries  of  fine  black 
marble  io  the  neighbourhood.  Clonmel,  partly  in  Waterford,  a  consider^ 
able  town  with  extensive  manufactures,  is  the  b.  p.  of  Sterne,  author  of 
'  Tristram  Shandy.'  Cairick-on-Snir,  with  a  bridge  of  twenty  arches 
over  the  river,  and  an  export  trade  in  com  and  cotton.  Cashel,  once  tiie 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Munster,  is  an  ancient  episcopal  city,  with  Cor- 
mac's  Chapel  standing  on  the  celebrated  **  Rock  of  Cashel/'  and  one  of  tlie 
most  remarkable  ruins  in  Ireland.  Thnrles  contains  a  Koman  Gatholie 
college  and  two  episcopal  palaces.  Tipperary,  on  the  Waterford  and 
Limerick  Bailway,  is  beautuully  situated,  and  is  a  well-built  and  thriv- 
ing town.  Nenagh,  a  thriving  town,  with  a  good  local  trade.  Idmniek, 
a  large  and  populous  city  on  the  Shannon,  at  the  head  of  its  noble  estuary, 
is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  the  fourth  largest  city  in  Ireland ;  was 
a  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  Thomond  before  the  conquest  of  Ireland.  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  it  was  the  chief  stronghold  of  the  cause  of 
James  II.,  but  capitulated  to  the  troops  of  William  III.  in  1691 ;  has 
railway  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  with  great  export 
and  import  trade,  and  considerable  manufactures  of  bcuEiutiful  lace. 

CoNNAUOHT,  the  smallest,  least  populous,  and  most  westerly  of  the 
Irish  provinces,  lies  N.  of  Munster  and  W.  of  Leinster,  from  which  it  is 
for  the  most  part  separated  by  the  Shannon ;  area,  6862  sq.  m. ;  popula- 
tion, 845,993.  The  west  side  is  broken  up  into  numerous  peninsulas,  the 
largest  of  which  is  Connemara,  and  is  lined  by  a  great  many  islands. 
The  principal  indentations  are  (xalway.  Clew,  Blacksod,  KiUala,  and 
Sligo  Bays ;  and  the  chief  river-basins  are  those  of  the  Shannon  (in  part), 
Corrib,  Moy,  and  Arrow.  Principally  mountain  limestone ;  but  a  large 
tract  of  metsonorphic  and  Silurian  strata  in  the  W.,  and  extensive  patcto 
of  Devonian  in  various  parts.  Surface  mountainous  in  the  W.,  and  hiUy 
in  the  N.  and  S.,  while  the  centre  consists  of  an  extensive  level  plain. 
Soil  various,  moderately  fertile,  full  of  peat-bogs,  but  nearly  a  ludf  is 
arable.  Minerals  and  manufactures  unimportant :  but  coal  is  found  in 
the  Lough  Allan  district  The  inhabitants  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the 
native  Irish  or  Celtic  stock,  retain  their  ancient  language,  adnere  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  are  sunk  in  the  deepest  poverty  and  inior- 
ance.  Connaught  was  formerly  one  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  Irish  fiep- 
tarchy,  and  remained  unconquered  long  after  the  rest  of  Ireland  bad 
yielded  to  the  English  arms.  Gkdway,  at  the  head  of  Gralway  Bay,  may 
be  re^rded  as  the  capital  of  Connaught,  it  being  the  only  important 
town  m  the  province,  and  the  chief  seaport  of  the  west  of  Ireland!.  It  is 
105  miles  west  from  Dublin,  with  which  it  ia  connected  by  laili^^.  Gal- 
way  is  very  ancient ;  was  conquered  by  the  Anglo-Normans  in  1230 ;  had 
a  flourishing  trade  with  Spain  in  the  middle  ages,  and  many  of  the  houses 
are  erected  after  the  Spanish  model.  It  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  Queen*t 
Colleges.  Tnam,  an  episcopal  city,  with  a  Roman  Oatholic  coUese, 
named  St  Jarlath,  is  the  see  of  the  primate  of  Connaught.  BalllnMloe 
has  a  large  annual  fair,  which  lasts  five  days.  Casflebar,  a  small  ioUrnd 
town,  has  some  trade  in  linen.  Ballina,  with  manufactures  of  snnf^  and 
salmon-fisheries.  Sligo,  a  considerable  town  on  the  Garvogue,  has  a  good 
colonial  and  foreign  trade.  Three  ships  of  the  Spanish  Aimada  were 
straoded  here  in  1588.    Garrick-on-Sluumoii,  at  toe  oonfluenoe  of  tli* 


Cum. — Be^uning  at  tLe  extreme  N.,  snd  proceeding  E.-ifbtiI. 
tiiB  jfnnciio]  wpesi  and  headJandB  are  the  follovring  : — MbHs  Head, 
in  Don^aX  the  N.-most  point  of  tlie  moiiLland  ;  Bangore  Head  and 
Fmt  Head,  in  Antrim  ;*  Howtli  Head,  in  Dnblin;  Witklow  Head,  in 
Wluklow;  CamHorc  Point,  in  Werford;  Cape  Clear,  on  an  island, 
the  moat  BoDtLem  point  of  Ireland  ;  Mizen  Heud  and  Crow  Head,  in 
Code;  I>iuiniarB  Head,  in  Kerry,  tbe  most  weBt«rly  point  of  the 
mainland  ;  Kerr;  Head  and  Loo]>  Head,  on  idther  ude  of  Che  estnaiy 
of  the  ShuiiioD  ;  Sljne  Head,  in  Galway  ;  Achil  Head  and  Ciris 
Head,  io  Mayo ;  lioaaan  Point  and  Bloodj  Foreland,  in  DooegaL 

ltfili<hl — The  islande  sre  in  general  very  small,  and  close  to  the 
tuunland.^-  FoUowiuf;  the  same  order  as  in  the  liiet  paragr^ih.  n-e 
hsre: — Bathlin,  S.  of  Antrim;  Copelund,  S.'E.  of  Diiwn;  Lambay 
Mnd  Ireland's  Eye,  E.  ofDnbliu;  Saltee  L,  S.  of  Wexford;  Core,  in 
Gui  Harbour ;  Cape  Clear  and  Bear  Is.,  S.W.  of  Coric  ;  Videnda::: 
and  Blasket  Is.,  W.  of  Eerrj' ;  Airan  Is.,  in  Golvruy  Bav ;  Garomna, 
■ud  aemral  otbera,  S.  of  Galwayj  litnlb  Botiu,  liinis  Turk,  Clare, 
and  Acldl  Is,,  W.  of  Connaught ;  Arranmore  and  Tory  la,  W, 
of  DooegaL 

Bay*  and  E»tttartM.— These  are  very  nnmenrai,  esneciaUy  in  the 
K.  and  W.,  wbere  tbpj-  penetrate  far  into  the  land.  On  the  eoast  of 
Uliter  tiieie  inlets  are  termed  lotighi,  a  vord  of  the  same  sonnd  and 
■ignifieation  as  the  lochi  of  the  opposite  cnuts  of  Scotland.  Beginning 
Kt  tile  K..  and  following  the  coast-line  £.-wards,  the  GiUowmg  are 
tile  janc^al  haja,  tc. : — 

CbM(iifP(!«(«r.—Longh»Swrily,Fofle,  Belfast.  Strangford;  Dnndnim 
B.,GBIlingrordB.  Cmul  aTi^ii'uter.— Bnndalli  B.,  Bablin  B.,  Weiford 
Hsilmiir.  /hulk  Cvasl  nf  JfunjIfT.— Waterlbrd,  Dnngarvtm,  Tonglial, 
OlA,  BSd  Kinrale  Harboon.  Weit  Coait  of  JUautn-.  ^  fiontry  B,, 
Kcomure  Biver,  Dingle  B.,Tia]ee  S.,  EBtHorr  of  the  Shannon.  CoaH  if 
(haainiak.— GalwajB.,  CIewB.,SlackBod  B.,Ei!ia!a  B.,  Sligoa.and 
XkmegarB.,  between  Coniutnght  and  Ulster. 

Mmmtlln  8)Vteitl.~Tbe  Iritib  monntains  form  an  immense  cir- 
eidar  rin^  along  tbe  ooast,  enclosing  the  great  central  basin  of  the 
This  plain  extends  from  Dublin  to  Galiray,  and  from  the 
'  '  '  to  Waterford  :  its  highest  elevation  is  abont 
....  ^         a  la™  tract  of  hog-land,  and  is  traversed  hy 

kfew  low  ranges  of  hills.    The  ranges  separating  the  central 

ADt  Inin  thelliiUafCiDtyrs,lnBHitljin<l    A 
Ig  tbs  gplebnled  GioDt'g  Citti»»3i|.  a  baultii; 

,— , J. reiemMlnga  pier.  TOO  fMt[n  length.  SB*  fen 

■nd  BO  rm  hi  hclgbl.    II  I*  aBpamied  b;  tnp-df  kea  Into  three  dirl. 

ticiUstad  witlL  thg  gniUeiit  nlcatjr. 

-ooke  are  esnnieTat«d  u  belonging  to  Irelud,  ot 

I  ttirnilnoi  ol  tbe  great  Hobinarlne  telegraph  to 


170  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

plain  from  the  ocean  are  not  continuous,  but  broken  up  into  a  num- 
her  of  isolated  masses,  none  of  which  attain  to  any  great  elevation — 
Carran  Tual,  in  Macgillicuddy  Reeks,  county  Kerry,  the  culminating- 
point  of  Ireland,  being  8414  feet  high.  Beginning  at  the  S.£.  cor- 
ner of  Ulster,  and  proceeding  N.  and  W.,  the  following  are  the 
principal  ranges : — 

Moume  Mountains,  in  Down,  between  the  Newry  and  Lagan ;  highest 
summits— Slieve-Donard,  2796 ;  Mt  Eagle,  2084  feet 

Glenocum  Mountains,  in  Antrim,  separatingthe  basins  of  the  Lagan 
and  Bann,  and  extending  from  Belfast  to  Fair  Head ;  Mt.  Trostan,  1817 ; 
Mt.  Devis,  1568  feet. 

Camtogher  Mountains,  in  Londonderry,  between  the  Bann  and  the 
Foyle ;  Mt.  SaweU,  2236  feet. 

Mountains  qf  Dqiiegal,  between  the  Foyle  and  the  Atlantic ;  Mt. 
Errigal,  2466  feet ;  Blue  Stack,  2219  feet. 

Nephin-Beg  MourUaiiis,  in  Mayo,  between  the  basin  of  the  Moy  and 
west  coast ;  Mt.  Nephin,  2646  feet ;  Nephin-Beg,  2065  feet. 

Mountains  of  Conneniara,  south  of  Clew  Bay,  and  between  the  basin  of 
the  Corrib  and  west  coast ;  Muilrea,  2688 ;  Croagh  Patrick,  2510 ;  Twelve 
Pins,  2395  feet. 

Mountains  of  Clare,  between  Galway  Bay  and  Estuary  of  the  Shannon; 
Mt.  Callan,  SUeve-Boughty. 

Mount  Brandon,  3127  feet — ^the  second  highest  mountain  in  Ireland— 
between  basin  of  Shannon  and  Diogle  Bay. 

MajcgUlicvddy  Reeks,  in  Kerry,  between  Dingle  Bay  and  Kenmare  River; 
Carran  Tual,  W.  of  Lake  Eallarney — ^the  highest  mountain  in  Ireland— 
8414  feet ;  Mangerton,  S.K  of  Lake  Killamey,  2756  feet. 

The  Musketry,  Bogragh,  and  Neagh  Mountains,  in  Cork,  between  the 
basins  of  the  Blackwater  and  the  Lee. 

Mountains  of  Tipperary  and  Waierford,  between  the  basins  of  the 
Blackwater  and  the  Suir ;  Galteemore,  3007 ;  Knockmelledown,  2598. 

Blackstairs  Mountains,  in  Wexford,  between  the  basins  of  the  Barrow 
and  the  Slaney;  Mt.  Lelnster,  2610  feet. 

Mountains  of  Wicklow,  between  the  Slaney  and  Liffey ;  Lugnaquilla, 
3039;  Kippure  2473  feet. 

Slieve-nloom  Mountains,  in  the  interior  of  the  Great  Plain,  separate 
the  basin  of  the  Shannon  from  that  of  the  Barrow  and  Suir;  Mt.  Keeper, 
2278  feet. 

The  line  of  perennial  congelation  in  the  latitude  of  Carran  Tual  is 
about  6000  feet  high.  Hence,  if  Mangerton  were  piled  atop  of  the 
loftiest  mountain  in  Ireland,  it  would  be  capped  with  snow  all  the  year 
round, 

Rlver-BaslnB.— The  principal  axis  of  Ireland  extends  in  a  K.E. 
direction  from  Mizen  Head,  in  Cork,  to  Fair  Head,  in  Antrim.  The 
twelve  principal  river-basins  are  equally  divided  by  this  line,  six  of 
them  (Snannon,  Corrib,  Moy,  Erne,  Foyle,  and  Bann)  inclining  from  it 
in  a  general  westerly  direction  towards  the  Atlantic,  and  the  remain- 
ing six  (Boyne,  Liffey,  Slaney,  Barrow,  Blackwater,  Lee)  in  a  general 
easterly  direction  towards  the  Irish  Sea  and  the  openings  leacLmg 
into  it  The  twelve  basins  contain  twenty-six  out  of  the  thirty-two 
county  towns,  and  occupy  about  |  of  the  entire  surfiEU^  The  five 
largest  basins  are  the  Shannon  (area,  7000  sq.  m.),  Erne,  Foyle, 


IHELASD.  171 

Bsnn,  Barrow,  and  Sair;  they  contain  twenty  county  towns  and 
16,300  sqnare  miles,  or  o  no -half  of  the  entire  EorfaCB. 

Table  of  Siveo^  and  Towns. — The  arrangement  adopted  in  tLo 
followinjt  table  is  the  same  aa  in  the  corresponding  sectioiia  treating 
of  England  and  Scotland ;  we  begin  with  the  river  oa  which  the 
capital  stands,  and  proceed  northwards  along  the  coast — that  heing 
the  direction  followed  in  the  riyer-system  of  Great  Britain.  Large 
towns  are  printed  in  Roman  letters,  and  denote  here  such  as  contain 
2500  inhabitants  and  upwards;  smalt  towns,  or  those  printed  in 
Italics,  denote  those  Gaat4dning  not  leas  than  1000  inhahitante  ; 
while  county  towns  are  in  buall  Oi.fiTAiB.  Kinetj  rivers  are  given 
in  the  table,  and  of  these  30  enter  the  ocean  directly,  tlie  other  60 
being  their  tributaries ;  and  S30  towns,  only  100  of  which  hare  a 
population  amounting  to  2500,  all  the  others  ranging  between  that 
unmber  and  1000. 


'lied  to  the  Iridi  S< 


ittey  II  Cab-  KlngstoyD.BladmKt, 
jiu  B.,  I>onnybroek.  n.^  San- 

Chaptlitod,  Ceandae, 
Kau,  EiUlari,  n. 

B^e,  I MaynOBth. 

Co.  or  Dublin,  Suordi,  Rvth,  Skerria. 
BaBiriggan. 

.BOToe,   Drngheds.  Navan,  Tbih. 

Edindfrry. 
BlukwHter.INRTiii,  Kelh. 
HojnAlty,!  Bailieoorofiffh. 

^CarriokmaerMt,    Kinffa- 

Batint  incliiut 
Wlycwtla  B. ,  BaUveailU. 

I.  coast,  Porlrtuh. 

luD,  and  L.  Colerslne,     BillrinatK}', 

Meigb,  n.,  ADtrlni,  Lurgan,  tL, 

Portadown,    Tandera- 

jee,  Gilford,  Bim  bridge. 

MojdU,  I  ..Xaghern/elt,  Knghera,. 

UiiD. Sandnliloim. 

ar^d,i..Biil]yinMifl. 
BalUodnTT.  I  Coai:«lcwn. 
£]ickwftter,lDDDEiDaoa,  n.,.JucA- 

Caltui.   ..AniunH,  Keufy,  a. 
UltttrCa-  Kaitmai.1t. 

Ojlfl      (L  tOHDOKBiaav,  LtFTORD, 
Uml.i  BtntbMlB. 

,  TJe  Krtowa-LliEmvadjr. 

iairatFane,  Sevto^n- 
SUTcarl.  Omr.H.  Fin- 


L.  StranBfOrd  For 


It  Atlanta 


(wIUj,  L.  and  BaOiineUen,    LeUericn- 

R..  »w. 

Donegsl  R  &  KiUybem,  Dimtgal,  BaU 

utN,  BeUurbtl,  dyts, 

A.naa]ef..'.V.'.CaDlekUl.  n. 
larrogufl  and  Suoo,  Manor-IIamittati, 

toy,    .° KOfOto.Damni. 

D«l,  I CmifmolCita. 

Cantlebir,  Cibtlxbab. 
Hew  Bay,  ....Wtatport. 
V,  Co.  ol  Gal-  Ctifdtn. 

lorriVfGilway  G*tWiT. 

Clare,  I Tuam. 

Robe,I  ....BalUnrotw. 

Cluin Athnry, 

Cooter,  ,..,,.  Gort,  Xjuoghrea,  i 


172 


POLITICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 


Basins  inclined  to  ttie  Atlantic  (continaed). 


Riven. 


Toums. 


Shannon    (L.  KiUceCf  Eilrush,  Ltmer- 

Allen),  lUK,  KUkUoe,  Borriso- 

eane,  Portumna,  Ban- 

ogheTf  Athlone,   Cab- 

B  icK-on-Shannon. 

Fergus,  ....Ennis. 

Deelfl  Askeaton^    Rathkeale, 

Neiocastle. 
Maig  &  Loo-Croom,  Charleville,  Kil- 
ba,2  mallockf  Kil/innan. 

Star,    ....Bruff. 
Kenagh,  I  ..Nenagh. 
Lower  Bros-Birr,  Boscrea. 

na,  I 
Brosna,  {  ..Moate,  Mullingar. 
Cloddagh.ZTuLLAMORE.  ' 

Basins  inclined  to  t?ie 

Skibbereen, 

Clonakilty. 

Kinsale,  Bandon,  Dun^ 
manway. 

Queenstown  CloynCf  n., 
Middleton,  n.,  W.  Pas- 
sage,  Cork,  Macroom, 
n. 

Macroom. 

Youghal,  Cappoquin, 
Lismorej  Fermoy,  Mal- 
low, MUlstreet 

TaUow. 

Mitchelstown. 

Doneraile,  Buttevant. 

Kanturk. 

Dungarvan. 

Tramore. 

Waterford,  Portlaw,n., 
Carrick-on-Suir,  Clon- 
MEL,  Cahir,  Cashel, 
Thurles,  Templemore, 
n. 


Rivers, 


Towns. 


Suck, 


Inny,  I  .... 

Camlin,  2... 

Bodai;g,  . . . . 

Boyle  (L. 
Gara), . . . . 

Feale, 

Tralee  Bay, . . . 
Dingle  Bay  & 

MainR, 

Leane,  2 . . . . 
KenmareRiv., 
Bantry  Bay,  . . 


Ballinasloe,  Boacoiofov, 

Castlereagh. 
BaUymahon,    Oranard, 

n. 
Longford. 
Elphin. 
Carrick  -  CD  -  Shanxion, 

Boyle. 
Listowel,  AhheyfedU. 
Tralek. 
Dingle,  CahirciveentCas' 

tlemain.  Castle  I. 
Eillarney. 
Kenmare. 
Bantry. 


lien 

Clonakilty  B., 
Bandon,    

Cork  H.  and 
R.  Lee, 


Siillane,  I  .. 
Blackwater,  .. 


Bride, 

Funeheon,  I  . 

Awbeg,  I   .. 

Allow,  I 

Dungarvan  B., 
Tramore  Bay, 
Suir,    


Irish  Sea  (continued). 

Honor, L...Fethardt  KillenatiU,  n. 

Tar, Clogheen. 

Arra, Tipperary. 

Barrow New  Ross,  Leighlin 

Bridge.  C  a  blow,  A- 
THT,  Monastereven^ 
KUdaretH.  ^PortarUng- 
ton,  Maryborough, 
Mount  Mellick. 

Nore Thomastoton,  Kilkkn- 

NT,  AbbeyleiXt  Mount- 
rath. 
King's  R.,  Cdllan,  Urlingford, 
Dinan,  I  ..Castle  Comer. 

Strad, StradbaUy. 

Figale,  I Monastereven. 

Slaney,  Wexford,   Enniscortliy, 

Netototon- Barry,  2w- 
Um,  B(ilHngla8s. 

Bann, Chrey. 

Avoca Arklow«  Rathdrwm. 

Vartry Wicklow, 

Bray, Bray. 


Lakes. — The  Irish  lakes  or  loughs  are  numerous,  and  some  of 
them  extensive.  Lough  Neagh,  in  Ulster,  is  the  largest  in  the 
British  Isles  :  it  is  17  miles  long,  10  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  158 
sq.  miles :  its  waters  are  celebrated  for  their  petrifying  quality. 
The  other  principal  lakes  are  Corrib,  Erne,  Derg,  Ree,  l&sk.  The 
total  area  of  all  the  Irish  lakes  is  estimated  at  984  sq.  miles.  All 
the  important  lakes  are  found  in  the  principal  river-basins  ennmer* 
ated  at  p.  170.  Following  the  order  there  given,  we  find  in  the 
basin  of  the 

Shannon — Loughs  Derg,  Ree,  Boffin^  Corry,  and  Allen,  in  the  line  of 
the  main  river ;  Loughs  Ennel  and  Owel  on  the  Brosna ;  L&wfkt  Jkn- 
veragh  and  Sheelin  on  the  Inny ;  and  Loughs  Key  and  Oara  on  the  Bofle. 
Comb—Lottghs  Corrih  and  M<uh,    VLoy- '-Loughs  Conn  and  CWIAk  Am- 
--Loughs  Erne,  OughCer,  and  Oounagk,    Foyle — Lough  Dtrg,  jMynt^"*^ 


St  Patrlcfa  Pargtttory  on  an  i.iUnd.    Banii— IohjA  iV&i.-jfc,  I    ,, 
UnitBiI  Kingdom.     Bovne — IjOugA  Ramor.     Dinglo  iinil  Main  Basin- 

LaiiM  of  KiUaniey,mKenv.  di -i  >— -■-.■^  -  --     -  -  -    ■ 

by  the  loftiest  moiu ' 


0  the  absence  o 

.  liny  deep  indentations  of   the 

coaat,  Ireland  possosaes  great  natnral  facilities  for  carrying  an  her 
internal  commuDicatiou ;  lint  until  recently,  little  haa  been  done  in 
opening  up  the  connfry  hy  thu  oonstractlDO  of  the  highways  nf 


Railways.— In  January  1S7I  there  were  1972  miles  opea  for  traffic, 
which  cost  ^24,891,000  ;  and  tlie  toUl  receipts  for  paiuengnrB  and  gooiiii 
for  the  year  then  ending  were  £1,5(10,000,    The  railway  system  ia  still 

tfar  from  bemg  complete.  Dublin  is  the  eentro  of  the  greater  part  of 
Nateoaelk  Biyubs, — The  Shannon  is  navigable  from  the  aea  to  L. 
Allen,  a  distance  of  2U  miles;  the  Bandon,  IS;  the  BUcknater  to 
Fermoy;  the  8uir  to  Clonmel,  40;  the  Barrow  lo  Athy,  60;  the 
Sore  to  Thomaatown,  28  ;  tho  Slaney  to  Enniscorthy,  15 ;  the  Boyne  to 
Navan,  26;  the  Lagan  to  Liabum;  the  Bann  to  Coleraine,  5;  the  Foyle 
to  Btrabane,  20 ;  Eme  to  Ballyshannon,  G. 

CiKALB.— The  mileage  of  canal  amounts  to  357  miles.  The  Grand 
Cajial,  irom  Dublin  to  Banagher  on  the  Shannon,  connects  the  Irish  Sea 
with  the  Atlantic,  184  miles.  Royal  Canal,  from  Dublin  to  a  point  in 
the  Shannon  a  little  aboTe  Lough  Bea,  92  miles.  Uevrry  Canal  unites 
the  rJTer  Newry  with  the  Upper  Bauu,  thua  connecting  Carlingford  Bay 
with  Lough  Xeagh,  12  miles.  Lagan  Canal,  from  Belfast  to  Lough 
Neagh,  20  miles.  UlaterCanal,  from  Charlemont  on  the  Blackwater,  n. 
feeder  of  the  Upper  Bann,  to  Lough  Erne,  by  Monaghan  and  Clones,  46 
miles.    Boyne  Canal,  from  Drogheda  to  Navan,  25  miles. 

ElSCTBlO  TbleqeaPH.— four  lines  of  submarine  telegraph  connect 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  (Holyhead  to  Dublin  ;  Milford  Haven  ta 
Wexford;  Stranraer  to  CarriokferguB;  PortpntricktoDonaghadee).  Elec- 
tric wires  are  also  laid  in  connection  with  all  the  principal  railway  lines. 
In  1858  the  first  submarine  telegraph,  connectmg  the  Old  World  with  the 
Hew,  was  completed.  Tlie  eastern  terminus  of  the  telegraph  is  in  Valentia 
Harbour,  county  Kerry,  and  the  western  at  Heart's  Content,  Trinity  Bay, 
Newfoundland.  It  continued  in  working  order,  however,  for  only  a  few 
monthfi,  and  ia  now  ahandoned.  Another  cable,  between  the  same  ter- 
mini, was  laid  in  1805,  and  a  third  in  18S6,  b^th  of  which  are  nan  in 
■xcellent  order. 

Kation»l  Cliaracter.— The  native  Irish  belong  to  the  Celtic  race, 
•nd  are  characterised  by  all  the  peculiarities  which  distiagniBh 
It  ftom  the  other  branches  of  the  Caucasian  family,  some  of  which 
tbey  exhibit  in  an  extreme  degree.  They  are  remarkable  for  quick- 
aeBS  and  intelligence,  hut  the  brilliancy  of  theic  imagination  and 
Quit  nnriTalled  wit  are  more  striking  than  their  depth  of  thought 
or  power  of  patient  investisation.      Their  wit  ui  so  peculiar  and 

fi  gaierit,  that  it  ia  quite  mimitahle  by  aU  save  the  natives  of  the 
asrald  Isle.  They  are  aingnlarly  warm-hearted  and  hospitable, 
i,  when  well  educateJ  and  reiined,  form  the  most  sgreeahle  aaao- 


\ 


174  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

ciatcs.  Their  prevailing  vices  are  rashness,  improvidence,,  and 
a  disposition  to  riotous  excitement ;  and,  when  nnder  the  influence 
of  spirituous  liquors,  they  are  frequently  regardless  of  human,  life. 
They  have  always  manifested  a  strong  aversion  to  English  rule,  end 
have  had  too  many  causes  for  evincing  a  spirit  of  insubordination : 
hut  a  better  day  is  beginning  to  dawn  over  this  unfortunate  though 
beautiful  country. 

Literature. — Ireland  cuuld  boast  of  a  written  literature  long  before 
the  sister  island.  Kot  a  few  Irish  MSS.  still  extant  are  supposed  to 
have  been  written  as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  The  famous  Psalter 
of  Cashel,  though  not  compiled  till  the  ninth  century,  contains 
many  compositions  of  a  much  older  date ;  and  the  same  remark  holds 
true  in  regard  to  the  valuable  collection  of  ancient  Irish  records 
made  by  Tighemach  and  other  annalists  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries.  These  were  printed  and  published  by  the  Rev.  Charles 
O'Connor  in  1814-26,  both  in  the  original  and  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion. The  largest  known  collections  of  Irish  MSS.  are  those  in  the 
library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  those  formerly  in  that  of  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  at  Stowe.  Of  the  few  works  that  have  ap- 
peared in  Irish,  in  recent  times,  are  Eeating's  '  Chronological  His- 
tory of  Ireland,'  and  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  executed  in  1681. 
As  the  Irish  language  was  rarely  studied  by  scholars  of  other  coun- 
tries, learned  Irishmen  generally  wrote  in  the  Latin  tongue  in  early 
times,  and  in  English  at  a  subsequent  period.  Among  the  latter 
may  be  mentioned  the  following: — Poetry*  Dean  Swift,  Oliver 
Goldsmith,  J.  Barry,  Wolfe,  Moore.  History:  Keating,  Leland, 
O'Hallaran.  Mental  and  Moral  Science  :  Bp.  Berkeley,  Hut- 
cheson.  Theology  :  Archbp.  Usher,  Dr  Adam  Clarke,  W.  B.  Kir- 
wan,  Archbp.  Magee.  ^Natural  Science  :  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Sir 
W.  R.  Hamilton,  R.  Kirwan,  Goldsmith,  Sir  D.  Barry,  R.  Murphy, 
Lord  Rosse.  Orators  and  Statesmen:  Canning,  Sheridan, 
Burke,  Grattan,  Curran,  Daniel  O'Connel,  Lord  Macartney,  Lord 
Plunket  Novelists  and  Dramatists  :  Sir  K  Steele,  Sterne, 
O'Hara,  Griffin,  Arthur  Murphy,  O'Keeffe,  Carleton,  Knowles,  Lever. 
Fine  Arts  :  Lover,  M.  Kelly,  Sir  J.  A.  Stevenson.  Tsayblb  :  R. 
O'Hara,  Burke,  Maclure,  M'Clintock.  Miscellaneous  :  S.  Baunj, 
M  alone,  K  Quin,  Maginn,  J.  W.  Croker,  J  C.  Croker. 

/ 


V. 


SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL. 

Position  and  Bonndaries. — Spain  and  |  Portngal,  other- 
wise called  the  Iberian  or  Spanish  PeninsulL  occnpieB  the  ex- 
treme S.W.  comer  of  Europe.  It  is  bonnaed  on  the  N.  hj 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  whiom  sepaiate  it  fuaa 


SPAIN    AND    rORTL-GAL,  175 

.  France  ;  on   the  W,  liy  the  Atlajitio  ;   iind  on  the  S.  and  E. 

I    partly  by  the  Atlantic  and  paatly  Ly  the  Mediterranean  and 

'   Strait  of  Gibraltar,  which  sepatate  jt  from  Africa.    The  Pen- 

'    insula  liea  between  the  parallels  of   36°   1'  and  43°   45'  N., 

and  between  the  meridjana  of  9°  32'  W.  and  3°  20'  E. ;  Urns 

occupying  7|°  of  latitude  and  nearly  13°  of  loncitude.     iladrid, 

near  the  centre  of  the  Peiiinsulo,  is  nearly  on  tua  same  pu'ftllel 

OB  Naples,   Bokhara,  Pekin,  Great  Salt-Lake  City,  and  New 

York,  and  nearly  on  the  eanie  meridian  as  Edinburgh,  Exeter, 

L'Oiient^  Ivory  Coast,  and  St  Helena. 

I       Form,  Oosut-Une,  and  Extreme  Points. — Except  for  a.  consider- 
\  able  prolonBation  in  the  extreme  N.E.,  the  form  of  tha  Peninsula  is 
Dearly  a  s<iuare,  whose  longest  dia^nal,  from  Cape  St  Vincent  to 
Capo  CreuBe,  measures  6S0  miles  ;  sud  the  nhorleBt,  irom  Cape  Orte- 
ga! to  Cape  de  Gata,  625  miles.     Tlie  extreme  points  are — Cape  Boca, 
near  Lisbon,  the  most  westerly  point  of  the  continent,  and  Tarifa 
Point,  near  Gibraltar,  the  most  southerly ;  Cape  Ortegal  in  Galicia 
and  Cape  Creusa  iu  Catalonia  are  the  extreme  N.  and  B.  points. 
Surrounded  by  the  ocean  on  all  sides  except  the  N.K,  the  sea-margin 
is  necessarily  targe  ;  but  the  ocean  nowhere  penetrates  the  land  very 
deeply,  and  there  ai-e  extensive  tracts  in  the  interior  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  sea.     The  entire  coast-line  is  estimated  at  2300  miles, 
of  which  ISOO  belong  to  Spain  and  600  to  Portngal ;  being  1  mile  of 
I    coast  to  each  98  miles  of  surface — a  ratio  preatly  inferior  to  that  of 
I   the  other  European  peninsulas,  all  of  which  are  deeply  indented  hy 

Area  and  Population.  —The  area  of  the  Penmsula  alone  is  S27,420 
m.  miles,  or  considerably  more  than  the  area  of  France  ;  190,93S 
I  belong  to  Spsin,  and  30,181  to  Portugal  Including  ths 
Eoicacd  Canary  Isles,  the  area  of  Spain  is  195,S14sr^.  miles  j  and 
Blat  of  Portugal,  including  the  A:!OTes  and  Madeira,  37,B6S  sq.  miles. 
Hanas  the  area  of  Spain  and  FortuRal,  including  the  isisuds,  is 
nearly  double  that  of  the  Brit.  Isles.  In  May  1867  the  total  populv 
tion  of  Spain  amounted  to  16,641,080,  of  which  half  a  million  be- 
longed to  the  islands.  The  population  of  Portugal,  in  1868,  amounted 
to.^3B0,974i  of  which  366,000  belonged  to  Madeira  and  the  Azores. 
Eence  the  entire  population  of  the  Peninsula  with  its  islands  does 
not  nearly  equal  the  population  of  England  and  Wales  in  1S7 1 ,  though 
the  area  la  lout  times  greater.  In  ttiB  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century  the  population  of  the  Peninsula  was  greatly  denser  than 
at  present,  that  of  Spain  alone  having  been  eatimatcil  at  nearly 
S.O00, 000 ;  but  in  the  four  subsequent  centuries  it  doclinsd  to  little 
re  than  5,000,000.  It  is  now  af^in  advancing,  though  very  slowly. 
the  first  half  of  the  present  century  it  increased  about  40  per 
i,  the  population  of  1S03  haring  been  estimated  at  10,361,000. 
imerons  wara  in  which  Spain  has  been  engaged,  the  loss  of  her 
»  and  commerce,  the  want  of  water  in  the  interior,  the  indo. 
BDCB  of  the  inhahitimts,  and,  above  all,  the  blighting  agency  of  her 


176 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


religion,  account  in  a  great  measure  for  the  stationary  and  frequently 
retrograde  condition  of  the  population.  The  population  of  Portu- 
gal has  increased  considerably  during  the  century. 

Political  Divisions. — Previously  to  1833,  Spain  was  divided  into 
fifteen,  or,  including  Granada,  into  sixteen  provinces,  many  of  which 
were  called  kingdoms.  These  were  then  subdivided  into  forty-nine 
new  provinces  (including  the  Balearic  Isles  and  the  Canaries),  which, 
in  general,  bear  the  names  of  their  respective  capitals.  The  three 
Basque  provinces,  however,  and  Navarra,  retain  tneir  former  names. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  old  provinces,  with  their  capitals,  show- 
ing the  new  provinces  into  which  they  have  been  partitioned  : — 


01(1  Provinces. 

Capitals. 

New  Provinces. 

Guipuzcoa 

Tolosa 

Guipuzcoa. 

Biscaya 

Bilbao 

Biscaya. 

Alava 

Vitoria 

Alava. 

Asturiaa 

Oviedo 

Oviedo. 

Galicia          < 

Santiago  de  ) 
Compostella  j 

Lugo,  Corufia,  Pontevedra,  Orense. 

Leon 

Leon 

Leon,  Zamora,  Salamanca. 

Estremadura 

Badajos 

Caceres,  Badajos. 

Andalucia 

Seville 

Sevilla,  Cordova,  Jaen,  Huelva,  Cadiz. 

Granada 

Granada 

Granada,  Almeira,  Malaga. 

Murcia 

Murcia 

Murcia,  Albacete. 

Valencia 

Valencia 

Alicante,  Valencia,  Castellon-de-la- 
Plana. 

Catalonia 

Barcelona 

Tarragona,  Barcelona,  Gerona,  Lenda. 

Aragon 

Zaragoza 

Huesca,  Zaragoza,  TerueL 

Navarra 

Pamplona 

Navarra. 

Old  Castile 

Burgos 

Santander,  Logrono,  Burgos,  Palencia, 
Valladolid,  Soria,  S^ovia,  Avila. 

New  Castile ) 
&LaMancha  j 

Madrid         < 

Madrid,  Guadalaxara,  Cnenca,  Toledo, 

CiudadReaL 

The  forty-seven  continental  provinces  are  most  conveniently  ar- 
ranged as  follows  : — 

• 

Seven  north-western  provinces,  fronting  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Seven 
western,  embracing  Leon,  Estremadura,  and  part  of  Gkdicia.  Bight 
southern,  embracing  Ajidalucia  and  Granada.  Seven  eastarn,  oom- 
prising  Murcia,  Valencia,  and  a  part  of  Catalonia.  Six  norUi-eaatem, 
containing  the  remainder  of  Catalonia,  Aragon,  and  Navarra.  Twdvo 
central,  embracing  Old  and  New  Castile,  witi^  La  IfimffJi*-  In  fha 
following  lists,  towns  of  above  10,000  inhabitanti  an  nat  In  Ingl 
type,  and  those  ranging  between  10,000  and  6000  in  nnuL 


BPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL, 

SjiVBN  North-Westben  pROYiyCES. 
OnlpnMoa.* — Tolosa  E  (Orria),   San  Sabastiaoi  19  (Ummea). 
Towns  between  5000  and  10,000  iaiiabitaata.    Fuenterrsbia. 

■Bilbao  25  {Nervion), 
AtaTa,— VlTOKlA  Ifi  (ZadoiTii,  afi.  of  tlie  Ebro), 
Baatsader.— Santandeh  30  (Miem). 
OrteAo.— Otiedo  23  (NaloD),  Gyon  7,  Aviles  6  fS".  coast). 
Lugo. — Lroo  7  (Minho),  Mondonedo  6  (Masma). 

CoRciJA  30  (Mero),  Feirol  17  (W.  coast),  Tadron  B,  San- 
Uago  de  Compostella  27  u.  (Ulla). 

SEI'EN   "W"ESTI!R(T  PROVIKCRB, 

PonteTeiia.— PoKTEiTUDBA  5  (Lerey),  Vigo  8  (Kia  de  Vigo). 
0r9ii8e.—0 HESSE  S  (Minho). 

Leos  6  (BornesgH). 
Zemon.— Zauora  10,  Toro  8  (Donro),  Benavente  12  (Esla). 

i. — Salamanca  16  (Tonnes),  Oiadad  Rodrigo  5  (Agueda). 
■Caceres  12  (Caceres). 
GaiTobillas,  Flacentia,  Trujillo,  Montanches,  Akantara. 

I. — Badajos  23,  OlivencB  10,  Don  Benito  15,  Villajiu«-a 
10  (Gnadiana). 

Xares  de  Iob  Caballeroa,  Albuqnenjne,  Villafranca,  Llerena,  Cabcza  de! 
:j-,  Castusra,  Fr^enal  de  la  Sierra. 

EiOHT  Sqvthbbn  Peotiscbs. 
SeTDla. — Sbtilla  82  (Guadalquivii'),  Utrera  13n.(Salado),  Moron 


•X, 


s  pravinnes  or  Spain,  d, 

btforeSjO,  n,  l,r  =  K'iByo;  but  g  before  e.i,  <i,  like  onr  ft,  very  stningW 
uplnlad,  u  Genii  (llenU) ;  In  tbe  nf  UaUet  ffui.  pui,  the  g  la  hard,  Uiough 

fclnlrtaTls  silent  :'i«Hii 
■ligbt  and  acmewhat 


ianan,  Frer 
=  &ig!lih  i 


in  Die  Buibdi  ud  German,  nr  i 
ucar,  wtlb  the  h  vaj  Birong. 
Ingliab  inlifonL'  tliua  Llobrogat,  Lien 
,  or  Eaglleb  ni  la  Suaniari] :  as  CaruBa  War-     ' 
io  Ouii3«l5urtit  (fiuQ-Jnl-Wrtr^ 
[dole  uf  wurds  have  a  itroag  roUlng  louni 

w  1[fce  EDgtlnh  I. 

gwa  (rAa-TTi-jo'tto). 


Roada.  Zadc 
^BBgUlhliDi 

a H&i  thin': ' 


del.  alio  u-tfled  DayiBlel  [pftkUta  c 


178  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

de  la  Frontera  13  (Guadairo),  Carmona  15,  Marcliena  13  (Carboncs), 
Osona  17  n.  (Madre  Vieja),  Ecija  24  (GenU  or  Xenil). 
Lebrija,  Ck}nstaiitma;  Cazsdla,  Alcala,  Fuentes-de-la-Campana,  Estepa. 

Cordova. — Cordova  36,  Montoro  11  (Guadalquivir),  Montilla  13  n., 
Cabra  12,  Lucena  17  n.  (Cabra),  Baena  13  n.  (Guadajos),  Priego  14 
(Salado,  affl.  Genii). 

Palma,  Bujalance,  Rambla,  Villanueva,  Hlnojosa,  Pozoblanco,  Castro 
del  Real,  Espeja,  Feman  Nufiez,  Puente-GenlL 

JaexL — Jaen  23  (Jaen,  affl.  Guadalquivir),  Baeza  11,  Andujar  10, 
Ubeda  14  (Guadalquivir),  Alcala  la  Keal  12  (Guadajos),  Martos  11 
(Salado). 

Cazorla,  Linares,  Alcandete,  Torre  Don-Gimeno,  Porcunna. 

HuelvaK — Htjelva  7  (Odiel). 
Valverde,  Moguer,  Palos,  Ayamonte. 

Cadiz.— Cadiz  62,  San  Fernando  10  (Isle  of  Leon),  San  Lucar  16 
(Guadalquivir),  Puerto  S.  Maria  18,  Xeres  de  la  Frontera  89,  Arcos 
11  (Gaudalete),  Chiclana  21,  Medina-Sidonia  11  (Lerio),  A^geciras 

11  (Strait  of  Gibraltar). 

Bota,  Olvera,  Ubrique,  Vejer  de  la  Frontera,  Alcala  de  los  Grazules, 
Tarifa,  San  Roqiie,  Gimena,  Grazalema. 

Malaga. — Malaga  93,  Antequera  17  (Guadaljorce),  Yelez  Malaga 
16  (Velez),  Ronda  16  (Guadiaro). 
Estepona,  Marbella,  Archidona,  Alora,  Alliaurin,Coin,  Monda,Colm6nar. 

Granada. — Granada  62,  Loja  15  (Genii),  Motril  12  (Guadalfeo), 
Baza  11  n.  (Barbata,  affl.  Guadalquivir). 
Montefrio,  Alhama,  Almufiecar,  Adra,  Hnescar,  iSiebla. 

Almeria. — Almeria  29  (Almeria),  Cueva  de  Vera  10,  Hnercabvert 

12  (Almanzora),  Velez  Rubio  12  (Velez),  Berja  10  (Adra). 
Nyar,  Gergal,  Dallas,  Mojacar,  Vera,  Seron,  Velez  Blanco,  Oria. 

Seven  Eastern  Provinces. 

Miirda.— MuRciA  88,  Cieza  10  (Segura),  Lorca  40  (SangonenOj 
Caravaca  10,  Cebigan  10  (Caravaca),  Cartagena  22  (S.  coast). 

Yecla,  Jumilla,  Mula,  Calasparra,  Alhama,  Fnente,  Alamo,  TotMUy 
Almazarron,  Bullas,  Moratello. 

Albacete. — ^Albacete  11  n..  Chinchilla  12  n.  (Guadamiiiui,  ogL 
Guadalquivir),  Hellin  10  (Mundo),  Peiias  de  San  Pedro  10  {HadanJ^T 

Alcaraz,  Bonillo,  Almanza,  Tarazona,  Tobarra,  Candete,  Yerte. 

Alicante.>-ALTCANTE  31  (K  coast),  Orihuela  18  (Seffon.).  EUu  18 
(Elche),  Alcoy  27  (Alcoy). 

Villajoyosa,  Aspe,  Novela,  Monovar,  Villena,  Gandiay 
Crevillente. 

Valencia. — Valencia  87   (Guadalaviar),  Aldn  IS 
Felipe  de  Xativa  13  (Albayda). 

Llria,  Cnllera,  Sueca,  Ayora,  Carcajente^  Ontenknl^ 
viedro,  Torrente. 

Castellon-de-la-Plana.  —  CA8TELL02f-DB-L4-Ft> 
Vinaros  11  (Cenia). 
Segorbe,  Villa-Real,  Alcore,  Benicarlo,  Boxrin 


SPAIN-    AND    hOSTUGAL. 


-Tahhagosa  13,   Ecu 


,  Vails  11   (Francoli), 


I 


I 


Tutasa,  VUlftfrBnca,  Cerrera. 

Sh  Nobth-Eastbrn  Provincih. 

Garona.— Gerona  8  <Ter),  Olot  12  (Flnvia). 

Blanes,  S.  Felin  do  Gnisols,  FiguersB. 

Lertda.— LEKniA  17  (Segre). 

Bnetoa. — Hubsca  9  (lauela),  Fraga  G,  Barbaatro  6  (Cinca). 

ZaraKDxa. — Zaracoza  56  (Ebro). 

Caape,  Tuazona,  Calataynd. 

TemSL — TERtTEL  7  (GuadakTisr),  AleaBk  6  (Gaudalape). 

HaTaiT&. — Pamplona  23  jAgia). 

TudsU,  Estella,  Sanguesa. 

Twelve  Central  Protinces. 
BuigOB.— Buitoos  26  (Arlanzon,  n^.  Douro). 
Xognma. — LooroSo  7,  Calahorra  6,  Haro  li  (Ebro). 
Pftlouda. — Falehcia  11  (Carrion,  o^.  Pisuerga). 
ViLlladOUil — Vallaholid  40  (Pisuerga), 
Medina  deKio  Sato. 
Borta.— SoRiA  3  (Donro). 
BegoTla.— SEaovTA  13  (Erearaa,  agl.  Dquto). 
Avlla. — AviLA  G  (Ad^a,  aJL  Donro). 
Haibld. — MAMtis  333  (Manzanares). 
AlcaU,  CliinctioD,  Colmeoar. 
Onadalaxara.— GuADALAXAiiA  5,  Sigiii>nza  G  (HenareB). 

Cnenca Cvekca6  (Xacar),  Beqneiia  11,  Utiel  S  (Magro). 

Kfledo.— ToLEEO  15  (Tagua). 
Talaveni,  Madridejos,  Quintaiiar,  OcaOa. 

Ctndoa BeaL— CiUDAS  Real  8  n.   i^Guadiaiia),  Alraagro   IS  i 
'aldepenoa  10  {Jabalouj,  Daiuiiel  12  (Azur). 
Maiuanarea,  Solana,  Almodovar,  Alcazar,  Ugreuua,  Almml^Tii 


Two  i.\s 


<   i'i.. 


—Palm 


Ilahoii  13,  Ciuiindeh 

CuuTlas.— Sakta  { '  I 

IS  Folmaa  13  (Grand  ' 

I,  PoKTCOAii  formei ;  ■ 

aces  ^besides  tlii-  />  ' 


r  1  (MbJotm),   Port. 
H  8  (Iiknii  IVmrrrllTe), 


180  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

are  subdivided  for    administrative   purposes  into    twenty-six 
comarcas  or  shires. 

Mlnho.*— Braga  20  (Ria  d'Este). 
Viana,  Guimaraens^  Prado. 

Tras-OB-Montes. — Braoanca  5  (Sabor). 

Douro  or  Maritime  Belra. — Oporto  89  (Douro),  Coimbra  18  (Mon- 
dego),  Ovar  10  (Vonga). 
Aveiro,  Mira,  Figuera. 

Upper  Belra.— ViSKTJ  9  (Vouga),  Lamego  9  n.  (Douro),  Almeida  7 
(Coa). 
Lower  Belra. — Castello  Branco  6  (Yereza),  Covilha  5  (Zezerc) 

Bstremadura.— Lisbon  224  (Tagus),  Setubal  13  (Sadao). 
Abrantes,  Torres- Vedras,  Cezimbra,  Vimeira. 

Alemtejo.— EvoRA  13  (Xarama),  Elvas  11  (Guadiana). 
Portalegre,  Castello  de  Vide,  Estremoz,  Beja,  Serpa. 

Algarve. — Faro  8,  Lagos  7,  Loul^  8  n.,  Tavira  11  (S.  co.) 

Azores. — ^An6Ra12  (Terceira),  Ponta  Delgadal6  (San  Miguel). 

Madeiras.— FuNCHAL  18  (Madeira),  Porto  Santo  6  (Porto  Santo). 

Descrlptlye  Notes. — Spain,  including  the  islands,  contains  only 
two  cities  of  above  100,000  inhabitants — ^viz.,  Madrid  and  Barce> 
lona;  seven  above  50,000 — viz.,  Malaga*  Valencia,  Seville,  Mnr- 
cia,  Cadiz,  Zaragosa,  Granada;  and  nineteen  between  20,000 
and  50,000.  The  southern  provinces  (Andalucia  and  Granada)  are 
by  far  the  most  densely  peopled  portions  of  the  kingdom,  and  con- 
tain a  full  half  of  the  total  number  of  towns ;  the  twelve  central 
provinces  are  very  thinly  peopled,  while  the  western  and  norih- 
western  are  the  least  populous  of  all. 

San  Sebastian,  a  strongly-fortified  seaport-town,  and  the  largest  in  fhe 
province,  was  taken  by  storm  by  the  British  from  the  French  hi  1813^ 
and  reduced  to  ashes ;  but  has  since  been  rebuilt,  and  is  now  one  of  tbe 
finest  cities  in  Spain.  Bilbao,  the  principal  port  of  the  north  of  Spain» 
and  the  great  emporium  of  Spanish  wool  for  exportation.  YitOTiA,  cele- 
brated for  a  great  victory  gained  by  the  Duke  of  Wellingtm  over  the 

*  The  Portuguese  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  and  the  diphthongs  at,  tm,  mL  9LwaA 

ey,  have  essentially  the  same  sound  as  m  Spanish ;  but  oo  is  ntmi,  as  m  Kmso 

(MareormaTU  while  the  combinations  ei  and  oi  are  not  diphtluKQgi :  ai  Beln» 

Coimbra  cJ5e'i-ra,  Co-im'hra). 

c  has  a  hard  and  soft  sound  as  in  English,  but  has  the  MiUia  mora  tnqpaOj 

than  in  Spanish. 
ch  and  «  =  cA  in  French  or  sh  in  English :  thoa^  Ohavea^  Vundialp  ZSm 

(SMves^  Fung'aial,  Sha'res). 
g  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  j,  have  the  same  sound  as  In  Fcenoli ;  aa  CiMsi  toi 


Geres,  Alemt^o  (Ccudat-do-ZMru,  Al  tmg  toWe] 


ttisMfln 


/tis  always  silent,  but  when  it  follows  lor  » 

thus,  Covilha,  Minho  {Co-vOrva,  UiiCyo\ 
m  and  n  are  frequently  nasaL  and  aimilar  to  tibat  dtm :  M  A^* 

U'tho). 
gu  and  qu  are  sounded  like  our  a  hard  and  L  tt' 

diana,  Ourique  {Ga-di^na,  Oo-iwliqyX 


':!-i 


I 


i   PORTUCAI,.  ISl 

Frenuli  in  1313.  Bantander  was  sacked  by  t!ifl  French  In  1803  :  It  Las 
productivB  Iron-minea  in  the  yiciiiity.  Orifldo,  notod  for  its  hot  mineral 
apringi  and  bathR.  Conma,  a  flonrishing  commercial  and  fDrtified  town, 
witha  fine  harbour.  It  was  from  thia  port  the  Spanish  Annada  set  Bail 
for  the  conquest  of  England  in  1638 ;  and  near  this,  oh  Uib  heights  of 
Elvina,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the  trnopa  under  Sir  Jehu  Moore, 
who  fell  in  tbe  hour  of  riotoiy,  JannBrf  1809.  Ferrol,  one  of  the  threo 
principal  araenala  of  Spain,  U  strongly  fortilied.  Bantlago  do  CompOE- 
talla,  with  B  imiveisity,  and  a  magnificent  cathedral  dedicated  to  St 
Jameithe  Elder,  the  patron  saint  of  Spain.  Zamora,  with  manufactures 
of  coarse  woollen  hata,  leather,  and  gunpowder.  Salamuica,  with  an 
aneient  and  famous  univeisjty,  formerly  the  principal  seat  of  learning  in 
Spain,  but  now  greatly  decayed  ;  liero  tbp  French  were  defeated  by  Wel- 
lington in  1812.  Badsjos.aBtrongly-fortiBed  city  on  tho  Gusdiana,  te- 
peatcdly  taken  and  ntaken  in  the  Feninaular  war,  is  the  birthplace  of 
the  painter  M  orales.  Seville  or  SevillEi,  one  of  the  most  ancient  tovraa 
in  Europe,  the  capital  of  Spain  under  the  Gothic  dynasty,  and  afterwards 
of  Andnlncia,  was  long  tho  chief  residence  of  the  Spanish  roonsrehs;  has 
s  fine  cathedral,  and  one  of  the  principal  universitiea  of  Spain :  it  baa  tba 
largest  cigar  and  tobacco  monufactocy  in  Europe,  employing  3O0O  persona. 
CordOTa,oncB  the  capital  of  tho  Caliphate  of  the  West,  and  afterwards  of 
the  kingdom  of  Cordova.  In  modem  times  thia  city  was  noted  for  its 
mannfftotnre  of  a  sort  of  leather,  called  cordKain  or  cordoron,  which  has 
now  declined.  Codil,  a  lai-ge  fortified  city  on  the  Isla  of  Leon,  the  prin- 
dpal  commercial  city  in  the  kingdom,  and  the  centre  of  the  trade  in  sherry 
WuiB.  Xsrw  do  la  Frontara,  e>;teuaively  engaged  in  the  manufactura 
of  wine,  and  giving  its  name  iiieny)to  one  variety.  Malafa  ia  the  chief 
port  of  the  province,  and  l^ely  engaged  in  eiiportiug  wiues,  raisins, 
almonda,  and  other  fruits.  The  Malaga  raisins,  called  rauacatBla,  fetch 
a  greatly  higher  price  than  any  other  deacription.  Granada,  in  a  plain 
renowsed  for  its  beauty  and  fertility,  was  tlie  capital  of  the  laat  Moorish 
Idngdora  in  Spain ;  the  palace  of  the  fcing.i,  the  famous  Alhambra,  a 
coble  specimen  of  Moorisn  architecture,  is  still  standing.  Unicla,  with 
goremment  factories  of  nitre  and  gunpowder,  and  a  richly-decorated 
lythedral.     Lorea,  a  busy  tluivingtown,  with  manufactoriea  of  saltphBtre, 

atienal  of  Spain.  Valencia,  a 
with  a  flounshing  university.  Is  ^  , 
Tortosa,  a  strongly-fortified  city  on  the  Ebro,  with  an  active  fishery  iTi 
sturgeons  and  lamproys.  Su-eelona,  the  former  capital  of  Catalonia,  and 
the  second  city  in  Spam  in  point  of  population,  is  strongly  fortified,  has 
a  university  and  four  public  libiuriea,  one  of  which  is  celebrated  as  con- 
taining many  valuable  MSS.  Barcelona  ia  laigely  engaged  in  trade  and 
-  mnfactnles,  and  has  for  ages  been  a  place  of  great  importance.  Zara- 
SE  at  SuMfona  (Oesaiea  Augusta),  an  ancient  and  populous  city  on 
■"oro,  and  the  only  place  of  importance  in  the  nortb-eoatem  provinces, 
wu  me  capital  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Aiagon ;  it  contains  a,  university ; 
and  its  oatheial  is  cdebratod  over  Spain  for  its  aanctuoiy,  which  attracts 

'         -  "t  heroic  daienco  against  the 

„ of  the  principal  fortrojaes  ol 

1^  thsBtitiah  iu  1813.    Bnrgoa,  tha 

"^  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  catbedrr ' 

,    Tulftdolld,  formerly  a  place 

atit  contains  a  celebrated  uoir 


uleEb; 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


I 


182 

sity  ;  hero  Columbus  died  in  1B06.  Segovia,  noUil  (or  its  maguificent 
Raniaa  aqnedact  of  161  archea,  and  Dnmeroiu  other  remuaa  of  ita  formor 
grandeur.  Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  occupies  an  elevated  cite  in  the 
centro  of  s  barren  plain,  2200  feet  ahove  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  and  farftoia 
any  navigable  river.  It  is  anhjecl  to  great  ineqiialitiea  of  tempeTatnre, 
and  in  reckoned  very  unhealthy.  It  ie  about  eight  milea  in  circuit ;  tho 
modem  ^rt  of  the  city  ia  handsome,  but  the  numoer  of  convents  and 
other  religiona  honsea,  with  grated  windows  and  without  visible  doora, 

S'vea  the  streets  a  sombre  asneet.  Madrid  ia  tho  birthplace  of  Alonzo 
1  Ercilla,  Lopu  de  Vegs,  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  NnGez,  and  the  brothera 
Velaaqnez.  Toledo  waa  the  capital  of  Spain  under  the  Goths,  at  which 
time  it  had  200,000  inhabitanta,  though  now  it  has  but  13,000.  Ithaa 
ioug  been  famona  for  the  manufacture  of  sword-blades,  and  great  skill  ia 
atill  shown  in  teraperiog  them.  Almnden. ;  near  it  are  valuable  ^nicli- 
silver-mines,  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  Palma,  a  fortified  city  on 
the  S.W.  coast  of  Majorca,  haa  in  its  vicinity  a  huRB  palace,  formerly 
occupied  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition.  Fort  Uahon,  also  a  fortilieil  tonn, 
capital  of  Minorca,  and  the  residence  of  the  military  ^ovamor.  SantB- 
Croi,  capital  of  the  Canary  Islands,  in  the  island  Teneriffe,  has  an  export 
trade  in  vine.  Las  Palmas,  the  principal  tomi  in  the  same  group,  InB  a  ■ 
population  of  13,000. 

Towns  m  PoRlnoAii. — Portugal,  including  the  islands,  con- 
taina  only  two  towna  above  60,000  inhabitants — Lisbon  and 
Oporto  ;  one  at  20,000— Braga  ;  and  eleven  between  10,OIX)  and 
20,00(1. 


tho  present  royal  family,  has  manufactures  of  velvets  and  other  silk 
fabrics.  Chaves,  a  fortified  town,  with  hot  saline  springs  of  129'  Fair. 
Oporto,  or  Porto,  »  largo  oonuneteial  city  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Douro  ;  in 
popnhition  and  commercial  importance  it  ranks  nert  to  Lisbon,  which  it 
excels  in  the  amount  and  variety  of  Ha  manufactures.  It  exports  im- 
mense quantities  of  port  wine,  and  has  estensive  silk-factories,  and  some 
of  linen  and  cotton  goods.  Coimbra,  on  the  Monde^o,  ia  the  seat  of  the 
sole  university  in  the  kingdom.  Coimbra  is  one  of  the  rainiest  localitlea 
in  Europe— 118  inches  of  rain  fallsunnaUy.  Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portu- 
gal, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus  near  its  maath,  with  about  a 
qnarter  of  a  million  inhabitants.  It  contains  many  splendid  architectu- 
ral monnmenta,  especially  tlie  palaces  ofthenobility,  and  the  magnificent 
aqnedact  of  Alcantara,  with  thirty-aii  arches  of  white  marble.  Ths 
streets,  however,  are  narrow,  winding,  and  dirty.  There  are  few  Impor- 
tant manufactures,  except  of  jeweUeiT  and  trinketa  ;  and  its  commerce, 
which  was  once  conaiderable,  has  greatly  declined  since  the  Portuguese 
colonies  became  independent.  Usbon  waa  the  birthplace  of  Camoena, 
TDlreB-VedTOSi  celebrated  in  tho  Peninsular  war  for  the  lines  of  defence 
constructed  by  Wellington  in  1810  to  obstruct  the  approach  of  tho 
French.  Vimeira,  where  the  Dnke  of  Wellingtoa  defeated  the  French  lu 
180S.  Zvora,  an  ancient  city  of  Roman  ori^m,  with  manufactures  of 
hardware  and  leather.  Elvas,  a  fortified  frontier  city  on  the  right  bank 
of  tho  Guadiana,  with  a  college  and  s  Moorish  aqueduct.  Faro  exporti 
fresh  and  dried  fruits,  wine,  cork,  sumach,  and  anchovies.  Angra,  a  for- 
tified seaport,  and  capital  of  the  Azores,  Hith  a  military  college  and  other 
educational  satablishmetits.     Fonts,  Delgada  is  the  principal  towD  in  the 


I 

I 

I 


Azores  with  regard  to  population  and  commercB,  Punclial,  the  capital 
of  the  ialand  Uodeiia,  ig  engaged  in  the  manufacture  and  Bipartation  ot 
Madeira  vine. 

Capet.— /n  Spam  .-  Cape  Pinistcrre,  in  Galicia,  the  most  western 
point  of  Spain;  Ortegal,  in  the  Bame  province,  the  most  northern 
point  of  Spain  ;  Creni,  in  Catalonia,  the  moat  eastern  ;  St  Martin, 
In  Valencia ;  Falos,  in  Murcia ;  Gala,  in  Granada ;  Eurapa  Point 
near  Oibrsltar  ;  Tarifa  Point,  the  mast  soathern  point  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  ;  Trafal|;ar,  W.  of  Andalncia,  off  which  Lord  Kelson 
ilefuated  the  uimbined  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  in  ISOfl.  /n  Por- 
tagal:  Cape  Santa  Haria,  the  soutnenimoat  point  of  Portugal;  St 
Vincent,  S.W.  of  Atearve,  off  which  Sir  Joiin  Jerria  signally  de- 
feated tlie  Spanish  fleet,  in  1797  ;  Espichel  and  Roca  gnard  the 
entrance  of  me  Tagua :  the  latter  is  the  most  western  point  of  the 
continent  of  Europe. 


of  the  province  Cadiz;  Canary  IslandSjf  60  miles  S.W.  of  Mar- 
ooco — the  principal  are  Lazarote,  Fuerte  Ventura,  Grand  Canarj, 
Teneriffe,  Gomera,  Palma,  and  Hiero.     Portuguese:  The  Azores,! 


BOO  miles  W.  of  Portagal ;  principal,  San  Miguel,  Terceira,  Pico, 
San  Jorjte,  Santa  Maria.  The  Madeira  Isles,  g  6B0  miles  S.W.  of 
Portng^,  consist  ot  Madeira,  Porto  Santo,  and  the  Desertas. 

Bara  and  Btraitl. — Bay  of  Ssntander,  in  Santander;  Rta  de 
Betanzos  anii  d'Arosa,  W.  of  Galicia  ;  Bay  of  Cadiz,  Bay  and  Strait 
of  Gibraltar,  Gulf  of  Almeria,  S.  of  Andalncia;  Gulfs  of  Amposta  and 
Sosas.  B.  of  Catalonia.  InPortagal :  Bahia  d'Aveiro,  W.  of  Donro; 
estuary  of  the  Tagns  and  Bay  of  St  Ubea,  in  Estremadora  ;  Bay  of 
Lagos,  S.  of  Algarve. 

Snrtaco  and  Mountains.  — The  Iberian  Peninsnla — the  most  west- 
erly of  the  three  grand  peninsnlas  of  Southern  Europe — in  its  general 
cbaracteristicB  more  closely  resenibics  Africa  than  it  does  the  rest  of 
Europe,  For  the  moat  pait  it  consists  of  a  lofty  plateau,  which,  in 
its  interior,  attains  to  an  elevation  of  about  2500  feet,  and  which  is 
xlcirted  on  all  sides  by  a  low  helt  of  land  separating  it  from  the  sur- 


*  la  Spaniali,  Baltn\ 
fapnMioD  (IBM.)  971. 
lma»;  prtaalnl piodoets— oUi«a, 

t  Tna  Cuunei  ua  of  volcanic  or.„ ^  

Qm  miHUiUiii*,  vhich  attain  a  ereal  elcvatlaii,  eapeclslly  thi 


(im,)  978,000,     Ttae  climate  Is  lenipcrtle  uid  health;,  tbe 
prtnalnil  piodoets— oUi«a,  wine,  btatnly.fnilts,  ralTron,  Ubl 


tnpfaial  htat  la  modenled  bj  ths  AtlinKe  tireeiea :  pdodpsl  proancl]  arsulse. 
oU,  £«l0|  neu-^iane,  ud  finLta.     Area,  3323  aq,  m. ;  pop.  (in  1S04X  S£0,40S. 

IThaAxom,  n  Weitero  laLoDda— in  FoctBgaeae-^pirei— arenCvolcuiloariKiii, 
irtth  steep  and  rugged  coaata.  aboandlng  with  deep  tavlnas  aiid  lofty  mountaliiB. 
na  peak  of  Flea  la  Itlt  ruthlgli.  Climxte  temperate  aod  bealihy,  but  subject 
Hi  TuflAOt  earthqiulieB :  prineipsl  prodnals  a»  irizieB,  all  kinds  ot  gnln  and 
iDdtebacoii.    A[ea,U4Taq 


&^ln 


184  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

rounding  seas.  The  two  loftiest  mountain-ranges  form,  respectively, 
the  southern  and  northern  boundaries  of  this  pMean,  while  the  three 
intermediate  ranges  traverse  it.  Owing  to  the  peculiar  8aw4»ke  ap- 
pearance of  their  summits,  the  different  ranges  are  termed  Herrcts. 
The  culminating-point  of  the  entire  Hesperian  system  is  Cerro  Mnl- 
ha9en,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  11,663  feet,  where  the  line  of  perpetuAl 
congelation  is  11,200  feet  above  the  sea,  while  in  the  Pyrenees  it  is 
only  8856  feet. 

The  Pyrenees,  with  the  mountains  of  Asturias,  which  form  their 
western  continuation,  extend  from  Cape  Creux  in  Catalonia  to  Cape 
Finisterre  in  Galicia,  and  separate  the  basin  of  the  Garonne,  Adour, 
and  Bay  of  Biscay,  from  the  basins  of  the  Ebro  and  Douro :  highest 
summits^Mount  Maladetta  (near  the  centre  of  the  Pyrenees),  11,163 
feet ;  Sierra  Penamarella,  in  Leon,  10,000  feet. 

Mountains  of  Castile^  or  central  chain,  separating  the  basins  of  the 
Douro  and  Tagus  :  Sierra  Gredos,  between  Old  Castile  and  Estremadura, 
10,552  feet ;  Sierra  d'Estrella,  in  Beira,  7524  feet. 

Mountains  of  Toledo,  extending  from  Cape  Espichel  in  Portugal  to 
the  S. W.  of  Aragon,  and  separating  the  basms  of  the  Tagus  and  Gua- 
diana :  Sierra  de  Guadalupe,  5115  feet. 

Sierra  Morena,  from  Cape  St  Vincent  to  Cape  St  Martin,  and  sepa- 
rating  the  basins  of  the  Guadiana  and  Guadalquivir  in  the  W.  from 
those  of  the  Xucar  and  Segura  in  the  E. ;  Mount  Aracena,  in  Seville, 
5550  feet ;  Sierra  Monchique,  in  Algarve,  4080  feet. 

Sierra  Nevada,  from  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  to  Cape  Palos,  and  between 
the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir  and  the  Mediterranean :  highest  summit, 
Cerro  Mulha^en,  in  Granada,  11,663  feet,  forming  the  culminating-point 
of  the  Peninsula. 

Riyer-Basixis. — The  grand  line  of  water-parting  of  Europe  traverses 
the  Peninsula  from  S.w.  to  N.E.  Commencing  at  Tarifa  Point,  it 
follows  the  crest-line  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  a»  easterly  direction, 
then  turning  northward,  it  forms  a  semicircular  curve,  the  concave 
side  of  which  is  towards  the  Atlantic,  and  strikes  the  Pyrenees  near 
the  source  of  the  Ebro.  It  thus  divides  the  Peninsula  into  two  un- 
equal slopes,  the  larger  of  which  bends  towards  the  Atlantic  and 
the  smaller  towards  the  Mediterranean.  Hence,  of  the  five  principal 
rivers,  no  fewer  than  four  (Douro,  Tagus,  Guadiana,  and  Guadal- 
quivir) find  their  way  to  the  Atlantic,  wnile  the  Ebro  alone  flows  to 
tne  Mediterranean.  The  combined  area  of  the  former  amounts  to 
85,000  sq.  m.,  and  embraces  25  out  of  the  55  provincial  capitals  of 
Spain  and  Portugal ;  while  the  Ebro  drains  25,000  sq.  m.,  and  em- 
braces in  its  basin  6  capitals. 

TaUe  of  Biyers  and  Towns.— There  are  815  towns  in  the  Penin- 
sula at  or  above  5000  inhabitants,  of  which  117  exceed  10,000. 
These  stand  on  154  rivers,  of  which  54  enter  the  sea,  the  remaining 
100  being  their  affluents.  Th^se  315  towns  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table.  The  capitals  of  provinces  are  distinguished  by  being 
printed  in  SMALL  capitals,  towns  above  10,000  in  Roman  letters, 
and  the  remainder  in  Italics. 


^^^^^H                       SPAIN 

poaTUGAi..                       1S5 

^^^^^                        BaHas  incliwt 

0  W«  4(toli^ 

SiiteTI.                     Tomis. 
BldflMon. FufnUrrabia. 

J(.Hri.                     Ton™. 
TftjuDa,  ....CRinran- 

Saniraa,  ..HADam,  n. 

wSftini/V.'.ilBiLBio. 

Mlora. 8*»T*HDER. 

ul^''  Alcala.OxiM>>uxiSi. 

N.Co. Gijon,  A„ilti. 

ta,J 

Nlloa Ov«DO, 

B         Hern, CohdS*. 

"dora, 
SaOao SetubttL 

m         mill, Padron.  aantligo  do 

■                                  Compoatellm  D. 

3,CollB»W;;L™»t     F.RO,      Liiuli 

I  ias^.-ifs"-"- 

Tenia,  EIvds,  BioAJOB, 

r       MinliD, OHBB»«,Lnoo. 

Don  Benito,  ViUaDncta 

■          Um... r«Bm. 

ae  Senna,  u.,  ClDOAa 

C»»do. JVado. 

RBAL.n. 

Hlmd'ai«,...BK«OA. 

Odi»rca.....£^ii. 

Doaro Opobto,  Zauoiia,  To™, 

Unrtiga,  i  Frrgtnal  it  la  Sierra, 

SORIA. 

COTBii. latnegD- 

Sabor. BiuoisfA. 

Matacfia],  1  Llertna. 

Ccw,{ JtDMida. 

Zaiii.l Vlllanoeva,    Cabeza   del 

AgiuHta.  I  ..Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

Bw,y. 

Tgmies,  J.,.H.IJHAKC.. 

GuadBle-CMiBH-fl. 

J;.li^ Benavente. 

fra,i 

Oai^ilii- Almaden,  a. 

H        B<«BUl".r:-M«lina  ael  Rio  Seco. 

^^1           Ounon,  ..FiLUNciA. 

JabaloD,  (..Almagro,  n..  Val  do  Pb- 

^^B           AiluHD,  Bimoos. 

aaBTS^aCnBifsJ/u. 

■ 

^B        AdgJa,I....AnLX. 

iTtfanlei,  n. 

TEJer,I...ili»i«fovnr. 

^H     Tanaa, Oior,  Avein,  Visou. 

Zanian,..  ...jjoisti-  de  Sun  Juan,  n. 

■     (rSilauro,..Jfi«; 

^    Jlondego, iWini,CQtmbn,Cwir- 

qullla, 

Binndio, TBrra-Viarta. 

a-ta^a.' 

*» '=,s;^T,-„it 

Odiel HoELVA,  FalcenK. 

Tin  to, .. ....  .,Patot,  Mofiuer. 

Ouad&lquivir,  Labrya.S.LacardaEani- 
moaa,    aEvii.i.E,    Cat- 

■                                  Cohnsnar, 

Diona,    n„    Coedoxa. 

^B         ZBtuLorEr- PorloIfi^rK. 

Bvjalanee,     Montoro, 

inW    Baeia,     n. 

^H           AlUi>tun,?9tr9nuiL 

Ubeda. 

^T 

Salado,i....m™™,n. 

^"          ZB»re, Cooafco. 

GQudolia,  1  Almla,  Koran  -  do  -  li-                     _ 

TsTBBi, CAsn:u.a-Bniki<CD. 

ntm^.....CiutHlaAiVid,. 

Queana,        Camtaaiina,  Cazalla.                        M 

S=vM,i J-oimeiiAi^toonWro. 

Carbonon,  1  Cannona,  Kurcliens.                          H 

CH««,..Ouj«<ra. 

Atop™ AleaMaTa,Btiiit. 

GMjU,i Ectja,     Pu™t.-0«iii,                   ■ 

J<,ne,l...Piaci«iia. 

i'ji^pa,  n..  Lnjm  JZ-i*                   ■ 

W/™,  n.,Gl^.DA.                       ■ 

Kk 

■ 

1S6 


POUTICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 


Basim  inclined  to  the 

Rivers.  Totcn». 

Cabra,  ,...Ramhla,  n.,  Montilla,  n., 

Cabra,  Lacena,  n. 
Salado,  ...Priego. 
Alhama,  I  Alhama. 
Gaadiata, . .  Villanueva. 
Guadajos,  I  .Feman  Nunez^  n.,   Es- 
pejo,  Castro,  Baena,  n., 
Alcala  la  Real. 
Salado,  I  ....Porcunne^n., Torre Don^ 

QimenOf  Martos. 
Gaadannina,^2cara2r,   Albacete,  n., 
Chinchilla,  n.,  Bonillo. 
Guarrezas,  LtJiarM. 
Jaen,  I Jaen.  I 


A  tlantie  (continued). 

Riven.  Townt. 

Gandiana-    Ubeda. 
Minor,  { 

Barbata,..Baza,     n.,     Huescar, 
PuMa. 

Vega,  I Caxoria. 

Guadalete.... Cadiz,     n..     Rota,    n., 
Puerto    Santa    Maria, 
Xeres  de  la  Fronten, 
Arcos,  OlvercL, 
Mi^azeite,  I  Ubrigue. 

Lirio, San  Fernando,  n. ,  Chio- 

lana,  Medina-Sidonia. 

Barbate, V^er. 

Vadalmedina,^ fca2a  de  log  ChuuiUt. 


Basins  indined  to  the  Mediterranean, 


Strait  of  Gib-  Tarifa,  Algeciras,  Gibral- 
raltar tar,  San  Roqti^. 

Guadiaro, Gimena^  Grazalema,  n. , 

Ronda. 

S.  Co.  Malaga,  Estepona,  MarbeUa. 

Goadaljorce,  ..Malaga,  n.,^2ora,  Ante- 
qnera,  Archidona. 
Faala, A  Ihaurin,  Coin,  Monda. 

Telez, Velez  Malaga,  Colmenar. 

S.Co.  Granada,^  2mu»ecar. 

Gnadalfeo,  ....MotriL 

Adra, Adra,  Dalian.  Beija. 

Almeria, Almeria,  Nijar,  n.,  Ger- 

Almanzora,  ...Vera,   Cneva    de    Vera, 

Seron,  Huercalovera. 
S.  Co.  Mnrcia,  Almazarron,  Cartagena. 

S^nua, Orihnela,  Murcta,  Cieza, 

CaZasparra,  Teste. 

Elche,  { Elche,  CrevUlente,  Aspe, 

Novelda,  Monovar,  Vil- 
lena,  Yecla,  n.,  Cau- 
dete. 
Alfera,..  ^  Imama. 
Sangonera,..MnRciA,  MtUOy  n.,   Al- 
hama,  n.,    Fuente, 
A  lamo,  TotanOf  Lorca, 
Velez  Blanco. 
QmpeT,...Bullas. 
Velez, . . .  .Velez  Rnbio,  Oria,  n. 
Caravaca, . .  .Caravat^  Cehigan. 
Moratalla,  ..MorataUa. 

Mundo,  I Helltn,  JumiUa,  n.,  To- 

barra. 
Madera,  {.Penaade  San  Pedro,  n. 
E.  Co.  Alicante  AucAirrs,  Villajoyosa. 

Alcoy, Oandia,    Concentaina, 

Alcoy. 

Xncar, CtMera,   Sueoa,  Aldni, 

Ayora,  n.,  CuKir(A. 


Magro,  I.... Reqnena,  Utiel 
Albayda,....Xativa  San  Felipe,  Car- 
cagente,  Onteniente. 
Canoles,  I  Enguera. 

Jara,  2 Taraxona. 

Guadalavjar, .  .Valencia,  Terukl. 

Palancia, Mitrviedro,  Seg^nrbe. 

Rio  Seco, Burriana. 

Mijares, CASTELLOir-DS-LA-FLAirA 

Aleora,  n. 
Co.  Castellon-  Beniearlo,  Vinaroi. 
de-la-Plana, 

Ebro, Tortoaa,    Caape,    2aba- 

oozA,   Tuaela,   Coto- 
Aons,  LooEBOfto,  Hoiu 

S^re,  I Lebida. 

Cinca, — Fraga,  Bafitaatra. 

l8aela,..Hx7XBCA. 
Balira, .  ...Akdobba  (aq^iU  of  Ba- 
paUIo). 
Gnadalope,  AUanix. 
BeiganteB,  JrorvOa,  n. 

Jalon, Cotateyud. 

QneUu,  ....TanoHma. 

Alhama, CoreUck. 

Aragon,  { ...Sanguimi. 
Agra,....  Pakpixika. 

Ega,{ SattUa. 

Zadorra,  { . . . Vrobia. 

Francoli, Tabbaooou,  Ban.  YiIIil 

Foix, Vi]la-Niuiv|«r< 

Llobregat,....J\»  !■■■," 

Noya. IflulidBft 

Betofl, 1uwow<« 

Co.   of  Gate- lUtan.  JBftHHik  & 
loniL  diOniMiL 

Ter, flsanUftn.         .  ^^ 

Fliwla, OMt  ,     **?- 

Manol, Jmmm^    ■i}Xi**->i 


Lakes.— There  are  no  lakes  of  any  iniportm' 
tngaL     There  is,  however,  a  lai;^  H&-«i^ 
Valencia,  abounding  in  fish  and  mld-Anri, ' 
and  three  snuQl  la]^  in  Gindad-Baa^ 


EPAIK    AMD    POKTUGAL.  187 

The  fint,  vliidi  fomui  its  aouTce,  iB  called  lAke  B/ml;  llieii  the  mta 
traveneB  aoine  miles  of  itt  coiLrae  mtder  graund,  and  reapiieors  ic  two 

CBamte. — The  Pemnsnla  bemg  bo  eitensTC,  and  there  being  h 
erGHt  difference  of  ele^'atiau  between  the  interior  and  the  nmritime 
aJBtricts,  grBHit  diflerenoea  of  climate  eiist.      On  the  groat  Dentral 

£teatif  vhich  haa  an  average  elevation  of  ^^00  feet,  great  heat  and 
ught  preTail  in  aimiiner,  and  Bevere  oold  in  winter.     The  meon 
annnal    iaotherm  of   fi(l°  paasea   E.  acd  W,  throngh   the  centre  of 
the  Peninsnia.     At  Madrid,  in  the  centre  of  the  Peninsula,  the 
meBm  annual  teiaperstnre  is  SS°.£,  the  mean  aummer,  76°.  4,  andtbe 
mean  winter,  43°,1.     Here  winter  ie  the  Tainy  season,  when  froataare 
■erere  at  night,  the  thermometer  often  aishns;  below  40° :  while  in 
■ommer  it  not  imlrequentlj  rises  to  90°,  and  the  total  araonnt  of 
umal  rain  do^  not  exceed  10  inches.     The  most  noxious  winds  are 
le  iSblono,  a  hot  wind  from  the  S.,  and  the  Oaliego,  a  cold,  piercing: 
d  from  tliB  N.W.     In  the  N.W.,  theclimate  ia  damp,  the  annual 
idipitBtioD  varjing  from  S5  to  35  imJiea  ;  but  at  BEIao,  it  is  said 
ei  100  inches.     In  the  cestem  provinces  it  is  mBd.  but  van- 
n  the  S-W.,  almost  African  ;  and  in  the  S.E.  an  almost  per- 
I   Spring  prevails.      The  thmate   of    PoRTtTGiL    is    generally 
althy,  eapeciiiJly  in  the  elevated  regions.      Mean  annnal  tempeta- 
TeBtLiBbon.61°.8;  winter,  5S°.4;  and  summer,  70°.B.    R^iavery 
lewest  coaet,  eapeciallj  in  autumn,  the  tract  extend- 
ing tpuni  Coimbra  to  Hafnt  being  the  rainiest  spot  on  the  contiuent 
inEnrope.     Here  118  iDches  of  rain  fall  aimuiJly,     Snow  is  rare  in 
Ae  BonuiBni  pnmnaes  of  the  kingdom. 

OaOIaEy. — The  weatem  half  of  the  Peninsula,  &om  the  Baj  of 
BiscBT  to  the  Gaudalquivir,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  Siliirian 
strata,  interspersed  nith  extensive  tracts  of  granite,  esjiecially  in 
the  north  :  another  belt  of  Snnrian  rocks  lines  the  coast  from  Gibrat- 
tBT  to  Cartagena  ;  and  a  third  is  faund  aronnd  Calatyud,  between 
tLe  Bonrcea  of  the  Tagna  and  DDoro.  Upper  Palxozoic  beds  prevail 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  m  a  large  tract  S.  and  W,  o[  Oviedo,  between 
the  aooreeB  of  the  Miaho  and  Ehro.  Secondaij  beds  prevail  along 
the  north  coast  from  Cape  Fefiaa  to  St  Hebaatian  ;  aootlier  broiu 
vact  extends  in  a  S.B.  direction  from  Buit^os  to  Csstelloa-de-la- 
;  a  similar  belt  along  the  heights  which  divide  the  waters  of 
s  Gandalqaivir  from  those  Sowine  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  s. 
— "ii  alone  the  Atlantic,  fronj  Lisbon  to  near  Ovar.  Almost  the 
e  lemamder  of  Spain  coaaisu  of  teTtiair  formations,  little  of 
'    "     '       1  in   Pcriuyiil.  =iuiiL  aliiug  tue  south  bank  ot  the 

III  itro  Temnrknhie  holh 
.  Ti-njoe!r  auy  iniporttiut 
.■  !uOT/l.„-ai..iei     The 


183  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

Cantabrian  Mountains,  and  recently  in  Majorca,  valuable  deposits  of 
coal;  tin,  zinc,  antimony,  and  arsenic,  in  many  localities ;  silver 
near  Guadalcanal,  in  Seville ;  rock-salt  in  Cordova ;  precious  stones 
in  many  places ;  jasper,  granite,  alabaster,  and  beautifully  variegated 
marble  almost  everywhere  ;  while  the  quicksilver-mines  of  Almaden 
have  been  long  celebrated.  These  precious  **  treasures  of  the  low- 
lying  deep,"  however,  are  sadly  neglected ;  for  in  Spain  all  things 
are  in  a  state  of  utter  stagnation.  The  minerals  of  Portugal  are 
almost  as  varied  and  valuable  as  those  of  Spain,  and  almost  equally 
neglected.  The  principal  mineral  products  that  are  in  some  measure 
wrought  are  iron,  marble,  and  salt  (from  lagoons).  Iron  is  very 
abundant ;  a  smidi  gold-mine  is  wrought  at  Setubal ;  there  are  only 
two  coal-mines,  one  at  Oporto  and  the  other  at  Buarcos  ;  tin,  lead, 
and  antimony  are  now  wholly  neglected. 

Botany. — The  indigenous  ve^ijetation  of  Spain  and  Portugal  belongs 
exclusively  to  Schouw's  third  *  *  Phyto-Geographical  Region,"  de- 
scribed under  "  Europe  "  (p.  81).  The  number  of  indigenous  plants 
in  the  whole  Peninsula  has  not  been  ascertained ;  but  Renter  col- 
lected 1250  species  of  flowering-plants  in  New  Castile  alone.  Accord- 
ing to  Webb  and  Berthelot,  900  species  of  flowering-plants  are  found 
in  the  Canary  Islands.  The  best  Duilding- timber  grows  on  the  north 
coast ;  the  cork-tree,  the  Kermes  oak,  and  the  Sumach  tree,  farther 
south.  Of  food-plants,  the  vine,  olive,  orange,  fig,  citron,  date, 
abound  on  the  E.  coast,  together  with  carobs,  or  St  John's  bread, 
sweet  potato,  the  sugar-cane,  and  the  cotton-plant,  along  with  pome- 
granates, figs,  almonds,  olives,  in  the  S. ;  nuts,  gooseberries,  and 
orchard-fruits  in  the  N.  and  N.  W.  In  Portugal  are  found  the  vine, 
date,  olive,  orange,  lemon,  citron,  the  American  aloe,  rice,  stone-pine, 
orchard-fruits,  and  water-melons. 

Agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward  state  in  all  parts  of  the  Peninsula, 
though  it  forms  the  leading  occupation  of  the  people  of  both  countries. 
The  implements  of  husbandry  are  of  the  rudest  description ;  the  rotation 
of  crops,  and  indeed  all  the  modem  improvements,  are  wholly  unknown. 
Though  the  soil  in  many  parts  is  extremely  fertile,  especially  in  Portugal 
and  the  south  of  Spain,  only  about  a  half  of  the  surface  is  under  culti- 
vation. The  principal  objects  of  culture,  are  grain  crops  of  all  kinds  (in- 
duing wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  rice) ;  the  vine,  cotton,  tobacco,  mul- 
berry-plant, sugar-cane,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  corn-crop  is  generally 
sufficient  for  home  consumption,  and  large  quantities  of  wine  and  fruits 
are  exported,  those  of  Xeres  (sherry),  Malaga,  and  Oporto  (port  wine), 
being  the  most  celebrated.  The  central  plateau,  especially  in  Castile  and 
Leon,  consists  of  pasture-ground,  where  vast  numbers  of  merino  sheep 
are  reared  for  the  sake  of  their  valuable  wool. 

Zoology. — Of  the  223  mammalia  inhabiting  Europe,  69  are  found 
in  the  zoological  province  to  which  Spain  belongs — a  province  con- 
terminous with  the  phyto-geographical  region  above  mentioned.  Of 
the  490  European  birds,  294  are  found  here ;  and  of.  the  78  reptiles, 
51  species.  Of  the  69  mammals,  42  species  are  camivora,  16  rodents, 
and  9  ruminants ;  while  of  the  two  remaining,  one  is  a  qxiadrumauous 
animal — viz.,  the  Barbary  ape,  which  inhabits  the  rock  of  Gibraltar, 


I 

I 


SPAIN   AND   POKTUOAL.  189 

the  only  IcMlity  in  Europe  wliete  quadnimana  nrc  found  ;  and  the 
other  a  pachyderm— viz.,  the  Sum  icropha,  or  wild-boar.  The  wolf, 
bear,  chamois,  and  ibex,  are  foUDdlDthe  Pyrenees;  tb«  marten  izi  Bis- 
cay ;  the  chamelenn  near  Cadiz ;  lynxes,  foxes,  wild-cats,  and  weasels, 
in  numeroiia  localities.  The  baO^alo  is  the  only  bovine  species,  but 
there  are  three  species  of  sheep,  one  of  which  (the  merino)  yields  a 

Cb  quantity  of  the  finest  wool,  and  is  forbidden  to  be  exported, 
breed,  however,  is  now  largely  reared  in  Saxony  and  other 
German  States.  Of  the  numerous  birds,  we  can  only  meation  tlie 
eagU,  vulturs  and  flnmiuga.  Fish  is  not  plentiful  In  the  rivers,  lut 
abundant  on  the  Atlautic  coasts. 

EUmography. — The  people  of  th(  Pentuaula  nearly  all  belong  to  the 
OreRo-Latin  variety  of  the  groat  Caucasian  race  ;  but  Overrun  as  tlie 
coiuitry  has  been  at  different  times  by  widoly-diSerent  tribes,  a  con- 
Biderable  variety  of  race  appears  in  the  diflerent  provinces.  Tbe 
Iberians,  and  afterwards  the  Celts,  were  the  earliest  inhabitants,  and 
Celtic  blood  still  predominates  both  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  The 
eonth  of  Spain  was  colonised  by  the  Pheniciana  and  Carthaginians 
in  the  fourth  century  before  our  era  ;  the  Romans  subdaed  the  whole 
Feninsnla,  £.Q.  2CIS  ;  the  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  afterwards  the  Visi- 

Eths,  overmn  the  country  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century;  the 
DOTS,  or  Saracens,  drove  the  Goths  to  the  northern  mountsjns  in 
A.D.  714,  and  for  seven  centuries  thereafter  retained  possession  of  the 
centre  and  south,  where  they  established  several  powerful  kingdoms, 
hut  were  finally  eipelled  in  1492  by  theUliriatians,  under  Ferdinand 
knd  Isabella.  Kotnithstanding  this  great  intermixture  of  blood, 
four  distinct  families  are  still  discernible— viz.,  the  Spaniards  proper, 
descended  from  the  Celts,  Phenicians,  Romans,  and  Goths,  constitut- 
ing about  nineteen -twentieths  of  the  entire  population ;  the  Basqneii, 
in  the  north-west  provinces,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberians ; 
the  Moors,  in  the  south;  and  tbe  Gypsies  or  Gitanos,  probably  of 
Hindu  origin,  numbering  about  GO,00(i,  in  various  locanties.  The 
Jewish  race  was  totally  expelled  in  1492. 

Languages.  — Notwithstanding  the  great  extent  of  the  Peninanla,  the 
langutwes  and  dialects  are  comparatively  few ;  and,  with  the  exception 
of  ue  Baaqat,  whose  relations  are  yet  unknown,  belong  to  the  Orecc- 
Latin  family.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  both  of  them  descendants 
of  the  ancient  Galician,  and  for  a  long  time  mere  dialects  of  the  same 
language,  have  at  length  come  to  differ  considerably.  The  Spaniili 
proper,  or  Castilian,  fonnd  in  its  greatest  purity  in  Castile,  is  mani- 
festly descended  from  the  Latin,  tliough  with  a  considerable  admix- 
ture of  Gothic,  and  more  especially  of  Arabic  words.  So  conspicu- 
ous is  the  latter  element,  that  some  philologists  reekon  it  as  a  sort  of 
connecting-link  between  the  Indo-European  and  Semitio  stocks.  In 
Krammatica!  structure,  however  (the  main  element  to  he  considered 
in  determining  the  affinities  of  a  language),  ss  also  in  the  great  bulk 
of  its  roots,  it  bears  little  resemblance  to  the  Anibic  or  any  other 
Semitic  tongue.  In  addition  to  the  Peninsula,  Spanish  is  spoken  in 
Spanish  America,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  other  en-itern  posses- 


190  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

Bions  of  Spain.  The  Catalan,  or  Cataloniatij  a  mere  cnieilect  of  the 
Spanish,  is  spoken  in  the  old  provinces  Catalonia  and  Valencia,  and 
in  the  Balearic  Isles.  The  Portuffuese  is  spoken  in  Portuj^  Ma- 
deira, the  Azores,  and  Brazil.  It  is  a  twin  sister  of  the  Spanish,  both 
being  descended  from  the  Latin,  through  the  Gkdician ;  but  it  now 
exhibits  so  many  peculiarities  that  the  difference  between  the  two 
langua^  is  something  more  than  dialectic.  The  Portngnese  is  leas 
guttural,  but  harsher  and  more  unpleasing  in  sound  than  the  Span- 
ish, and  possesses  a  class  of  words  which  cannot  be  traced  in  the 
Spanish  vocabulary,  and  which  are  supposed  to  have  proceeded  from 
dialects  of  the  Berber  language,  which  prevails  in  the  north  of  Africa. 
Beligion  and  Education. — The  Roman  Catholic  has  for  ages  been 
almost  the  sole  religion  in  either  Spain  or  Portugal,  though  in  the 
latter  country  a  very  limited  amount  of  toleration  has  been  enjoyed 
by  the  Jews  and  some  Protestant  denominations.  In  both  countzies, 
however,  great  changes  have  recently  taken  place  in  ecclesiastica] 
affairs ;  and  since  the  flight  of  Queen  Isabella,  m  1868,  toleration  has 
been  freely  accorded  in  Spain  to  all  denominations.  In  both  coun- 
tries education  is  still  in  a  lamentably  deficient  state,  notwithstand- 
ing the  marked  progress  which  has  recently  taken  place.  In  1861 
there  were  in  Spain  58  public  colleges  for  middle-class  education, 
with  757  professors  and  13,881  students,  besides  22,060  common 
schools,  attended  by  1,046,558  pupils,  being  one-fifteenth  part  of  the 
population.  In  Portugal  education  is  entirely  free  from  the  control 
of  the  Church,  and  yet,  with  the  exception  of  Russia  and  the  Papal 
States,  Portugal  is  the  worst  educated  country  in  Europe,  there 
being,  in  the  year  1862,  onl^  1  in  every  36  persons  able  to  read  and 
write.  The  sole  university  is  that  of  Coimbra,  while  in  Spain  there 
are  no  fewer  than  ten — the  chief  of  which  are  those  .of  Salamanca, 
Valencia,  Zaragoza,  and  Yalladolid. 

Uteratnre. — The  most  distinguished  names  in  Spanish  literatore 
are  the  following: — Poetry:  The  author  of  **The  Cid,"whohas 
been  called  "  The  Homer  of  Spain  : "  this,  the  oldest  poem  in  the 
Spanish  language,  describes  the  adventures  of  El  Seid,  **the  Lord" 
(a  famous  Castilian  hero,  bom  at  Burgos  in  1640),  and  was  written 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  Herrera,  Ercilla,  Lope  de 
Vega,  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  Garcilasso,  Gomez  de  Quevedo.  His- 
tory :  Mariana,  author  of  *  The  History  of  Spain ; '  Antonio  de 
Solis,  the  historian  of  *  The  Conquest  of  Mexico.*  Fink  Arts  : 
Ribera,  MuriUo,  Morales,  Fernandez,  Ribalta,  Velasquez,  Henrique 
Marinas,  Juan  de  Alfaro.  Fiction  :  Cervantes,  author  of  *  Don 
Quixote.'  Sacred  Literature:  Cardinal  Xiinenes,  Isidore  of 
Seville,  Michael  Servetus.  Maritime  Travel  :  Columbus  (a 
Genoese),  Pinzon,  Ponce  de  Leon,  Hernando  Cortez,  Pizarro,  Yelas* 
quez,  Cordoba.  The  classic  poets  Lucan  and  Martial,  and  Seneca  the 
philosopher,  were  natives  of  Spain,  and  probablv  Quintilian.  Portu- 
gal can  boast  of  few  names  that  have  won  for  themselves  a  European 
reputation.  The  most  distinguished  name  in  its  literature  is 
Camoens,  author  of  *  The  Lusiad ; '  next  to  Camoens  may  be  placed 


SPAIN   AND   POETDOAL.  191 

.  Oil  Vicente  and  Sss  de  Miramla,  the  lirflmatists ;  Antonio  Ferreyra, 
islio  has  been  called  the  Portuguese  Horace  ;  Rodrigliw  Lobo ;  and 
JoSa  de  Ban-OS,  an  eleeant  prose  writer.  The  names  of  Vasco  da 
nama,  Ma^alhaens,  Balbao,  Cabral,  and  De  Solis,  are  all  celebrated 
in  Potiogaeee  siBritime  discovety. 

Aoft'onal  Characia: — The  Spanianla  are  grave,  stately,  and  formal  In 
thidr  mAunen  ;  fhigsl  and  temperate  in  diet ;  extremely  indolent  in  dls- 
porition;  of  sn  enthusiastic  temperament,  whith  soiuelmies  prompts 
them  to  acts  of  chivalry,  but  more  frequently  to  the  piirpct ration  of  re- 
volting ntroeities,  especially  when  goadad  on  by  the  lova  of  gain  or  hy 
religioua  bigotry  ;  in  proof  Qf  which  we  need  only  refer  to  their  inhuman 
treatment  of  the  natives  of  America  when  that  continent  was  discovered, 
and  to  the  annals  of  the  Inquisition,  an  infamous  inprtitution,  which  waa 
Hist  established  at  Seville  in  1481,  nt  the  inntaoce  of  Ferdinaud,  the  bui- 
band  of  Isabella,  and  which  reigned  in  all  its  teirora  down  to  the  present 
contnij.  "  The  Spanish  statistics  of  this  infernal  engine,"  says  Alllner, 
"which  was  only  abolished  in  1820,  include  34,811  pereonebunied alive, 
18,000  bunied  in  effigy,  and  288,109  consigned  to  the  prisons  and  galleys." 
The  Portngneae  are  repreSBnted  as  dignihed,  polite,  and  temperate,  bnt  ex- 
cessively hlthy,  both  m  their  houses  and  persona  :  they  are  further  oha- 
racterised  hy  an  mveterate  dislike  to  Spaniards,  whom,  notwithstanding, 
they  greatly  resemble  in  manners  and  disposition.  They  are  equally 
bigoted,  cruel,  and  indolent ;  equally  proud  and  revengeful ;  and  equally 
fond  of  the  barbarous  amusement  of  bull-lighting;  and  whatever  differ- 
ence there  may  he  is  ic  favour  of  the  Spaniards,  there  being  no  country 
•in  Gurope  where  ciTiliautlon  and  morality  are  at  a  lower  ebb  than  In 
FortngaL 

aoTetnnisnt  and  Finance. — The  Government  of  Spain,  after  three 
and  A  half  centuries  of  dcipotism.  became,  in  1S4S,  a  constitutional 
monarchj,  under  Queen  Isabella  II.,  who  was  aided  in  the  govem- 
Toent  by  the  Cortes,  composed  of  two  uo-operatins  hodiea — vii.,  a 
Senate  (the  members  of  which  iveie  partly  hereditary  and  partly 
nominated  for  life  by  the  sovereign),  and  a  Congress  of  Deputies 
elected  by  the  people  in  the  proportion  of  one  deputy  for  every  36,000 
inhabitant*.  After  many  years  of  misrule  she  was  compolled  to  eva- 
coale,  and  Amadens,  son  of  Victor  Emanual,  Was  elected  King. 
Leaving  Spain  in  dis^st,  hu  was  succeeded  in  187£>  by  Alphonso  XIL, 
Mn  of  the  deposed  Queen  Isabella.  The  army  is  formed  on  the  French 
modeL  Its  total  strength  lu  1870  consisted  of  80, 000  men  and  oihcers. 
In  the  same  year  the  navy  consisted  of  6  ironclad  frigates,  1  ship  of  the 
line,  and  other  89  steam-ships  (uaoless  in  modern  warfare),  carrying 
106S  guns,  and  manned  by  22,000  marines.  In  1871  the  tevenne  ol 
Spain  unouu  ted  to  £27,000, 000,  the  expenditure  toabout  £32,  S20,000, 
and  the  public  debt  to  £213,886,668.  The  Government  of  Portugal 
is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  reding  sovereign,  Luis  I.,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Don  Pedro  VTin  1861,  of  the  Braganza-Cohurg 
line.  The  Parliament  or  Cortes  consists,  as  in  Spain,  of  two  cham- 
bers— a  House  of  Peers  nominated  by  the  sovereign,  and  the  House 
ofDepulies  elected  by  the  people.  In  1SG6  the  army  at  home  and 
abroad  amonntml  to  about  8S,0D0  men  and  officers,  and  the  navy  te 
31  ihipe  of  war,  currying  294  gans,  and  manned  by  2832  marines. 


192  POLITICAL  GEOGBAFHT. 

In    1873-4   the   revenae  amounted   to  £5,147,458 ;   expenditnro^ 
£5,423,779  ;  public  debt,  £72,833,000. 

Commezxse. — ^Though  few  countries  in  Europe  possess  greater  com- 
mercial facilities,  on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  seaboard,  yet  such 
is  the  natural  indolence  of  the  Spaniards  that  their  commerce  is 
quite  inconsiderable  ;  and  the  little  that  exists  can  be  estimated  with 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  universal  practice  of  smuggling.  The  aver- 
age value  of  exports  for  the  last  seven  years  has  been  £12,000,000,  and 
of  imports  £19,000,000.  The  principal  exports  consisted  of  wine, 
silk,  brandy,  oil,  fruits,  iron,  lead,  mercury,  salt,  barilla,  skins,  cork, 
Spanish  flies,  liquorice,  and  dye-stuffs,  which  were,  for  the  most 
part,  sent  to  Great  Britain  and  France.  The  countries  from  which 
Spain  receives  most  are  France  and  the  United  Kingdom.  From  the 
latter  she  received  in  1873  to  the  value  of  £3,736,620;  while  in  the 
same  year  Spain  sent  to  Britain  to  the  value  of  £10,973,000,  one 
third  of  which  consisted  of  wine.  The  chief  seats  of  the  wine  manu- 
facture are — Xeres  (hence  our  sherry),  Kota,  near  Cadiz,  Montilla, 
Malaga,  and  Alicante,  the  last  two  of  which  are  also  famed  for 
raisins.  The  province  Valencia  is  especially  famous  for  its  great 
variety  of  wines,  large  quantities  of  the  variety  known  as  Benicarlo 
being  exported  to  Bordeaux,  where  they  are  mixed  with  the  wines  of 
the  Gironde  to  impart  to  them  colour  and  flavour.  Spain  is  the 
second  silk-producing  country  in  Europe  (Italy  being  the  first),  and 
her  best  customer  in  this  article  is  France.  The  articles  imported' 
from  Britain  are  linen-yarn  and  linens,  iron — ^both  wrought  and  un- 
wrought — and  coal.  Manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  swords  at  Toledo, 
cigars  at  Seville,  leather  at  Cordova,  cotton  and  silk  stuffs  in  Cata- 
lonia, iron  in  the  Basque  provinces,  and  of  gunpowder,  cannon,  por- 
celain, and  glass.  The  commercial  marine  in  1872  amounted  to 
4326  vessels,  carrying  360,000  tons.  The  principal  ports  are  Bar- 
celona, Cadiz,  Malaga,  Bilbao,  Alicante,  and  Valencia.  Since  the 
loss  of  her  colonial  possessions,  the  commerce  of  Portugal  has  vastly 
decreased.  Such  commerce  as  exists  is  chiefly  with  England.  Wine 
is  pre-eminently  the  product  of  Portugal,  and  constitutes  more  than 
two-thirds  of  all  her  exports,  which,  in  1871,  amounted  to  £5,250,000. 
In  the  same  year  her  imports  amounted  to  £6,790,000.  Besides 
wine,  the  chief  exports  are  fruits  of  the  finest  quality,  salt,  cattle, 
wool,  cork,  olive-oil,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  and  elephants'  teeth. 
In  1873  England  imported  of  the  red  wines  of  Portugal  4,037,000 
gallons.  Next  to  England,  Brazil,  Russia,  and  the  north  of  Eorope 
are  the  principal  consumers  of  port  wine.  The  vine  disease,  which 
broke  out  in  1853,  has  continued  more  or  less  ever  since,  and  has 
greatly  diminished  the  quantity  of  wine  exported.  The  imports  con- 
sist chiefly  of  corn,  rice,  salted  provisions,  sugar,  and  coffee  from 
Brazil ;  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  hardware,  &c,  from  England ; 
hemp,  flax,  and  deals  from  the  Baltic  The  principal  ports  ara 
Lisbon,  Oporto,  and  SetubaL 

Inland  Oommonication. — Railway  communication  is  proioesriiig 
rapidly  in  Spain.    The  total  number  of  miles  open  for  truKo In  1871 


FRANCE.  133 

vns  3850,  In  rortugiil,  railways  hare  been  constrncted  from  LiaTion 
m  tbe  Guadiflna,  by  Atrantes  and  Elvas ;  another  connects  Lisbon 
with.  Beja ;  while  a  third  proceeds  Irom  the  capital  to  Coimbra  and 
Oporto  :  1«tal  iu  1873,  G30  miles. 

CaTtali. — The  numeroos  moan  tain -rangea  which  traverse  the  coun- 
try, sad  separate  the  principal  river-basins,  present  insupei-able  oh- 
Btaclea  to  the  junction  of  the  rivers  that  flD<v  into  the  Atlantio  with 


I 


those  that  discharge  their  w 
canals  have  been  constrocted  alon^ 
not  navigable.    The  principal  c 


I  the  Meditflcransan  i  but  several 
the  banks  ofauch  rivers  as  are 
the  Imperial  Canal,  along 


e  magnificeot  colonies  of  Spain 
n  the  N.  coast  of  Marocco  ; 


the  right  bank  of  tna  Bhro ;  the  canals  of  Castile,  Manzanan.  , 
Marcia,  Albacete,  and  Guadarama.  There  are  no  canals  in  Portugal, 
Imt  the  livers  of  that  conntry  are  more  navigable  than  those  of 

Hoods. — There  are  no  good  public  roads  in  either  country,  eiceut 
around  Madrid  (  wheel-carriages  a™  'in-'-  n^=.i_.ti.-.  .."n..>,s"i 
of  the  transit  trade  Leiug  ctTected  O) 

Forei^  PoBaeaafoiia- — Of  the  oi 
and  Portugal  the  following  are  all  1 

Spaniii Ceuta,  Tetuan,  &c.,  c 

nando  Po  and  Annahona,  in  the  G.  of  Guinea;  Cuba,  Porta  Bico, 
and  Isle  of  Pines,  in  the  W.  Indies ;  part  of  the  Philippine  and 
Ladrone  Islands,  and  nominally  the  Pelew  and  Caroline  Islea,  in 
Oceania.  Total  area,  180,000  so.  m.,  and  population  (in  lB7'.i), 
8,003,000. 

Portaguete. — Besides  the  Azores  and  Madeira  (for  which  sea  page 
183),  to  Portugal  belong  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  portions  of  Seoe- 
gambia,  Ango&,  Benguelo,  and  St  Thomas  and  Prince's  Islands,  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  tc«Gther  with  Sofala  and  Mozambique  on  the 
E.  coast;  Goa,  SaUette,  Diu,  and  Damauu,  in  Hindustan ;  Macao, 
in  China ;  parts  of  Timor  and  Solor,  in  Klalaysia.  Total  area, 
1,135,000  eq,  m.  ;  pop.  (in  1874),  3,2B0,U0. 


■  FRANCE. 

BonndarUB. — France,  one  of  the  largest  and  moat  important 
countries  of  Western  Europe,  is  bounded  on  its  six  sidoa  as  fol- 
lowa;  —  N.W,,  the  English  Channel,  separating  it  from  Great 
Britain;  W.,  the  Atlantic;  S.W.,  the  Pyrenees,  separating  it  from 
Spain;  S.E.,  the  Mediterranean;  K.,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and 
Alsace,  from  which  it  is  SBparated  by  the  Alps,  Meant  Jura,  and 
the  Voijgcs;  S.E.,  the  Oennan  portion  of  Lorraine,  and  Belgium. 
Ui.  42*^20'— 5r  6'  N. ;  Ion.  4°  4S'  Vf.—T  ZV  E. 

pltal  of  Indre,  nilu  Uie  centre  or  the  empire  (lat  W  AD',  Irm. 
ij  on  the  game  pirillel  u  Berne,  Griita,  (IdesM,  ABtrakliin, 


194 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


I^ke  Superior,  and  Quebec;  and  nearly  on  the  same  meridian  as  Tarmouth, 
Calais,  Barcelona,  Algiers,  and  the  capital  of  Dahomey.  The  form  of  the  country 
is  hexagonal  and  very  compact ;  greatest  length  from  the  W.  coast  of  Finist^re 
to  Nice  on  the  Italian  frontier,  nearly  700  miles;  extreme  breadth,  fh>m  Givet  in 
Ardennes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bidassao,  585  miles ;  coast  generally  low,  but  bold 
and  irregular  in  the  north-west,  with  an  extreme  length,  including  tiie  larger 
sinuosities,  of  1500  miles.  This  is  a  small  extent  of  seaboard  for  so  large  a  coun- 
try, but  the  numerous  navigable  rivers,  and  the  canals  connecting  them,  mak« 
ample  compensation  for  the  deficiency. 

Area  and  Population. — Omitting  the  three  departments,  Haul 
Khin,  Bas  Ehin,  and  Moselle,  now  ceded  to  Grermany  (and  named 
Elsass-Lothringen),  but  including  Corsica,  the  area  amounts  to 
201,900  sq.  m.,  or  1§  times  the  size  of  the  British  Isles ;  while,  in 
1872,  the  population  was  estimated  at  86,102,921,  or  one-fifth  more 
than  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  giving  178  persons  to  each  sq. 
mile.  While  the  population  of  l^e  British  Isles  has  more  than 
doubled  itself  since  the  French  Revolution,  that  of  France  has  only 
increased  44  per  cent,  and  has  required  above  a  century  and  a  half 
to  double  itself.  This  remarkable  fact  is  mainly  owing  to  war, 
political  proscription,  bad  harvests,  the  grape-blight,  disease  of  the 
silk- worm,  and  other  causes;  indeed,  every  natural  or  political 
calamity  checks  the  increase  of  population  in  France  in  a  marked 
degree.  The  rural  population  is  constantly  decreasing,  and  that  of 
the  large  towns  increasing.  The  north  of  France  is  more  populous 
than  the  south,  and  contams  a  greater  number  of  large  towns.  The 
most  densely  peopled  department  is  that  which  contains  the  cajntaL 
The  three  departments  ceded  to  Germany  in  1871  contained  an  area 
of  about  5580  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  1,964,173. 

Political  Divisions. — France  was  formerly  divided  into  34  pro- 
vinces  ;  but  in  1789,  when  the  love  of  change  became  paramount,  tibie 

Provinces  were  divided  into  85  departments,  or  86  including  Corsica. 
n  1860,  three  departments  (Savoie,  Haut  Savoie,  and  ifice)  were 
ceded  to  France  by  Italy ;  but  in  1871  France  was  obliged  to  cede  to 
Germany  the  other  three  departments  above  named ;  so  that  tiie  num- 
ber still  continues  to  be  the  same  as  in  1789.  Though  the  provinces 
are  no  longer  recognised  in  legal  documents,  l^ey  are  stm  f«.f»iliMi» 
among  the  French  people,  and  they  are  so  frequently  referred  to 
in  history  that  we  think  it  necessary  to  append,  at  the  loot,  the 
following  table  (arranged  in  alphabetical  order),  showing  their  former 
capitals,  and  the  departments  which  now  correspond  to  them.  *   Tlie 


♦  Old  Provinces  of  Francv. 


Old  PBOvnrcBs.. 


Alsace 

Angoumois 

Aojon 

Artois 

Aunis 


Old  Capital!. 


Strasbonrg 

Augonldme 

Angers 

Anas 

Bochelle 


Conaqnodlng 


Haut  Rhfn,  Bm  BUn. 

Charente. 

Haine-flt-Loira. 

EL  part  of  Fu-da-GUiifc 

N.  W.  of  Ohuante  JsoMdmr 


FKiNCE.  195 

'  doptirtmojita  si's  nauKid  after  tlia  moat  importiint  physical  features 
which  respective!}'  cliamcterise  theui — as  the  exintence  of  a  large 
river,  the  confluence  of  two  ritera,  or  iiroilmih'  to  eoma  mountain- 
chain.  The  departmeiita  are  of  much  more  uniform  dimensions  than 
the  old  provinces,  or  than  the  counties  of  Great  Britain  ;  their 
Bveraoe  size  being  SlOO  si^.  miles,  or  something  less  than  Perthshire. 
But  the  department  Gironde  is  larger  than  the  largest  of  onr  Scottish 
counties  (Invemesa)  ;  while  thst  of  Seine,  ivMeb  contnina  the  capital, 
and  which  is  the  smsllest  depsjtmunt  in  France,  is  larger  than  Rut- 
laud,  the  amallest  county  in  Eugland.  As  the  departments  are  aa 
numerous,  they  must  be  arranged  in  a  simple  and  methodical  man- 
ner ;  and  this  is  best  done  by  dividing  them  into  sii  frontier  groups, 
corresponding  with  the  sii  sides  of  the  kingdom,  together  with  a 
taiver  centr^  gronp.  Then  the  85  Continental  departineDtB  can  be 
.  ewily  remembered  as  follows  : — 14  nortL-westem,  10  western,  11 
LxmtnGrn,  7  south  -  eastern,  ID  eastern,   9    north-eastern,  and  21 


«.,^^ 

OldCaniaii 

AovergHB 

ClBBnont 

Puy-df-Dflme,  CantaL 

A^gDOQ 

W.  of  Vsueluss. 

B^Brn 

Bacgu  PytSnSta. 

Bqoisb 

Cher,  Indn.. 

MDUluia 

Bonrgnpia 

Dijou 

Ain,  COte-d-Or,  aaflne-al-I^iiro,  Tonne, 

Biettgae 

IHanos 

CetEa-du-Nord,  FlEd*l*™,  llle^at-Vllaine. 
Lolts  JnMrlBure,  Moiblhan. 

ArdflnncH  Aiit«,  Huns,  Bauta  Name. 
H.ute»AlpBa.liiflmB.l9*rB. 

DaupbM 

FlMiilrB 

LiUa 

Sard 

Foil 

Ari^. 

Fnwclie  CoinU 

DoDbB,  Jura,  Saute  Btlme. 

Quoogns,  QiijPime 

Anfh.  Bor. 

Aveyron,  DoniognB,  Gen.  Qlronde,  Lot, 

dMia 

Lot^aroBBB^Undo.,  Haute,  Fj- 
OlM,  Seine,  S«ino-Bt-OIM,  SBiEB-et- 

IledeFmace 

Paris 

Ungaedoo 

Tonlonso 

Atdteib^  Airfofoorf.  Hfrault.  HimU 

Limogea 

KMcy 

ter 

JZm™ 

Loire,  Bhone, 
Majrenne.  SaittiB, 

HiRhB 

CreusB,I>r.cfBaatBVlBDne. 

KlTStMil 

NOVBB 

KltTK. 

Konaindj 

RUDBD 

Calvndoi,   Eore,  ManchB.  Ome,  Stina 
liiliri.ora. 

Orliuali 

EuM-at-Lotnt,  tolret.  Uiltft«t-Chcr. 

PloHdr 

iBlMU! 

Snirnne  B.  of  PUHifrCilaJs,  N.  o(  Atmo. 

riBiui  bina,  Vmd»«,  VionnB. 

PlOTBlO 

AH 

K  otTuioliu*, 

RooHdUon 

ryi4nt*s  OrieiitaiM. 

BiUatoiigc 

"  "' Clwnntt  InOrlaiu*. 

Tbunlna 

TUIUT. 

■ei-Loin. 

196  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Central  departments.    In  the  six  frontier  groups  the  departments  are 
te^en  ttvo  deep  from  the  sea  or  other  boundary. 

Fourteen  North-Western  Departments. 

Hord.*— Lille  158,  Wattrelos  12,  Roubaix  65  n.,  Tourcoing  88  n. 
(Deule),  Armentidres  12,  Halluin  11,  Bailleul  10  n.  (Lys),  Valenciennes 
24,  Cambrai  22  (Scheldt),  St  Amand-les-eaux  10,  Douay  24  (Scajpe), 
Maubenge  10  (Sambre),  Dunkerque  33  (Str.  of  Dover). 

Toums  between  5000  and  10,000  inhabitants.— Est&lret  MervUle,  Hazebromck, 
Gond^,  Anzin,  Solesmes,  Le  Gateau,  Beigaes,  Gravelines,  Gomminea. 

Pas-de-Galais.— Arras  26  (Scarpe),  St  Omer  22  (Aa),  Calais  13,  St 
Pierre  15  (Str.  of  Dover),  Boulogne  40  (English  Channel). 
Aire,  Garvin-Epinoy,  Bethime,  Agincourt 

Soxmne.— Amiens  64,  Abbeville  20  (Somme),  Cressy  2  (Maye). 

Oise.— Beaxtyais  15  (TeiTein),  Compile  12  (Oise). 
Noyon,  Senlis,  Glermont. 

Seine  Inferieure.—RouEN  101,  Le  Havre  75,  Elbeuf  22  (Seine),  Bolbeo 
10  (Bolbec),  Dieppe  20  (Arques),  Fecamp  12  (N.  coast). 
Gaadebec-les-ElDeaf,  Dametal,  Yvetot,  St  Valery-en-Cauz,  Sottevllle. 

Eiire. — EvREUX  12  (Iton),  Louviers  11  (Eure). 
Andeleys,  Vernon,  Pont-Audemer,  Bemay. 

Eure-et-Ioir.— Chartres  20  (Eure). 
Dreox,  Nogent-le-Rotrou,  Ghateaudun. 

Calvados.— Caen  42  (Ome),  Lisieux  13  (Tou^tues). 
Falaise,  Bayeux,  Vire,  Honfleor. 

Ome.— Alen^on  16  (Sarthe),  Flers  10  (Vere). 
L'Algle,  Argentan,  Seez,  La  Ferte  Mac& 

Manche.— St  Lo  10  (Vire),  Cherbourg  37  (Divette),  Granville  17  (W. 
coast). 
Valognes,  Goutances,  Avranches. 

Mayenne.— Laval  27,  Mayenne  10  (Mayenne). 
Ghateau-Gontier,  Ern^e. 

*  Instead  of  giving  the  prononclation  of  the  different  French  words  at  tbey 
occur,  it  seems  preferable  to  advance  a  few  general  roles  :— 

a  has  two  sonnds,  as  in  mam-ma;  ai,  ei  =  k  grave,  or  0  in  there;  Otts  ff. 

e  when  unaccented  is  silent ;  i  with  the  acitte  a^icentf  like  the  shut  aoond  of  « 
in  English,  as  in  bed:  it  has  the  same  sound  when  followed  by  a  sQent  r  or  f  at 
the  end  of  a  word;  ^,  with  the  ffr<^ve  accent,  and  t  eircun^lex  =  « in  thtn. 

eUt  the  same  as  din  German,  or  oo  in  the  Irish  and  ScottiBh  Gaelic:  as  "Ban, 
Evreux.  eau  and  eaiea;  =  long  din  English,  as  Ghateau,  Bordeaux  (iS3U»-tf',B9fVI<Q^ 

ou  =  00  in  mood,  or  u  in  role ;  as  Angouldme  (An^oo-UUmy. 

g  with  a  cedilla^  used  only  before  a,  0,  u,  =  «in  English :  as  Aleneon  C-mfnA 

ch  =  English  ah:  as  Rochelle,  Chartres  (Ro^heV,  Shar^tr), 

g  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  j  =  «  or  2  in  treaswre-^TjiA  Aiiige,  Jam  (iirti^irt^, 
ZKu'ra). 

gn  =  n  or  ni  in  Spaniard :  as  Avignon,  Boulogne  ULv^i^wmg,  Boo-M^O* 

a, «,  t,  X,  z,  are  silent  at  the  end  of  words :  as  Koid,  lames,  Lot^  BardMn^ 
Bhodez  (N6r,  Neem,  L5,  BordOt  Rhoda). 

an,  en,  in,  on,  have  no  representative  in  English,  and  must  be  aoq[iiind  ftma 
the  teacher :  they  are  strictly  nasal  sounds,  faintly  resemUlng  OfVi  MVi  <i^  and 
ong  in  English. 

u  =  Fr.  u  in  plus,  brtder;  It  approximates  to  Bcotoh  ti  In  pudb^  mjnh;  lint 
has  no  corresponding  sound  in  English,  tii  and  1^  =  ^^i*f*^  w$g  M  n^'ia' 
Udme  (PtDee-de-DSme),  ^ 


FRANCE. 


197 


riB-et-Vilalne.— Rones  52  (Vilaine),  St  Servaii  !3  (Eance). 

Voagiite.  Cancsle,  Redon,  Vltre,  Fo-ageaY,  Combours,  Bt  Ualo. 

CfiteB-dn-lToTd.— St  Brieuo  15  (Oouet). 

DJnan,  Gaingamp,  FlDnhar  Lannlon,  Plouant 

HniaUre.— QniMPER  11  (Odetl,  Morlaix  H  (Relec).  Brest  80  (Eloin). 

Floitgutel,  LanUemean,  LBmbezellea,  Grozon,  QDliupeTl& 


Ten  Wbstebn  Depabtkents. 

Korbihan.— Vanne3  13  (G.  of  Morbiiiau),  L'OrieDt 

PonHvy,  Baod,  Sanesn,  PLoermel,  Flocmenr. 

Loire  InSrlenre.— Nahtits  112,  St  Naziiire  11  (Lai 

—  ■  —  -       a,  TiUet 

Xaloe-et-Loire. — Asqebg  S5  {ranSnence  of  Sartlie  and  Mayenne))  Sau- 

a  U  (Loire),  Chollet  13  (Maine),  Cbalonnes  S  (Lagoo). 

Tmid&i.—NAi>OLSoN- Vendue  or  BonBBON-VsmifiK  8  (Ton). 

Sables  d'Olonne,  Kolrmnotler,  Ponlcnay,  Lnijoo. 

Dani  Mttbh.— NlOBT  21  (Sfevre  Niortaiae),  Partbenay  5  (Thone). 

Charente  Inferienre.— I.i  Eochellb  19  (N.  coast),  Edcbefort  30, 
Sointea  11  (Cliaroiite],  St  Jean  d'Angely  6  (Bontonne). 

"   E  25,  Cognac  8  (Cbarente), 
1    eiionde.— BOBDEiUS  194  {Garonne),  Liboume  12  (Dordogno). 

DordogM.— PEHiauiux  20  (Isle),  Borgerac  12  (Don" 

ne),  VillenouvB  d'Agan  14  (Lot). 

FonnriiEH  Soi^thebn  Defabtuektb. 
I  lAn(leB.~MO!rT-DE-MABaAN  6  (Midoiize),  Dbx  10  (Adonr). 
_   .  BBPyrinSea.— PAn25(GavBdePau),  BayotmB28{Adour). 

1  Hastes  PyrfinfaB.— Tabbes  15,  Bagnferea  9  (Adour). 
I  flerB.— AUCK  12,  Leotoure  9  {Gere),  Condom  9  (Bayse). 
I  Xante  Qaronne.-  TonLonsB  124  (Garonne). 
L.St  GaadouB.  Rewc],  TlUemur. 

r  Tam-et-Garonne.— Mohtacbah  28,  Castel-Satraain  7  (OaronuBl,  Mois- 
'lo  10  (Tarn). 

I  AriigS,— PoiX  8,  Pamiara  8  (Ari^el. 
f  Pyrgnees  Orieatalea.— Pkbpiiisan  25  (Tet). 
I  AJide.— Cabca^okke  22,  SacboDse  16  (Aude). 
I'lilinani,  CMtelDoiidary. 

1  Tarn.— Algt  IB  {Tarn),  Caatrea  21  (Agont),  Mainmet  11  (Arntitte). 
■  tUbaitena,  Galllac,  Laiinr,  Gmnlhet.  Pnf[&anDB. 

1  Efcanlt— MONTPELUEB  59  (Lei),  Moera  28,  Bedariaoi  10  (Orbe). 
devB  12  (LerguB),  Cetto  24  (ooaall. 
■*  "~i,  Agda,  Pejoiuw,  Cieir — ■  " — 
— Mendb  S  (Lot). 
— NiUBB  flO  (VlttK),  Beauoalre  10,  Alais  20  (Gardoo). 
»,  La  Pont  St  Bipilt,  V^,  AudflH,  Le  Vigao. 
he.— PiiTTA3  7  (OnveiBj,  Aimciaay  16  (Cance). 


200  POUTICAL  OEOGBAFHY. 

Roubaix,  Keiins,  Toulon,  Brest,  Amiens,  Klmes,  Versailles,  Angers, 
Montpellier,  Limoges,  Nancy,  Kice,  Bennes;  and  fifty  between 
50,000  and  20,000. 

,  North-West  Departments. — These  are  by  far  the  most  popnlons. 
having  two  cities  (Lille,  Rouen)  above  100,000;  four  between  100,000 
and  50,000  (Brest,  Le  Havre,  Roubaix,  Amiens);  sixteen  between 
50,000  and  20,000 ;  and  twenty  between  20,000  and  10,000.  lille,  a 
very  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  Vanban's 
masterpiece,  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  cotton,  linen,  and  wool- 
len  manufactures.  Bonbaix,  Tonrcoing,  and  Bailleni,  important  manu- 
facturing towns.  Valenciennes,  a  strongly -fortified  manufacturing 
town,  famous  for  its  lace,  and  the  birthplace  of  Froissart  in  1387. 
Cambrai,  the  see  of  Archbp.  F€n^on,  has  been  lon^  famous  for  its  cam- 
h-ics.  Bouay,  noted  as  the  place  from  which  was  issued  the  only  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  Scriptures  received  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Oburcn. 
Dunkerque,  a  strongly-fortified  seaport,  and  the  most  northerly  town  in 
France.  Arras,  St  Omer,  Calais,  and  Boulogne,  are  all  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  engaged  in  various  manufactures ;  the  infamous  Robespierre 
was  a  native  of  Arras;  and  at  Boulogne,  Napoleon  I.  assembled  his 
flotilla  for  the  invasion  of  England  in  1804.  Calais  is  the  nearest  city 
in  France  to  the  English  shores,  and  is  celebrated  in  the  wars  between 
the  two  countries;  and  Boulogne  is  the  residence  of  many  EngUsli 
families.  Agincourt,  famous  for  the  great  victory  obtained  by  Henry  V. 
over  a  greatly  superior  French  force  in  1415.  Amiens,  the  birthplace  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  Du  Cange,  and  Delambre :  here  was  signed  the  treaty 
of  peace  between  Britain  and  France  in  1802.  Abbeville,  an  important 
stronghold  fortified  by  Vauban,  with  numerous  manufactures.  CresBY, 
famous  for  the  victory  obtained  by  Edward  III.  over  the  French  in  1846. 
Bouen,  one  of  the  most  populous  and  flourishing  cities  in  the  north  of 
France,  celebrated  for  spinmng  and  dyeingwoollen  and  cotton  stuf&i;  has 
a  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral  built  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  a 
statue  of  the  celebrated  Joan  of  Arc,  who  was  burnt  to  death  here  in 
1431.  Le  Havre  and  Bouen  are  the  two  great  seaports  of  Paris,  with 
which  they  are  connected  by  the  Seine  and  by  railway.  Elbenf  is  one  of 
the  chief  seats  of  the  woollen  manufacture.  Dieppe  is  the  packet  station 
to  Brighton.  Beauvais,  famous  for  its  cloth  ana  tapestry.  Comjpidgne, 
where  the  Maid  of  Orleans  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English  m  1481. 
Noyon,  the  birthplace  of  John  Calvin,  in  1509.  Evreux  has  one  of  tiie 
finest  cathedrals  in  France.  Chartres,  once  the  capital  of  Celtic  Ghiul, 
is  the  centre  of  a  great  com  trade.  Caen,  a  large  manufacturing  town, 
famous  for  its  lace,  contains  the  tomb  of  William  the  Conqueror.  Alen- 
(on,  celebrated  for  lace  and  for  crystal  diamonds.  Cherbourg,  the  Sebas- 
topol  of  France,  and  one  of  her  principal  naval  stations,  situated  at  tiie 
northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Cotentin,  within  sight  of  the  Eng- 
lish coast ;  the  works,  long  in  progress,  and  now  mounting  8000  guns, 
were  formally  opened  on  the  4tn  August  1858  by  Napoleon  III.,  in  pre- 
sence of  Queen  Victoria  and  a  powerful  English  fleet.  Bennes,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Brittany.  St  Brieuc,  extensively  engaged  in  the  New- 
foundland cod-fishery.  Quimper,  with  a  large  pilchard-fishery.  Brest, 
a  first-class  military  port,  and  the  principal  station  of  the  French  navy, 
is  strongly  fortified  and  difficult  of  access. 

Western  Departments.  —These  contain  only  two  cities  of  more  than 
100,000  inhabitants  (Bordeaux,  Nantes) ;  one  between  100,000  and  50,000 
(Angers) ;  six  between  60,000  and  20,000  (L'Orient,  Bochefort,  Angou- 


FIIAKCE.  201 

„_B,NicFrt,  Perigueux ;  and  twelve  between  20,000 and  10,000.  I'Orient, 
&  military  Beaport,  and  one  of  tliB  live  priacipal  ststioiis  of  the  Freacti 
Imvy,  witii  eitensiTs  shipbuilding.  Bantes,  dds  of  tbe  lai^eat  iind  most 
contmerciBl  cities  in  the  -wist  of  France,  with  exteusive  shipbuilding 
dooks  :  here  wss  issued  the  famona  Edict  of  Nantes,  gmnting  unportant 
privil^es  tp  the  French  Protestants,  in  ISfiS.  Jigers,  the  former 
capital  of  Anjou,  with  various  manufactures,  and  extenslTe  slate-guarries 
in  the  neighbourbood.  Saumur,  a  stronghold  of  tlie  French  t^oteatants 
In  the  sixteentlt  century,  ia  celebrated  for  its  cavalry  Hcbnol.  JTiort,  a 
thriving  commercial  and  manufacturing  town.  La  Boohells,  memorable 
fortbe  ajege  which  the  Huguenots  sustained  against  Louis  XIII.  in  1639, 
ia  a  attongly-fortlfied  seaport  town.  BocbuOTt,  an  important  naval 
station  fortified  by  Va\iban,  is  a  tiist-clBBS  military  port  Angonleme, 
the  former  capital  of  Angournois,  baa  eitensive  trade,  and  is  the  birth- 
place of  Montalembort,  BaliBc,  and  Mai^aret  deValoia.  Cog^nac,  famous 
'ts  brsndv,  which  is  largely  exEiortod,  Bordeaux,  the  ancient  cap.  of 
innfl,  and  the  laziest  and  most  important  city  in  the  west  of  FMice, 
ta  third  commercial  port,  is  the  great  L>mporinm  of  the  wine  trade, 
.  .  me  of  the  principal  seats  of  its  foreign  commerce.  Agen,  with  a 
trade  in  prunes,  is  an  entrep6t  for  the  trade  between  Bordeaui  and  Tou- 

1  (Toulouse)   above 
itween  100,000  and 

.-,...,__-, ,  , J , ,   Perpignan,   Cette, 

CaiEUSanne,  Castres,  Alais)  between  60,000  and  :AI,O0O;  and  ten  be- 
tween20,000  and  10,000.  Paa,  the  capital  of  the  old  province  of  fifam, 
ia  the  birthplace  of  Henry  IV.,  of  Gnaton  de  Foii,  and  of  General  Ear- 
Jiadotte,  afterwards  Jting  of  Sweden.  Bayonno,  a  strongly-fortified  sea- 
IMrt,  in  the  estreme  south-west  of  tha  kingdom,  carries  on  an  important 
trade  with  Spain,  of  which  itfonns  the  key  ;  the  £uyaH((  was  invented 
here.  Toulouao,  the  most  important  and  populous  city  iu'tlie  entire  south 
of  France,  was  the  capital  of  LangDedoc ;  it  is  a  sort  of  southern  capital 
for  literature  and  science,  and  contauis  the  principal  cannon-fanndiy  iu 
France  ;  near  it  toot  place  a  sanguinary  battle  in  18U  between  Wellington 
■od  MarahaJ  Sonlt.  Parpignan,  the  former  capital  of  Ronssillon,  and 
an  important  military  stronghold,  haa  an  extensive  commerce  in  wines, 
wool,  silkjiron,  and  corks.  Carisasaoilne  niaintaina  au  active  trade  in 
brandy.  Sarbwuia,  a  very  ancient  city,  founded  by  the  first  Roman 
colony  sent  into  Gaui,  was  the  residence  of  several  Saracen  kiugra  in  the 
middle  ages  ;  it  ia  now  celebrated  for  its  honey.  Alby :  it  wua  from  this 
town  that  the  Albigenscs  of  the  middle  ages,  who  were  bo  cruelly  peise- 
cuted  by  the  Church  of  Rome  for  their  zealoua  maintenance  of  Gospel 
troth,  derived  their  name,  Cartres,  a  place  of  great  trade,  manulac- 
tdrea,  and  mining  operationa,  waa  one  of  the  tirat  cities  in  France  that 
embraced  the  doctrlties  of  Calvin — the  birthplace  of  Cacier  and  Rapiu. 
Kontauban  a  large,  well-built  town,  with  several  manufactures,  and  the 
seat  of  a  Protestant  tbeotogical  BOmlnary.  Hentpdlier,  one  of  the  Qneat 
cities  in  the  8.E,  of  France,  with  many  literary  and  scientific  institutions, 
ia  much  frequenl«d  by  invalids;  it  was  an  independent  lepnblic  during 
the  middle  ages.  Beziera,  a  line  town  built  on  a  hill,  near  the  Orbr, 
niffered  much  during  the  crusade  againsttheAlbigenseainthe  thirteenth 
i^tniy.    Catte,  a  fortiOed  seaport  town,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Canal  dn 


Hidi.  Vinai ,  a  large,  thriving,  comn^ercial  city,  with 


IMid_ 
imwofailk, 
totroduoed  tobacco  mto  Franca.    Bettaoalre 


202  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

where  all  kinds  of  merchandise  may  be  found,  and  is  frequented  by ; 
chants  from  all  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

South-Eastebn  Departments. — These  contain  one  city  (MarseiUe) 
above  100,000  inhabitants ;  two  between  100,000  and  60,000  (Tomlon, 
Nice) ;  four  between  50,000  and  20,000  (Avignon,  Aiz,  Aries,  Valence) ; 
and  nine  between  20,000  and  10,000.  Marseille  (Massilia),  the  most 
ancient  city  in  France,  having  been  founded  by  Greek  colonists  B.O.  600 ; 
and  the  third  in  France  in  regard  to  population :  its  commerce,  which 
chiefly  consists  of  wines  and  fruits,  extends  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Aries,  the  ancient  capital  of  Gaul,  and  afterwards  of  the  kii^om  of 
Provence,  has  been  the  seat  of  13  ecclesiastical  councils.  Avigiion,  s 
flourishing  manufacturing  town,  surrounded  by  plantations  of  mulberry- 
trees,  was  the  residence  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  during  the  seventy  years 
of  their  "Babylonish  captivity"  (a.d.  1308-1377).  Orange  was  the 
capital  of  an  ancient  principality  of  same  name,  which  William  of  Nassau, 
the  founder  of  the  Dutch  Kepublic,  inherited ;  hence  the  King  of  tiie 
Netherlands  is  still  Prince  of  Orange.  Toulon,  a  first-class  war-port,  and 
the  great  naval  station  of  the  south  of  France  :  here  Napoleon  L  com- 
menced his  military  career,  during  the  memorable  siege  of  1793.  Vice, 
originally  a  Greek  colony  from  Massilia  {Marseille),  is  celebrated  as  one 
of  the  earliest  seats  of  Christianity  in  Europe  :  along  with  its  territory, 
it  was  transferred  by  Sardinia  to  France  in  1860 :  together  with  Cannee 
and  Mentone,  in  the  same  department,  it  is  much  frequented  by  invalids 
from  !Ehigland  and  other  countries.  Brian^on,  the  principal  arsenal  of 
the  French  Alps,  is  the  most  elevated  town  in  Europe,  bemg  4283  feet 
above  the  sea.  Valence,  noted  for  its  cotton-printing  and  manufacture 
of  silk  goods. 

Eastern  Depabtmentb. — ^The  eastern  departments  contained  one  city 
(Lyon)  of  above  100,000  inhabitants ;  two  between  100,000  and  60,000 
(Strasboure,  Mulhausen);  five  between  60,000  and  20,000  (Besanfon. 
Grenoble,  Vienne,  Le  Creuzot,  Colmar) ;  and  thirteen  between  20,000  and 
10,000.     Annecy,  capital  of  Upper  Savoy,  annexed  to  BSrance  by  Sar» 
dinia  in  1860.    Chambery,  cap.  of  department  Savoie,  also  annexed 
to  France  in  1860,  has  a  brisk  trade  in  metals  and  wines.    Grenoble, 
an    impregnable    stronghold    on    the    Isere,    formerly   the    capital 
of   Daupmn€,    was   the    first   large  town   that  opened   its   gates    to 
Napoleon  in  1815.     Vienne,  a  thriving  town,   with   lead  and    silver 
mines  in  the  vicinity.     Lyon  (Lugdunum),  at  the  coniluence  of  the 
Rhone  and  Sadne,  is  the  second  city  in  France  in  regard  to  population 
and  commercial  importance,  and  the  first  in  manufacturing  industry :  it 
was  founded  by  the  proconsul  Plancus,  B.c.  43 ;  became  the  capital  of 
Roman  Gaul,  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  of  the  pro- 
vince Lyonnais ;  has  numerous  manufactures — ^that  of  silk  being  the  most 
celebrated ;  and  contains  the  finest  provincial  library  in  France :  was  the 
birthplace  of  Germanicus,  of  the  emperors  C.  AureUus  and  Caracalla,  of 
the  botanist  Jussieu,  of  Jacquard  and  CamiUe  Jourdan.      Maoon,  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  wine-trade.    Chalons-sur-Sadne,  at  the  head  of  the 
Oanal-du-Centre,  carries  on  an  extensive  inland  trade.    Lons-le-Saulnier, 
so  named  from  its  famous  saline  spring,  which  yields  annually  20,000 
quintals  of  salt    Bosangon,  a  strongly-fortified  city  on  the  Doubs,  cele* 
brated  for  its  clocks  and  watches.    Colmar  and  MuDiausen,  extensively 
engaged  in  cotton  manufactures,  now  belong  to  Germany.    Strasbourg', 
at  one  time  a  free  imperial  city  of  Germany,  became  subject  to  France  m 
1681,  and  then  became  the  capital  of  Alsace.    In  1870  it  was  compelled 
to  capitulate  to  the  German  army  under  General  von  Werder.    It  Is  now 


-_e  capital  ol  tlie  Oerman  province  ElBass-LoHiriagen  is  very  stroDgly 
fbrtlSecI,  and  contains  a  celebrated  cathedral  (fonnded  in  504,  bn(  not 
linialied  till  tlie  fifteenth  centnrj),  with  s  apira  ^66  feet  high,  which  con- 
tains  a  lemarkahle  BStronomical  clock,  representing  tha  mavements  of 
the  planeta  in  the  Bclai  system. 

NORTB-EifiTBBTJ  DEPARTMENTS.  —  These  contain  no  town  above 
100,000  eiCBpt  Paris  which  in  1872  bad  1.852,000  inbabiUnta ;  three 
batween  100,000  and  50,000  (Beitns,  Versailloa,  Nancy) ;  two  between 
C0,000  and  20,000  (St  Quontinand  St  Dennis) ;  nndBiiteaa  between  20,000 
and  10,000.  BstK,  a  very  strongly  fortified  city,  near  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier, was  compelled  tn  capitulate  to  the  Germans,  Oct.  27,  1870,  when 
8  marshals  of  Fraooa,  6,000  oiEcers,  and  173,000  men  were  made  prisoners. 
Vanoybos  extensive  manufscturesof  cloth  and  embroidered  muslin.  Lnne- 
^lle,  noted  for  the  treaty  execated  here  in  1801  between  the  Emptror  cE 
Garmany  and  the  first  Napolenn.  Eeims.thBprinclpal  seat  of  the  woollen 
manufacture,  is  renowned  in  history  for  the  maiutenitQca  of  ita  liberties 
•gainst  the  bishops  in  tlie  Middle  Ages  ;  many  ecclesiastical  oouncila  wera 
held  here,  and  in  its  colossal  cathedral  many  of  tia  kings  of  France 
were  crowned.  Sedan  will  be  ever  memoruble  as  the  scene  of  the  terrible 
homlliation  of  Franco  (Sept.  2, 1S70),  when  Napoleon  III  Marsha!  Mac- 
mahon,  39  generals,  and  100,000  men  anrrandered  to  f  ha  King  of  Prussia. 
PoBtaJiutilean,  wheia  Napoleon  I.  signed  his  abdication,  v&a  long  the 
fBTomite  residence  of  the  kings  of  France.  TsisBilLes,  famous  lor  its 
magnificent  royal  palate,  one  of  themost  goreeous  in  the  world  ;  many 
femouB  titaties  were  signed  here,  at  one  of  which,  in  1763,  England  re- 
cognised the  Indepcudence  of  the  United  States  of  America.  Paris,  tho 
capital  of  France,  and  the  second  largest  city  in  Europe,  is  situated  on 
Ixfthlianksorthe  Seine,  about  100  mites  from  its  mouth.  Less  than  half 
the  size  of  London,  it  for  surpasses  the  latter  in  magnificence,  and  is  re- 
gvded  by  all  as  the  most  splendid  city  in  Europe.  It  is  s\irronnded  by 
B  fortified  wall  21  miles  in  length,  and  a  series  of  forts,  erected  by  Louis 
Philippe  at  an  enormous  expense  ;  and  is  odnmed  Ity  sumptuous  palaces, 
m«gnincent  churches,  and  other  public  buildings,  by  fountains,  gardens, 
triampha!  arches,  and  columns.  The  Uniforsity  has  twenty-eight  pro- 
fessoTs,  and  the  Natiana!  Library  contains  1,400,000  printed  works  and 
pamphlets,  besides  125,000  MS,  volumes.  After  a  protracted  siege 
(commencing  Ang.  7, 1870),  during  which  the  Parisians  suffered  torriMB 
privations,  the  city  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  Germans. 

Tb»  Twep(tt-one  CenthaI.  DepaRTuENTs  contain  ona  town  (St  Eti- 
ence)  with  mora  than  100,000;  one  between  100,000  and  fiO,000 
(LimogBsli  ten  between  50,000  and  20,000  (Orleaas,  Ze  Mans,  Tour, 
Dijon,  aarmont-FerraQd,  Troyoa,  Poitior".  Bourgcs,  Nevers,  Blois) ; 
and  twenty-two  between  20,000  and  10,000.  le  Uoni,  with  a  brisk 
trade  In  grain  and  various  manuTaetutES.  Tours,  the  former  capital  o( 
Toniaine.attheconflnancaol  the  Loire  and  Cher,  with  silk  manufactures, 
■nd  numarans  schools  and  leuned  societies.  Blola,  with  great  trade  in 
Ori&ns  braiidy,  OrUans,  the  former  capital  of  Orieannais,  and  ai  one 
time  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  was  besieged  by  tlie  Eng- 
lish in  1428,  and  delivered  by  the  celebrated  Joan  of  Arc,  hence  called 
"Tbt  Maid  of  Ori&ns."  TroyBB,  the  former  capital  of  Champagne,  is 
tte  centre  of  several  important  manufactures:  here  a  treaty  was  con- 
_  *laded  in  1420.  conferring  the  crown  of  France  on  the  King  of  England. 
"^tl«»,  formerly  capital  of  Poitou,  was  in  the  poaseaaion  of*" — '— -"  '~ 

■—  centuries.    Chateauroai  has  extensiv '-' 

Boargea,  former  capital  ol 


204  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

finest  Gothic  catbedraLi  in  Europe.  Vevers,  former  capital  of  Nivenuds, 
has  important  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  goods.  Byon,  the  ^rind- 
pal  market  for  the  sale  of  Burgundy  wines,  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
Bourgogne.  Limoges,  the  former  capital  of  Limousin,  noted  for  its 
horse-races  and  its  woollen  manufactures.  TfouliTig,  formeiiy  capital  of 
Bourbonnais,  with  tanneries  and  manufactures  of  cutlery.  TnUe,  con- 
tains a  national  factory  of  firearms.  Clermont-Perrand,  near  the  lofty 
mountain  Puy-de-Ddme,  and  in  the  centre  of  a  volcanic  region.  BionL, 
noted  for  being  paved  with  basalt  and  lava  quarried  in  the  ndghbour- 
hood.  St  Etienne,  a  large  thriving  city,  surrounded  by  coal-mines,  and 
containing  an  active  industrious  populktion,  who  are  largely  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  firearms  and  iron-ware.  Cahors  carries  on  s  large 
trade  in  tobacco  and  red  wines.  Le  Pay  is  celebrated  for  its  cathedral, 
containing  a  small  image  of  the  Virgin,  which  the  inhabitants  devoutly 
worship  under  the  appellation  of  **  Our  Lady  of  Puy."  Ajaedo,  the 
capital  of  Corsica,  and  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon  I.  in  1769,  cairies  on  s 
trade  in  wine,  oil,  and  coral. 

Capes  and  Islands.  —The  following  are  the  principal  capes : — 
Gris-Nez  {Grienay\  in  Pas-de-Calais,  the  nearest  point  to  England ; 
Barfleur  and  La  Hague,  in  the  N.  of  Manche ;  Point  St  Matthien 
and  Raz  Point  in  the  W.  of  Finist^re  ;  Couqnet,  the  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Quiberon  ;  Side,  near  Toulon.  hUrndt. — IJshant  and 
belle  Isle,  S.  of  Morbihan ;  Noirmoutier  and  lie  Dien,  W.  of  Ven- 
d^  ;  R^  and  Oleron,  W.  of  Charente  Inf6rieure ;  Hi^res,  S.  of  Var ; 
Lerins,  S.E.  of  Var;  Corsica,  a  large  island,  between  France  and 
Italy,  now  forming  one  of  the  French  departments. 

Onlfb,  Basra,  and  Straits.— Str.  of  Dover,  20  miles  wide,  bet 
Picardy  and  Kent ;  Estuaries  of  the  Somme  and  Seine ;  Bay  of  S. 
Malo,  bet.  Manche  and  C6tes-du-Nord  ;  Estuary  of  the  Loire,  W.  of 
Loire  Inferieure ;  Estuary  of  the  Gironde,  bet.  Charente  Inf§rienie 
and  Gironde ;  Bay  of  Biscay,  bet.  the  W.  of  France  and  N.W.  of 
Spain  ;  G.  of  Lions,  S.E.  of  France. 

Surface  and  Monntalns. — The  face  of  the  country  is  generally 
level,  and  its  aspect  monotonous  and  dreary.  The  want  of  orna- 
mental plantations,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of  hedges,  give  to 
the  landscape  an  unusual  degree  of  sameness.  The  principal  monn- 
tain-ranges  are  situated  on  nie  S.W.  and  E.  frontiers,  and  belong  in 
part  to  the  Hesperian,  but  chiefly  to  the  Alpine  system  (see  under 
**  Europe,"  p.  69).  They  are  all  comprised  in  the  following  seven 
groups  : — 

The  Pi/renees,  between  France  and  Spain,  separating  the  basins  of  the 
Tet,  Aude,  Garonne,  and  Adour,  from  those  or  the  Uobregat  and  Ebro— 
the  loftiest  summits  (Maladetta,  &c.)  being  within  the  Spanish  frontier; 
Mont  Perdu  in  Hautes  Pyren^s,  10,994  feet;  Mont  Midi,  in  Basses 
Pyrenees,  9438  feet 

T?ie  A  Ips,  between  France  and  Italy,  and  between  the  basins  of  the 
Rhoneand  Po.  The  highest  summits  belonging  to  France  are,  Mont 
Blanc,  in  Haute  Savoie,  15,781  feet,  the  cuhninating-point  of  Europe 
(unless  we  should  except  Mont  Elburz,  in  the  Caucasus,  which  is 
18,571  feet);  Mont  Pelvoux,  between  Hautes  Alpes  and  Is^re,  13,440 


r 


F£AKCE.  305 

fast :  Mout  GBue\Te,  11,782  Sent,  aud  Mont  Viso,  12,5S6  fest,  bntli  in 
Hsntes  Alpes. 

Jura  Moimtaini,  bBtweeii  Frauce  and  BwitmHEud,  Bepatstbig  the 
liuiiif  of  the  DonbB  and  Aar ;  Uout  MdUeson,  is  Ajn,  SiSS  feel ;  Beculel, 
S63Sfeet 

Vtuffit  Xounlaini,  ^twMD  Lornuse  and  Alnace,  separating  ibe  Klmie 
from  its  afflnatit  the  MoHelle  ;  BaDon  de  Gaebwiller,  in  Hant  Khin,  -^M 
feet :  BaUon  d' Alsace,  41^  feet. 

C6te  iTOr  Jlfonirtaiiui,  in  department  of  aanie  name,  eeparatinp  the 
liaBitu  of  the  Sdue  and  Loire  from  that  of  the  Saline;  Le  ToBselot, 
1»GS  feet. 

Cetaaia  ifoKiaainM,  in  Lan^edoc,  aeparating  the  basins  of  the  JLhone 
uidBaCmefromthose  f^  the  Loire  and  Giammie;  Mmit  Mezene»  in  Ard^che, 
SS20  feet ;  Mont  Lozb^  in  Lozb^  4667  feet. 

Ataerma  Moauiaim.  aepamtjng  the  hasiii  of  the  Loire  from  that  of 
the  DoTclogne  anfl  Gannme  ;  Puj  de  Baney,  in  Pnj-de-DamB,  6187  feet : 
Pny'de-DOme,  4SI5  feet. 

StTst-Basllll. — Of  the  uttmeninE  rirer-bufiiiis  of  France,  only  12 
are  ot  considerable  magnitude — Ti/.,the  Loire,  Seine,  Ehone,  Girondc, 
Bomme,  VilulnE.  Chareute,  Adnnr,  Tet,  Rhtne,  Ilenae,  and  ScLiJdt. 
The  beat  autbaiiTies  arc  greatly  at  Tanutoe  in  estimating  the  btboe  ; 
and  in  bddie  cubeb  ve  con  only  make  an  approzimntion.  It  appears 
tliat  time  1°  baains  comprise  Jths  of  the  trhole  area  of  France,  and 
't  out  of  the  Bti  camtalfi,  beiog  fths  of  the  entire  ntunber.  Omit- 
tiag  tbe  5  basinB  9tdA  contain  1  capital  each,  the  remaimiip  7  eon- 
tain  67  capitals,  or  abont  Jths  of  the  whole  iramber,  and  their  cum- 
bjned  area  (liJ,000  Bqnare  iniJeB)  the  game  proportion  of  tie  ectii'o 
area  of  France.  The  ba^  of  the  Loire  alone  cautaina  16,000  sq.  m., 
and  that  of  the  Seine  26,  OOa 

Table  of  BlTeiB  amd  Townl. — The  fullowing  table  embmces  all 
the  tlTeTB  and  tovme  of  France  ennmetated  under  the  "Political 
Diviaaitb, " Uie  capitals  of  departmentB being  distingiiiahed  by  bh'tt. 
CAPITii  iBttera;  towns  above  10,000  iahabitflJit*,  by  Konum  let- 
ters, and  amaller  tavos  by  liaiia.  The  Bbine,  Mense,  and  Scheldt, 
being  shown  in  their  fnll  deTelopment  onder  Germany  and  the 
Hetbedonds,  only  the  partionE  t^  tliein  belonging  to  France  are 
saticed  here. 

Basiiu  mcMwd  tn  lAc  Eiiglitli  Channel. 
Siven.  JVjinu.  |       RiiKTi.  Taumi. 

0tr.  nf  Dater,  Dnnkerqne,  CzQ^s.  '  Beine —  yEBaoiLLEs,  n.,  Tasja, 


206 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  English  Channel  (continued). 


Rivers. 


Towns. 


Oise, Pontoise,   Compiigne, 

Noyony  Chauny. 
Nonette,  ISenlis. 
Terrein,  ..Beauvais. 
Breaches,  Clermont. 
Aisne,  I  ..Soissons,  Rethel. 
V61e,  I.. Reims. 
Delette,  Laon. 
I 

Mame, Paris,   Vincennes,   n., 

MeauXy  Chateau 
Thierry,  Epemay.  Cha- 
LONS-sur-Manie,  Vitry^ 
St  Dizier,  Chaumont, 
Langres. 
Ornain,. . .  Bar-le-Duc. 
Essonne,  L.Corheil. 

Juine,  I  ..Etct/inpes. 
Loing,  I .... Montargis. 
Yonne, I.. .. Montereau,    Sen s,    Vil- 
leneuve,  Joigny,  Aux- 
EBRE,  Clamecy. 
Voisin, . . .  AvalUm. 


Rivers. 


Towns. 


Vouzie, Provins. 

Touques, Lisieox. 

Dives Falaise,  n. 

Ante,  I  ..  ..Falaise. 
Orne. Caen,  Argentan,  Seez. 

Vere,  i    Flers. 

Dr6me, Bayeux,  n 

Vire St  Lo,  Vire. 

Douve,   Vaiognef  n.  (I.  t) 

Divette, Cherbourg. 

Sienne,  Cowtances,  n.  (r.  t.) 

Bosq, Granville. 

Seez,   Avra/nches. 

Couesnon, . .  ..Fougbres. 
Co.  lUe-et-Vi-  CaticaUe. 

laine, 

Ranee, St3fdl0yStQeTvaji,I>inan. 

Gonet, St  Brieuc. 

Co.  C6tes-du-  Plouha. 

Nord, 

Trieux,  Guingamp. 

Guer, Lannion,  Plouaret. 

Relec, Morlaix. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Atlantic. 


Elom, 


Odet, 

Quimperl6, . . . 
Blavet,  

Evel,  I  

Co.  Morbihan, 
Vilaine, 

Isaac,  I  ... 

Oust,  

Due,  I... 

Cher,  I  ... 

lUe, 

Loire, 


S6vreNan- 

taise,  I 

Moine,  ., 

Divale,  I 

Layon,  I 

Mayenne,  . 


Em^e,  .. 
Sarthe,  . . . 


Loir, 

L'Huine, 
Dive,  I . . 


Brest,  Plougastel,  Lam- 
bezellaCf  Lamdemeau. 

QUIMPER. 

Qaimperli. 

L'Orient,  Pontivy. 

Bavd. 

Vankes,  Sarzeau. 

RedoUy  Renkes,  VUre. 

.Blain. 

.Redon. 

.Ploermel. 

.Fougeray. 

.Cornhourg. 

.  St  Nazaire,  if ontotr,  "Sxuf- 
Tta,Ch4ilonne,  Anoers, 
n. ,  Saumur,TonRS,^m- 
botscy  Blots,  Beaugen- 
cy, Orleans,  Oien,  Cos- 
nCyLaCharitiy  Nevers, 
Roanne,  Montbrison, 
St  Etienne,  n.,  Le  Put. 
Nantes,  V&rton. 

.ChoUet. 

.Vallet 

.Chalonne. 

.Anokrs,  ChMeau-Gonti- 

er,  Laval,    Mayenne, 

Lii-Ferti  Maci. 
.Ernie. 
.Angers,  Sable,  Le  Mans, 

Alencon. 
.La    FUche,    Venddme, 

Chateaudun. 
Nogent-le-RotroiL 
.Mamers. 


Thouet,  I... Parthenay. 
Argentan,  Argentan. 

Yienne,  I  ...Chinon,  Ghatellerault,  St 
Junien,   Limooss,  St 
Leomard. 
Grouse,  ..Le  jBtone,  Guebet,  Au- 
busson. 
Gartem-  MontmorUlon. 
pe,  I 
Clain,  I  ..Poitiers. 

Indre,  I Buzangais,  Chateau- 

Roux,  La  Chatre. 

Cher,  2 Tours,  Selles,    Vierzon, 

StAmandy  montluQvn, 
Saudre,  ..JRomoranttn. 
Axon,  I ... Issoudun, n. 
Auron, . . .  Bouroes. 
Allier,  ( ....MouLivs,    Clerhonti 
Ferrani),  Issoire. 
Sioule,  I,. St Pourfoin. 
Andelot,  I  Qannat. 
Sichon,  ..Ctisset. 
Dore,  ....  Thiers,  Ambert. 
Ambene,Z  Riom. 
Arroux,  . . . .  Le  Creuzot,  n.,  Autun. 

Furens StBtienne. 

lignon,  ....  TssingeauXy  Tenee. 
Co.  vendue,  ..Sable-^OUmne. 

Lay,    Lufon^n. 

Yon,    Napoleon-Vendek. 

S  6  V  r  e   Nior-  Niort. 
taise, 
Vendue,  ..,.Fontenay. 
Co.  Charente  LaRochellx. 
Inf^rieure, 


'                                                       FRANCE.                                                207                  1 

BojtB.  inelLied  to  tk> 

Atlantk  (contiDued). 

RiKn                        Teaiu, 

Oharenl* Boehfoit,   Saintes,  Cog- 

BiysB, i Merac,  Condom. 

nac,  Ahoouijmk. 

Geia,i I,«i™«,ADCH. 

Bontonno,  ..StJiand'Aitgeiy. 

T«™,  MDlssso,  Mdntadbak, 

SOTdogoe, LiboaniB,  Beiijei'ao, 

S!X=%ft'.:'1S: 

^u^^iTVlfr^^^ 

Taiiie,  M-mtignac. 

Aveyran,  VlUe&uiche,  Rhodez. 

Corrtu.  1  SriMI.  Tdu£ 

Agout,  i . .  LmaVT,  Cutres. 

Ceon,iT...O™r<ton. 

AdQU,.,Gniu!ft«I. 

6rf.t, SarbL 

Om,i ADHILUC 

Bar,  2. .««»(. 

Lecm  (  Xaamtt.  n. 

DiS. U»d. 

Bot^ea,tStAfriirae. 

Lore, Grenade. 

So?TiMin.TODLoDsl;,a 

Arritgs P™fer.,Poix 

Atbdoe.  J  ..ifamwndi. 

Adout, Bayonne,  Dos,  Tahbh,                  , 

Lot, vnjouenve  d'Ageu,   Ca- 

G  a  Y  e  -  d  «■  Ortbu,  Fid,  Olmi,  n. 

BOB4.  Mekde. 

Paa.1' 

Troeyn,*i'St¥!om-,  0. 

MidoBze Moht-de-Mamas. 

I-'^.i Aire. 

£ih™  inciiTUd  to 

Tat.    Perpiokjh. 

Ande, Nujonm,  C*BCA»30SME, 

Aiizon,I..Carp6ntia«. 

Boigu L-Iilt. 

Orb*; Btei™,  Bedariaui. 

AlgneB,i...Oringe. 

Jnm SiPoni. 

Aidechs,....^ua>na9. 

L'K^lue,  ....CfeiTOUK-de-Lodiw,  Lo- 

Dr6ni«,'i'.'.'(?™(.  ' 

d»ve. 

Arm l^Vigan. 

^'m^;:;::?^^''*^'"™'^'" 

Oo.B«rau]t,..Oatt.,Jfto, 

Cance, Anuimay. 

■La, Mosmuj-iER, 

Qier, Bive-de-Gier,    Bt  Cha. 

mond. 

'ildiiiiB. tUMtto-I-iiit 

TlaCn^ Nixra. 

Bafme, '.L¥OH,  Viliefranche,  Ma- 

»oi«, Aiin>.  a  o«fa»,  t™. 

50B,  roummr.Chalonn- 

OOB,   B«m™i™,    Avi- 

Bur-SaOne,     Avaxinne,                  , 

oHox,  LiPtmiSt  E,- 
j^,ir..ntBllinai-.  Val- 

Aiergue,..Tarare,  n. 

GI^.'TIJ^Oto™^' 

^^aJ/l^""^' 

LADBAiiN£,VevBy,  Jfar- 

BelUa  I  ..poliffny. 

^■SS^"'"™' 

G«don.....Bmncal™,AM9. 

Donb!,  J    Dfllf,  BEBAHpra,  Jlonl 

Seine,  (...PiiB.n. 

4«itflrd,  /^^!,o^lfer, 

ADduH,  ..Anddie,    Bt    Jenn-da- 

Se-^ir- Btl/on.'^'       ""'°' 

I>iii«MB.i,.A»i™cB.  Cfli««<m,  SI 

iZmty,  n.. /*««.«,  Jfn- 

Boiuolr^  BeiiiDe. 

TVMjw,  Swwnm. 

C«lHm...JjK, 

Dnjon,  I  vhodl- 

BleoDO,  J  DtoKE. 

Ain, SiCiaude,  n. 

•  The  GiTB-Je-Pan  Iuucb  ftonmUk 

fed  \,y  the  glaciers  o(  Mnnt  Perdn,  and 

t»rt,  th«  highest  In  Buroiw,  descanding 

lejofLue.    Fonr  olher  wateria]!.,  oii 

•twhlcli  iB  SOQ  [est  high,  leap  ovet  the 

-ocksQ^lhelkUrboit. 

208 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 
Basins  inclined  to  the  Mediterranean  (continued). 


Rivers.  Towns. 

Savifere,  i.  ..Drains  Lake  Bourget 

Leisse... . .  Chambery. 
Fieran,  I  ... Annecy. 

Arve,  I Geneva. 

Etang-de-  Les  Martigues. 

Berre, 
Touloubre,  ..iSa^. 

Arc, Aix. 

Verne, Marseille,  Axwagne, 

Auriol. 


Rivers.  Totont. 

S. E.  Coast,.. . .  La  Ciotat,    Toulon,    La 
Seyne,  Antibes, 

Gapeau, Hl&res. 

Argense, Lorgues. 

Artuby,  I... Draguignan. 

Calami, Brignoles. 

Siagne Canvas. 

Esteron,  I  ..Grasse. 

Paglione, Nice. 

Co.  of  Nice,...  Jfonoco.  Mentone,  Ven- 
I  timigtia. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  North  Sea. 


Rhine,* Strasbouro,     Guebwil- 

ler,  n. 
Moselle,  I  ..Thionville,  Metz,  Pent- 
drMousson,  Nancy, 
Tovi,  Epinal,  Remire- 
mont. 

Sarr, Saarbrtick,   Sarregue- 

mines. 
Meurthe,  Nancy,    Lun^ville,    St 

Diey. 
Madon,  I  Mirecourt. 
Moder,  I.... Haguenau,  Bischtoiller. 

Zom,         Saveme. 
Ill,  i Strasbourg,    Schele- 

Stadt,   COLMAR,  Mul- 

hausen. 
Bniche,  I  Oberheim. 
Liepvrette,  I  St  Marie-aux-Mines. 


Thaur,  I  ..Mulhausen,  TJiann. 

Meuse, Oivet,   Charleville,    Mk- 

ziERES,  Sedan,  Verdon, 
St  MihieL 
Sambre,  I... Maubeuge. 
Scheldt, Condiy    Amin,    Valen- 
ciennes, CambraL 

Lys,  I Tourcoing,  n. ,  Comminet, 

Armenti^res,   Hallnin, 
Bailleul,  n.,  MervHU, 
Aire. 
Deule,....Waltrelos,  Ronbaix,  n., 
Lille,  Carvin-Epinoy, 
Lens. 
Beurre,  I  Haaebrouck. 
Lawe, ....  Bethune. 
Scarpe,  2... St  Amand-les-eanx, 

Douay,  Arras. 
Selle,  SolesmeSf  Le  Cateati, 


LsLkes. — France  is  singularly  devoid  of  lakes,  and  the  few  that 
exist  are  of  very  small  dimensions.  Grand  Lien,  the  largest  of  them, 
in  the  department  Loire  Inferieure,  occupies  only  20  sq.  miles,  and 
St  Point,  m  department  Jura,  3  sq.  miles.  But  there  are  numerous 
lagoons,  or  salt  marshes,  called  Etangs,  in  the  S.W.  and  S.E.  de- 

Sartments,  from  which  large  quantities  of  salt  are  annually  pro- 
uced.  The  principal  are  Carcans  and  Certes,  in  Gironde ;  San- 
guinet  and  Biscarosse,  in  Landes ;  Leucat  and  Sigeau,  in  Aude ; 
Thou,  in  Herault ;  and  Etang  de  Berre,  in  Bouches-dn-Bhone. 

Climate. — France  lies  between  the  isotherms  of  50°  and  60*  hence 
the  climate  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  that  of  any  country  in  Europe, 
though,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  its  surface,  there  are  great  diver- 
sities. Thus,  in  the  N.W.  departments,  it  greatly  resembles  the  S. 
of  Endland ;  in  the  N.E.  the  winters  are  long  and  often  severe  ;  in 
the  S.E.  the  sky  is  almost  always  serene,  and  the  winters  of  short 
duration.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  the  N.  is  50°,  and  in  the 
S.  60"  Fahr.,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  capital  is  slightly  greater 
than  that  of  London,  but  is  2°  higher  in  summer,  and  as  many 
lower  in  winter.  Mean  annual  rain  on  the  W.  coast,  24  inches,  S.  28, 
N.  22  inches ;  rainy  days  at  Paris,  105 ;  on  W.  coast,  152  ;  in  the  in- 
terior, 147 ;  but  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  only  66.  The  hot 

*  The  Rhine  no  longer  forms  part  of  the  boundary  of  Franca 


FRANCE,  209 

irinJa  of  Africa  freiiueiitly  sprtad  dflKolatioD  in  tlie  S.E.  dnpnrt. 
inentB,  wMh  the  S.W.  are  eiposed  to  piercing  winds  und  tempests 
from  the  Pyreneea  and  Bay  of  Biacay.  Tlie  oliva  ia  aacoessfally  unl- 
tirated  ia  tbs  S.E. ;  the  general  cnftivatioQ  of  maize  extends  uol'th- 
ward  to  a  line  drawn  from  Bordeaux  to  Strasbourg  ;  the  vine  is  pro- 
fitably cultivated  as  far  north  as  a  line  connecting  the  month  of  tha 
l.oLre  with  Meziferes  on  tha  Meuse,  while  N.  of  thia  line  ia  the  region 
of  wheat,  flax,  and  beetroot. 

Qeology  anil  HlneralB, — The  geology  of  France  is  aa  varied  ai 
that  of  England,  comprehending  all  the  formationa  of  the  geological 
■cale.  The  secondary  strata,  however,  are  the  most  highly  developed, 
"~  id  cover  the  largest  portion  of  the  surface.  They  praviul  chiefly  ia 
.0  E.  and  N.E.  departments,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Metz  on 
le  Moselle.  They  also  cover  a  large  part  of  the  W,  of  France,  ei- 
iidiBg  from  the  Garonne  to  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  hut  not  inclnd- 
Sag  Brittany,  which  is  nearly  alt  Silurian.  The  nest  in  importance 
"h  the  toitiarj  Beriea,  which  occupies  the  region  between  the  Pyreneea 
jBid  Garonne;  an  exteoaive  tract  along  the  Kaide  of  the  Khona  and 
P-Saflno  ;  and  a  still  more  extensive  area  aroand  the  capital,  known  as 
tha  Paris  batin,  and  celebrated  as  the  field  ie  which  the  great  Cnvier 
roads  hia  reraarliable  palfcontologicsl  discoveries.  Granitic  roets 
oconi  in  many  places,  but  prevail  especially  in  Brittany,  and  alone 
the  great  water  -  parting  separating  the  liasins  of  the  Loire  and 
Garonna  ;  and,  lastly,  volcanic  rocks  are  numerous  in  Cautal  and 
Puy-de-Dflme,  where  they  form  nn  irregular  ridge  of  mottntains,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  extinct  volcanoes.  The  moat  abundant  ooal-depoaita 
are  found  in  the  central  departments,  especially  in  the  basins  of  the 
Loire,  Crouse,  Dordogne,  Aveyron,  Ardfeche,  and  Rhone,  and  in  the 
monataina  of  Cevennea,  An  extensive  coal-field  extends  from  Bou- 
logne in  an  easterly  direction  to  Belgium,  and  forms  a  source  of  great 
w^th  to  the  flonrishing  cities  of  the  N.  coast  of  Frani^e  ;  but  it  is  a 
curiona  fact  that  coal  in  France  ia  unaccompanied  by  ironatone,  a 
niineral  which  so  greatly  enhancea  its  valne  in  England  and  Scotland. 
Tha  next  most  important  mineral  ia  iron,  I'oond  in  all  parts  of  tbo 
kingdom,  and  worked  to  the  extent  of  half  a  million  of  tons  annu- 
ally ;  coal,  as  already  described,  wrought  in  400  coal-Qiines,  and 
yielding  upwards  of  11,000,000  tons  annually  ;  salt-mines  of  grest 
valae ;  copper,  lead,  silver,  antimony,  and  email  quantities  of  gp'^, 
BulphltT,  and  sulphate  of  iron  ;  marble,  gypsum,  alabaster,  builaing- 
Btona,  Uld  slate,  in  many  localities. 


BotKBT. — France  surpasses  all  other  European  c 
number  and  variety  of  its  indigenous  plants.  Thus,  while  the  in- 
diganons  plants  of  the  British  falea  amount  only  to  1400  apecies,  of 
which  1600  are  flowering,  France  contuns  7000  species,  of  which 
3610  are  flowering,  or,  according  to  Maitins,  3860,  of  which  713  are 
monocotyledons  and  29S0  dicotyledons.  The  principal  formt-traa 
1  ue  the  difl'erent  varieties  of  the  pine  tribe,  as  common  fir  in  Voages 
Lsnd  Jura,  and  the  larch  in  the  loftier  Alps ;  the  oak,  beech,  elm,  ash, 
'i,  ftnd  eork-tree.     Forests  occupy  about  17,000,000  acres,  being 


210  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

nearly  an  eighth  of  the  entire  surface,  and  are  the  more  valuable  in 
that  they  thnve  in  soils  which  could  not  otherwise  be  turned  to  good 
account.  The  principal  fruit-trees  are  the  vine,  olive,  chestnut, 
walnut,  almond,  apple,  pear,  cherry,  orange,  citron,  fig,  pomegranate, 
pistachio,  lemon,  and  plum. 

Agriculture. — ^Except  on  the  borders  of  Belgium,  agriculture  is  in  a 
backward  state,  though  the  recent  improvements  have  been  extensive,  and 
the  implements  used  in  husbandry  are  of  an  inferior  description.  The 
British  system  of  rotation  of  crops  is  unpractised,  and  large  farms  are  un« 
known.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  the  extreme  subdivision  of  property. 
When  a  landed  proprietor  dies^  the  land  is  equally  divided  among  all  his 
children.  The  result  is  that  there  are  now  in  France  about  .8,000,000 
landed  proprietors,  of  whom  50,000  possess  on  an  average  600  acres  each ; 
2,500,0000  have  60  acres  each,  while  5,000,000  have  only  6  acres  each. 
The  soil  is  in  general  of  moderate  fertilitv,  but  in  many  places  very  ridi: 
\  is  under  cultivation,  |th  occupied  with  forests  and  fruit-trees,  ^th  in 
permanent  meadows,  and  4th  in  unreclaimed  waste  land.  Vineyaros  now 
occupy  about  a  twentieth  part  of  the  entire  area,  and  the  French  are 
allowed  to  be  the  best  winemakers  in  the  world.  The  most  celebrated 
wines  are  those  of  Champagne,  Burgundy,  and  Bordeaux.  Wheat  and 
the  vine  form  the  principal  objects  of  culture,  and  next  to  them  barley, 
oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  Indian-corn,  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  and  flax. 
Wheat  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  north,  where  the  vine  cannot  be  cultivated 
successfully ;  maize  in  the  south ;  and  rye  throughout  the  whole  country. 
The  quantity  of  com  raised  is  usually  sufScient  for  the  wants  of  the 
population,  and  considerable  quantities  are  often  exported.  Mulberry^ 
trees  form  an  important  article  of  culture,  especially  around  Lyon;  beet« 
root,  from  which  sugar  is  largely  manufactured ;  tobacco  and  madder  are 
also  cultivated  in  several  departments,  but  the  olive  almost  exclusively  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  reaiing  of  cattle  and  sheep  iStuice 
is  far  behind  Great  Britain,  but  poultry  are  very  extensively  reared. 

Zoology.  —  Among  the  wild  Mammalia  may  be  reckoned  the 
black  and  brown  bear  in  the  Pyrenees  ;  the  lynx  in  the  higher  Alps  ; 
the  wolf  and  wild  boar  in  the  forests  ;  the  cnamois  and  wild  goat  in 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees ;  the  stag,  roebuck,  hare,  rabbit,  and  S)X,  are 
common ;  the  marmot,  ermine,  hamster,  the  red,  alpine,  and  flying 
squirrel  in  the  Vosges  ;  the  badger,  hedgehog,  polecat,  weasel,  raC 
mouse,  and  mole,  everywhere  ;  the  beaver  is  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhone ;  the  otter  and  water-rat  in  most  of  the  other  rivers. 
Birds. — The  songsters  and  the  birds  of  passage  are  much  the  same 
as  in  England  ;  the  flamingo  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean; the  red  and  grey  partridge,  quail,  pheasant,  woodcock, 
plover,  lapwing,  wild-duck,  and  snipe  are  common ;  the  eagle,  falcon, 
and  buzzard  in  the  mountains.  Reptiles  are  represented  by  numer- 
ous species  of  frogs,  including  the  salamander,  by  a  few  tortoises,  and 
by  several  species  of  vipers  and  of  harmless  snakes.  Fishes. — The 
herring,  mackerel,  sardine,  pilchard,  turbot,  sole,  whiting,  on  the 
west  coast ;  the  tunny  and  anchovy  in  the  Mediterranean ;  and  the 
salmon  in  the  river-estuaries.  The  Articulaia  include  the  crab, 
lobster,  crayfish,  and  numerous  insects,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned bees,  which  are  extensively  reared ;  and  the  silkworm,  which 


FRANCE.  2U 

fbnna  a  liidily  important  source  of  wealth.  Of  MoUusca,  liie  oyster 
md  miaBsel  form  important  articles  of  food. 

EtUnograiiliy.— In  ancient  timea  France  (formerly  GalljK,  or  Ganl) 
was  iahabited  by  three  different  races — viz.,  the  Anuitani  in  the  S., 
an  Iberian  race;  the  Celts  in  the  centre,  n  Gallic  race;  and  the 
Belgse  in  the  N.,  a  Gothic  race.  The  French  people  are  therefore  of 
n  mixed  race,  partly  Teutonic,  but  chieHy  Boinan  and  Celtic  The 
Gauls,  or  Celts,  were  the  original  inhabitants,  but  were  invaded  early 
in  the  fifth  centarj  hy  the  Franks,  Burgundiana,  and  Visisoths,  ■. 
confederacy  of  German  tribes  who  had  previoasly  occupied  the  right 
banlt  of  the  Khine.  In  Brittany  the  Celtic  element  remains  almost 
mre,  and  the  Basque  jn  B^am  ;  while  Flemish  is  spoken  in  French 
Flanders,  and  Italian  in  the  8.E. 

The  French  Langaaot  is  an  important  member  of  the  Greco-Latin 
family.  The  conntry  haTing  been  long  mibject  to  the  Homana,  the 
original  language  of  the  inhabitants  was  diaplaced  by  the  Latin,  wMiJi 
waa  in  turn  greatly  corrupted  by  the  Franks.  The  Armorio,  howerer, 
s  purely  Celtic  dialect,  continnea  to  be  spoken  in  Brittany ;  and  the 
B^miB,  which  cannot  be  classed  under  an;  known  family,  is  spoken 
in  the  eitroma  9.W. 

JUHgion.—Tbe  graat  bulk  of  the  population  are  nominal  adherents  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  1B72  upwards  oi  35,000,000  belonged  to  that 
faith,  while  only  680,000  were  Protestants,  and  49,000  Jews.  Tbe 
majority  of  the  Protestants  are  Calrinists,  but  Lutherans  i 


to  theee  deuominatiuus  who  will  not  submit  to  Slate  < 
limited.* 
Edncativti. — From  its  lowest  to  its  highest  atage,  educatj 


.s  detec 


a  and 


established,  a  .  

mentary  school ;  yet  In  1872,  one-tbird  of  the  adult  population  eonld 
neither  read  nor  write.  Advanced  eduoation  is  conducted  by  an 
organisation  known  u  tbe  "  Clnivarsity  of  France,"  wbioli  ambroces  five 
facalUBa— Tiz.,  those  of  Science,  Letters,  Law,  Medicine,  and  Theology, 
and  which  has  branches  in  Paris,  Caen,  Toulouse,  Dijon,  Poictiei-s,  and 
Gennes.  Tbe  Roman  Catholic  Church,  however,  educatee  ita  clewjr  in  its 
own  eeoleaiaaticai  aecninaries,  in  which  the  curriculum  is  very  limitad. 
The  duration  of  acbool-life  is  regulated  by  tbe  religion  of  tbe  acholar. 
Roman  Catholics  rarely  attend  school  after  eleveu  ur  twelve,  when  they 
reodve  their  flrat  communion,  but  Proteatanta  commonly  remain  till  about 
riiteen.  In  intelleotnal  charaoter  the  fVench  people  occupy  a  foremoat 
place;  while  for  eiqulsite  taste,  politoneaa,  and  courtesy  of  manners,  they 
•re  unrivalled  among  the  nations.    In  moral  qualities,  however,  they  ara 


•  In  Ji 


nnlrjn 


at  bo  eonteoted  nitli  being  to 


■duKils  will  be  tolerated ;  and,  sa  n  climax  to  this  pEecs  of  reUidotiB  onnreasED 
It  Is  fOrther  tntimal*d  that  sll  altempta  to  diacnsa  laltglous  queatlonswlll  1 
treated  m  (edition,  and  Buppreusd  acroidinglr.  Do  tbe  whole,  Pmteatsntts 
bu  hardly  been  in  a  worae  condition  in  Fruici  alnce  the  reign  of  Lnnli  XIV. 


212  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY, 

less  favourably  distinguished ;  they  are  deficient  in  solidity  of  character 
and  strength  of  princij^le ;  incapable  alike  of  bearing  prosperity  or  adver- 
sity. Fickleness  of  disposition  and  a  passion  for  military  glor^  are  pro- 
minent features  of  their  character.  Licentiousness  of  manners  is  another 
distinguishing  trait,  especially  in  large  cities :  in  the  capital,  for  instance, 
every  third  mother  is  unmarried,  and  every  third  child  nas  a  stain  on  his 
birth ;  but  over  the  whole  country  the  proportion  is  only  one  to  fourteen. 

Literature. — Though  France  cannot  boast  of  many  geniuses  of 
the  first  order,  a  great  number  of  brilliant  names  adorn  her  literature. 
The  following  are  amongst  the  most  distinguished  of  her  many  gifted 
sons : — 

POETBT :  Moli^re,  Kacine,  ComeiUe,  La  Fontaine,  Boileau,  Crebillon, 
Voltaire,  Beranger,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Hugo,  Dnmas,  Musset.  Histobt  : 
Froissart,  Rapin,  Voltaire,  Rollin,  Comines,  De  Thou,  Sully,  Barante, 
Thierry,  Thiers,  Mignet,  Guizot.  Fine  Arts  :  Poussin,  Vouet,  Claude 
Lorrain,  Vanloo,  Le  Sueur,  P.  Mignard,  Charles  le  Brun,  Watteau,  Ver- 
net,  Greuze,  David.  Phtsical  Science  :  La  Place,  Lavoisier,  Lagranffe, 
Lalande,  D'Alembert,  Buffon,  B^umur,  Jussieu,  Cuvier,  Arago,  Balbi. 
Mental  Science  :  Descartes,  Malebranche,  Gassendi,  Bayle,  Condillac, 
Montesquieu,  Cousin.  Pulpit  Eloquence  :  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  F€n^ 
Ion,  Massillon.  Sacred  Literature  :  Calvin,  Beza,  Pascal^  Bochart, 
DaUle,  Tillemont,  Le  Long,  Dupin,  Fleury,  Basnage,  Saurin,  Le  Clerc, 
Calmet,  Houbigant.  Miscellaneous  :  Rabelais,  Montaigne,  H.  and  R. 
Stephens,  Casaubon,  Salmasius,  Ilerbelot,  S6viign4y  Du  Cange,  Mbnt- 
faucon,  Le  Sage,  Fontenelle,  Maimontel,  Didero^  St  Pierre,  Vomey,  De 
Sacy,  Champollion,  Chateaubriand,  LaBruybre,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Talley- 
rand, Hugo,  Dumas,  Musset,  Bal^c,  De  Block,  Eugene  Sue,  Lamartine. 

Form  of  Oovemment,  Army  and  Navy,  Public  Debt,  Bevenne  and 
Expenditure. — The  French  Revolution,  overthrowing  the  Monurdhy, 
commenced  in  1789.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  was  proclaimed  Empenv 
in  1804,  and  finally  abdicated  in  1815.  Louis  Philippe  b^iame  King 
of  the  French  in  1830,  but  abdicated  in  1848,  when  Fntnoe  became 
a  Republic  with  Louis  Napoleon,  nephew  of  Napoleon  the  Qreat^ 
as  its  President.  In  1852  he  was  declared  Emperor,  but  his  reign 
came  to  an  ignominious  termination  by  the  terrible  defeat  at  S^ian 
(September  2,  1870),  and  France  is  now  once  more  a  RepubUa  TbB 
Franco-German  war  cost  this  unhappy  country  about  £560.000,000, 
including  a  war  indemnity  to  €rermany  of  £200,000,000.  Previoiu 
to  the  Great  Revolution  the  total  public  expenditure  of  France  did 
not  exceed  £40,000,000  a-year,  a  sum  which  now  barely  covers  the 
interest  on  the  National  Debt.  In  1873  the  army  amounted  to 
454,000  men,  including  280,000  infantry,  60,000  oavalty,  and 
51,000  artillery.  ^  The  navy  is  very  formidable,  but  is  at  present  in 
a  state  of  transition.  It  was  of  no  use  to  France  in  her  hour  of 
peril.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  in  1875  amounted  to  upwards 
of  £100, 000,000  each. 

Commerce,  ManufiEUstures,  Exports  and  Imports.~France  ranks 
next  to  Britain,  in  regard  to  Ihe  extent  and  value  of  her  commerce  and 
manufactures.  In  1873,  the  commercial  marine  comprised  14,687  ves- 
sels, carrying  1,042,000  tons,  or  about  a  fifth  part  of  the  toima«  cf 
Great  Bntain ;  the  total  exports  amounted  to  £140,000,000,  ana  fba 
imports  to  £182,000,000.    Her  chief  customer  is  England,  her  tiidi 


r 


213 


iritktlt&t  countrj  having  increased  more  thui  150  per  cent  since  tlis 
treaty  of  commoroe  of  1860.  The  other  principal  countries  are  Bel- 
gium, Italy,  Netherlands,  and  Spain.  In  1873,  France  exported  to 
our  country  goods  to  the  value  of  £43,710,  DOO,  the  chief  items  of  which 
-were dlk and ailk  goods  (£10,000,000),  vrinea  and  brandy  (£3,000,000); 
gloves,  butter,  and  eggs  (£4000,000).  In  the  same  year  France  re- 
ceived from  Us  to  the  value  of  £17,031,000,  consisting  mainly  of  wool- 
len, cotton,  and  linen  goods,  coal,  ejid  iroo.  Her  principal  imports 
from  other  conntriea  are  raw  silks,  wool,  sugar,  cotton,  wood,  and 
coal.  With  respect  to  maoufacturiag  indostrj,  France  is  divisible 
into  three  regions,  which,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are  the 
northern,  southern,  and  central.  The  northern  towns  (ceiieciallf 
Bonen)  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  cotton  and  woollen  manufacture ; 
while  the  linen  manufacture  is  chieHy  confined  to  Lille,  Cambray, 
and  the  other  towns  bordering  on  Belgium  ;  silk-wearing  la  chiefly 
prosecnted  at  Ljon,  and  other  cities  in  the  vall^  of  the  Rhone.  St 
Etienne  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  firearms  and  hard- 
ware. Faiis  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of  its  manufactnres, 
wpedally  articles  of  taste,  luxury,  and  fashion — as  jewellery,  bijou- 
terie, porcelain,  mirrors,  clocks,  watches,  perfumery,  bonnets,  gloves, 
OMTiftgBS,  and  "Articles  de  Paris."  The^love  manufacture  is  one  of 
the  most  imtiortaTit  branches  of  industry  m  the  country,  Paris  being 
its  chief  seat.  Caen  and  Valencienaea  are  famous  for  their  lace.  Cam- 
buy  for  muslin,  Eeirasfor  merinoes;  while  the  mannfactures  of  beet- 
root-sugar, wine,  and  brandy,  are  of  the  highest  importance. 

Inland  Conununlcatimi. — Aa  compared  with  Eugland  and  Belgium, 
tUaVAT  communication  is  still  in  a  backward  state,  PreTtous  to  184D, 
there  were  but  few  Unea  in  the  kiogdom.  In  IS54.  the  number  of  miles 
oi«n  for  traffie  was  2526,  -while  at  the  close  of  1874  there  were  12,420 
miles  in  operation.  Nearly  all  the  lines  are  at  present  in  the  liands 
Of  sIe  great  companies,  and  all  the  grand  systems  railiate  frum  Paris,  aa 
a  centre,  to  the  extremities  of  the  kingdom.  ConuuencinE  at  the  capital, 
Ist,  the  NoRTHEB^t,  proceeds  to  Amiens,  and  then  bran^ea  to  Brussels 
and  Boulogne;  2d,  theWESTEiiN  runs  to  Boueii,  where  it  forks  to  Dieppe, 
Havre,  and  CherboHrg ;  3d,  the  Ohleiss  line  proceeds  S.W.  to  Toms, 
where  it  branches  oil'  to  Nautca  and  Bordeanx;  4th,  the  Ltom  and  MflDl- 
IKBSliNKAN,  to  Ljon  and  Marseille  ;  6th .  tha  Southern,  from  Bordsaui 
to  HontpeUier ;  Sth,  the  Eastern,  from  Paris  to  Nancy.  There  are  now 
39,000  m.  of  telecrrapbio  wires.  There  are  eighty -aii  canals,  whoso 
united  lantrth  ia  2350  miles,  and  which  connect  all  the  principal  rivers  of 
nance.  The  nioet  important  are  the  following  :  Uanal  dK  Midi,  from 
Toulouse^  on  the  Garonne,  to  the  lagoon  of  Thou,  connects  the  Atlautio 


ftnd  Mediterranean.     Canal  du  Cmtri,  from  C%alonB-sur-Sa3ne  to  Disoia 
te  and  RkoH^ 


In  Bafine-et-Loire,  unites  the  Laiie  with  the  Rhone. 


_  ..iia(,  partly  in  the  Ihie  of  the  Doobs,  unites  the  Ehine  and  Rhone. 
Canal  de  Burgogiu,  from  the  SaSne  to  the  Yoone,  connects  the  Hbone 
with  the  Seine.  Canid  d»  Braire,  connecting  the  Seine  with  the  Loire. 
ThB  BOAIH  are  divided  into  two  clasBes— vit,  Boyal  and  Departnientol. 
Of  the  formar  there  are  twenty-six,  whose  united  length  la  2i,900  miles ; 
^>Bd  of  the  latter,  uinety-aenin,  with  a  united  length  of  S2,EiD0 — making 
■total  of  47,400  mUes. 
1  Forslen  FoBsesiloBS. — The  foreign  possessions  of  France  have  an 


216  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

Charles  V.  and  John  of  Gaunt  St  ITicholas  and  Lokem  are  also  chief 
seats  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  Oadenarde,  celebrated  for  the  victory 
gained  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  over  the  French, 
in  1708.  Antwerp  {Fr,  Anvers),  a  large  and  very  strongly  fortified  city 
on  the  Scheldt,  and  the  chief  emporium  of  Belgian  commerce,  contains  a 
noble  cathedral,  many  valuable  works  of  art,  and  extensive  manufactures, 
the  chief  of  which  are  silk  and  cotton  hosiery  :  in  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies it  was  the  wealthiest  and  most  commercial  city  in  Europe.  Hera 
died  the  illustrious  Rubens  in  1640,  and  it  is  the  birthplace  of  Jordaens, 
Vandyk,  and  Teniers.  Mechlin  {Fr.  Malines),  on  the  Dyle,  and  at  the 
intersection  of  several  railways,  is  a  place  of  great  trade,  especially  in  flax, 
com,  and  oil.  Idege  (Z).  Luyk,  v.  Ltlttich),  a  fortified  and  populous 
city  on  the  Maas,  is  called  the  Birmingham  of  Belgium,  on  account  of  its 
vast  ironworks  and  extensive  coal-mines  ;  long  celebrated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  arras,  which  it  largely  exports  to  foreign  governments.  V«r- 
viers,  noted  for  its  woollen  cloth,  soap,  and  dye-works.  Hny  (We)^  a 
fortified  town,  with  a  college,  ironworks,  several  factories,  and  an  active 
trade  in  com,  is  the  burial-place  of  Peter  the  Hermit.  ITamnr,  a  fortified 
city  at  the  confluence  of  the  Maas  and  Sambre,  is  celebrated  for  its  cut- 
lery :  it  has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  and  bronze  articles :  its 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Belgium  :  in  the  vicinity  are  rich  mines 
of  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  copper.  Mens,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Haine,  witii 
numerous  coal-mines  in  the  vicinity,  Toumay,  a  strongly  fortL&ed  city 
on  the  Scheldt,  has  a  royal  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  Brussels  car- 
pets. Charleroi,  a  celebrated  fortress  which  has  been  taken  by  the  Frendi 
no  less  than  six  times,  lies  near  the  centre  of  an  extensive  and  valuable 
coal-field ;  is  well  situated  both  for  manufactures  and  trade.  Flennu : 
various  sanguinary  battles  took  place  in  its  vicinity  in  162S,  1690, 1794, 
and  1815.  Fontenoy,  a  village  five  miles  S.E.  of  Toumay,  memorable  as 
the  place  where,  in  1745,  the  British  were  defeated  by  the  French. 
Brussels  {Fr.  Bruxelles),  capital  of  Belgium,  is  adorned  with  many  &ie 
buildings,  fountains,  and  public  walks  of  ^ksX  beauty.  It  is  tiie  chief 
seat  of  public  instruction,  contains  a  university,  and  numerous  other 
literary  and  scientific  institutions,  and  is  noted  for  book-printing,  es- 
pecially its  cheap  reprints  of  French  works.  Brussels  was  long  cele- 
brated for  its  carpets  and  lace,  but  the  former  branch  of  manufacture  has 
now  greatly  declmed.  Bmssels  is  an  ancient  city,  having  been  founded 
probably  in  the  seventh  century :  was  the  residence  of  the  Di^es  of  Bra- 
bant, and  afterwards  of  the  Spanish  and  Austrian  governors-general  of 
the  Netherlands.  Louvain,  once  the  seat  of  a  famous  university,  now 
replaced  by  a  Boman  Catholic  college.  Waterloo,  a  village  9  miles  8.  of 
Brussels,  famous  for  the  great  battle  fought  near  it,  June  18,  1815,  be- 
tween the  French  under  Napoleon  I.,  and  the  British  under  the  Dnke  of 
Wellington,  when  Napoleon  was  utterly  defeated.  ''^™<11<Aff :  here  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  defeated  the  French,  23d  May  1706.  Qvatra  Brai, 
a  village  10  miles  S.  of  Waterloo,  and  the  scene  of  an  indecisive  action 
between  the  French  and  the  British  (with  their  allies),  16tii  June  1815, 
in  which  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  fell.  Ligny.  a  village  14  miles  W.N,W. 
of  Namur,  celebrated  for  a  battle  between  the  Proiuians  and  French, 
16th  June  1815. 

River-Basins.  —  The  Maas  (Fr,  Meuse)  and  the  Scheldt  (Fr, 
Escant)  are  the  only  rivers  of  Belgium  that  deserve  attentioin.  TIm 
former  has  a  total  length  of  580  miles,  and  the  latter  of  811  mllM ; 
but  only  a  part  of  their  course  belongs  to  this  kingdom.    Of  tii0 


I 


Kftomc 

VcobI-I 
■   tons 


EBLOIL-M.  217 

nine  capitals  of  provinoea  above  enumeiBtcd,  three  belong  to  the 
Maaa — yia.,  lAhne,  Nttmnr,  and  Arion ;  aud  fivB  to  the  Scheldt — 
viz.,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Brassela,  Hassolt,  and  Mona.  For  the  table 
of  rivers  ana  tawns,  epa  under  "  KetherkndB,"  where  the  complete 
rirer-Bjetein  of  both  countries  will  be  found. 

The  CUiDEite  is  in  senernl  temperate,  mild,  and  ajrreeable,  but 
humid  in  the  K  and  N.  W.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  at 
BrusBols  ia  60°.l,  winter  38°,  aummer  61°  Fair.  ;  the  range  ot  tem- 
perature ifl  very  great — the  estteaie  heat  being  91°.0,  and  eitreme 
cold  3°  below  zero.  The  prevailing  winds  are  &om  the  S.W.j  and 
the  annual  fall  of  rain  ia  about  26  inches. 

Geolofy  and  Btaerala.—TettiaTy  format  iona  cover  the  whole  N.W. 
and  centre;  but  iu  the  E.  and  S.  corboniferoua  and  Devonian  strata 
prevail,  containing  many  ejrtensivo  and  valuable  coal-fields,  especially 
In  the  provinces  of  Hainanlt,  Nunur,  and  Li^ge.  The  minerals  are 
~  nerouB  and  highly  important,  embracing  coal  and  iron,  which  are 
>ught  most  eitensively  around  Mona.  Liige,  and  Charleroi :  S3 
coal-beds  are  enumerated,  which  yield  aiinnally  abont  10,000,000 
tons  of  coal,  a  third  of  which  is  exported  t«  France,  whose  entire 
eoal-Gelds  are  inferior  to  those  of  Namur  alone.  With  the  exception 
ot  England,  Belgium  is  the  beat  coal-producing  country  iu  Europe. 
Liftge  alone  produces  200,000  tana  of  iron  annually ;  and  many 
other  iroD-mines  are  wrought  between  the  Maas  and  the  Sambra. 
Oilier  minerals  are,  copper  in  Haiuault  and  Li^ge;  lead  in  Lillge, 
Niuunr,  and  Luxembourg  ;  calamine,  or  carbonate  of  zinc,  in  Natnut, 
Li^,  aud  Hainault;  idso  manganese,  solphnr,  alum,  slate,  and 
bnilding-stonc,  and  several  other  useful  minerals. 

Botany,  Aaricnltnre,  and  Zoology. — The  indigenoua  vegetation  of 
Belpuni  differs  so  little  from  that  of  the  north  of  France  and  the 
•outh  of  England,  tliat  it  is  onnecesaary  to  describa  it.     Among  the 
forest-trees  are  the  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  elm,  ash,  walnut,  Hr,  and 
poplar.     Agriculture  ia  in  «  highly  flourishing  state,  and  haa  lon){ 
served  aa  a  model  to  neighbouring  countries.     The  soil  is  not  natu 
ally  fertile,  as  it  generally  consists  of  either  sand  or  clay,  but  t  . 
■kill  and  industry  of  the  hnshandman  have  so  judiciously  mixed  J 
these  ingredients  that  Belgium  may  now  be  regarded  aa  the  richest  1 
and  mmt  productive  country  in  Europe.     The  rotation  of  crops  ie  .1 
carefully  attended  to  ;  artiiicial  man  urea  are  largely  employed ;  ami. I 
the  result  is,  that  though  the  country  is  bo  densely  peopled,  tha  .1 
qnanti^  ot  com  raised  ia  double  that  reqaired  for  home  consomp-  A 
tion.     Seven-eightbs  of  the  entire  surface  are  under  cultivation,  and  j 
the  remainder  yields  excellent  timber  for  bark  and  bnilding  purpoaolk  m 
Clover  fonns  an  extendve  article  of  larmiug  and  the  chief  food  otV 
the  cattle,  wliich  are  usually  atall-fed,  ihe  seed  being  exported  tof 
England.     The  flax  is  of  an  sxcallent  quality,  and  is  also  largely 4 

.  .      rm  g  ^jjjg  jg  nuitivated  on  the  banks  of  the  Uaas,  but  the    , 

1  is  01  an  inferior  quality.  Hops,  beetroot  (for  sugar),  chicon', 
toleooo,  are  grown  in  the  central  provineeg ;  potatoes,  flii,  oil- 
,  nnd  mftddcr,  in  Fludcrt ;  and  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and 


220  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

pets,  cutlery,  nails,  and  re&ned  sugar.  Among  the  principal  mana- 
factured  articles  may  be  enumerated  Brussels  carpets,  which  are 
unrivalled  for  elegance  ;  fine  lace  and  thread,  made  from  the  finest 
flax,  so  valuable  that  it  sometimes  fetches  £400  sterling  x>er  pound ; 
damask  table-linen,  and  other  linen  cloth,  paper,  oil-cloth,  India- 
rubber  articles,  musical  instruments,  embroidery,  ribbons,  hats,  and 
various  other  articles  enumerated  among  the  exports.  Both  as 
regards  exports  and  imports,  its  chief  customers  are  France,  England, 
Netherlands,  and  Germany.  The  articles  sent  to  England  are  silk 
manufactures  to  the  value  of  nearly  £2,250>000,  flax,  yam,  and  dairy 
produce,  amounting,  in  1873,  to  £8,250,000.  We  send  to  it,  in 
return,  woollen  stuffs  and  machinery,  to  the  value  of  £2,000,000.'  At 
Seraing,  near  Li^ge,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  ironworks  in 
Europe,  employing  5000  artisans :  here  are  manufactured  cannons, 
firearms,  steam  machinery,  and  locomotives. 

Inland  Communication. — Considering  its  size,  Belgium  is  better 
fumiahed  with  Railways  than  any  other  European  country. 

From  Mechlin,  as  the  centre  of  the  entire  system,  one  main  line  pro- 
ceeds S.W.  by  the  capital  to  Mons,  and  then  to  France,  where  it  con- 
nects with  the  Great  Northern  to  Paris ;  a  second  S.E.  to  Li^e  and 
Cologne  ;  a  third  N.  to  Antwerp  and  Rotterdam ;  a  fourth  W.  by  Ghent 
and  Bruges  to  Ostend.  Another  main  line  connects  Antwerp,  Ghent, 
Toumay,  and  Lille  (in  France) ;  and  the  only  other  we  can  specify  unites 
Courtrai,  Mens,  Namur,  and  Libge.  These  various  lines  have  been  con- 
structed at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  and  have  powerfully  contri- 
buted to  develop  the  internal  resources  of  the  country.  In  1874,  the 
number  of  miles  open  for  traffic  was  2105,  yielding  a  clear  revenue  of 
£3,000,000.  The  country  is  also  largely  intersected  by  excellent  Canals^ 
many  of  which  admit  merchant  vessels.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  Bruges 
and  Ghent  Canal,  which  communicates  with  those  of  Damme  and  Ostend 
at  Bruges,  and  at  Ghent  with  another  canal,  which  proceeds  north  to  the 
estuary  of  the  East  Scheldt ;  and  those  which  connect  the  Maas  with  the 
Scheldt — amounting  together  to  nearly  300  mUes.  The  two  principal 
rivers,  the  Maas  and  Scheldt,  are  navigable  through  the  whole  Belgun 
territory.  The  public  Roads  are  also  numerous,  broad,  and  well  paved. 
Belgium  has  no  Foreign  Possessions,  Holland  having  retained  all  the 
colonies  when,  in  1830,  the  two  counliies  were  disjoint 


HOLLAND,  OR  THE  NETHERLAimS. 

Position  and  Boundaries. — The  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the  North  Sea,  S.  by 
Belgium,  and  E.  by  Prussia  ;  but  the  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxem- 
bourg,'^ properly  belonging  to  Qermany,  lies  S;  E.  of  Belgium, 
between  Belgian  Luxembourg  and  the  Moselle.  Lat.  49°  26^— 
53''  34'  N. ;  or,  omitting  Luxembourg,  lat  60*»  46'— 53*  34'  N.; 
Ion.  3°  24'— 7'  12'  E. 

*  In  case  of  war,  this  province  is  neutral,  under  fhe  proteetion  off  fto  Oieil 
Powers. 


EOLLASD,  OB  THE  NETHERLANDS,         221 

Aiiistorda.m,thecommerciii1  capital,  neartbecentre.isn  eaily  ontbesainc' 
parallel  nf  latitude  as  Tralea,  Cambridge,  HanOTer,  Berlin,  and  Warsaw ; 
and  oa  the  same  meridian  as  Bnissata,  Lj^oa,  and  Minorca.  The  form 
approachea  a  rhombeid,  with  deep  inrtentatiDna  at  the  three  angles  washed 
b;  the  sea.  Length  of  east  side,  187  miles;  breadth  along  the  Eelgian 
mmtler,  117  mJes,  The  coast-lina  is  extremely  irregular,  especially  in 
the  N.,  where  the  eea  has  made  serious  eaci«achments  on  the  land. 
Length,  inclnrimg  the  larger  itidentivtioas,  about  600  miles,  or  1  mile  of 
coast  to  each  27  miles  of  surface. 

Am  and  Papulation.— Including  Limbourg  and  Luxcmboarg, 
the  area  is  22,11B  aq.  milea,  or  nearly  thrice  the  size  of  Wales.  Popu- 
lation  (in  1873)  3,913,600,  beiag  275  persons  to  each  aq.  mile:'  The 
neitem  provincea  (N.  and  Id.  Holland)  ars  the  most  populous  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  and  i^ontain  the  largest  towns ;  wbilc  Drenthe,  in 
the  H.E,,  partly  oi^cnpied  by  heath  and  waste  land,  is  the  least 
popnlouB. 

Political  Divisions.— Holland  is  divided  into  12  provinceB, 
JDcluding  the  two  diiuhieB  of  Limbourg  and  Luxembourg.* 

Vorth  HoUand.t— Akstehdau  2S1  (Anistel  and  Y),  Haarlem  31  n., 
Zaandam  or  Baardam  12  |Y),  Alkmaarll,  Haider  20  (Great Canal),  Hoom 
10  (Zuvder  Zea). 

r™™  Wieam  SOOO  nsd  JO.OOT  MJlatimnU.-menwe^Ainatel,  Eukliiitien. 

Boath  Holland.— The  Haqcb  93,  Delft  22  (Bchie  Canal),  LoyJen  40 
(Old  Rhine],  Schiedam  20,  Rotterdam  123,  Dart  2G  (Maas),  Gouda  15 
(Rhine,  I'liel  branch). 

Brlalle,  Tlaudingen.  Gorkmo. 

Zeeland.- Mn)Di.EBCiia  16,  Flushing  11  (W.  Scheldt), 

KoTtli  Brabant.- Boia-LK-Duo  2S  (Dommel),  Breda  15  (Merl:),  TilbuiK 
2i(Gt.  Aa). 

ntrecht.— IItrecht  60  (Old  Rhine),  Ajnersfoort  14  (Bern). 

•  The  Repnblio  of  the  Seen  Upitad  Prorincoa,  >a  rtlobrated  in  history,  woi 


rmed  bj  tJie  Lcitfua  of  U' 
lecht,  QoIderlaDiT,  OverjfH 
LXda  added,  by  conqnoat  or 


1,  Alkmasr,  also  s^bUeA  HsDrlem,  Allimui 
mir-dtni. 


CoBioHian  lEMvnr-dln). 

—  loom  (HOm). 
temtndienbWB, 
I  Oemiiii,  or  nil: 
i;  uZadudfT 


i  Hooni  (Sltn}. 

GMrtodienbwg,  Zn jder  Zee  (Uer-frj'iJBi-fterii 


ill  _  t  in  OwUah ;  u  Z^uid  (Tiee'limf  j. 
.fer  M  VbiSbt  WiflrUt). 

■■1  Bohoit,  ectaiediun  {ShO,  Sku-dan-i. 


222  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Gelderland.— Arnhem  S3  (Rhine),  Nimeguen  23  (Waal),  Zutphen  15 
(Yssel). 
Thiel,  Harderwyk,  Nykerk. 

OverysseL— ZwoLLE  21  (Zwarte- Water),  Kampen  15,  Deventer  17 
(Yssel). 
Raalte,  Enschede. 

Friesland.— Leeuwabden  25,  Harlingen  10  (Leeuwarden  Canal). 
Franeker,  Sneek. 

Groningen.— Groninoen  37  (Hunse). 

Drenthe.— AssEN  5  (Hoom  Diep),  Meppel  7  (Reest). 

Dutcli  Limbonrg.— Maestricht  28  (Maas). 
Venlo,  Ruremonde,  Weert. 

Luxembourg  (S.£.  of  Belgium). — LnxEMB0UBal5(AIzette,a^.  Moselle). 

Descrlptiye  Notes. — There  are  only  two  towns  in  the  Nether- 
lands that  contain  upwards  of  100,000  inhabitants  (Amsterdam,  Rot* 
terdam);  two  between  100,000  and  50,000  (The  Hague,  Utrecht); 
fourteen  between  50,000  and  20,000  (Leyden,  GrSningen,  Amheim, 
Haarlem,  Maestricht,  Leeuwarden,  Bois-le-Duc,  Dordrecht,  Nime- 
guen, Delft,  Zwolle,  Tilburg,  Schiedam,  Holder) ;  andtwelye  between 
20,000  and  10,000. 

Amsterdam,  the  capital,  and  by  far  the  lai^est  city  in  the  kin^om,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Amstel  with  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  commercial  cities  in  Europe.  It  is  built  of  bricks, 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  and  supported  by  piles  of  wood  driven  into  the 
alluvial  soil.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  merely  a 
collection  of  fishermen's  huts,  but  it  now  contains  265,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  a  place  of  great  wealth.  Here  are  vast  storehouses  filled  with  the 
most  valuable  products  of  both  hemispheres,  immense  shipbuilding  docks, 
and  numerous  literary  and  scientific  institutions.  It  is  a  great  deiwt 
for  the  commodities  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  with  whicn  it  carries 
on  an  extensive  trade  through  the  Dutch  colonies  and  its  own  trading 
companies.  Haarlem  is  the  centre  of  the  Dutch  trade  in  bulbous  roote 
and  flower-seeds,  grown  in  extensive  nursery-grounds  in  the  vicinity ;  it 
has  numerous  manufactures,  chiefly  cotton  and  bleaching ;  and  is  memor- 
able for  the  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spaniards  in  1572.  The  cathe- 
dral of  St  Bavon  contains  the  largest  organ  m  Europe,  and  in  the  mariwt- 
place  stands  the  statue  of  Lawrence  Coster,  a  native  of  the  town,  and  the 
reputed  inventor  of  the  art  of  printing  (1440).  ZaAndam,  where  Peter 
the  Great,  of  Russia,  wrought  as  an  artisan  in  the  dockyard.  Hoom,  the 
birthplace  of  Tasman,  who  discovered  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania,  and 
of  Schouten,  who  discovered  Cape  Horn.  Alkmaar,  a  fortified  town  on 
the  Great  Canal ;  near  it  Camperdown,  off  which  Admiral  Duncan  de- 
feated the  Dutch  fleet  under  De  Winter.  Helder,  a  strong  fortress  at  the 
north  extremity  of  the  province,  commands  the  principal  entrance  to  the 
Zuyder  Zee.  The  Hague,  the  usual  residence  of  the  King  and  States- 
General,  may  be  regarded  as  the  political  capital.  It  is  handsomely 
built,  has  a  rich  gallery  of  Dutch  paintings,  and  is  the  birthplace  <» 
Huyghens  the  mathematician,  and  of  William  IH.  of  England.  Ddffc, 
long  famous  for  its  earthenware,  the  birthplace  of  the  celebrated  Hugo 
Grotius,  critic  and  commentator.  Gk)uda  is  celebrated  for  its  cheese  and 
tobacco-pipes,  which  are  largely  exported.  Leyden,  the  literary  oapital, 
has  a  celebrated  university,  founded  in  1575,  much  resorted  to  by  sta« 
dents  from  other  countries,  and  has  the  most  extensive  linen  and  wooUn 


i 


HOLLAND,   OE   THE    NETHERLANDS.  223 


Tnanufar'tureB  in  the  conntry.  Schiedam,  noted  for  its  gin  or  hollanila. 
Which  is  largely  diatiiied  here.  Sotterdam,  the  eecond  city  of  Holland 
Id  rt^rd  to  population,  wealth,  and  comnierciai  importance,  ia  more 
favuumblyBituated  for  commerce  than  Amsterdam:  has  numerous  canals 
intersectiag  the  city  in  all  directions,  and  capable  of  sdmittina;  tha 
lai^at  merchant  veaaela :  here  are  nninerona  mann&ctories  and  cufftil- 
IsriiM  of  gin,  aiiil  more  Englisii  residents  than  in  any  other  city  in  the 
Vingdoni :  it  ia  the  birthplace  of  Eraamua,  the  restorer  of  letters  in 
Westom  Europe.  Dort,  or  Doidrecht,  was  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the 
SotherlandB,  and  tlie  original  reaidence  of  the  Counts  of  HoUand :  here 
was  held  the  firat  meeting  of  the  Statca-General  in  1572,  vrliich  declared 
the  independence  of  tbe  United  Froviuces,  and  the  still  mors  famous 
eccieaiaatical  synod  in  1618,  which  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Arminina. 
Uddelbnrg,  near  the  centre  of  the  island  Walcheren,  and  TluaMng,  or 
-  VHaaiDgBn,  in  the  south,  are  strongly  fortified  seaports,  with  conaidar- 
able trade:  Flushing  has  tnagnificcnt  docks  and  magaanea;  was  bom- 
barded by  the  Enjllsh  in  1809;  and  is  tbe  birthplace  of  Admiral  Da 
Rnyter.  Bcis-la-Dnc,  a  fortified  city  at  the  junction  of  the  Dommel  and 
Aa,  has  numerous  manufautures  of  linen,  called  kntland.  Brsda,  cele- 
brated for  the  association  of  nobles  formed  in  1566,  and  called  "Tha 
CoiDpromise  of  Breda,"  and  for  the  congress  of  1667,  has  a  military  aca- 
demy and  arsenal,  and  is  one  of  the  strongent  fortresses  in  tha  kinedom, 
ntlMht,  the  oldest  city  in  the  kingdom,  contains  a  flonriahing  univer- 
sity; it  ia  also  noted  for  the  "Act  of  Confederation "  of  1570,  and  for 
the  treaty  of  peace  which  terminated  the  wars  of  the  Spauish  Sueoesaion 
in  1713.  Himegnea,  famous  for  the  treaty  of  1678  between  Prance,  Eng. 
I  land,  and  Holland.  Zutphen,  where  the  brave  Sir  Ptiilip  Sidney  receiri^ 
L  his  (Jeath-wonnd  in  1586.  Zwolle :  nearit  is  the  convent  where  the  cola- 
Idinted  Thomaa-ii-Kempis  died  in  1471.  Leanwardan  contains  the  tombs 
Kft  the  Princes  of  Orange.  OrBnii^eii,  n  fortified  well-built  town,  has  a 
ntmiveniity  and  nnmerons  other  literary  institutions.  Maastricht  is 
itrongly  fortified,  and  has  manufactures  of  cottons,  wooHena,  and  paper. 
In  the  neighbouring  hill  of  St  Peter's  are  immense  underground  stona 
qnatrtes.  twelve  leagues  in  circumference,  traversed  by  about  20,000  pas- 
sages intersecting  in  all  directious.  and  forming  an  intricate  labyrinth. 
In  time  of  war  the  inhabitants  of  the  surronnding  country,  with  their 
eattlB.  find  here  a  secure  asylum.  Laiembonrg,  capital  of  the  Grand- 
Dnchy  of  the  same  nanie,  has  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  wliich  was 
taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1684. 

Cftpei  and  Iilaiiils.—IIeMer Point,  the  N.  extremity  of  North  Hol- 
land 1  tha  Hook  of  Holland,  W.  of  South  Holland.  Iblabbs.— One 
group  at  the  entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  formerly  all  continuous, 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  mainlanil,  but  now  broken  up  into  the 
islands  of  Texel,  Tlielaud,  Ter-Schelling,  Amelanil,  Schiermonni- 
koogi  Borkum,  and  Wieringen  ;  the  other  in  the  delta  of  the  Mans 
and  Scheldt,  and  consisting  of  'Walcheren,  H.  and  9.  Beveland, 
Tbolen,  Schonwen,  all  in  province  Zeeland  ;  and  Over-Fkkkee, 
Voome,  Bejerlaad,  and  Tsselmouda,  in  S.  Holland. 

Sbu,  Bb;>,  fto.— The  Dollart,  between  Grdningen  and  Hanover; 
lAuwraZae,  N.E.  oCFnealand;  Zuyder  Zee,*  E.  of  North  Holland; 

-*«  time  the  Zuj'^eT  Zee  oonslstf  d  of  an  Inlani.  lain  named  Flevo.  ani] 


?24  POLITICAL   OEOGRAFUY. 

the  y,  a  branch  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  in  the  S.  W.  comer ;  estuaries  of 
the  lUiine,  Maas,  and  Scheldt,  five  in  number,  in  South  Holland 
and  Zeeland ;  Strait  of  Helder  or  Mars  Diep,  between  the  Helder 
and  TexeL 

SnrflEU^ — ^Among  the  most  striking  features  of  this  country  are  its 
utter  want  of  mountains,  the  perfectly  level  aspect  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  surface,  and  the  strange  unnatural-looking  depression 
of  the  remainder,  which  in  many  places  is  greatly  beneath  tlie  level 
of  the  sea — thus  originating  the  characteristic  name  of  the  country, 
Holland,  signifying  the  **low  country."  These  low  portions  are  in 
some  places  protected  from  the  inroads  of  the  ocean  by  natural  bar- 
riers of  sand-downs,  and  in  others  by  enormous  artificial  dykes  of 
earth,  faced  with  stones  which  have  to  be  imported  from  other  coun- 
tries. These  dykes  rank  amongst  the  most  stupendous  efforts  of 
human  industry  to  be  found  in  any  country.  Tlie  country  requires 
to  be  protected  in  a  similar  manner  from  the  inundations  of  the 
rivers,  the  beds  of  which  are  generally  above  the  level  of  the  land. 

River-SasinB. — There  are  few  distinct  river-basins  in  Holland,  as 
the  waters  of  the  Rhine,  Maas,  and  Scheldt,  its  principal  rivers, 
intermingle  at  their  estuaries,  and  thus  in  reality  form  but  one  basin. 
The  Vecht  and  the  Hunse  are  the  only  other  rivers  of  the  kingdom 
dcser\'ing  attention.  The  basins  of  the,se  five  rivers  contain  ten  out 
of  the  twelve  capitals  of  provinces,  leaving  only  the  Hague  and 
Leeuwarden,  which  stand  on  canals  that  answer  all  the  purposes 
of  rivers. 

Table  of  Rivers  and  Towns. — The  towns  of  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands  given  in  the  following  table,  in  all  112  of  6000  inha- 
bitants and  upwards,  include  53  above  10,000.  These  stand  on  4S 
rivers  (and  canals),  of  which  12  enter  the  sea  directly,  the  remainder 
being  their  affluents.     All  the  rivers  enter  the  North  Sea. 

Riven.  Tovcng.  \        Rivers.  Totofu. 


Hunse,  Groninoek. 

Hoom-Diep,  Assen. 
Leeuwarden    H  a  r  1  i  n  ge  n,    Franeker^ 


Moselle,  I  ..Treves. 
Sure,  {  ...EchUmaeh, 
Alzette,  LuxEMBouaa 


Canal,  Leeuwardkn.  ,  CoGelderland^JJorderiDylc,  Nyherk^ 


Vecht, Ensehede. 

Zwarte, Zwolle. 

Reest,   MeppeL 

lUiine*, Eaiiipen,i7aaZte,  Devent- 

er,  Zutphen,  Amster- 
dam, Leyden,UTRECHT, 
Arnhem,  Gonda,  Gor- 
kum,  Thiel,  Nim^uen. 


Eem,  Amersfoort 

Anistel  or  Y, .  JLmbtebdax,  JT.  Anut^ 
n.,  Zaandam,  Haarlem. 
Zuyder  Zee,  ..Hooni,  EnUwiaen,  Hel- 

den 
Great  Canal, .  .Helder,  Alkmaar. 
Schie  Canal,  ..The  Haouk,  Delft 
MaasorMease^iMiUe,  Vlaardingen, 


North  Sea;  but  in  1282  a  broad  strait  was  formed  (now  the  Strait  of  Helder) and 
the  lake  converted  into  a  large  arm  of  the  sea.  The  Dollart,  formed  in  1877,  the 
Bies  Bosch  in  1421,  and  Lake  of  Haarlem,  owe  their  origin  to  limilAr  inundatiooiii 
one  of  which  is  said  to  have  overwhelmed  seventy  viUagea^  contaiDing  lOOlOOO 
inhabitanta 

•  For  the  ftOl  development  of  the  Rhine,  see  under  "Gennany,"  u  onljtba 
portion  belonging  to  Holland  and  Belgium  is  given  here.  The  Maas  and  Booaldt 
are  given  here  in  full. 


nOLLANP,    OE   TE 

E    KETBEELAKDS.                     525 

«^. 

t™*,. 

JiiUH-I. 

7-',.™., 

ytu  orUeniie  Schiedim.     liocterdnni. 

Bulieidt— 

Don,  G>«4i».,  V^nb,. 

btsi. 

^ 

£w>?n.  HscUiiL,  I^cv^ii, 

KiHDfL  Dinoni.  Oitwli 

-LiOT^fftarf. 

Obulevine,  XuiBBEB. 

TuiBliml, 

Sednn.  VBrtim,  SI  J(^ 

Tiet*.?  ,. 

BBB^e,! 

'.  riimirtj.  Bbotbei*.  HoI, 

^anee.l.. 

Jfwrfiu.  '^'  ^^""^ 

.BoXid.( 

iBDlB-tfc-D^ 

DemflT. 

.I>«AH««ji. 

jU..... 

.»-«rt. 

fStTranda,  Tirlmont. 

&itMi.M,iTainm. 

rovTBe,  i 

Xern,.... 

.Glsd^ieli,   VleteED. 

D«iid«;.. 

.  DcKAirni  onO^tlatt, 

JI*,Leiiie. 

imrm. 

Ij..!..,- 

.  CDurtrai.     Men!n,    TTrr- 

■Warm, 

.Aix-li-ClmpeUe. 

Jur.I.... 

.n«iB«. 

Ourtho,-. 

-LlH.1!- 

T«d«. 

a  .  Mtmae,  Airt. 

Baiitee.i 

.  Nawob,  Oitlf.  Chnrlorot 

AlLUIH. 

JUnfld, 

Tliielt,    MrvltbtH.     In- 

«_b™oj,-. 

&s~- '-"- 

— 

-(:»iE.,Z«ritzofii..fl»r- 

Deule, 

.Ronbsli  n,,  Lille.  Cht- 

IWTMjy-Zoim..  MlDML- 

.hSSIS?''^'™* 

K 

wc^p,    Bt    b^^cilu, 

!«»•>,,.. 

Thfmiche,  Ile«dt<- 

B^T".; 

immdo.ZoIeiL.iraUBr- 

>dn<^H,H<sii.K«A>. 

edle, '-.!-' 

./;«l«>a?t.  L>  COUw 

K 

^^TcluMj.iVn; 

OoMDa  CuuJ,  0>n«iil,  Beuou. 

WlZQ..  Ci»uU..AwiB. 

Thh. 

.n«wvuL 

P 

T,:»d.s,.. 

.Tp™. 

I^kss. — Done  of  unpartance  sinct  Lake  Hnarlem  (m  North  HoUiomI) 

otBi  of  36  sq.  niile<i.  But  there  an  BcineTaug  umaJl  lakeR  is  FriealaDd, 
u  Plii»»n  Heer,  Slote  Meer,  Boeelier  Meer,  snd  Berjmn  Meet.  Forty 
■mdl  lakes  in  North  Holluid,  and  as  maij  in  BonUi  Holland,  hna  Iwen 


imtture-land,  caDed  yi^iderj,  havethue  teeu  xeelniiuBd.— Sea  under  "Seaa 
nod  Bays." 

CUmate. — The  climate  of  Holland  is  raw,  damp,  cold,  foRgy,  and 
pitiemelj  diBogrpealjle  to  foreigners.      The  winds  blow  intessantlj, 
aa  if  consciona  that  they  have  a  twofold  duty  to  perform— to  carry  dB  1 
the  stagnant  Tapoura,  and  to  keep  several  thooBuida  of  wlndiiiilli  ia   I 
eonstant  ODeiahon.     It  not  unfrequently  blows  a  perfect  hurricaiw  J 
>r  S.W.,  OTerwhelming  the  land  with  foga  injurions  *" 
.  on,  and  tlireatening  to  overthrow  every  huJwark  which  t 
3  of  contm-ies  have  erected.     The  mean  annual  temperature 
__!rdamU  *B°.8;  oCwintar,  36*.B;  and  of  summer,  6*".4.   Anno 
],SStncheB;  number  of  rainy  daya,  170.     The  wintere  are  serei  . 
sky  beinK  geueraUy  DVBrcaBt,  bright  days  rarely  exceeding  40  in 
ywr.     TBongh  Ettle  mow  falls,  the  trasto  are  intense ;  the  Zuydm 


226  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Zee  is  frequently  frozen  over  in  January,  and  the  Great  Heldei  Canal 
for  ttiree  months  in  the  year. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — The  rocks  consist  almost  ezclusively  of 
tertiary  and  super-tertiary  strata,  except  in  Luxembourg.  Except  in 
Limbourg  and  Dutch  Luxembourg,  coal  is  absent,  and  stones  oi 
any  size  are  rarely  seen  in  the  soiL  Minerals  comprise  immense  de- 
posits of  turf:  potter's  clay,  brick-clay,  fuller's  earth,  and  a  little 
bog-iron,  are  found,  but  there  are  no  other  minerals.  Building-stones 
are  imported  from  Norway  for  the  erection  of  piers,  and  for  facings  to 
the  immense  earthen  dykes.  The  houses  are  usually  built  of  brick, 
and  of  timber  from  the  German  forests,  which  is  conveyed  down  the 
Rhine  in  immense  rafts,  varying  from  700  to  1000  feet  in  length, 
from  50  to  90  in  breadth,  and  directed  by  some  hundreds  of  labourers, 
w^o  construct  a  village  of  timber  huts  on  its  surface. 

Botany,  Agriculture,  and  Zoology. — The  botany  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  much  the  same  as  in  other  European  countries  under  the 
same  latitude ;  but,  as  might  have  been  expected,  aquatic  plants  are 
more  varied  and  numerous  than  elsewhere,  and  though  there  are  no 
natural  forests,  plantations  of  oak,  elm,  beech,  &c,  are  by  no  means 
rare ;  while  the  numerous  lines  of  canal  are  usually  lined  with  rows 
4)f  willows  and  poplars.  Agriculture  forms  but  a  subordinate  branch 
of  rural  industry,  as  the  country  is  naturally  better  adapted  for  pas- 
turage than  for  com  crops,  the  latter  being  usually  quite  insufficient 
for  home  consumption.  The  principal  grain  crops  are  rye,  buck- 
wheat, barley,  and  oats,  together  with  some  wheat  in  the  southern 
provinces.  Horticulture  has  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection, 
especially  at  Haarlem,  which  largely  exports  flower-roots  and  seeds. 
Other  important  crops  are  potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  rape-seed,  dover- 
seed,  madder,  chicory,  mustard,  hops,  beetroot,  and  tobacco.  Live 
stock  and  dairy  produce  are  exportea  very  extensively,  as  also  poul- 
try and  honey.  Zoology  :  Few  wild  animals  are  found  except  the 
rabbit  and  hare,  which  are  largely  exported  to  London  ;  waterfowl 
and  reptiles  are  very  numerous;  storks  and  swans  consider  this 
country  their  home  and  their  paradise  ;  fish  of  various  kinds  abound 
on  the  coasts — as  cod,  turbot,  sole,  and  other  flat  fish ;  there  are  ex- 
tensive herring-fisheries,  and  numerous  whale-ships  annually  visit 
the  Greenland  seas. 

Ethnograpliy. — The  population  of  the  Netherlands  belongs  ez- 
clusively to  the  Teutonic  stock. 

The  four  prevailing  langtiages  belong  to  the  German  branch  of  the  Teu- 
tonic family,  and  are  all  closely  allied  to  tlie  German.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  Dutch,  which  is  the  national  language,  and  which  ia  spoken  by  all 
classes  of  society.  It  is  merely  a  dialect  of  the  Flemish,  and  is  rooken  in 
N.  Brabant,  both  languages  having  been  originally  the  same,  but  we  Patch 
proper  having  been  far  more  carefolly  cultivated.  The  JFmtie  spoken  tnr 
the  uneducated  classes  in  Friesland,  Heligoland,  and  parts  of  Prussia,  u 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  Hoch  Deutsch,  or  moaem  German ;  and  lastly, 
the  German,  spoken  in  Dutch  Luxembourg.  About  two-thiids  of  tba 
population  are  Protestants,  and  cme-third  Roman  Catholics.  The  Daioli 
Reformed  Church,  by  far  the  most  nmneroiia  body  of  ProtertMtl 


HOLLAND,    OU   THE   NETUEKLANDS.  23T 

{1,942,000),  is  Calviniatio  in  doctrine  and  Presbyterian  in  eovcmmenC; 
ioA  the  ouier  most  important  denaminationa  are  tlia  LnthersJis,  whu 
smountto  64,000,  and  Jews  63,000.  AU  forms  of  religion  are  freely 
tolerated,  and  all  denomiimtions  placed  on  a  perfect  level.  Primary  edu- 
catijn  Is  conducted  by  tlia  GoyenuuBnt,  and  is  generally  diffused,  tliere 
being  one-eighth  nf  the  papniatton  Eonatantlyntlsiiding  school,  aniioearly 
every  cMld  above  ten  years  of  age  being  able  to  read  and  write.  The 
teachers  are  well  paid,  the  fees  are  lovr,  and  tlie  children  of  the  poor  are 
taught  gratnitonsly.  There  are  three  univeraitiea— vii.,  those  of  Leyden, 
[Itrecht,  and  Griiningen,  the  professors  of  which  are  paid  by  the  State, 
The  Dntch  are  proverhia!  for  their  cleaulineas,  frUBatity,  industry,  and 
Bttentian  to  baame.'ia;  they  are  also  distinguished  for  their  love  of  bee- 
dom,  of  national  iDdependance,  and  for  their  courage  and  nautical  skill. 
ThoBRh  aanally  of  a  dull,  phlegmatic  temperament,  tliey  are  charitable  to 
the  poor,  faithful  in  all  .the  domestio  relations,  and  hiehly  virtuous. 
Hollsod  may  he  called  the  China  of  £urope  in  reganl  to  the  industry  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  mendicity  Is  prahihited  throughont  the  kingdom. 

Literature, — Ever  since  the  revival  of  learning  in  "Western  Europe, 
the  Datch  have  distinptished  themselves  in  airaost  every  department 
of  knowledge,  but  more  especially  in  philology,  criticism,  and  theo- 
logy. Of  tne  vast  number  of  learned  men  to  whom  the  Netherlands 
have  given  birth,  the  following  ato  a  few  ot  the  most  illustrioiis  : — 

Pobtet:  Johannes  Secnndus  or  Everai-d,  James  van  Catz,  Vondel, 
Caspar,  Brandt,  William  Biiderdvk.  Paintiso  :  John  van  de  Meer, 
Bumamed  "The  Old,"  bom  1627;  another  ot  the  same  name,  styled 
"  The  Younger,"  famous  for  liis  psatoral  soenea,  bom  1665 ;  W.  and  D. 
Schellinga,  Mmboreh,  Jansaens,  Moor.  History  :  Dousa,  Paul  Meruk, 
HouBins,  Bondam.  JnHiBFKUDENOB ;  Vinnen,  Leeuwen,  Meerman, 
GrotinB.  PhTbtcaL  Science  :  John  and  Zachary  Janaen,  Huyghens, 
Almeloveen,  Kuysch,  Lenwenhoeck,  Swommordam,  Sylvius,  Boerliaave, 
Van  Swieten,  Gaubins,  Camper,  Van  Swinden,  Bragmans,  S'Gravesande. 
BIctTAL  SOIENCE  ;  Spinorn,  Helvetius.  Philolooi  ;  Heinains.  Golius, 
Leiudeii,  Schrevelins,  Perizonius,  Burman,  Hemsterhusius,  Wetstein, 
Oadandorp,  Valkeuaer,  Kuhnken,  Lennep,  Wytt*nbach,  Tollius,  Sluiter. 
Ounoieu  :  Erasmits  <bom  1167),  Erpeuius,  Diaalus,  Honralua,  Orono- 
vioB,  Cleiicna,  Bos,  Hoogeveen,  Hngo  Orotius.  Thiolooy  :  Atminins, 
Gomar.  Episoopins,  Jansenins,  Cocoeiiia,  Philip  van  Limborch,  Witsiua, 
Gerard  Bnmdt,  Viliinga,  Voetius, 

HUtOTT,  QoTenunant.  Flnaucea,  Ac. — Holland  is  a  constitutiojjnl 
hereditary  monarchy.  The  lepslative  power  is  vested  in  the  king 
Had  two  ohambers  caller]  the  States-General,  one  of  which  consists 
of  deputies  elected  by  the  people  every  three  years,  and  the  other 
of  members  nominated  by  the  Crown  for  life.  The  reining  sovereign 
is  William  111.,  who  aicanded  the  throne  in  1849.  From  the  year 
1000  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  Holland  was  divided  into 
~  ~ '  ,  counties,  and  imperial  cities  ;  was  subject  to  the  Counts  ot 
1  till  13S3,  and  then  Co  the  Counts  of  Burgundy;  became  part 
mpire  of  (Carles  V.  in  1G4S  ;  descended  to  his  son  Philip,  and 
an  appanage  to  tho  crown  of  Spain  ;  suffered  severe  reueious 

...cntionsm  con  sequence ;  snccessfmly  asserted  ita  independenao 

■  1679,  nnder  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  assumed  the  name  of 

"Seraii  United  ProvinoeK;"  was  conqaered  hy  tlie  Fre&ch  ia 


228  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

1793,  who  established  the  Batavian  Kepublic ;  was  formed  into  a 
kingdom  by  Napoleon  I.,  for  his  brother  Louis,  in  1806  ;  became  a 
department  of  France  in  1810  ;  was  united  to  Belgium  in  1813,  under 
the  name  of  the  Kin^om  of  the  Netherlands,  and  this  arrangement 
subsisted  till  1830,  when  Belgium  became  an  independent  monarchy; 
and,  finally,  by  the  treaty  of  London  (1839),  Belgium  ceded  to  Hol- 
land the  eastern  parts  of  Limbourg  and  Luxembourg.  The  European 
Army  in  1874  numbered  61,776  men  and  officers.  The  Nwvy  con- 
sists of  84  steamers,  and  16  other  ships,  carrying  673  guns.  The 
Fuhlic  Debt,  in  1874,  amounted  to  £77,276,000,  being  about  £21  ster- 
ling to  each  inhabitant ;  the  Revenue  to  £7,811,000 ;  and  the  Expen- 
diture to  £8,060,585. 

Commerce  and  Manufactures. — Commerce  has  ever  been  the  most 
important  element  in  the  prosperity  of  the  Netherlands.  At  one 
time  it  exceeded  that  of  any  other  European  State,  and  her  foreign 
trade  still  remains  inferior  only  to  that  of  Great  Britain.  Her 
relative  position  with  respect  to  other  States,  and  her  wonderful  sys- 
tem of  water-conmiunication,  have  been  the  main  causes  leading  to 
this  result.  In  1872,  the  exports  amounted  to  £38,788,000  in 
value ;  of  which  £13,108,924  were  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  butter,  cheese,  live  animals,  oilcake,  gin  or  hol- 
lands,  bulbous  roots,  flower-seeds,  linen,  and  refined  sugar.  The 
imports  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  £50,000,000,  of  which 
£17,500,000  came  from  the  British  Isles,  the  principal  articles  being 
cotton  and  woollen  manufactures.  Her  other  principal  exports  are 
the  products  of  her  own  colonies  (as  coflee,  sugar,  raw  cotton,  spices, 
tobacco,  dried  fruits,  and  tortoise-shell),  which  she  exchanges  for  the 
corn,  manufactured  goods,  wool,  wines,  and  brandy  of  other  European 
countries.  Next  to  Britain  her  best  customers  are  North  Germany, 
Belgium,  France,  and  Spain.  In  1872,  the  number  of  vessels  that 
entered  and  cleared  was  1902,  carrying  444,273  tons.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  linen,  paper,  woollen  and  silk  cloths,  gin, 
tobacco,  snufi",  leather,  coidage,  saltpetre,  and  tobacco-pipes,  togeuer 
with  sugar-reiining  and  shipbuilding. 

Inland  Conununlcation. — For  the  most  part  the  railways  have 
been  only  recently  constructed  :  one  between  Amsterdam  and  Haar- 
lem, and  thence  to  Leyden,  the  Hague,  and  Rotterdam  ;  and  another 
from  Amsterdam  to  Utrecht,  Arnhem,  and  the  German  frontier.  In 
1871,  the  number  of  miles  open  for  traffic  was  1,033.  The  Canals  are 
very  numerous,  and  unrivalled  in  magnificence.  They  are  found 
along  all  the  great  dykes  which  serve  as  barriers  to  the  ocean,  and 
have  generally  an  excellent  road  beside  them.  The  following  are 
only  some  of  the  most  important : — The  Great  Canal,  between  Am- 
sterdam and  the  Helder,  61  miles  long,  125  feet  broad,  and  24  feet 
deep,  admitting  two  frigates  abreast ;  the  Nieuwer  Sluis,  between 
Amsterdam  and  Utrecht;  another  from  Amsterdam  to  Haarlem, 
Leyden,  Delft,  the  Hague,  Rotterdam,  and  Gorkum ;  and  an  immense 
canal  from  Bois-le-Duc  to  Maestricht.  Passengers  are  conveyed  along 
these  canals  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  per  hour. 


r 


DENMARK. 


DEKMABK.  229 

Foreign  FossesslonB. — "Wlien  Holland  was  disiuilUd  from  Belgium 
(in  1830),  the  fecmer  reUiiued  all  thaoolacial  pOBsessious,  which  oare 
an  aggregate  area  of  685,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  1872,  of 
21,386,000.  The  African  poaseasiDns  consist  of  Tarious  settlements 
oa  the  Guinea  Coast;  the  Asiatic  dependencies  comprise  Java  (by 
fai  the  tnost  important,  with  an  area  of  £0,000  an.  m.,  aadapap.  of 
17,000,000),  parts  of  Sumatra,  Bali,  Lomhok,  Timor,  Banda,  Am- 
lioyna,  Molutcai,  Celeliea,  Bomwi,  the  western  holt  of  Papua,  Banks, 
and  Bhio  ;  while  those  in  South  America  embrace  the  extensive  ter- 

Iiitoi;  of  Dntiih  Guiana,  with  the  islands  Cuiu{oa  and  St  EnatatinB. 
'  Position  and  Boundaries- — N.,  the  Skager  Back,  vhich 
teparatea  it  from  Norway ;  W.,  the  North  Sea  ;  S.,  Bohleawig ; 
IE.,  the  Sound  and  Kattegat,  which  divide  it  from  Sweden. 
i*t.  54°  35'— 57°  45'  N.  ;  Ion.  8=  B'— 12°  35'  K  Copenhagen. 
&e  capital  (lat.  55°  40'),  is  on  the  Bame  parallel  with  Edinburgh; 
dioacow,  Ekaterinburg,  Komtachatka,  and  Nain  in  Labrador ; 
while  the  central  meridian  passes  through  Chriatiania,  Kiel, 
Gotha,  Lucca,  Elba,  and  Tunis, 

Form  ana  Ooaat-Une.— The  form  ia  eitreinEly  irregular,  consisting 
of  a  part  of  the  Cinibrio  peninsula  and  various  groups  of  islands. 
Extreme  length  of  the  mainland,  from  the  Skaw  to  Kibe,  140  milea  j 
greatest  breadth,  from  Elsinore  on  the  Sound  to  the  Horn  in  Jutland, 
ISG  miles.  The  seaboard  is  veij  extensive,  amountiiig,  if  we  inclnde 
the  islands,  to  abont  *000  miles,  of  which  800  miles  belong  to  the 
mainland,  which  is  greatly  indented.  The  latter  gives  one  mile  uf 
•saboard  to  every  four  miles  of  area,  a  ratio  higher  than  in  any 
[«rantry  in  Europe,  save  Greece. 

aud  PopnIattOB. — As  the  result  of  the  lata  war  between  Den- 
mark on  the  one  side,  and  Pmssia  and  Austria,  on  the  other,  the 
duchies  of  Louenburg  and  Schlurwig-Holstein  have  been  wrested 
from  Denmark,  and,  by  the  Treaty  of  Prague  (August  1866),  have 
been  incorporated  with  ths  Pmssian  domiuiona.  The  area  now 
■monntB  only  to  14,733  aq.  miles,  or  twice  the  size  of  Wales;  but 
iocluiiing  Iceland  and  the  Faiiie  Isles,  the  whole  amounts  to  54,935 
ftq.  miles.  In  1870  the  population  waa  1,784,741,  or  ISO  persons 
to  the  sq.  niilo;  bat  inclnding  Iceland  and  the  EarSe  lalea,  the 
popolatiaB  amounted  to  1,361,720. 
Political  Di'Tislons. — Denmark  Proper  ia  divided  into  two 
rinceB  —  viz.,  Jutland,  or  the  peninsula,  and  the  Dnniah 
hipelago,  between  the  maialand  and  Sweden.     Iceland  lies 


» 


230  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

700  miles  W.  of  Norway,  and  300  miles  E.  of  Greenland  ; 
while  the  Faroe  Isles  are  nearly  midway  between  Iceland  and 
Shetland. 

Jutland.*— Aalborg  10  (Lymfiord),  Aarhuus  11  (Molle  Aa). 
Towns  bettoeen  5000  and  10,000  o/pofmtotton.— Fredericia,  Horseii8,  Banders, 
Viborg. 

Danish  Archipelago.— Copenhagen  181,  Elsinore  8  (E.  coast  of  Zea- 
land), Odense  14  (in  the  north  of  Flinen). 

Slagelse,  Boeskilde,  in  Zealand ;  Nyborg,  Svendborg,  in  Fiinei> ;  RSnne,  in 
Bornholm. 

Iceland. — Reykiavik  1  (S.W.  coast). 

FarGe  Isles. — Thorshaven  1  (S.  coast  of  Strom  oe). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Aalborg  (Eeltown),  near  the  month  (»f  the  Lym- 
fiord, deriving  its  name  from  the  great  number  of  eels  found  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood, has  a  school  of  navigation,  a  soap-manufactory,  a  herring- 
fishery,  and  steam  communication  with  the  capitaL  Aarhnns  and  Ban- 
ders, on  the  east  coast,  are  small  manufacturing  towns  with  considerable 
trade.  Copenhagen  (Dan.  Kj&benhavn,  **  Merchants'  Haven,"),  tiie 
capital  of  Denmark  since  1441,  and  the  centre  of  its  commerce,  is  a  city 
of  180,000  inhabitants,  elegantly  built  on  the  Soimd,  and  s1ax>ngly  forti- 
fied; has  an  arsenal,  shipbuilding  docks,  &c.,  being  the  sole  station  for 
the  navy ;  a  celebrated  university,  several  superb  palaces,  most  of  whidi 
are  now  converted  into  libraries,  museums,  and  picture-galleries,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Museum  of  Northern  Antiquities,  and  the 
Thorwaldsen  Museum :  Lord  Nelson  gained  here  a  great  naval  victory 
over  the  Danish  fleet  in  1801,  and  in  1807  it  was  bombarded,  and  the 
Danish  fleet  taken  to  England.  Elsinore,  or  Elsinenr  (Dan.  Hel*ingSr\ 
on  the  Sound,  at  its  narrowest  part,  and  only  3  miles  from  the  Swedish 
coast,  having  on  the  north  the  strong  castle  of  Kronborg :  here  were 
levied,  previous  to  1857,  "the  Sound  dues"  on  all  foreign  merchant- 
vessels  entering  or  leaving  the  Baltic,  which,  in  1851,  amounted  to  nearly 
20,000  ships,  yielding  £154,000  of  toll.  Odense,  the  principal  town  in 
Flinen,  has  manufactures  of  woollens  and  iron  wares.  Bocwkilde,  the 
cap.  of  Denmark  till  1441.  Beykiavik,  the  capital  of  Iceland,  with  only 
1200  inhabitants,  is  the  principal  town  in  the  island ;  it  is  an  archbishop's 

*  The  following  rales  apply  to  Danish  proper  names : — 

a,  «,  t,  o^  u  =  the  same  vowels  in  German  and  Italian ;  but  y  =  German  t2; 
and  w,  which  is  found  only  in  derivatives_firom  the  German,  =  English  v. 

oa  =  d  in  stone,  as  Aalboig,  Aarhnus  (OUborg,  Or'hoosy. 
doTae  =  ain  fate,  or  German  a,  as  Aeroe,  Faroe  (A'ro,  Ft^ro}. 
ie  =  eeia  feet,  or  German  ie,  as  Kiel  (Keel), 
io  =  English  long  tl,  as  Kioge,  Lymfiord  (Ku'ghee,  LUm-iiilrth') 
ei and ey  =  iin  pine,  or  ei  in  German,  as  Eyder,  Schlei O'der,  SeKtC). 
u  or  J/  =  t2  in  German,  as  Liimfiord  or  Lymfiord  (Lvmrfiurthrj. 
oeoT  6  =  6  ia  German,  as  RQnne,  T^nningen  {Ron'ne,  Ton'ning'in). 
ttu  =  u  in  rale,  as  Aarhuus  <Or'Aoo«). 

d  between  two  vowels  =  th  in  this,  or  like  Spanish  d  in  a  similar  position,  as 
Apenrade  (Ap-en'rd'the). 
g  is  always  hard,  but  at  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  sounded  very  slightly,  so  as  to 


resemble  h,  as  Viborg  {Vee-horh). 
j  =  y  in  yes,  as  Jlitland  {YiifULnd). 


n  when  followed  by  g  is  nasal,  as  Tonningen  {Ton'ning-en) 
V  is  usually  =  v  in  English,  but  after  a  it  has  a  vowel  sound,  as  Frederiksbavn 
(Frtd-er-Vcs-haun'). 


pital  of  the  Faroe  leles, 

Capes  aoA.  iBlaudB.— The  Skaw,  KE.  of  Jutland  ;  Horn,  W.  of 
Jatland  -,  North  Capo  in  the  N.W.,  and  Skagen  in  tlio  S.W.  of  Ice- 
land. Jilandi, — Zealand,  Funen,  Alsen,  LanBeland,  Aeriie,  LaalanJ, 
Falater,  Moen,  bet.  Schleswig  and  Sweden  ;  Bornholm,  S.  of  Sweden; 
Anhalt  and  LossQe,  in  the  Kattegat ;  Iceland,  E.  of  Greenland  ;  Faroe 
IsieB,  bet.  Iceland  and  the  Shetland  IsIbb. 

Iftland  Ues  TDD  milea  W.  of  Norvay.  SOO  E.  ot  Gnenland,  and  Immediately  8. 
of  ths  Folu  <^rc]s ;  area,  BT.SDD  squtve  miles ;  populatiau,  M.MO.    The  aorfacs 

vholB laUnd l9  of  voIbbdIc origin,  cud Domnv  ttum  tlilrtf  volcaaoes are ennine- 
nted,  dglit  of  which  have  been  sbtlvo  wltMn  Iha  last  lundied  jaata.  Of  thrae, 
KomitHecla.fi210f^thlgh,lB  the  moat  celebnted.  There  are  several  bolliag 
■ptiDgs,  oneofiAIch,  Bie  Great  Oeysar,  throwa  •  colnnui  of  hot  viter  ftoni  BD 
to  IM  bet  hl^  and  at  the  depth  of  T3  feet  la  SO*  above  the  ballmg-poinL  Tha 
-ffintas  m  uvete,  hat  Uie  meui  snnnal  tempeiatnre  (40*  Fa^.)  la  higher  than  In 
■nr  oQier  coimtrT  hi  the  same  latitude.  The  island  is  deaUtute  of  trees,  and  no 
grain  at  any  klna  esn  be  raised ;  bnt  cabbage  and  potatoes  are  cultivated.  Flsb 
andbinia  aratJui  chief  aupport  of  tlie  inhatiitanta.  The  Toelandeia  belong  to  the 
BcandiniTian  race.  Their  laneuaEe,  called  Norse  or  Icelandle,  Is  merely  old 
DaalA,  and  la  the  leMt-cormpted  dialect  of  tlia  Scandinavian  tuntly  of  tonmea. 
nut  only  eonunercs  of  tlie  Island  conslsla  In  the  radianse  of  noDl.  butter,  skins, 
fiah,  and  aD.  for  Enropeou  manufiietiireit  The  FatUt  l3ti  course  ct  a  iroap  of 
twen^-twD  amali  lalands,  tying  ncArlj  midway  between  Iceland  and  Sheuaod,  of 
irtiich  eeventeen  are  loliablted  ;  uw,  SIO  square  miles :  popnlaUon,  £661.    They 

tainooa.  The  winters  are  veiy  mild ;  the  mmnier  is  moist  and  lOGgy ;  Icngcst 
day,  twenty  hours— shortest,  four  hours.  Barley  is  Uie  only  grain  that  can  be 
edtlvaled.  Tlia  inhabilnnta,  who  are  Scandinavians,  occupy  Qieniselves  la  Bali- 
Ine,  fowling,  and  tendiog  sheep,    Tborahavn,  the  capital,  is  a  meie  villsga. 

Bays,  Btrslts,  and  FlordH. — Slcf^er  Kack,  bet.  Jiitland  and  Nor- 
way ;  Kattegat,  bet,  Jutland  and  Sweden  ;  the  Sound,  bet.  Zealand 
and  Sweden  ;  Great  Beit,  bet.  Zealand  and  Ftinen  ;  Little  Belt,  bet, 
FUnenandSoMeBwig;  Lymllord,  Nyssuia Fiord,  Kingkiobing Fiord, 
in  Jutland;  Odenace  Fiord,  in  Filnen;  Ibs  Fiord,  in  Zealand, 

Bnl&cfl. — There  are  no  moantains,  or  even  bills,  either  on  the 
mainland  or  in  the  adjacent  ialands ;  the  surface  ia  one  uniform 
plain,  elevated  only  a  few  feet  above  tJie  sea,  with  a  few  eminences 
rarely  exceeding  500  feet,  the  Himnielsberj:;  alone  attaining  an  eleva- 
tion of  G5Q  feet.  Iceland,  however,  ia  highly  mouutainoua ;  Snil- 
fell,  8382  feet ;  Orsfajoltull,  6426  feet ;  and  Heola,  6210  feet.  Tha 
highest  Humiait  in  the  Faroe  Islea  nttaina  an  elevation  of  2864  feeL 

Lakes, — TheBe  are  eitromely  niimerouB,  but  all  of  them  very  small ; 
the  most  impoi'taot  are  MossOe  and  Fiel,  in  Jutland ;  Aire  and  Tis, 
in  Zealand. 

Ollm&te. — The  climate  ia  considerably  more  severe  than  in  the 
British  Isles,  though  much  milder  than  in  Germany,  notwithstand- 
ing its  higher  latitude,  bnt  very  humid  and  cloudy  :  Gtonns  are  rare 
ai^  of  idiort  duration ;  average  rainy  days,  137  ;  snowy  days,  S2  ; 
prevailing  ninda,  W.  in  spring  and  auiumer,  and  S,^,  in  winter  and 
autumn.  Mean  annual  temperature  at  Copenhagen,  16°  56' ;  winter, 
3r  31'  i  and  ai  


232  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — ^The  rock-formations  are  almost  wholly 
tertiary  ;  but  small  patches  of  secondary  are  found  in  Jutland,  Zea- 
land, and  Bornholm;  trap-rocks  in  the  Faroe  Isles,  and  trap  and 
volcanic  rocks  in  Iceland,  enclosing  numerous  interesting  minerals, 
as  green-earth,  galactite,  lava,  pitchstone,  &c.  Denmark  is  peculiarly 
devoid  of  minerals  :  an  inferior  variety  of  coal,  with  blue  marble, 
potter's  clay,  and  building-stone,  are  met  with  in  Bornholm,  btit 
peat  is  the  general  fuel  throughout  the  kingdom ;  and  sulphur,  green- 
earth,  lava,  and  basalt  are  abundant  in  Iceland. 

Botany  and  Agriculture.  —  The  indigenous  vegetation  does  not 
differ  essentially  from  that  of  N.  Germany.  Forests  are  not  exten- 
sive, are  mostly  confined  to  the  east  coast  and  islands,  and  usually 
consist  of  ash,  alder,  oak,  birch,  beech,  and  fir.  In  Iceland,  foreste 
were  formerly  numerous,  but  it  is  now  destitute  of  trees,  except  a 
few  stunted  birches ;  its  flora  is  nearly  allied  to  that  of  Scandinavia, 
comprising  mosses,  lichens,  and  a  few  shrubs  and  other  flowering 
plants.  According  to  Vahl  and  Babington,  the  number  of  flowering 
plants  in  Iceland  amounts  to  414  species,  of  which  282  are  dicotyle- 
dons. Denmark  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country  ;  the  soil, 
almost  entirely  alluvial,  is  well  adapted  for  cultivation.  The  nume- 
rous marshy  districts  yield  excellent  pasturage  :  rearing  of  horses 
and  cattle,  and  dairy  produce,  form  the  chief  objects  of  rural  indus- 
try. More  corn  is  raised  than  is  required  for  home  consumption — ^the 
principal  crops  being  rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  and  buckwheat ;  besides 
potatoes,  hemp,  lint,  tobacco,  and  oats.  No  grain  of  any  kind  can 
be  raised  in  Iceland,  but  cabbage  and  potatoes  are  cultivated ;  and 
barley  is  the  only  grain  that  comes  to  maturity  in  the  Faroe  Isles. 

Zoology.  — Since  the  decline  of  the  great  forests  the  larger  wild 
animaLs  have  disappeared ;  the  wild-boar  is  sometimes  met  with,  and 
deer,  stags,  roes,  hares,  foxes,  martens,  polecats,  rats,  and  other 
small  quadrupeds,  are  abundant  Among  birds  may  be  mentioned 
the  eider-duck,  so  famous  for  its  down,  the  wild-goose,  partridge, 
snipe,  and  thrush  ;  swans  in  the  Lymfiord  ;  eagles  and  vultnres  are 
rarely  seen.  Fishes  comprise  the  stromming — a  small  but  much- 
prized  species  of  herring — ^turbot,  torsk,  and  salmon.  Oyster-banks 
occur  on  the  east  coast  of  Jutland,  and  seal-fish  on  the  island  of 
Anholt ;  the  cod,  salmon,  and  whale  fisheries  of  Iceland  and  the 
Faroe  Isles  are  extensive. 

Ethnography. — The  Danes,  or  Normans,  belong  to  the  Scandina- 
vian branch  of  the  Teutonic  family,  and  speak  Danish,  a  Scandina- 
vian tongue  closely  allied  to  the  Icelandic,  Swedish,  and  FarGese. 
The  Icelandic,  or  Norse,  also  called  the  Scandinavian  Proper,  is 
merely  old  Danish,  and  is  the  least-cornipted  dialect  of  the  Scandi- 
navian family  of  tongues ;  but  its  pronunciation  is  harsher  than  the 
Danish,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  softest  language  in  Europe — the  con- 
sonants being  pronounced  so  softly  as  to  be  ahnost  imperceptible. 

Rdigion,  Education,  and  National  Character, — Christianity  became 
the  national  religion  under  Canute  the  Great,  in  the  beginning  of  the 


DENMARK.  233 

elcvontli  century  ;  the  Lutheran  forjna  the  cstablialied  religion,  and  em- 
brrtres  nine-tADths  of  Ihe  populBtlon,  hnt  othur  Becta  are  freely  tolemteii. 
Education  is  widely  diffused,  atttndanta  at  the  primary  Bchoola  being 
compulsory  and  gmtuitons  ;  and  every  adult  inhabitant  can  read  Bnrl 
write.  There  are  ahoiit  20  aefondary  or  higher  schools  distributed  over 
the  kingdom,  where  fees  are  paid  and  where  attendance  is  optional ;  the 
solo  anivoraity  now  ie  that  of  Copenhageu,  founded  in  1478.  Tlie  Danea 
are  charoct^riaed  hy  a  strong,  well-built,  mnscular  fVame,  with  regular 
features,  bino  eyes,  and  light  hair ;  not  easily  roused,  bnt  susceptible  or 
iitrong  feelings ;  of  a  patient  disposition,  and  requiriug  niuoh  lime  for 
delib^tion;  more  remarkable  for  common-ienao  than  for  wit,  osd  highly 
virtuous. 

Utsmtiira. — The  following  list  iiicluiles  only  a  few  of  the  most 
eminent  litBrary  names  in  Denmark  : — 

POETRT :  Baron  Holhorg,  tha  dramatist  and  historian ;  Ewald,  the 
famoos  lyric,  poet;  Falster,  Sneedorf,  TuJleu,  Wessel,  Oehlenschlliger, 
BaggesBu,  Hertz.  HISTORY  :  Suena,  Saio-GrammaticuB,  Hotbei-g,  Suhm, 
MijUmann,  and  B,  G.  Niebnhr.  GEOaHiPinr  abd  Thatels  :  Carsten 
Niebnbr,  and  Chevalier  BtOnatadt.  Science  ;  Tyeho  Brahe,  tha  eminent 
aatmnamer  ;  Oersted,  the  electrician  ;  Schonw,  the  botanist ;  Rask,  and 
J.  Olshauaen,  the  philologists ;  GrunlVig,  Peteraen,  and  Kafn,  tlie  arelue- 
ologislB ;  Mynater,  MUllor,  Lindberg,  TreachoT,  Smith,  and  Twesten, 
the  tlieologians.  Fhilosufbt  ash  CmiiciBU  :  Bothe,  Bahlieh,  and 
Kraft.  FiTiK  Arts  ;  Thorvaldsen,  the  eminent  aculptor ;  Hansen  anil 
Mailing,  the  architects  ;  Tiiel,  the  portrait-painter  ;  GehaueTj  the  animnl- 

K inter ;  Ecberaherg,  the  hiatorical  painter ;  Dahl,  the  landscape-pamter, 
lUAitCE  :  Ingemann,  Elicher,  Erusa,  and  Hauch. 

3. — Denmark  isalimited  constitutional  monan.!i;', 
T  beins  in  the  king  and  his  responsible  ministtrs. 
The  Bigidag  or  Parliament  is  composed  of  two  houses — the  Lands- 
thing  or  Upper  Honae,  consisting  of  Bfi  members;  and  the  PollcstMng 
or  Hoose  of  Commons,  containing  101  members;  being  1  for  every 
J  16,000  of  the  population.  The  Bevenue  for  1875  amounted  to 
'  X2,728,000 ;  the  Enpenditare  to  nn  almoEt  equal  Bum  ;  and  the 
Public  Debt  to  £13,238,000.  In  1874,  the  Army  coDaiatod  of  i0,008 
men  ;  and  the  Navy  of  31  steamers,  1  frigate,  1  corvette,  1  brig,  and 
6  ironelada,  carrying  in  all  S14  guns. 

Commerce  and  HtumniCtuTea. — The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  not 

ao  Bitensive  as  its  favourable  position  would  warrant  us  to  expect. 

There  being  few  good  roads  in  the  interior,  the  coasting  trade  is  very 

considerable.     Its  foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Germany,  Britain, 

Sweden,  and  Russia.     The  chief  exports  are  butter,  bacon,  hams, 

floor,  hides,  skins,  com-meal,  oilcake,  horses,  and  cattle ;  while  the 

iinmnta  cotzaist  of  woollens,  aifka,  cottons,  salt,  iron,  hardware,  wine, 

jinit,  tea,  and  articles  of  colonial  produce.     In  1873,  Denmark  e;c- 

r,  ported  to  Britain  produce  to  the  value  of  £3,670,000,  which  mainly 

I'^WliBisted  of  oata,  barley,  oxen,  bulla,  butter,  bacon,  flour,  hides, 

I'Dilwke,  cattle,  and  sheep.     Of  British  eiporta  to  Denmark,   the 

I  principal  are  coal  and  iron,  amounting  together  to  £1,085,000,  and 

\  jther  articles  to  the  value  of  £11,600,000.     The  articles  wo  send  to 

*"  '  '     e  which  we  can  beat  spare,  while  those  which  wo 


234  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

receive  from  her  are  what  we  stand  most  in  need  of.  There  being 
no  coal,  and  but  little  water-power  in  the  country,  Mannfactores  are 
few  in  number  and  of  limited  extent,  the  metals  being  all  imported. 
The  peasantry  manufacture  for  themselyes  all  the  linen  and  woollen 
(ilothin^  they  require,  as  well  as  utensils  and  articles  of  furniture. 
Some  silk  and  cotton  ^oods  are  manufactured  in  the  large  towns, 
and  brewing  and  distillmg  are  extensively  prosecuted;  while  in  the 
capital  are  several  establishments  for  manufacturing  tobacco  and 
porcelain,  and  for  sugar-refining. 

Internal  Commimicatlon. — Roads  are  very  inferior,  owing  to  the 
level  and  alluvial  character  of  the  country.  There  are  three  princi- 
pal canals — one  connecting  the  Ljrmfiord  with  the  North  Sea,  one  in 
Zealand,  and  another  in  Fiinen  ;  while  the  country  is  largely  bene- 
fited by  the  Schleswig  Canal,  connecting  the  Eyder  with  the  Baltic 
There  are  several  lines  of  railway  now  in  operation — ^viz.,  one  firom 
Aalborg,  on  the  Lymfiord,  to  Kanders ;  a  second  from  Aarhuus  to 
Viborg  and  the  W.  coast  of  Jutland ;  a  third  crossing  the  island 
Fiinen,  from  Odense  to  Middelfart;  a  fourth  from  Copenhagen  to 
Elsinore ;  and  a  fifth  from  the  capital,  by  Roeskilde,  to  Eorsor  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Zealand.  In  1867  there  were  296  miles  of  railway 
in  operation. 

Foreign  PossessionB.  —  Besides  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  IslandB, 
which  have  been  already  noticed,  Denmark  possesses  the  extensive 
region  of  Greenland,  with  its  thirteen  settlements  and  two  mission 
stations,  the  principal  of  which  are  Frederikshaab,  Julianshaab,  and 
Good  Hope ;  Disco  Island,  in  Greenland  ;  St  Croix,  St  Thomas,  and 
St  John,  in  the  W.  Indies.  The  establishments  on  the  Guinea 
coast  were  purchased  by  Britain  in  1850  ;  the  town  of  Tranquebar, 
with  its  districts  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  and  the  town  of  Seram- 
pore  in  Bengal,  were  transferred  to  Britain  in  1846  ;  while  the 
Nicobar  Islands,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  were  abandoned  in  1848  on 
account  of  their  insalubrity.  The  extra-European  portion  has  an 
area  of  46,878  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  in  1874  of  47,500. 


GERMANY. 

Germany  (Germ.  BeutscMand;  Fr.  Allemagne),  in  its  widest 
acceptation,  is  an  ethnographical,  rather  than  a  political,  term. 
It  properly  denotes  that  extensive  region  in  the  heart  of  Eurojse 
occupied  by  the  German  race,  which  extends  from  the  Baltic 
and  North  Sea  to  the  Alps  and  Adriatic,  and  from  the  Rhine 
and  Meuse  on  the  W.  to  the  Niemen  and  Carpathians  on  the 
E.  It  is  of  a  square  compact  form,  is  bounded  oy  the  parallels 
of  44°  46'  and  55"*  30'  N.,  and  by  the  meridians  of  6"  and  19' 
E. ;  has  an  area  of  about  280,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population 


I 


(1868)  of  about  50,000,CM».  From  the  ninth  century  till  18(IG, 
or  for  a  period  of  1000  years,  Germany  fonned  an  empire,  gov- 
erned by  a  sovereign  elected  by  the  different  states  situated 
■within  inis  wide  domain,  whosa  capital  was  Vienna.  Its  first 
and  luoat  iilustriooa  aovereign  Charlemagne,  son  of  Pepin-le- 
Bref,  king  of  the  Franka,  and  grandfioa  of  Charles  Martrf,  was 
crowned  emperor  of  the  W.  in  a.d.  800.  His  dominions 
extended  from  the  Ebro  to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  mountains  of  Buhemia  and  the  Raab,  and  from 
the  British  Chaimel  to  the  Voltnmo.  The  last  emperor  was 
Francis  IT.  of  Germany,  who  renounced  that  title  in  1806,  and 
■became  Francia  I.  of  Austria.  The  empire  was  succeeded  by 
the  "  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,"  established  at  Palis  under 
the  protection  of  Napoleon  L,  and  consisting  of  the  kings  of 
■Wiirtembetg  and  Bavaria,  and  several  petty  sovereigns.  In  181 5 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  established  "  the  Qermamc  Confedera- 
tion," being  an  alliance  between  the  thirty-four  independent 
states  (then  comprehended  in  Germany),  for  the  purpose  of 
mutual  protection  and  defence.  In  tliis  Confederation,  Austria 
vas  the  most  inflnential,  as  its  territories  embraced  nearly  a 
third  of  the  whole  extent  of  Germany,  and  the  emperor  of 
Anstria  presided  over  the  Federal  Diet,  or  Parliament,  which 
eat  permanently  at  ifrankliirt-on-t he-Main.  In  1866,  Prussia 
declared  war  against  Austria,  and  the  contest  ended  by  Prussia 
expelling  Austria  ^m  the  Confederation  and  becoming  her- 
Beu  the  paramount  power  in  Germany.  The  States  that  had 
aided  Austria  (Hanover,  Nassau,  Hesse-Cassd,  Hesse-HomburL^, 
Frankfiirt)  were  annexed  to  Uie  Prussian  dominions,  which, 
now  embrace  in  addition  Schleewig,  Holstein,  and  I^uenburg, 
wrested  from  Denmark,  together  with  portions  of  Hesse-Darm- 
etadt  and  Bavaria^  The  whole  of  Northern  Germany  from  the 
Baltic,  Jutland,  and  the  North  Sea,  as  far  south  as  the  river 
Uain,  wns  then  formed  into  the  "  North  German  Confederation" 
under  the  control  of  Prussia  ;  while  South  Germany,  numbering 
five  States,  formed  a  loosely-connected  group  under  the  nominal 
ascendancy  of  Bavaria.  The  two  dirisions  were,  moreover,  con- 
nected t^ether  by  treaties  of  alliance,  by  which  Prussia,  in  tha 
event  of  war  with  any  foreign  State,  was  virtually  placed  in 
command  of  the  armies  of  the  Southern  States.  The  French 
Emperor,  jealous  of  the  rapidly  increasing  power  of  Prussia, 
waged  war  against  that  state  (July  1870),  and  despatched  a 
powerful  army  to  the  Ehine  frontier.  But  Prussia,  fully  pre- 
pared for  the  contest,  rallied  around  her  all  the  minor  states, 
and  ronted  the  French  armies  in  a  series  of  sanguinary  engage- 
ments. In  Septeniber  1870,  Napoleon,  after  the  disastroua 
defeat  at  Sedan,  unconditionally  surrendered  to  King  William 


236 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


of  Prussia ;  when  39  generals  and  100,000  soldiers  were  made 
prisoners.  Soon  after  this,  Paris  was  besieged,  and  France  was 
compelled  to  make  peace ;  agreeing  to  cede  three  departments 
(Hant  Khin,  £as  Khm,  and  Moselle)  to  Germany,  and  to  ^y  a 
war  indemnity  of  £200,000,000.  King  William  was  prodamied 
Emperor  of  Germany  on  the  18th  January  1871 ;  and  the  once 
famous  Germanic  Empire  was  reconstructed  in  all  its  pristine 
grandeur. 


GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

Position  and  Bonndaries. — N.,  the  Baltic,  Jiitland,  and 
North  Sea;  W.,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  France;  S., 
Switzerland,  the  Tyrol,  and  Bohemia;  E.,  Russia.  Lat  47® 
20'— 55*^  50^  N.;  Ion.  5°  57'— 23°  E. 

Berlin,  near  the  centre,  is  on  the  same  parallel  as  Cambridge,  Amst^- 
dam,  Hanover,  Warsaw,  and  Samara ;  and  on  the  same  meridian  as 
Copenhagen,  Neu  -  Strelitz,  Trieste,  Naples,  Malta,  and  Tripoli.  The 
coast-line,  though  extensive,  is  confined  to  the  northern  frontier — 850 
miles  thereof  belonging  to  the  Baltic,  and  350  miles  to  the  North  Sea. 
For  the  most  part  the  coast  is  very  low  (especially  in  Pomerania,  Han- 
over,  and  Oldenburg),  and  requires  to  be  fenced  with  dykes,  as  in  the 
Netherlands,  but  in  Mecklenburg  it  is  considerably  bolder.  The  principal 
indentations  of  the  Baltic  coast  are  the  Gulfs  of  Danzig  and  Luoeck,  and 
of  the  North  Sea  coast,  the  estuaries  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser. 

Area  and  Population.  —  The  united  area  of  the  26  states  is 
estimated  at  213,370  sq.  m.,  or  one  and  three-fourths  that  of  the 
British  Isles;  while  the  aggregate  population,  in  1872,  amounted 
to  41,085,516,  being  one-third  more  than  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  giving  194  persons  to  each  6(|.  m.  The  area 
and  population  of  each  of  the  states  will  be  found  m  the  following 
table : — 


State. 

Area  in 
sq.  m. 

Population 
in  1872. 

Kingdom  of  Prussia,     •        .       .        .       • 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,      .        .        .        .        • 
Grand-Duchy  of  MecMenburg-Schwerin, 
Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  .... 

Duchy  of  Brunswick , 

Grand-Duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar,      . 

135,904 
6,777 
6,188 
2,428 
1,424 
1,403 

24,698,065 
2,556,244 
857,877 
814,995 
811,715 
286,183 

GEKUAN   EUPIRS. 


I 

Atealn 

PopDlatton 

p 

STATt 

«q.  m. 

iSmi. 

Grand-Dacliy  of  Mecklenbui^-Strelitz, 

1,152 

93,982 

Duchy  of  Auhalt 

1,026 

203,354 

Bsa 

187,884 

Daoliy  of  Sase-Cobui^-Gotha, 

76B 

174,339 

Dncby  of  8a<e-Altenburg,      . 

610 

142,122 

Pnncipality  of  Lippe-DetmDld,      , 
PrmcipBlityotWatdsolt, 

138 

111,153 

i83 

56,218 

PnncipaJity  ot  Schwartibai?-EudolBtaat,      . 

371 

75,S23 
67,191 
69,032 

Prindpality  of  Eenfls-SchleitJ!, 

gOQ 

Principality  of  Schauinborg-ijippe, 

171 

32,051 

i_ 

Priucipality  of  Eeuss-Greitz, 
Free  aty  of  Hamtni^,  . 

145 

45,094 

k 

136 

338.974 

■ 

Free  City  of  Lnbeok,      . 

127 

B2,I58 

P 

Free  City  of  Bremen,     . 

74 

122,665 

m 

Kingdom  of  Bavaria,      . 

29,342 

4,884,402 

Kingdom  of  Wurtemliorg,      . 

7,fi33 

1,818,184 

Grand-Duchy  of  Baden, 

fi,9ie 

1,461,423 

Graiid-Dneby  of  Hease-Darmatadt, 

S,B62 

852,343 

& 

ElsasB-Lothnngen,          * 

4,500 

1,597,219 

Total,  German  Empire, 

213,370 

41,085,516 

described,  wo  must 
first  treat  o![  Priisaia,  tben  oE  the  smaller  Germaa  States  nortli  of 
the  Main,  and  loatlj  of  Soutbem  Geiinatij. 


I.    KlMOBOM  0 

f  enlarged,  com 


PunasiA. 

ta  of  tlia  following  elBvan  pro- 


Fnuda  Proper.— KosraBBSBO  112,  Inaterbei^  13  (Pregal),  Memel  1 
Tilsiti;  {Niemen),  Eibing  28  (Hbing],  Danzig  90,  Graudeni  13,  Thorn 
(Vfitula),  Brauneberg  10  (Pasarge), 

"   -  -  "■-- MM  and  10,000. — Gonibinnan,  Marienbnrg,  Muienwetdi 


Brombetg  27  (Braha). 


Tas  ConeONAxia  b,  d,  /,  h,  t,  1,  t 

<  =1  (t,  u  Elake,  Binria  {SitCta,  Eit-trieia). 


238  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Silesia.*— Breslau  208,  Glogau  18,  Brieg  13,  Oppeln  11,  RatiborlS 
(Oder),  G«rlitz  31  (Lower  Neisse),  Hirschberg  10  (Bober),  Grlinberg  10 
(Lunze),  Liegnitz  20  (Katzbach),  Schweidnitz  16  (Waestritz),  Neisse  19, 
Glatz  12  (Neisse),  Gleiwitz  12,  Benthem  13  (Klodnitz). 

Ohlau,  Sa^n,  Sprottau,  Banzlau,  Laben,  Jnner,  Goldberg,  Striegaa,  Reichen^ 
bach,  Oels,  Strehlin,  Munsterberg,  Frankenstein,  Neustadt,  LeobschUtz 

Pomerania.— Stettin  74  (Oder),  Stargardl7  (Ihna),  Stolpel4  (Stolpe), 
Greifswald  18,  Stralsund  27  (Str.  of  GeUen),  Koslin  13  (Niesenbecke), 
Colberg  13  (Persante),  Anclam  12  (Peene). 

Demmin,  GoUnow,  Rugenwalde,  Neu-Treptow,  Greiffenberg. 

Brandenburg. — Berlin  826,  Charlottenburg  13,  Kottbuss  12  (Spree), 
Luckenwalde  12  (Nuthe),  Brandenbui^  26,  Potsdam  43,  Spandau  16 
(Havel),  Rnppin  12  (Rhin),  Kustrin  10,  Frankfurt  41  (Oder),  Prenzlow  16 
(Ucker),  Landsbeiig  18  (Wartha),  Guben  11  (Neisse),  Sorau  10  (Bober). 

Spremberg,  Rathenow,  Jiiterbok,  Perleberg,  Wittstock,  Schwedt,  Wrietien, 
Crossen,  Konigsberg. 

i  =  j  in  German,  or  y  in  English,  as  Jaslo,  Jaworow  {Ycuflo^  Ya-voi^cn). 

rz  =  zA,  or  French  j,  as  Brzezany,  Przmysl  {Bzha-za'nyt  Pzhem'Ut). 

8z  =  8h  in  shall,  as  Kratoszyn,  Zamosz  (Kra-to'shin,  Zd'moah). 

The  Polish  is  spoken  in  Pnissian,  Austrian,  and  Russian  Poland,  in  the  more 
elevated  portions  of  Prussia  Proper,  and  generally  in  the  basins  of  the  Niemen 
and  Vistula.  The  sounds  of  the  letters  in  Selavonian,  Bohemian,  and  Illyrian. 
correspond,  in  general,  with  those  of  the  Polish.  The  accent  in  Polish  words  or 
more  than  one  syllable  is  uniformly  on  the  penultimate,  and  it  is  the  only  Scla- 
vonic tongue  that  contains  nasal  sounds  like  the  French  «n,  in,  on,  which  ate 
represented  by  the  letters  a  and  6,  undermarked  with  an  accent. 

*  Rules  for  pronouncing  German  proper  names,  with  appropriate  examples : — 
'  Vowels. — a  long,  as  in  far ;  short,  as  in  fat.  e  long  =  a  in  fate ;  short,  as  in  met 
t  long,  as  %  in  machine,  o  long,  as  in  stone ;  short,  as  in  yon.  u  long,  as  in  role ; 
short,  as  in  full. 

Diphthongs. — d.  or  ac  =  a  in  fate,  as  GrStz  (praUs), 

ai,  ay,  ei,  ey  =  eyia  eye,  as  Main  or  Mayn,  Leine,  Leyden(Jftn«,  Lt'neh,  LVden). 

au  =  ou  in  hour,  as  Augsburg,  Clausthal  (Oug^boorg,  Cloua^tcU). 

eu  =  oi  in  voice,  as  Reuss,  Neuburg,  Baireuth  (Rois,  Noilioorg,  Bl'roit). 

ie  =  eem  feet.as  Wien,  Nienburg,  Wiesbaden  (Fe«n,  NeenlHtorg,  Veea-bdh'deny. 

dor  06  =  eu  in  French,  or  ao  in  Irish :  there  is  no  corresponding  sound  in  Eng- 
lish— Gottingen,  KOnigsberg,  Schonberg. 

ii  OT  tie  =  u  in  the  French  word  bruler:  it  has  no  parallel  English  sound— «.|^., 
Miinden,  Niimberg,  Ltineburg. 

The  Consonants  are  sounded  as  in  English,  with  the  foUowing  exceptions  :— 

d  final  =  t  in  English,  as  Detmold,  Gmiind,  8tuttgard  (DeVmott,  QmUnt,  Stut' 
gart). 

c  before  «,  i,  y  =  ts,  as  Celle  (TseVleh). 

ch  =  Scotch  ch  or  Irish  gh  in  Loch  Ness,  Lough  Foyle,  but  before  8  rodieoZ  =ik; 
as  Eisenach,  MUnchen,  Sachsen  (I'zen-izch,  Mun'chen,  SaJc'sen). 

g  is  hard  before  e,  i,  y,  as  Giessen,  Melningen  (Ghee^sen,  MVning-en). 

h  is  pronoimced  only  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  or  of  a  radical  syllable  ;  when 
after  a  vowel,  it  lengthens  the  vowel,  as  Hanover,  Jahde  (Han*o-vert  Ydfdeh). 

j  =  yia  yes,  as  Jena,  Jaxt  (Ye'na,  Yaact). 

8  between  two  vowels  has  the  sound  of  z;  but  elsewhere  it  is  always  sharp,  as 
Eisenach,  Osnaburg  (rzen-ach,  Os-rM-boorg). 

88  and  sz  —  sm  this,  as  Cassel,  Giessen  (Cas'sel,  Ghees^sen). 

8ch  =  8h  in  shine,  or  ch  in  French  and  Portuguese,  as  Schleitz,  Schwartsboif 
Shlitea,  SchwarUfhoorg). 

th  —  t^Bs  Gotha,  Claucthal  {Oo'ta,  Clou^taT). 

V  between  two  vowels  is  equal  to  v  in  English ;  elsewhere  it  is  equal  to /in  Ufs, 
as  Hanover,  Vogelberg  (Han'o-ver,  Fo'g?iet-berg). 

to  is  nearly  equal  to  English  v,  as  Waldeck,  Wismar  (VaVdeckt  Vit^nuar). 

z  and  12  =  Ut  as  Zellerbach,  Wartzburg  {Ts6VUrA)ach,  Varts'boorg). 


GERUAN  EUplBB. 


Burg  16  ( 


SohBneh',!!.  Ihrhy,  Gunielegen,  nalrteiuleban,  KnJbe,  LuieeiisBltia,  Sswrer- 
luBson,  HeUlgcnatndt,  SiiUl. 

HanOTBT.— Habotkb  104,  GiJttingen  13  (Leine),  Hildesliuim  13  (In- 
nente),  Cells  or  Zell  15  (Aller),  Claustlml  10  (Zellecbauh),  Luneliiirg  16 
(Ilnieiiaii),  Emden  IS  (Enidea  canal),  Osnabriick  18  (Uase),  Hiibiu?  13 
(Elbe). 

Bmheck,  OfitenxlB.  VBrfBn,  Qoalar,  Nionburg,  eBBoln,  MUndsp,  StsJe,  Nor- 

Snhleiwie-Halstein  and  Laaenbnig.  — Glitokstadi'  5,  Altonn  74 
(Elbe),  Kiel  32  (Kiel  Fi),  Scliiaawig  11  (Schlai  Fd.),  Flansburg  22 
(Flenshurg  Fd.) 

Rendibu^,  ItiehOe,  eHmshom.  Pr^eDi,  HatleTslcljen. 

EeMenXBiESl  and  3.<imhxag.'—Ci»BML  41,  Fnlda  10  (Fnl<ia),  Hanan 
17  (Uaiu). 

Hamburg,  HersfHld,  Eschirege,  Sfihmalkalden,  MarfaurK. 


),  Hertord  11,  Bie- 
re),  Paderbora  12  (Lippe),  Sflst  11  (Sasterhaoh),  Dortmund 
44  (Emster),  laerlolui  15  (Baareabaiih),  BachuDi  H  n.  (Eulir). 

BitniPi,  IJppsUdC,  Anisberg,  Wltten. 

Khenuli  Fnmla.— Cologne  125,  Wessel  IS,  Crefeld  G4  n.,  Diisaeldort 
83,  Nenaa  11  d.,  Soltngan  12  n.,  Bonn  24,  Coblenti  27  (Bhino),  Diiia- 
bms  14,  MUlhsim  14,  Esaen  32  (BuLr),  Bemscheid  18  n.,  Elberfeld  66, 
B«imen  65  (Wipper),  Treyea  22  (MobbIU),  Aii-la-Chapelle  74  (Wlirm), 
Enpen  14  (Tesdre),  Gladbach  19,  Vlersan  15,  Blields  12  (Xiers),  Esch- 
WlflT  14,  Dunn  10  (Boer),  SaarbrUck  13  (Saar),  Kreimiach  12  ( Na1i«). 

EinmflrjQb,  Cltivea,  Uiiblheim,  Neawlad,  Roodadorf,  Leiuiap,  Uayen,  Saar- 

DeacTlptlTa  irotes.— The  Prusaioa  monareliy,  aa  now  extended, 
contains  foar  cities  of  npwards  of  ]00,000  inhabitanta  (Berlin,  BrsB- 
lan,  Colof;ne,  KaniRSbflrg) :  twelve  between  100,000  ajid  60,000 
{Danz^,  MagdebuiK,  Fraukfdrt,  Hanover,  Stettin,  Aii-Ia-Chapelle, 
Altona,  Elberfeld,  Bsnnen,  DUsseldorf,  Crefeld,  Poaen) ;  twen^-four 
between  60,000  and  20,000  (Halle,  Potsdam.  ErfUrt,  Cassel,  Frauk- 
fUrt-ou-Odar,  Essen,  Oisilitz,  Dortmimd, 'WieBbttdan,  Elbint  Stral- 
sniid,  Coblenz,  Btomherg,  Duiabnrg,  Brandenbitrg,  Monster,  Halber- 
Btadt,  Kiel,  Bonn,  Gladbaeh,  Flenaburg,  Treves,  Nordluusen,  Lieg- 
nitz) ;  and  eighty  between  20,000  and  10,000. 

KSnigBberff,  capital  ot  Pruaaia  Proper,  a  popniona  and  strongly .fortl- 
Bed  city  on  the  Pregel,  near  Its  month  in  the  Frischa  Uat! ;  it  ie  the 
Fourth  city  in  Pruaaia  in  point  of  population ;  has  shipbuilding  docba, 
rreat  trade  in  grain,  numerotiB  mannlaPtnrea,  chiefly  w(   "  " "    — '  — - 


240  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Olsliauson,  Von  Bohlen,  Gebser,  Dinter,  Lobeck,  and  Graff;  its  obser- 
vatory has  been  rendered  celebrated  by  the  labours  of  the  astronomer 
Bessel.  Hemel,  the  most  northern  town  in  the  kingdom,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Curische  Haff,  strongly  fortified,  and  with  extensive  trade  in  tim- 
ber and  com.  Tilsit,  on  the  Niemen,  memorable  for  the  treaty  between 
France,  Russia,  and  Prussia  in  1807,  which  deprived  Prussia  of  all  her 
possessions  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  the  greater  part  of 
rrussian  Poland ;  nearly  all  of  which  were  restored  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  Elbing,  a  fortified  flourishing  town,  With  considerable 
trade  aud  manufactures.  Danzig,  a  large  fortified  city  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Vistula,  one  of  tlie  greatest  corn-shipping  ports  in  the  world ;  great 
foreign  commerce ;  the  birthplace  of  Fahrenheit,  the  inventor  of  the  mer- 
curial thermometer.  Thorn,  a  strongly-fortified  town  on  the  Vistula ; 
the  birthplace  of  Copernicus,  the  eminent  astronomer,  in  1473.  Fosen, 
a  large  fortified  city  on  the  Wartha,  was  at  one  time  the  capital  of 
Poland;  it  is  largely  engaged  in  the  export  of  agricultural  produce. 
Bawitsch  and  Bromberg  possess  several  manufactures,  and  an  active 
transit  trade :  the  Canal  of  Bromberg  connects  the  Vistula  with  the 
Netze,  an  affluent  of  the  Oder.  Breslau,  the  second  city  in  Prussia  in 
point  of  population ;  the  great  emporium  for  the  linens  of  Silesia ;  a 
great  wool-market ;  numerous  manufactures ;  trade  in  miningproduce, 
Hungarian  wines,  and  other  merchandise;  the  birthplace  of  Wolff,  the 
mathematician  and  philosopher ;  has  a  university  adorned  by  the  names 
of  Von  Colin,  David  Schulz,  Bernstein,  Middledorpf,  Wachler  the  his- 
torian, Schleiemiacher  the  theologian,  and  Passow  the  lexicographer. 
Glogau,  a  strongly-fortified  town  on  the  Oder,  with  several  manufactures, 
especially  of  sugar  from  beetroot.  GOrlitz  has  a  Protestant  college,  and 
extensive  manufactures  of  linen  and  w^ooUen  cloths.  Liegniti :  here  the 
Prussians,  under  Frederick  the  Great,  totally  defeated  ttie  Austrisns  in 
1760.  Neisse,  a  fortified  town  on  a  river  of  same  name,  has  various 
printing  establishments,  and  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen  cloths. 
Stettin,  a  populous  and  fortified  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  and, 
next  to  Danzig,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  kingdom,  with  shipbuilding,  and 
numerous  manufactures,  the  chief  of  which  is  woollen.  Greifbwald.  a 
fortified  town,  with  a  university.  Stralsund,  on  the  Baltic,  a  strongly- 
fortified  seaport,  with  considerable  trade.  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince Brandenburg  and  of  the  kingdom,  is  an  elegant  city,  situated  ontiie 
Spree,  an  affluent  of  the  Havel,  and  containing  700,000  inhabitants; 
famous  for  the  variety  and  extent  of  its  manufactures,  among  whidh  the 
most  remarkable  are  its  beautiful  cast-iron  articles  called  "  Berlin  jewel- 
lery," its  paper,  porcelain,  and  dye-works.  There  are  numerous  educa- 
tional establishments,  including  the  university,  the  most  celebrated  in 
Germany,  though  only  founded  in  1810  :  it  is  usually  attended  by  about 
1800  students ;  and  among  its  professors  are  many  of  the  most  illustrious 
names  in  modem  literature— as Neander,  the  celebrated  church  historian; 
Schleiermacher,  Hengstenberg,  Strauss,  the  neologist ;  De  Wette,  Mar- 
heinecke  ;  Von  Savigny,  the  jurist ;  Hegel,  the  metaphysician ;  Encke, 
the  astronomer ;  Von  Raumer,  the  historian  ;  Karl  Ritter.  the  prince  of 
geographers;  Beldcer,  the  indefatigable  editor  of  Greek  ana  Roman 
classics ;  Bockh,  the  Greek  philologist ;  Zumpt,  the  Latin  grammarian ; 
and  Bopp,  the  renowned  Orientalist,  and  author  of  the  '  CompaiatiTS 
Grammar  of  the  Indo-European  Languages:'  the  royal  library  contains 
600, 000  printed  volumes.  Berlin  is  indeed  the  great  centre  of  intelleotaal 
development  in  the  north  of  Germany.  Fotsdam  is,  next  to  Berlin,  the 
handsomest  city  in  Prussia,  the  second  royal  residence  in  the  kingpooiin. 


GEEMiS    EMPIRE.  241 

IB  bur[iil-placo  of  Fraderict  the  Great,  and  tha  Liilhplafe  of  Wilhelm 
m  Hombolilt.  the  statesman  oud  philologist.  FranlifUTt  on  Oder  has 
Senriva  conuneroe  in  German  aiiii  foreign  produce,  and  is  noted  for 
m  raanufactnrea  of  woollen  and  eilk  fabrics,  stockinga,  aarthamtarB, 
— IT,  ka.  Hagdeborg',  an  ancient  and  populona  city,  and  the  strongeiBt 
jtsain  tbe  kingdom,  has  great  trade,  which  is  facilitated  bynumerona 
unera  on  the  Elbe.  'Wittenberg  :  here  the  Btfonnation  commenced 
.517,  and  here  are  buried  ita  great  promoters.  Luther  and  Melancthon. 
il*,  with  a  celebrated  univaraitj  adcmed  by  tbe  namee  ot  Geaeniua, 
■— JPholuclc,  tnimnn,  Radiger,  8pener,  ThoniasiuB,  Breithaupt,  tbe  brotham 
'  'MicbBBlis,  Cellarina,  Bauinearten,  Semler,  Knapp,  Wegacheider,  and 
Mecliel :  Halle  ie  also  tbe  birthplace  of  Handel  the  mnSdan.  Herae- 
bnre,  and  Manmburg  the  birthplace  of  Riebard  Lepaius,  both  on  the 
Saale,  are  thiiTing  induatrious  towns.  Qnedlinhnig;,  the  bii-tbpkce  of 
Klopiitock  and  of  Karl  Hitter.  Halbentbdt  contains  a  superb  cathedral 
and  a  Jewish  ayna^giia.  Elsleben,  birthplace  of  Lather,  1483.  Zeltl : 
licb  copper-mines  iti  the  vicinity.  Unhlhausen  and  ITordhRiiseii,  fortl- 
tied  towna,  with  manufactnrea  of  carpets,  coarse  linens,  and  woollena. 
Erfnit,  with  woollen  and  linen  manufactures  ;  its  university  (fonnded 
in  1378),  where  Lutber  was  educated,  and  at  ona  tinia  the  most  cele- 
brated in  Germany,  was  suppressed  in  1816,  while  tbe  monastery  of  St 
Angustlne,  containing  tbe  liefoimec'e  cell,  is  now  an  orplian  asylum. 
~         W,  formerly  cap.   of  kingdom  of  same  name,  ia   a  well-built, 

I,  and  manntactuiing  city,  on  the  Leine, — "  >i— '-"-•i—i '■•i— 

iouB  astronomer,  Sir  W.    Heracbel.      Q 

famous  uniTersity.  ClauBthal,  capital  of  the  m  _ 
with  valuable  lead  and  ailver  mines.  LunBbnig,  a  Hourisbing  manufac- 
turing town,  with  salt-pits  and  saline  springs  in  tba  vicinity.  Emdan, 
the  moat  commercial  town  in  Hanover,  with  shipbuilding  docks,  Oeon- 
brock  ia  noted  for  tba  manufacture  of  coarse  linens  called  osmibtiTgi. 
Sluekrtadt,  formerly  cap.  of  tbe  duchy  of  Holstein.  Altona,  im  im- 
portant trading  and  commercial  city  on  the  Elbe,  opposite  Hamburg,  wifli 
abipbuilding  docks,  various  manufactures,  and  an  obsan'atory.  Kiel,  at 
tbe  eantem  extremity  of  the  Scbleswig- Holstein  Canal,  is  an  Important 
trading  town,  and  tba  seat  of  a  nniveraity.  Fleiublirg,  in  the  district 
Angeln,  inbahited  anciently  by  the  Angles,  who,  along  with  tha  Jntes 
anifSaiODi,  invaded  Britain  in  A.D.  4t9,  and  gave  England  its  present 
name.  Cassel,  formerly  the  cap.  of  tlie  Electorate  of  aama  name,  and 
HacBin.  are  thriving  mamifacturing  towns.  Schmalkaldan,  where  tbe 
celebrated  league  waa  formed,  in  1530,  between  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Gsrniaiiy.  Wieabadan,  formerly  cap.  of  the  ducby  of  Nassau,  ia  one 
of  the  principal  watering-pieces  of  Germany.  FrBntfiirt,  tonnerly  a  free 
city,  ajid  tbe  seat  of  the  Garinanio  Diet,  ia  a  populous  commercial  city 
on  the  Main,  now  chiefly  noted  for  ita  eiteusive  hanking  transactions  : 
is  tha  birthnlaoo  of  Gotlia,  in  1749.  MUiutor  :  here  waa  concluded  the 
Peace  of  Weatphttlit 
Buropflan  Sti ' 


n  its  hardware  gooda.  Cologne,  with  1 25,000  inhabltanta,  is  the  third 
Qt;  ia  Prussia  in  point  of  population,  ood  by  far  tha  most  important  in 
the  western  i^viiioQ  of  the  kingdom  :  ita  petition  on  the  Rhine  gives  it 
great  <!DTamercio,I  facilities ;  famous  for  ita  distilled  waters,  called  "  Eau- 
de-Cologne,"  and  for  ita  magniticent  Gothic  calhedral,  one  of  the  Quest 


242  POLITICAL   GEOGEAPUY. 

in  Europe :  here  the  monk  Barthold  Schwarz  invented  gnnpowder  in  1830 ; 
■nd  here  was  bom  Rubens,  the  most  famous  painter  of  the  Flemish  schooL 
in  1577.  CrefUd,  the  principal  town  in  Prussia  for  the  manufacture  uf 
silk  goods.  Doueldor^  a  large  commercial  city,  has  a  bridge  of  boati 
across  the  Rhine.  Bonn  has  a  celebrated  uniTersity  adorned  by  the 
names  of  Niebuhr,  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  Welcker,  Freytag,  Augusti, 
Nitsch,  Bleek,  and  Gieseler :  it  is  the  birthplace  of  Beethoven  the  com- 
poser. Ooblentz,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  the  fonner 
of  which  is  crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  485  yards  long,  has  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics:  on  the  oppc^te  bank  of  the  Rhine 
is  tiie  formidable  fortress  of  Ehienbreitstein.  .  fLberfold  and  Bamien, 
great  seats  of  the  cotton,  silk,  and  thread  manufacture,  and  famous  for 
dyeing  Turkey  red.  Treves  (Oer.  Trier),  at  one  time  the  residenca  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  is  believed  to  be  the  oldest  city  in  Germany :  it 
contains  numerous  Roman  remains,  and  maintains  a  brisk  trade  in  oon, 
timber,  and  Moselle  wines :  here  is  exhibited  a  coat  which  the  monks 
assert  is  "the  seamless  coat  of  the  Saviour."  Aix-la-ChapeUe  {O^r. 
Aachen),  the  residence  and  burial-place  of  Charlemagne;  celebnted 
for  its  mineral  baths,  its  treaties  of  1668  and  1748,  and  the  congress  of 
1818  :  here  were  crowned  the  emperors  of  Germany  from  814  till  15SL 

II.  Saxony  and  the  Smaller  States. 

Saxony.— Dresden  177,  Meissen  10  (Elbe).  Bautzen  12  (Spree),  Leipzig 
106.  Plauen  21  (White  Elster),  Cnmmitzchau  12,  Werdau  10  (Pleisse), 
Reichenbach   11  (Goltsch),  Eilenburg  10,  Glauchau  19,  Meerane  16  n., 
Zwickau  25  (Mulde),  Freiberg  21  (Miinzbach),  Chemnitz  68,  Annabeig  10 
(Chemnitz),  Zittau  14  (Mandau). 

Oschatz,  Pim&,  Qrimma,  Lossnitz,  Schneebeig,  Dobeln,  Bosawein,  NoMen, 
Mittweida,  Hainicken.  Frankenberg,  Zschoppan,  Orossenbain. 

Hecklenburg  -  Schwerin.— ScHWERiN  25  (L.  Schwerin),  Rostock  29 
(Wamow),  Glistrow  11  (Nebal),  Wismar  13  (N.  coast). 
Giabow,  Lndwigslost,  Parchim. 

Oldenburg.— Oldenburg  12  (Hunte),  Berne  8  (Berne). 

Bnmswick.— Brxtnswick  58,  Wolfenbiittel  10  (Ocker). 
Belmstadt. 

Saxe-Weimar.— Weimar  14  (Ilm),  Eisenach  12  (Horsel). 
Jena. 

HecUenburg-Strelitz.— Neu-Strelitz  7  n.  (Havel). 

Anhalt.— Dessau  16  (Mulde),  Bembuig  12  (Saale),  Zerbst  11  (JSaXbb), 
K6then  12  (Ziethe). 

Saxe-Meiningen.— Meininoen  7,  Hildburghausen  5  (Werra). 

Saxe-ODbiixg-Gotha.-GoTHA  18  (Leine),  Coburg  11  (Itz). 

Saxe-AItenburg. — Axtenburo  18  (Pleisse). 
Bchmollin,  Bonneboi^. 

Idppe-Betmold.— Detmold  6  (Werra). 

Waldeck.— Arolsen  2  (Aar). 

Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt.— RxTDOLSTADT  6  (Saale). 

Schwartiburg-Sondershaiisen.— SoNDERSHAUSEN  6  (Wxpper). 
Amstadt. 

Senss-Schleitz.— Gera  15  (White  Elster). 

Schaumburg-Lippe.— BucKEBURO  4  (Aue). 

SeuBS-Greitz.— Greitz  11  (White  Elster). 


emnin,  celebnited  I'o 
ifacturiiig  town  in  S&xon 


OEBUAK   XHFIBE.  243 

Free  Citie*.— Hambnre  30*  (Eltel,  Liibeck  *0  (Tt»Te),  Bremeu  SJ 

Descriptive  Notes. — la  the  tweoty  EtDalliir  et&tes  north  cif  the 
Main  there  are  two  cities  CQntsiiimg  apwards  of  lUO,(KN)iiilisbitajit« 
(Hwnbuj^,  Dreaien) ;  fonr  between  100,000  and  SO.OOO  (Leiprig, 
Bremen,  Chemniti,  Brunswick)  ;  five  between  50,000  nnd  20,008 
(Bostock,  Schwerm,  Zwickau,  Freiljerg,  Pliiuen);  and  twenty-five 
between  20,000  and  10,000. 

Srsiden,  cap.  of  the  kinzdnm  of  3i 
North  GermiuiT,  ia  renowned  fur  its  .  _      .  ,  , 

magnificent  bcid^  across  the  Elbo  {1<24  ft.  Inugl,  and  eitenaiTe  mann- 
factntw.  BJ^ieoiklly  of  china  and  porcelain  ware,  of  great  beanty.  Xeli- 
Mm :  here  is  inannfactiired  the  funoDi  LlreadeQ  china.  Buitun,  when 
Napoleon  L  defeated  tbe  Kussians  and  PnusianB  in  161S.  Leipiig,  the 
great  emporium  of  the  German  hook  trade,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  towns  in  Germany,  the  seat  cf  three  eieat  aonaal  lain,  at- 
tended by  merchants  from  all  parts  of  Kiirope  and  Western  Asia,  sjid  the 
seat  of  a  celebratod  uniTeisity.  FUnBn  has  eiteniire  linan  and  cotton 
minofscturea.     FndbGrg,  chief  town  of  the  mining  district  of  Soiony, 

, ._._. --'-^ing  100,000  Kpecimens,  beqneathed  by 

its  cotton  hosiery,  is  the  most  import' 
■.  Schwerin.  the  residence  of  the  Gi«ad 
Uuke  of  M.  Schwerin,  is  an  anciGnt  town  on  the  W.  side  of  the  lake  of 
(iBUje  name.  Biwtock,  a  seaport  town  with  a  small  university.  Olden- 
burg, cap.  of  grand  duchy  of  same  name,  is  well  fortified,  riTer-prat,  with 
I2.1HIU  inltaliitante.  Bnmiwick.  cap.  ot  durhy  of  eune  name,  a  popnlons 
city,  largely  engaged  in  the  woollen  trade  ;  hBre  the  Epiining-wheel  vai 
invented.  Geut^  ].,  Electur  of  Hanurer,  and  Ihike  of  BnuiBwick,  lie- 
eaine  King  of  Great  Britain  in  1714.  Wrimar,  cap.  of  grand  dochy,  is  a 
small  town  on  the  Em,  noted  for  having  been  the  residence  of  Giitiie, 
Schiller,  Herder,  Wielaud,  and  other  men  of  genius.  EIbbumIi  :  near  it 
the  castle  of  Wartbnrg,  the  Patmoe  of  Luther  m  J522.  Ben-Streliti,  cap, 
of  gruid  duchy,  contains  s  collection  nf  anrinut  antiqnities.     Deaaan,  a 

college  sjid  a  nonual  school.  KeiniiiEen,  cap.  of  duchy,  a  small  town, 
with  a  fine  collection  of  paintings,  QoUia,  abenutiiit]  tciwn  on  the  Leine, 
■odcap,  of  duchy,  with  mannfacturea  of  cotton,  woollen,  and  porcelain,  a 
pictnis-pallery,  andalihrary  of  130,000  toIb,  Since  17(14,  the  'AlmanMi 
de  Gotha'  has  been  published  here.  Coborg :  near  it  Bosenau,  the  birtb- 
]jlace  of  the  late  lamented  Prince  Albert.  Altenbiirg,  cap.  of  dncby,  ii 
a  tiniving  tonit  with  mannfacturea  of  ribbons  and  woollen  cloths.  Det- 
mold,  cap.  of  principality,  is  a  email  town  on  the  Werra,  of  no  special 
interest.  Eanibarg,  a  celebrated  free  city  on  the  eatusry  of  the  Elbe, 
witb  225,000  inhabitaate ;  it  ia  said  to  have  been  founded  about  a-S. 
80[t  by  Charlemagne  ;  it  is  the  most  important  commercial  city  on  the 
continent,  and  the  groat  entrepflt  for  British  and  American  goods  U> 
Germany :  its  meruantile  navy  consists  of  ahoat  !>0D  vessels,  carrying  1 
aw.OOOtons;  the  imports  in  1B67  amounted  to  £68,000,000.  Lnhed^  ' 
also  B  free  city,  has  great  Cairn,  and  a  very  citensiTa  commerce  with  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Kussia  :  here  are  kept  the  records  of  the  Hanseatic 
Lea^e,  so  famous  in  the  middle  ages.  Bren 
Weier.aDd  leuond  only  to  HamhiiiigaB  a  seat  c 


244  POLITICAL   GEOGBAPHV'. 

the  great  port  for  emigration  to  America ;  in  1867  the  exports  and  importt 
amounted  to  about  £15^000,000  each. 

Capes  and  Islands. — Bmster  Head  and  Bixhoft  Point,  guarding 
the  G.  of  Danzig  ;  C.  Dars,  N.W.  of  Pomerania ;  Ritzebttttel  Head, 
in  Hanover.  Islands. — Usedom  and  Wollin,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Oder ;  Rttgen,  N.W.  of  Pomerania ;  Fehmern  and  Alsen,  E.  of 
Schleswig-Holstein;  Sylt,  Fohr,  and  R5m5,  W.  of  Schleswig ;  and 
a  small  archipelago  between  the  mouths  of  the  Weser  and  Ems. 

Gulfs,  Bays,  and  Straits.— Curische  Haff,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nie- 
raen  ;  Frische  Haff  and  G.  of  Dantzic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yistnla ; 
Swinemtlnde  Bay  and  Stettiner  Haff,  N.  of  Pomerania  ;  West  Deep 
and  Str.  of  Gellen,  between  Ru^n  and  the  mainland ;  G.  of  Llibeck, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Trave ;  Fehmern  Sd.  and  Kiel  Fd.,  N.K  of 
Holstein ;  Flensborg  Fd.  and  G.  of  Apenrade,  E  of  Schleswig ; 
Estuaries  of  the  £1^,  Weser,  Jahde,  and  Ems. 

Sur&ce  and  Mountains. — The  surface  of  the  countries  recently 
forming  the  North  German  Confederation  is,  generally  speaking,  ex* 
tremely  level,  Prussia  and  the  Northern  States  being  situated  in  the 
great  northern  plain  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  ;  but  the  south- 
ern members  of  the  confederation  are  bounded,  or  traversed,  by  rari- 
ous  chains  of  hills,  as  the  Sudetic  range  and  the  Riesengebirge,  be- 
tween Pnissia  and  Bohemia;  the  TTiUringerwald  in  the  Sachsen  States; 
the  Odenreald  in  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  the  WesterwaZd  in  Nassau ;  the 
Eifel  in  Rhenish  Prussia ;  and  the  Ilarz  in  Brunswick  and  Hanover,' 
for  which  see  under  **  South  Germany." 

Biver-Baslns. — Beginning  at  the  N.E.  angle  of  Prussia,  the  prin- 
cipal river-basins  of  North  Germany  are  the  Niemen  or  Memel,  with 
an  area  of  85,700  English  sq.  miles  ;  the  Vistula,  72,300  sq.  miles; 
the  Oder,  45,200  sq.  miles;  the  Elbe,  55,000  sq.  miles;  the  Weser, 
17,700  sq.  miles;  and  the  Rhine,  75,000  sq.  miles.  Of  these  the 
first  three  fall  into  the  Baltic,  and  the  others  into  the  North  Sea. 
An  extended  table  of  the  rivers  and  towns  for  the  whole  of  Germany 
will  be  found  under  "Austria." 

Lalces. — The  lakes  of  North  Germany  are  exceedingly  numerous; 
but  are  all  very  small,  the  principal  being  the  Spirden  See  and  Mauer 
See,  in  Prussia  Proper,  the  former  being  drained  by  an  affluent  of  the 
Pregel,  and  the  latter  by  the  Pissek,  a  sub-affluent  of  the  Vistula  ; 
Plau,  Malchow,  Flesen,  Kolpin,  and  Miiritz,  in  Mecklenburg,  all 
drained  by  the  Elde,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe ;  Dilmer,  in  Hanover, 
drained  by  the  Hunte,  an  affluent  of  the  Weser. 

Climate. — Prussia  and  the  other  States  of  North  Germany  being 
all  situated  in  the  great  northern  plain,  and  therefore  exposed  to  the 
winds  blowing  from  the  Baltic,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  the  winter  is  long  and  severe,  the  lakes  and  rivers  bdng 
covered  with  thick  ice — sufficient  to  bear  loaded  waggons — and  the 
ground  with  deep  snow,  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  year ;  bat 
the  summer  is  usually  warm,  humid,  and  variable,  and  in  Rhenish 
Prussia  the  vine  is  successfully  cultivated.    The  mean  annual  tern* 


QEJlMitJ  EMPIRE. 


245 


tierntiire  of  Berlin,  nhicli  ia  one  degrea  farther  north  than  London, 
u  iS'-S,  or  three  det^ties  lower  than  in  London  ;  the  mean  summer 
at  Berliii  ia  nearly  Ute  same  bs  in  the  British  metropolis  (flj°.2),  hat 
the  mean  winter  is  more  than  3J  dcgreea  lower.  The  annual  rain- 
fall at  Berlin  is  about  SS}  inches,  decreaaing  towards  the  east;  nam- 
beroftainy  days  152;  prevailing  winds  W.  and  S.W. 

Qeology  and  BDnerala. — The  Khenish  provinces  of  Praesia  con- 
ElsC,  for  the  inoet  part,  of  ujiper  palsozoh:  beds,  bnt  nearly  all  the 
rest  of  Horthera  Germany  is  covered  with  tertiary  strata.  Minerals 
are  yory  abundant,  especially  in  the  Erzgebirge  and  Harz  Monn- 
taJns;  the  former  containinjt  the  metals  in  great  variety,  b«flidofl 
nnmorons  precioos  stones,  and  the  latter,  mines  of  gold,  sUver,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  salt,  coal,  alum,  and  sulphur.  Valnnble  mines  of  coal 
and  zinc  are  wrought  in  Silesia  ;  coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  mineral 
■prings  abound  in  the  Rhenish  provinces;  while  recently  have  bean. 
diaooYored  inexhaustible  deposits  of  pure  rock-salt  in  Pomerania, 
near  Stettin,  whence  it  can  be  shipped  at  a  very  low  price.  The 
most  characteristic  mineral  of  Prussia  proper  is  amber,  a  fossil  resin, 
which  occurs  in  beds  of  lifluite  on  the  Baltic  coast,  and  which  ia 
exported  to  Turkey  and  other  places,  to  be  manufactured  into  month- 
pieces  for  meerechaum  pipes.  Prussia  has  upwards  of  100  mineral 
springs  of  varioaa  properties  and  virtues,  the  most  noted  of  which 
are  those  of  Aii-la-Chapelle,  Wiesbaden,  Ems,  Selters,  and  Homburg. 

Botttnr  and  Agiicnltnte. — The  whole  of  Germany  is  embraced  in 
Professor  Sehouw's  second  "  phyto-geogrsphia  region,"  the  eharae- 
teristicB  of  wliich  are  mentioned  under  "knrope.  The  indigenous 
|ilaDts  are  reckoned  at  abont  7000  spFcies,  of  which  S666  are  Hower- 
\ng,  including  2037  dicotyledons  and  E29  monocotyledons.  Forests 
and  heaths  are  numerous,  and  the  moat  frequent  forest-trees  are  the 
elm,  poplar,  oak,  birch,  and  pine.  Fruit-trees  form  of  late  years  an 
important  article  of  husbandry,  and  the  vine,  chestnut,  and  almond 
thrive  well  ia  the  valley  of  the  Khino ;  while  the  apple,  pear,  walnut, 
and  apricot  abound  everywhere.  Of  all  wine-producing  countries, 
no  vineyards  are  cultivated  with  such  care  as  those  of  Hhenjsh 
Prussia,  Nassau,  and  Ilhenish  £avaria.  There  is  a  univeisal  interest 
taken  in  the  growth  of  the  vines,  and  a  nniversal  pleasure  in  their 
■pioffnsa.  The  district  which  produces  the  best  Kheniah  wine  is 
ths  Rbeingan,  a  chain  ol'  hills  in  Sassau,  extending  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Khine  for  about  25  miles.  The  wines  of  Germany  are  popa- 
larly  known  in  this  country  under  the  general  name  of  Sock,  but  there 
■re  nnmerona  varieties,  the  chief  feature  of  al!  being  their  delicate 
flOiTonT  and  extraordinary  durability.  Within  the  last  ton  years  the 
toportition  of  Eheniah  wine  into  this  country  has  nearly  doubled 
itsalt  Bye  is  the  favourite  grain,  and  forms,  with  potatoes,  the 
prindpal  food  of  the  people ;  bnt  wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax,  hemp, 
>sd  tobacea  are  extensively  cultivated.  Chicory  and  beetroot  (for 
the  manufacture  of  sugar)  are  cnltivated  largely  in  Saxony.  ""' 
■oil  ia,  generally  speaking,  fertile,  and  the  various  operatic 
igriculture  are  carefully  conducted.     About  three-fourths  of  the 


B 

J 


244  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY'. 

the  great  port  for  emigration  to  America ;  in  1867  the  exports  and  imports 
amount^  to  about  £15,000,000  each. 

Capes  and  Islands. — Bmster  Head  and  Bixhoft  Point,  guarding 
the  G.  of  Danzig  ;  C.  Dars,  N.  W,  of  Pomerania  ;  Ritzebttttel  Head, 
in  Hanover.  Islands. — Usedom  and  Wollin,  at  the  month  of  the 
Oder;  RUgen,  N.W.  of  Pomerania;  Fehmem  and  Alsen,  E.  of 
Schleswig-Holstein;  Sylt,  Fohr,  and  K5m5,  W.  of  Schleswig ;  and 
a  small  archipelago  between  the  months  of  the  Weser  and  Ems. 

Gnlfii,  Bays,  and  Straits.— Cnrische  Haff,  at  the  month  of  the  Nie- 
men  ;  Frische  Haff  and  G.  of  Dantzic,  at  the  month  of  the  Vistula ; 
Swinemtlnde  Bay  and  Stettiner  Haff,  N.  of  Pomerania  ;  West  Deep 
and  Str.  of  G«llen,  between  Rngen  and  the  mainland ;  G.  of  LtlbeclC 
at  the  month  of  the  Trave ;  Fehmem  Sd.  and  Kiel  Fd.,  N.K  of 
Holstein  ;  Flensborg  Fd.  and  G.  of  Apenrade,  K  of  Schleswig ; 
Estuaries  of  the  £1^,  Weser,  Jahde,  ana  Ems. 

Sur&ce  and  Mountains. — The  surface  of  the  countries  recently 
forming  the  North  German  Confederation  is,  generally  speaking,  ez« 
tremely  level,  Prussia  and  the  Northern  States  being  situated  in  the 
great  northern  plain  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  ;  but  the  south- 
em  members  of  the  confederation  are  bounded,  or  traversed,  by  rari- 
ous  chains  of  hills,  as  the  Sudetic  range  and  the  Riesengebirge,  be- 
tween Pnissia  and  Bohemia;  the  ThUringerwald  in  the  Sachsen  States; 
the  Odenreald  in  Hesse  Darmstadt ;  the  WesterwaJd  in  Nassau ;  the 
Eifel  in  Rhenish  Prussia ;  and  the  JIarz  in  Brunswick  and  Hanovery 
for  which  see  under  **  South  Germany." 

Blver-Baslns. — Beginning  at  the  N.E.  angle  of  Prassia,  the  jmn- 
cipal  river-basins  of  North  Germany  are  the  Niemen  or  Memel,  with 
an  area  of  85,700  English  sq.  miles  ;  the  Vistula,  72,300  sq.  miles ; 
the  Oder,  45,200  sq.  miles;  the  Elbe,  55,000  sq.  miles;  the  Weser, 
17,700  sq.  miles  ;  and  the  Rhine,  75,000  sq.  miles.  Of  these  tiie 
first  three  fall  into  the  Baltic,  and  the  others  into  the  North  Sim. 
An  extended  table  of  the  rivers  and  towns  for  the  whole  of  Germany 
will  be  found  under  "Austria." 

Laikes. — The  lakes  of  North  Germany  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
but  are  all  very  small,  the  principal  being  the  Spirden  See  and  Mauer 
See,  in  Prussia  Proper,  the  former  being  drained  by  an  affluent  of  the 
Pregel,  and  the  latter  by  the  Pissek,  a  sub-afBuent  of  the  Vistula  ; 
Plau,  Malchow,  Flesen,  E5lpin,  and  Miiritz,  in  Mecklenburg,  all 
drained  by  the  Elde,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe ;  DUmer,  in  Hanover, 
drained  by  the  Hunte,  an  affluent  of  the  Weser. 

Climate. — Prussia  and  the  other  States  of  North  Germany  being 
all  situated  in  the  great  northern  plain,  and  therefore  exposed  to  the 
winds  blowing  from  the  Baltic,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  the  winter  is  long  and  severe,  the  lakes  and  rivers  being 
covered  with  thick  ice — sufficient  to  bear  loaded  waggons — and  the 
ground  with  deep  snow,  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  year ;  but 
the  summer  is  usually  warm,  humid,  and  variable,  and  in  Rhenish 
Prussia  the  vine  Is  successfully  cultivated.    The  mean  annual  tem* 


5B  of  gold, 

VaJnable  mines  of  cottl 
1,  lend,  copper,  and  mineral 
;  wliile  recently  hare  been 
e  rock-salt  in  Pomerania, 
vary  low  price.     Tha 


GERMAN   EMPIRE.  245 

Berntore  of  Berlin,  which  is  one  ilegrpe  farther  north  than  London, 
B  48°.S,  or  three  deffreea  lower  tlian  in  London  ;  the  mean  sammer 
fitt  Berlin  is  nearly  the  eame  S3  in  the  British  metroTioUs  (64°.  2),  hut 
lean  winter  is  more  than  SJ  degrees  lower.  The  annual  rain- 
t  Berlin  is  about  22^  inches,  decreasing  towards  the  east;  num- 
ber of  rainy  days  152  ;  prevailing  winds  W.  and  S.W. 

QeologT  and  BUnsrali. — The  Bbenish  provinces  of  Fmssia  cod- 
mst.  for  the  most  part,  of  upper  paleeozolc  beds,  but  nearly  all  the 
rest  of  Northern  Germany  is  covered  with  tertiai;  strata.  Minerals 
■re  very  abundant,  especially  in  the  Erzeebirge  and  Harz  Monn- 
tains ;  the  former  containing  the  metals  in  great  variety,  besides 
nnmerouB  precious  stones,  snd  the  ktter,  mines  of  gold,  sUve: 
copper,  lead,  salt,  coal,  alum,  and  sulphur 
and  lino  are  wrought  in  Silesia  ;  coal,  ii  ~ 
springs  abound  in  the  Rheniah  provinci 
duNovered  inexhauatibla  deposits  of  pur 
near  Stettin,  whence  it  can  be  shipped  a 

most  characteristic  mineral  of  Prussia  proptii  i>  aiuum,  a,  •uoau  icam, 
which  occurs  in  beds  of  lignite  on  the  Baltic  coast,  and  which  is 
exported  to  Turliey  and  other  places,  to  be  manufactured  into  month- 
pieces  for  meerBchaum  pipes,  Prussia  has  upwards  of  100  mineral 
springi  of  various  properties  and  virtuaa,  the  most  noted  of  which 
«ra  tiiose  of  Aii-ta-Chapelle,  Wiesbaden,  Ema,  Sellers,  and  Horaburg. 
Botany  and  Agncnltore.— The  whole  of  Germany  is  embraced  in 
Professor  Sch on w's  Bccand  "phyto-peographic  region,"  the  charao- 
teristics  of  which  are  mentioned  under  "Kurope.  The  indigenous 
plants  are  reckoned  at  about  7000  species,  of  wbich  SSSS  ara  lower- 
ing, including  2037  dicotyledons  and  S2E>  monocotyledons.  Forests 
aim.  heaths  are  numerons,  and  the  most  frequent  forest-treea  are  ths 
elm,  poplar,  oak,  birch,  and  pine.  Frnit-tnes  form  of  late  years  an 
important  article  of  husbandry,  and  the  vine,  chestnut,  and  almond 
thnva  well  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine ;  while  the  apple,  pear,  walnut, 
and  aprieot  abound  everywhera.  Of  all  wina-proilui:iiig  countries, 
no  vineyards  are  cultivated  with  such  care  as  those  of  Khenisli 
Pmsaia,  Nassau,  a»d  Rhenish  Bavaria.  There  is  a  universal  interest 
token  in  the  growth  of  the  vines,  and  a  universal  pleasure  in  thoir 
progress.  The  district  which  produces  the  best  Rhenish  wine  ia 
the  Rheingau,  a  chain  of  hills  in  Noflsan,  extending  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine  for  about  25  milea.  The  wines  of  Gennany  are  popu- 
larly knownia  this  country  under  the  general  name  of  Itodc,  but  there 
■re  numerous  varieties,  the  chief  feature  of  all  being  their  delicate 
Savour  and  extraordinary  dnrabOity.  Within  the  last  ten  years  the 
Importation  of  Rhenish  wine  into  this  country  bos  nearly  doubled 
itMlf.  Rye  is  the  favourite  grain,  and  forms,  with  potatoes,  the 
principal  food  of  the  people )  but  wheat,  barley,  oats,  flax,  hemp, 
and  tobacco  are  extensively  cultivated.  Chieoiy  and  beetroot  (for 
B  manufacture  of  sugar)  are  cultivated  lar^ly  in  Saxony.  Tha 
1  ii,  generally  speaking,  fertile,  and  the  various  operations  of 
B  agriculture  are  carefuUy  conducted.     About   three-fourths  of  the 


248  rouTiCAL  geography. 

Hengstenberg,  Tholuck,  Tiscliendorf,  Stier,  H.  Olsliausen,  UUmaim, 
Krammacher,  Lange.  Philologt  :  Reuchlin,  Buztorf,  Stockius, 
Ludolfy  Fabricius,  F.  A.  Wolf,  Adelung,  Schleusuer,  Schneider,  Yoesins, 
Freytag,  Wahl,  Gesenius,  Bopp,  Grimm,  Reiske,  Ernesti,  Heyne,  Butt- 
mann,  MatthuB,  Zumpt,  Freund,  Ewald,  Passow,  RSdiger,  Furst,  Koae- 
garten.  Fine  Arts  :  In  Music  some  of  the  more  celebrated  names  are — 
Handel,  Bach,  Haydn,  Beethoven,  Weber,  Mozart,  Klein,  Mendelssohn, 
Spohr ;  in  Painting — Albert  Durer,  Elzheimer,  Sandrart,  Van-der-Faes, 
Roos,  Warner,  G.  Netscher,  Mignon,  Kneller,  AnnaWaaer,  Denner;  and 
in  Sculpture — Dannecker.  Miscellaneous  :  Werner,  Kotzebne,  Jung 
Stilling,  Zimmermann,  Herder,  Lessing,  Bouterweck,  Tieck,  Jean  Pam 
Bichter,  Wagner,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Bunsen,  Richard  Lepsius. 

OoYeniment. — The  government  of  Prussia  is  a  hereditary  consti- 
tutional monarchy,  the  executive  being  invested  in  the  king  and  two 
chambers— an  Upper  House,  or  House  of  Lords,  and  a  Chamber  of 
deputies,  elected  by  the  people,  and  consisting  of  432  members. 
Every  Prussian  subject  who  has  attained  his  25th  year  is  entitled  to 
vote.  The  reigning  sovereign  is  William  I.,  brother  of  the  late 
Frederick  William  IV.,  who  died  in  1861.  The  minor  States,  wilii 
the  exception  of  the  free  cities  (Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Llibeck), 
have  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  generally  with  two  chambers, 
one  of  which  is  elected  by  the  citizens.  All  the  states  of  the  Con« 
federation  are  represented  in  their  corporate  capacity  by  a  parliament 
which  sits  at  Berlin  under  the  presidency  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 
It  consists  of  two  bodies — a  Federal  Council  of  43  members  (17 
of  whom  represent  Prussia),  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  elected 
by  universal  suffrage,  at  the  rate  of  one  member  for  every  100,000 
inhabitants.  Army  and  Navy. — The  army  of  the  entire  Confedera- 
tion, and  which  is  under  the  exclusive  control  of  Prussia,  consisted, 
in  1869,  of  546,505  men  (on  the  war  footing),  with  a  reserve  of 
214,700,  and  garrison  troops,  270,000— forming  a  total  of  1,021,000. 
But  in  time  of  peace  the  army  amounts  to  311,985.  The  navy  con- 
sists of  87  vessels,  with  547  guns,  and  8870  horse-power,  ^e  total 
Beceipts  o{  the  various  States  amounted,  in  1868,  to  £25,880,472; 
the  Expenditure  to  about  an  equal  sum,  and  the  Public  Debt  to 
£62,120,000.  The  revenue  of  Frossia,  for  1873>  is  estimated  at 
£30,661,000. 

Commerce,  Manufactures,  Exports,  and  Imports. — ^Until  the  for- 
mation of  the  ZoUverein  or  Customs'  League  in  1818,  trade  was 
greatly  trammelled  by  each  petty  State  in  Germany  esuusting  dues 
from  every  vessel  that  touched  its  frontiers.  Since  then,  however, 
only  one  charge  has  been  levied,  and  the  proceeds  divided  among  the 
different  states  forming  the  League,  in  the  ratio  of  their  respectlva 
populations.  The  late  war  brought  the  ZoUverein  to  an  end,  but  in 
1867  a  new  treaty,  on  an  enlarged  basis,  was  concluded,  embracing 
all  the  States  of  both  North  and  South  Germany,  with  the  exception 
of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Ltlbeck,  and  Altona,  which  for  the  present 
ore  ports  offree  importation.  In  1868  the  gross  receipts  of  the  ZoU- 
verein amounted  to  27,819,525  thalers,  or  £4,097,928.  Of  tiiis  sum 
19,900,000  thalers  were  received  by  Prussia,  2,656,000  hj  Sazonyi 
1,407,000  by  Bavaria,  575,000  by  WUrtembeT|^  and  1,106,000  t(r 


GERMAN   EMPTRB.  249 

Baden.  The  iiierca.ntile  tnarine  of  Prussia  has  been  largely  >u- 
creaaeil  by  the  acquUition  cf  Hanover  and  Schleswig-HaUteiu,  and  in 
1873  numbered  5898  vesaala,  carrying  about  2,i8l},000  tons.  TliB 
principal  Bxports  from  Prussia  and  North  Germany  ars  com,  timber, 
wines,  horses,  homed  cattle,  coals,  wool,  oO.  flax,  hops,  tobacco, 
mineral  waters,  and  distilled  liquors,  together  with  woolleii  and 
linen  manufactured  goods.  Among  the  aiticlea  exported  from  Prus- 
sia to  Great  Britain  arc,  com  to  the  Talue  of  about  £5,000,000  an- 
nually, and  timber,  £1,000,000  ;  while  she  sends  coal  in  vast  <] nan ti- 
tiea  to  other  parts  of  Germany,  France,  and  Switzt;rland.  In  1873 
the  production  of  coal  in  Prussia  amonnted  to  38,000,000  tons.  The 
chief  articles  imported  into  Prussia  and  North  Germany  from  Great 
Britain  are  iron,  wrought  and  unwrought,  herrings,  and  cotton- 
yaru,  amounting,  in  1867,  to  £2,886,000,  and  colonial  produce,  raw 
cotton,  and  silhs.  The  exports  from  Danzig  and  Stettin  in  186S 
amounted  to  £5,268,000,  and  the  imports  to  £7,973,000.  The 
manu^cturcB  are  numerous  and  important,  but  chiefly  for  homo  con- 
Homption.  Those  of  Prussia  consist  for  the  most  part  of  textile 
{abncSj  machinery,  beet-root  sugar,  porcelain,  earthenware,  paper, 
leather,  musical  instruments.  Cotton  is  manufactnred  eitonsively  at 
Elberfeld  and  Barmen,  linen  at  Bielefeld  and  Liegnitz,  cutlery  and 
stms  at  Solingen.  silks  and  velvets  at  Crcfeld,  woollen  stutfs  at  Pots- 
dan,  while  Berlin  is  the  great  seat  of  the  mauufBctnre  of  artistic 
articles,  such  as  "  Berlin  ware,"  jewellery,  toys,  and  Busical  and 
philosophical  instruments.  Brewing  and  distilling  are  estensively 
carried  on  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  In  the  other  states  of  the 
Confederation  the  principal  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woollen 
poods,  and  "  Dresden  china  "  in  Sssony  and  Brunswiei: ;  beer,  lea- 
fier, paper,  wooden  and  straw  ware,  linen,  &C.,  in  the  smaller  States. 
Inland  Commimieittlaii. — Internal  communication,  both  by  laud 
and  water,  is  in  a  hif;hly  efficient  state,  consisting  of  many  navigable 
rivers  connected  by  canals,  excellent  roads,  and  a  perfect  network  of 
railways.  At  the  beginning  of  1867  there  were  in  Pmssia  E7II4  miles 
of  railroad  open  for  traffic,  and  in  the  other  States  of  North  Germany 
1092  miles— making  a  total  of  88S3  miles,  while  in  the  end  of  1873 
the  munber  of  miles  in  the  whole  Confederation  amounted  to  12,700 
miles.  Berlin  is  connected  by  rail  with  all  the  more  important 
towns  in  Prussia,  and  with  the  capitals  of  all  the  other  States  of  the 
Confederation ;  while  other  important  lines,  following  the  courses  of 
the  Khine,  Elba,  and  Oder,  serve  to  connect  Northern  and  SontherB 
Germany. 


III.  Sooth  Gbrmabt. 

Position  and  Boundarlee.— N.E,,  Saxony  j  N.W.,  the  Jloinft, 

teporating  it  from  Pnisaia  ;  W.,  France,  from  which  it  is  aepii- 

led  for  the  most  port  by  the  Rhine ;  S.,  Switzerland  and  tho 


250  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Tyrol ;  R,  Upper  Austria  and  Bohemia.    Lat.  47"  20'— 50*  41' 
N.;  Ion.  7^5'— 13M8'E. 

Carlsruhe,  cap.  of  Baden,  and  on  the  central  parallel  of  4d%  has  the 
same  latitade  as  Paris,  Begensburg,  Lemberg,  Poltava,  New  Westmin- 
ster in  British  Columbia,  and  the  southern  boundary  of  British  North 
America :  and  has  the  same  longitude  as  Christiansand,  Oldenbnig, 
Lucerne,  Milan,  Cagliari,  and  Old  Calabar.  The  general  outline  is  re^ 
angular,  nearly  square ;  its  greatest  length,  which  is  from  K  to  W.,  is 
about  250  miles ;  while  its  extreme  breadth,  from  N.  to  S.,  does  not 
exceed  220.  South  Grermany  nowhere  approaches  the  sea,  but  the  Bhine, 
which  is  navigable  for  steamers  up  to  Basle  and  for  small  craft  to  Chur, 
forms  a  large  portion  of  the  southern  and  western  boundary ;  while  its 
tributary,  the  Maine,  which  bounds  it  on  the  N.W.,  is  navigable  as  far 
up  as  Bamberg. 

Area  and  Population. — The  united  area  of  the  five  states  compos- 
ing South  Germany  is  50,249  sq.  miles,  or  about  half  the  siae  of 
Great  Britain;  whUe  the  aggregate  population,  1872,  amounted 
to  10,593,876,  being  about  two-nfths  the  population  of  the  latter. 
South  Germany  is  very  densely  peopled,  having  210  persons  to  each 
sq.  UL  The  names,  area,  and  population  of  the  different  states  are 
as  follows : — 

Bq.  m.         Pop.  1871 
Kingdom  of  Bavaria,        ....        29,342        4,864,408 
Kingdom  of  Wurtemberg, 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  . 
Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Elsass-Lothringen^ 


7,533       1,818,484 
5,912       1,461,438 


2,962  852,343 

4,500       1,597,319 


Total,  .  .        50,249      10,593,876 

Political  Divisions. — South  Germany  consists  of  five  distinct 
states,  each  of  which  is  a  member  of  tiie  newly-constituted  Grerman 
Empire.  Their  independence  is  so  far  sacrificed  that,  in  tlie  event 
of  war  with  a  foreign  state,  Prussia  is  entitled  to  claim  the  com- 
mand of  their  armies. 

Bavaria.— Munich  171,  Landshut  12  (Isar),  Passau  13,  Straubi^  II, 
Ratisbon  or  Begensburg  30,  Ingolstadt  17  (Danube),  Amberg  12  (vUa), 
Kempten  11  (Iller),  Augsburg  50  (Lech),  Spires  or  Speyer  15,  Germers- 
heim  10  (Rhine),  Kaiserslautem  15  (Lauter),  Aschaffenbuig  10,  Wttrz- 
burg  42  (Maine),  Landau  11  (Queich),  Bamberg  26,  Erlangen  12,  FUrth 
22,  Schwabach  10  (Begnitz),  Nuremberg  83  (Pegnitz),  Anspach  18  (Bezat). 
Baireuth  19  (Bed  Maine),  Hof  14  (Saale). 

Freising,  Neubnrg,  Eichstadt,  Dinkelsbuhl,  KordlingeOt  Meminingen,  Zwei- 
briicken,  Pirmasens,  Eissingen,  Schweinfiirt,  Rothenburg,  HoIierUinden. 

Wnrtemberg.— Stuttgart  84  (Nesenbach),  Reutlingen  14  (Eschati), 
Ludwigsburg  12,  Heilbronn  17,  Esslingen  17  (Neckar),  Ulm  25  (Danube). 

Cannstadt,  Eirchheim,  Tubingen,  Rottenbuig,  Hall,  GmQnd,  GKJppingaa, 
Ehniiigen,  Tuttlingen. 

Baden.— Carlsruhe  37  n.,  Mannheim  40  (Rhine),  Heidelberg  20 
(Neckar),  Pforzheim  16  (Ens),  Rastadt  11  (Murg).  Freiburg  21  (DieiBanOii 
Constance,  Weinheim,  Bruchsal,  Bretten,  Lahr,  Baden-Baden. 


GERMAN   EMPIRE.  251 

Euie-Dkniistadt.— Darmstadt  40  (Barm),  Giisscn  10  (Labn),  Msy- 
mcB  or  Mainz  51,  Worms  12  (Rhine),  Offenbaoli  23  (MaiDa). 

Elian-LotliTiiigeii.— See  pnga  198. 

QBWTlptlTe  Kotea.— The  five  States  ahoro  enmnei-ated  Contain 
only  one  town  above  100,000  inhabitaata  (Munich) ;  three  between 
100,000  and  60,000  (Nnretaberg,  Stnttgart,  Augsburg)  ;  ten  between 
fiO,000  and  20,000  (Mayence,  Wllrabura  Mannheim,  CarUnihe, 
Darmstadt,  Eatisbon,  Bamberg,  Fllrth,  Freiburg,  Offenbach);  and 
twenty-ftve  between  20,000  and  10,000. 

Knaioli  {Ger.  Munchen)^  cap.  of  Bavaria,  in  the  midst  of  a  sterile 

Elaln,  is,  with  tbe  eineption  of  Madrid,  the  loftient  city  in  Europe, 
avii^  an  elevatioa  of  1690  feet :  for  the  moat  part  it  is  of  modern  erec- 
tion, u  by  far  the  most  populous  city  in  South  Germany,  and,  in  regard 
to  itA  treasureH  in  painting  and  Hcolptnre,  Is  unrivalled  in  Germany.  It 
baa  been  embellished  and  extended  during  the  last  century  on  a  scale  un- 
known in  any  other  European  city,  Bicept  Paris  ;  it  contains  nnmeroua 
■plendid  edifices  in  every  known  style  of  architecture,  among  wbii:h  are 
the  university,  the  palace,  and  the  picture-gallery.  Near  it  is  Hohenlin- 
den,  mben),  m  18D0,  the  French  totally  defeated  the  Auatrians.  Fassan 
is  strongly  fortified,  and  forms  t!ie  defence  of  Bavaria  against  Austria. 
Slitisbmi,  long  the  cap.  of  Bavaria,  and,  from  1663  to  1808,  the  permancnE 
seat  of  the  Imperial  Diet :  here  He  the  remains  of  Kepler,  and  here 
Mapoleon  was  wounded  in  hattle  in  1809.  Angshnrg,  an  miportant  city, 
tlie  principal  arsenal  of  the  kingdom,  and  ttie  great  emporium  for  Ger- 
an,  Italian,  and  Greek  wines  ;  in  regard  to  banking  and  eichange 
leratjons,  it  is  second  only  to  FrankHirt ;  but  it  is  chiefly  celebrated  for 
e  Confession  of  Faith  wliich  the  Protestants  presented  here  to  Charles 
Y .  in  16S0.  Spires,  noted  as  the  place  where  the  Reformers,  in  1628, 
presenlfld  their  famous  protest  to  the  Emperor,  which  originated  the  re- 
ligions designation  of  Frotestants.  'Wiirzbnre,  a  university  town,  nas 
formerly  the  cap.  of  Franconia.  Bamhere  vi  extensively  engaged  in 
rusiug  and  preporing  liquorice  and  medicinal  plants.  ErlMieen  contains 
the  only  Protestant  university  in  Bavaiia.  Piirth,  next  to  Nuremberg, 
ilie  most  important  manufacturing  town  in  the  kingdom,  the  staple  com- 
modities being  toys  and  fancy  artjclea.  Kiireinberg,  the  great  toy-mart 
of  Germany,  is  funous  for  its  numerous  inventions  in  the  mechanical  arts, 
aa  the  watch,  gun-carriages,  cnpperplate-engmving,  musket,  clarion,  &c. 
Stnttyart,  the  most  heautifully-aitnated  capital  in  Germany,  is  of  very 
recent  origin  ;  contains  the  royal  palace,  adorned  by  Flemish  paintings 
and  aculptnres  by  Dannecker  and  Canovs,  and  the  royal  library  of 
880,000  volames,  including  a  unique  collection  of  9000  bibles,  printed  in 
80  different  bnguagea.  Dim,  a  fortilied  town  on  the  Dannbe,  where  it 
h^ins  to  be  navigable,  contains  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  catUedials  in 
Oermauy :  here  the  Austrian  General,  Mock,  capitulated  to  Napoleon  in 
1805.  Oarlnniie  {"  Charles-a  rest "),  the  cap.  of  Baden,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine,  is  an  elegant  city,  with  its  32  atroeta  diverging  from  the  palace 
like  the  rays  of  a  fan;  has  manufactures  of  jewellery,  carpets,  and  chemi- 
cal prodocts.  Humhelm,  at  thecoaSuence  of  the  Rhine  and  Neckar,  i* 
well  situated  for  commerce,  and  is  the  most  populooa  city  In  Baden. 
HaidelbBrg,  famous  forits  romantic  scenery,  its  flourishing  uni' — "- 
•Dd  an  ancient  castle,  long  the  residence  of  the  Electors- Pal°''"-> 
''-'m,  noted  as  being  the  birthplace  of  EeuclJin.    Eastadt, 

a  of  the  late  Ccrmanii;  ConfederatiaD,  is  celebrated  for  the  treaty  of 


the  Con 


252  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUY. 

1714  between  Villars  and  Eugene,  the  battle  of  1796  between  the  French 
and  Austrians,  and  the  congress  of  1799.  Freiburg,  noted  for  its  magni- 
ficent Gothic  cathedral,  with  a  pyramidal  spire  380  feet  high  :  contains  a 
Roman  Catholic  university,  which  is  well  attended.  Constance,  the  seat 
of  a  famous  council  in  1414,  which  sentenced  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague  to  the  flames.  Bretten,  the  b.p.  of  Melancthon,  in  1497.  Baden- 
Baden,  with  hot  saline  springs,  is  a  celebrated  watering-place.  Daim- 
stadt,  cap.  of  the  grand  duchy,  is  a  handsome  town,  with  a  magnificent 
ducal  library.  Giessen,  the  seat  of  a  famous  university,  rendered  illns- 
trious  by  Baron  Liebig's  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry.  JKayenoe 
{Ger.  Mainz),  the  most  populous  town  in  the  grand  duchy,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  forms  the  great  bulwark  of  Germany 
against  France  :  it  is  the  b.p.  of  Guttemberg,  the  inventor  of  printing 
(1440).  Offenbach,  the  chief  industrial  town  in  the  state,  is  noted  for 
its  bookbinding  and  manufacture  of  carriages.  Worms,  famous  for  the 
Diet  of  1521,  where  Luther  was  outlawed. 

SarflB.ce  and  Mountains.  —  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  frequently 
mountainous.  A  branch  of  the  Rhsetian  Alps  from  Austria  forma 
the  southern  boundary  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg,  separating  the 
Inn  from  the  Isar,  and  the  basin  of  the  Rhine  from  that  of  the 
Danube,  but  nowhere  attaining  the  limit  of  perennial  snow,  which 
in  the  Alps  has  an  elevation  of  8900  feet.  Proceeding  northwards^ 
the  different  ranges  are  as  follows  : — 

The  Schwartswald,  or  "  Black  Forest,"  in  Baden,  separates  the  Rhine 
from  the  Neckar ;  maximum  elevation,  4675  feet. 

The  RavM  A  /»,  or  Swabian  Alps,  in  Wiirtemberg.  between  the  Danube 
and  Neckar,  3300  feet. 

The  Bdhmerwaldt  between  Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  separates  the  Danube 
from  the  Moldau,  an  affluent  of  the  Elbe,  4613  feet. 

The  ErzgeHrgei  between  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  separates  the  basins  of 
the  Elbe  and  Danube,  2500  feet. 

The  FichtelgeMrge,  in  the  N.E.  of  Bavaria,  separates  the  affluents  of  the 
Danube  from  liie  rivers  that  find  their  way  nortnward,  3481  feet. 

The  Thilringenoald,  in  the  Sachsen  States,  and  between  the  sources  of 
the  Werra  and  Saale,  3286  feet 

The  Rhbngehirgei  in  the  N.W.  of  Bavaria,  separates  the  Fulda  and 
Werra  from  the  Kinzig  and  Maine,'  2300  feet. 

The  Odenwald,  in  Hesse  Darmstadt,  forms  a  continuation  of  the 
Schwartzwald,  and  separates  the  Maine  from  the  Neckar,  2300  feet. 

The  WesterwcUdf  in  Nassau,  between  the  Sieg  and  Lahn,  2850  feet. 

The  JSifelf  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  between  the  Moselle  and  Ahr,  2200 
feet. 

The  Rarzgehirge,  or  Harz  Mountains,  in  Brunswick,  and  the  S.  of  Han- 
over, between  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  3230  feet. 

Biyer-Basins. — For  the  river-basins  see  under  **  Nortb  Germany," 
and  for  the  table  of  rivers  and  towns  see  under  "  Austria." 

Lakes. — Boden  See  or  Lake  of  Constance,  bet.  South  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  traversed  by  the  Rhine,  of  which  it  forms  the  great 
reservoir;  length  42  m.,  breadth  8  m.,  elevation  1255  feet,  dflpth 
964  feet ;  the  Siores  are  generally  flat,  but  the  snow-clad  Alps  in  the 
distance  have  an  imposing  effect ;  its  waters  are  subject  to  a  snddea 
rise  and  fall,  without  apparent  cause.     Other  lakes  are  Ammsr  Ste, 


PS8  i 

B     difTe 


EMPIRE.  2D  3 

Warn  Sen,  Hnd  Chiem  See  ia  the  S.  of  Bavaria,  drained  by  Bffli'eiita 
of  the  Isor  and  Inn,  tributaries  of  the  DaDiibe. 

CUm&ts. — In  all  parts  of  Germany  the  mean  annual  teniperntura  is 

nearly  the  sama,  the  greater  elevation  ol  Southern  Germany  oompen- 

gating  for  its  lower  latitude.     Hera  the  sky  ia  mora  aerene  and  the 

climate  much  drier  than  io  North  Germany,      The  mean   annual 

'  Carlsrahe,  in  the  central  parallel,  is  fil°.B — winter,  34°.B  ; 

fifl'.S.     At  Ulm,  on  the  Danube,  the  annual  fall  of  tain  ia 

S8  inches,  and  in  N.  Germany  2Si  inches,  but  it  varies  greatly  in 
different  parts.  Encept  in  the  yalley  of  the  Khine,  the  climate  is 
generally  Tery  cold,  and  the  mountains  rarely  free  from  snow. 

Oeology  uid  mUnsTals.— The  rFgica  south  of  the  Danube  ia  oc- 
cupied with  tertiary  strata;  the  large  district  lying  between  the 
Khine,  Maine,  Naab,  and  Danube  is  covered  ivitb  secondary  rocha  ; 
the  palteoMic  aeries  rarely  appears,  \FhitB  E.  of  the  Naab,  granitic 
rocks  prevail,  especially  in  the  Bdhmerwald, 

The  principal  mineral  products  of  the  various  states  of  South  Germany 
aje—Savaria  .- salt  (formerly  a  Government  monojioly),  obtainod  from  the 
rock  and  bj  eraporatiou  ;  iron  and  coal,  found  m  many  places  ;  copper, 
manganese,  quicksilver,  and  cobalt,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria.  WHiitmiera ; 
Bait,  iron,  and  coal  are  abundant,  while  silver,  copper,  Isad,  bismuth, 
&nd  malachite  are  fouud  in  small  quantities.  The  mineral  products  of 
Baden  are  chieHy  alum,  sulphur,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  coal; 
Bold-washing,  formerly  geueral  along  the  Rhine,  is  now  insiKniflcant. 
Iron,  coal,  and  salt  abound  in  Heise-Darmttadt,  The  princindT  mineral 
springs  are  thone  of  Ei^singen,  Briickcuan,  and  Rosenheim,  m  Bavaria; 
Wildbad,  in  Wurlemberg ;  Baden-Baden,  in  the  Grand  Ducliy  of  Baden. 

Bataii7  end  leTieuItnre. — For  the  nnmber  of  apeciea  of  plants  in 
Germany,  as  also  for  a  description  of  the  culture  and  exportation  of 
the  German  wices,  we  refer  the  student  to  the  corresponding  article 
under  "  Fruasia  and  North  Germany." 

In  South  Gennany,  about,  three- fifths  of  the  entire  area  is  under  culti- 
vation, and  the  soil  is  gioierally  very  fertile.  >>ear1y  all  the  cereals  are 
grown  on  the  lower  grounds,  and  considerable  quantities  of  corn  are  ex- 
poltedtrora  the  various  states.  The  vine  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
Talleya  of  the  Rhine  and  Maine,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  in  the  plain  of 
the  Dannbe,  and  on  the  sboroa  of  Lake  Constance.  Baden  alone  pro- 
duces annually  about  14.000,000  ^Is.  of  excellent  vriue,  Wijrtembsn 
nearly  5,000,000  gala.,  -while  Rheuish  Bavaria  has  been  long  celebrated 


a  Ettein  and  Leisten  wines.     Hops  and  the  tobacco-plimt  are  very 

'~ "ind  Bavaria  exports  largo  quantities  of  beer,  neaily 

,__,...,_._  „ being  annnally  producpd.      Abont  one  third  of  Bonth 

QeiinaaT  ii  covered  wifli  forests,  chiefly  pi[]e  and  Br  trees,    TheSchwan- 


„.    _    .     ,  ._  espHciallycalebratedforil  .    . 

finest  of  gigantic  trees,  some  of  them  attaining  the  height  of  180  feet. 

Zoology. — The  fauna  of  all  Germany  has  been  noticed  above.     In 

TWard  to  tame  animals,  cattle-rearing  is  the  exclusive  industry  of  the 

B  itX^  and  other  niountainoos  districts,  -while  horses,  sheep,  and  goats 

■  •—  Bitensively  rsiBod  in  all  the  southern  slates.    The  silkworm  has 

u  recently  introduced  into  Bavaria,  and  the  rearing  of  bees  forms 


254  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

an  important  occupation  in  Baden.     The  other  domestic  animals  are 
the  same  as  in  England. 

Ethnograpliy. — The  people  and  language  are  the  same  as  in  North 
Grermany  (which  see). 

Religion  and  Education. — Of  the  8,567,000  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
states,  4,672,000  are  Roman  Catholics,  being  54  per  cent  of  the  whole 
population ;  while  3,818,000  are  Protestants,  being  44  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  Bavaria  and  Baden  may  be  styled  Catholic  coimtries,  the  Catho- 
lics being  to  the  Protestants  as  2  to  1  in  the  former  state,  and  8  to  1  in 
the  latter.  Protestants,  however,  greatly  outnumber  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics in  Wurtemberg  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  being  in  the  former  as  2  to  ], 
and  in  the  latter  as  3  to  1.  The  number  of  Jews  in  the  five  states  is 
estimate  at  105,000.  In  Bavaria,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  richly 
endowed,  possessing  property  amoimting  to  above  £8,500^000,  besides 
which  the  State  pays  £130,000  annually  to  the  clergy.  Protestants, 
however,  enjoy  complete  religious  liberty,  and  are  eligible  to  all  civil  and 
military  appointments.  In  Baden,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  under 
the  supreme  management  of  an  archbishop  appointed  by  the  Pope,  and 
is  quite  independent  of  the  Government,  frequent  disputes  biotween 
the  Church  and  the  state  have  been  the  result.  In  Wiirtemberg,  the 
supreme  direction  of  the  Protestant  Church  is  vested  in  the  King,  and 
Protestantism  is  virtually,  though  not  formally,  the  religion  of  the  state. 
Education  is  in  a  very  advanced  state  throughout  South  Grermany,  espe- 
cially in  Wurtemberg,  where  it  is  rare  to  &id  any  one  who  cannot  rrad 
and  write.  Attendance  at  school  is  compulsory  in  all  the  states ;  every 
village,  and  even  hamlet,  has  its  primary  school,  and  in  WUrtembeig  a 
fall  sixth  of  the  population  is  under  tuition.  There  are  8  universities 
— viz. ,  those  of  Munich,  WUrzburg,  and  Erlangen,  in  Bavaria ;  TUbingen, 
in  Wiirtemberg ;  Heidelbei-g  and  Freiburg,  in  Baden ;  Giessen,  in  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  ;  and  Strasburg,  in  Alsace. 

GovernmeTU. — In  all  the  states  the  form  of  government  is  monarchical, 
but  the  title  of  King  is  confined  to  the  sovereigns  of  Bavaria  and  Wtir- 
tembei^.  Representative  institutions  are  common  to  all  the  states,  the 
executive  power  resting  in  the  sovereign,  the  legislative  in  a  parliament 
consisting  of  two  houses,  and  all  functionaries  being  responsible.  The 
total  armed  force  amounts,  in  time  of  war,  to  142,895  men.  or  to  902421 
in  time  of  peace.  Of  the  latter,  49,949  belong  to  Bavaria.  14,150  to  Wiir- 
temberg, 14,812  to  Baden,  and  11,510  to  Hesse-Darmstadt.  By  Tlrtua  of 
special  treaties  between  Prussia  and  each  of  the  states  of  South  Qermanj, 
the  former,  in  time  of  war,  is  virtually  placed  in  command  of  their  anniesy 
wMle,  as  a  matter  of  course,  none  of  them  possesses  a  navy.  The  ama- 
gate  revenue  and  expenditure  of  these  states,  in  1866,  amoontea  to 
£7,684,804,  about  one-half  of  which  pertained  to  Bavaria,  while  the 
aggregate  public  debt  amounted  to  £45,324,167. 

Commeroe,  Mannfturtnres,  and  Inland  ^'»««*»^"*<fffffn. — These 
states,  being  wholly  inland,  cannot  vie  with  their  neigjhbonra  in 
regard  to  the  extent  of  their  commerce.  Still  the  transit  trade 
between  Italy,  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  North  Germany,  oanied  on 
mainly  by  steamers  on  the  Rhine,  Maine,  Neckar,  and  eren  the 
Danube  (below  Ulm),  is  very  considerable.  The  ]>uinbe  alao  com- 
municates by  the  Ludwig's  canal  with  the  Maine  and  Bhincb  and 
thus  materially  facilitates  internal  commnnioation.    Uaan&otaziBg 


r 


.USTRO-H  UNO  ASIAN    £»PIfiE.  255 

Industry  ia  highly  developed,  encept  in  Bavaria,  where  wine-niRlting 
■nd  the  brewing  of  beer  are  the  principal  products.  Coarse  linens, 
woollen,  and  silk  atulTs  are  largely  manufactured,  together 


with  tob&cco,  leather,  iron  and  steel  goods,  machinery,  paper,  cabi- 
net-work, papier-mache,  porcelain.  Jewellery,  toys,  so-called  Dutch 
clocks,  and  mathematical  and  optical  instmments,  which  ai    '   " 


high  repute.  Bookbinding  and  the  construction  of  carriages  are 
largely  carried  on  in  Hesse -Darmstadt.  The  exports  consist  chiefly 
of  wine,  timber,  corn,  salt,  beer,  leather,  tobacco,  cattle,  glass,  jewel- 
lery, otia,  and  drags ;  and  the  imports,  of  sugar,  ooffee,  silk,  wool, 
hemp,  and  Rai.     Railway  communication  has  made  great  progress  : 

.  In  1889  tie  total  number  of  miles  in  operation  was  2977,  together 

ridthl3e2  miles  of  telegraph  wires. 


AUSTRO-HtJNGAKIAS  EMPIRE. 

I  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Poland,  Silesia,  and  the  kin^om  of 
b  SMony;  W.,  Bavaria,  Switzerland,  and  Lombardy;  S.,  Veuetia, 
■  the  Adriatic,  and  Turkey ;  E.,  Moldavia  and  Russia. 

I  Omitting  Dalmal 
■onthward  along  tl 
allel,  the  remainder  u<  iiis  bui|>i 
between  Ion.  9°  41'  and  26°  Sy  I 
18"  231,  in  the  centre  of  the  ei  .  . 
Brest,  Mnnicli,  Czemowitz,  Ekaterinoslav, 
I.},  sndSt  jDhD'a(NewfDnndland);  and  oa  the  same  meridian  as  Stock- 
holm, Fosen,  Cape  Spartivento,  Lake  Tuhad,  and  tlie  mouth  of  the  Orange 
Hiver.  Omitting  the  Tyrol  and  Dalmatia,  the  general  form  is  that  of  an 
oblong  aqnare,  6i0  miles  long  by  420  miles  broad,  having  Buria,  the  cap- 
ital of  Hungary,  in  the  centra ;  but  the  eiUeroe  length  of  the  ampire. 
From  Lake  Constance  on  the  W.  to  the  esstom  confines  of  Transylvania, 
la  about  aOO  miles,  and  the  extreme  breadth,  from  N.  to  S.,  630  miles. 
Austria  is  essentially  an  inland  country,  her  ooait-line,  which  does  not 
■ieeed480m.,heuigwhollyaonSned  to  the  E.  side  of  the  Adriatic.  This 
eiTeii  only  1  mile  ofooaatto  every  500  aq.  m.  of  surface.  With  her  pretent 
boundaries,  therefore,  Austria  can  never  become  a  great  maritime  power. 
AiMi  and  PoimlAtioiL — By  the  ceasion  to  Italy  of  Lombardy  in 
ISSe,  and  of  Venetia  in  IMtl,  the  area  is  now  reduced to*210,361  sq. 
miles,  or  considerably  less  than  twice  the  area  of  the  British  Islea. 
With  the  exception  of  Kussio,  however,  Austria  is  still  by  far  the 
largest  state  in  Europe.  By  the  oeoaus  of  December  18S9  the 
population  was  35,904,435,  being  one-eighth  more  than  that  of  tha 
Uaited  Kingdom,  and  one  million  less  tbaa  the  population  of 
Franoe.  This  allows  108  persons  to  eaoh  aq.  mile  of  surface.  About 
le-tourlh  of  the  entire  population  (9,D4l',0U0)  are  GennaaB,  one- 

jU  (16,000,0001  Sclavoninns,  while  the  remaiuiog  fourth  is  made 

|p  of  Magym,  Italians,  and  other  races. 

*  roc  Boutin,  lleneipTliu.  aa<l  yovl-Buii,  l«e  p.  W-  ■ 


256  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Political  DlYlslons. — The  Austrian  empire,  or  Austro-Hangarian 
luonarchy  as  it  is  now  called,  is  at  present  divided  into  eighteen 
crown-lands  or  provinces,  of  which  ten  are  German,  two  Polish,  and 
six  Hungarian. 

Ten  German  Proviscks. 

Bohemia.*— Prague  190,  Budweis  15  (Moldau>,  Pilsen  14  (Bradawka>, 
Kuttenbei^  13  (Elbe),  Leipa  10  (Pulnitz),  Egerll  (Eger),  Reichenb«rg  19 
(Lower  Neisse). 

Konig^tz.  Sadrnoa,  Krnman,  Klattao,  Leitmeritz,  Saatx,  Chmdim,  Leito- 
mischl,  Karlsbad,  T5plitz,  Marienbad. 

Silesia.— Troppau  20  (Oppa,  affi.  Oder). 
Teschen,  Bielitz. 

Moravia.— Brunn  73  (Schwartza,  suh.-affl.  March),  Iglau  17  (Iglawa), 
OhnUtz  14,  Sternberg  13  n.  (March),  Prossnitz  12  (Rumza). 
Neutitschein,  AuaterlUz,  Nicolsburg,  Znayra. 

Lower  Austria.— Vienna  834  (Danube),  Neustadt  15  (Leitha). 
8.  Polten,  Baden- 
Upper  Austria.— LiNZ  31  (Danube),  Steyer  11  (Ens). 
Salzburg.- Salzburg  17  (Salza,  o^.  Inn). 
Styria. — Gratz  87  (Mur,  affl.  Drave). 

niyria  (Carinthia  and  Camiola). — Latbacr  23  (Laybach),  Klagenfurt 
14  (Glan). 
Idria,  Bleibach. 

GOrz,  Trieste,  and  Istria.— Gorz  13  (Isonzo),  Trieste  109  (G.  of  Trieste^, 
Rovigno  11,  Pola  11  (W.  coast). 

Capo  d'Istria,  Pirano. 

Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg.- Innsbruck  23  (Inn),  Trent  14  (Adige),  Botzon 
10  (Eisack). 

Two  Polish  Provinces. 

Galicia.t— Lemberg  87  (Peltew,  affl.  Bug),  Oacow  49  (Vistula),  Kolo- 
mea  15,  Sniatyn  11  (Pruth).  Sambor  11  (Dniester),  Tamopol  17  (Sered). 
Stanislau  13  (Bistrica),  Drohobicz  11  (Tiszmanicka),  Brody  19  (Styr). 

Przemysl,  Bzeszow,  Bochnia,  Brzezany,  Wieliczka. 

Buckowina.— CzERNOwiTZ  34  (Pruth). 

Six  Hungarian  Provinces. 
Hungary  Proper.  t—BuDA  or  Ofen  55,  Pesth  202,  Mohacsll,  yUnf-Kir- 

*  For  the  pronanciation  of  the  German  names,  see  above,  p.  238. 

t  Rules  for  the  pronunciation  of  Polish  names  will  be  found  under  '*  German 
Empire,"  p.  237. 

X  The  following  rules  will  assist  the  pupil  In  pronouncing  Hungarian  proper 
names : — 

o,ii  =  same  characters  in  German. 

a  =  ^  in  go ;  this  consonant  is  always  hard.    gn  =  ng  Eng. 

J  =  yin  yonder ;  as  Baja  (Bd'ya). 

s^8h  in  shall ;  as  Sajo  (Shd'yo).    t  before  t  =  e«,  as  Croatia  ((Oroa'tsiaL), 

ez  =  tain  wits ;  as  in  Debreczen  (Debretsen). 

C8  =  ch  in  church ;  as  in  Mohacs,  Pancsova  (Mo-hateh't  Pan'-eJu/va.) 

8Z  =  8  ia  Eng. ;  as  Szegedin,  Veszprim  (5<^-ed-in'  Vea-prem'), 

zs  =  sin  vision  or  French  j ;  Zsolna,  (Zhol'na). 

ay  =  di  in  French  Dieu ;  as  Magyar,  GyongyOs  {Mod'yar,  Dyon'dyon), 

ly  —  Uia.  million  =  gl  in  Italian ;  as  Vasarhely  ( Va-mar-hK), 


ACBTRO-HCHGiRlAN   EMPIH1!. 


2S7 
n  11,  PressbuTg 


Chen,  9*  n..  Fadvar  11,  AU-Ofen  12,  Vaci 
a  {Danube),  Sieged  69,  VsaairhGl;  43  n.,  Szentes  2a,  Keci 
FsieeyhiizH  IB  n.,  Nngy-KSrCs  20,  Czecled  1 9,  TokKy  6  (Theiss),  Msko  26. 
Arad  39  ^aroa),  Siarraa  19,  Bekes  90,  Caaba  28  (KHrBs),  Groeswardein 
29  (BebsB  Ktiriis),  Debreczen  41  ■a.  (Eassa),  Eaachau  16  (Hemad),  MiakolU 
28  (Saio),  Eperins  10  (Tarcia),  StuhlweisssBbarg  23  (SarriU),  Qran  11, 
Schemiiita  14  n.,  Krenmita  5  n.  (Gran),  Eaab  20  (Eaab),  VaBarhely- 
Somla  25,  Oedenburg  10  (Raaboitz). 

TransflTanla.-'KLAnsKHBaHO  25  (Si^thob),  Maraa-Vasuliely  11  (Moi- 
mV  Kronstadt  ^7  n.  (Aluta),  HennaimBtadt  19  ^Zibin). 

Kariabutg,  BUtriU.  Kaey-Enred,  Sinm-Itegen,  Thords. 

Burnt  and  Servla.— Teubswab  33  n.  (Temea),  Versstz  21  n.  (Earaahl, 
Kensati  16,  Zombor  25  n.,  B^ja  IB  (Danube),  NaCT-Kikinda  15,  Zenla  17, 
ThereaieaBtadt  66  o.  (Tb«isa),  Becskerek  IS  (Alt-Bega). 

LDgoS,  ApBtio,  LlppB. 

Croatia  and  Sclavonia.— Aorah  21  (Sava),  Eszek  H,  Warasdln  10 
(Drava),  Fiuma  16  {Adriatic). 

PoBSgH,  Petrluia,  RarUUdt,  ZsBEg' 

Dalmatia. — Zara  19,  BencoTss  10  n.,  Sebenino  14,  Spalatro  16,  Ragusa 
21  (W.  CO,),  ImoEchi  23  n.  (Biatritia),  Kuin  23  (Kerka),  Demis  18  (Cicola), 
Sign  26  (Cettina),  Caatel-Nuovo  8  (O.  of  Cattaro), 

HiliUry  Frontier.*— Petebwabdeoi  7,  Pancaova  12,  SemUn  13,  Milro. 
Ticz  B  (Ssrs). 

DeserlpUve  Notea There  are,  intbe  Austrian  emrare,  three  cities 

of  upwards  of  100,000  inhabitants  (Vienna,  Feath,  Prague);  aeven 
between  100,000  and  60,000  {Lemberg,  Trieste,  GrStz,  Szegedln, 
BrOon,  Bnda,  TheresiQuatadt) ;  twenty-one  between  60,000  and  20,000 
(Preasbarg,  Vaaarhely,  Cracow,  Kecskemet,  Bebreczeu,  Caaba,  Linz, 
Arad,  Kronstadt,  Sign,  Czemowitz,  Szentes,  Make,  Imoaohi,  Knin, 
Temeawar,  Grosswardein,  Zombor,  Laybach,  Klausenburg,  Bekea); 
and  fifly-eifiht  between  20,000  and  10,000. 

Fra^ne  lOer.  Prog),  an  ancient,  large,  and  fortified  city,  on  both  aides 
of  the  Moldau,  ia  one  of  the  finest  in  the  empire,  and  of  gieat  historic 
celebrity :  it  ia  tie  thief  seat  of  the  Bohemian  manufactures,  which  ron- 
■ist  of  thread,  linen,  cotton,  iron,  woollen,  glass,  and  paper;  contains 
the  oldest  univetsity  In  Auelria.  Prague  coutaina  the  tomb  of  Tycho 
Brahe,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  labours  of  Jerome  of  Prague  aud  of  John 
Hoes,  the  celebrated  martyrs.  Pllsen  is  noted  for  its  iron-mmea.  ^gn, 
■where  Wallenstein  and  his  friends  were  aasasamated  in  1634.  Ssicben- 
a  busy  manufacturing  town  on  the  Neisse.  Edni^grtttx ;  near  it 
■     —       ■  '      Tictory  over  the 


1«n;,al 
Sadowa, 


■V  =  ni  in  opinion  =  fl  Bpanlati^im  la  Frencb,  aa  S6ti 

onocny    {Boi-or- 

etter  of  a  simple 

Miaiiri,  UHe  Ih  and  tfc  Jn  English. 

•  Tbe  MilltaiT  Frontier  la  a  atrip  of  eomtrj  cnmptising  an  »rt 
nUM,  and  eitandi  along  tbs  Tnrltlali  ftontier  (roni  the  Adrfall 

«  of  18,115  iqmre 

eastwird  u.  Mol- 

devla.    It  i!0»Jil.tB  of  parti  of  Croatia,  Hclavonla,  th=  Bunt, 

Uhelil  by  iMnitofmllllaryflefon  condition  of mlUtaryaervIca 

iDp«da«.dwu 

Inliineorwir  it  fnmiahEB  00,000  iuBn.  This  uitem  of  Eoienun 

ent  nu  oigufsed 

In  IMT,  «i  a  protection  igainrtUw  Taika 

258  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

factiires  of  Austria :  near  it  the  castle  of  Spielber^^,  a  strong  prison  for 

{>olitical  offenders  ;  and  at  a  short  distance  Austerlilz,  the  scene  of  Napo- 
eon's  triumph  in  1805.  Iglan  has  numerous  manufactures,  and  silver 
and  lead  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Olmiitz,  a  strongly-fortified  city,  once 
the  capital  of  Moravia,  contains  a  university,  and  has  important  woolleD, 
linen,  and  cotton  manufactures.  Vienna,  the  capital  of  the  Archduchy 
of  Austria  and  of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  the  fourtli  largest  and  one  of  ths 
most  elegant  cities  on  the  Continent :  it  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  and  near  the  centre  of  the  empire ;  contains  numerous  splen- 
did palaces,  several  of  which  are  converted  into  magnificent  public  lib- 
raries, one  of  which,  the  Imperial  Library  (founded  m  1440,  the  vear  in 
which  printing  was  invented)  contains  320,000  volumes  and  16,000  MSS. 
The  university  is  celebrated  as  a  medical  school,  and  had,  in  1868, 150 
professors.  Vienna  is  surrounded  by  noble  botanic  gardens,  containing 
the  richest  and  rarest  plants.  It  is  the  chief  manufacturing  city  hi  the 
empire ;  has  great  commerce  on  tiie  Danube  and  by  railways,  and  three 
great  annual  fairs.  Here  sat  the  celebrated  Congress  of  Vienna  (in  1815) 
which  fixed  the  present  limits  of  the  diiferent  European  states.  Idns,  a 
fortified  city  on  the  Danube,  100  miles  above  Vienna,  occupies  an  import- 
ant military  position.  Salxburg  is  famous  for  its  salt-mines,  and  for 
being  the  birthplace  of  Mozart,  the  eminent  musical  composer, 
Gratz,  a  populous  city  on  the  Mur,  contains  a  university ;  an  institutioB, 
called  the  Johanneum,  containing  rich  museums  of  zoolo^,  botany, 
mineralogy,  and  coins ;  numerous  manufactures  of  textile  and  hardware 

foods,  and  the  centre  of  the  trade  between  the  capital  and  Trieste, 
laybach,  capital  of  Camiola,  has  an  active  transit  trade  between  Vienna 
and  Trieste,  with  manufactures  of  porcelain,  refined  sugar,  and  linen 
fabrics.  Idria  is  celebrated  for  its  valuable  quicksilver-mines.  Gorz,  on 
the  Isonzo,  has  manufactures  of  silk,  leather,  &c.,  and  a  brisk  general 
trade  :  here  died  Charles  X.,  the  ex-king  of  France.  Trieste,  a  populous 
city  on  the  Adriatic,  and  the  great  seat  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
empire ;  it  possesses  the  same  importance  for  Southern  Grermany  as  Ham- 
burg for  Northern ;  maintains  a  large  mercantile  fleet ;  and  here  reside 
consuls  from  most  commercial  nations.  Fola,  the  great  naval  depot  of 
the  empire,  is  a  very  ancient  town.  Innsbruck,  capital  of  the  Tyrol,  has 
a  university  with  24  professors,  and  a  number  of  other  educatioiial  estab- 
lishments ;  with  manufactures  of  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods,  and 
considerable  trade.  Trent  {Oer,  Trient),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige, 
is  chiefly  memorable  for  the  Council  of  ecclesiastics  held  here,  164^ 
1563.  Botzen,  the  most  important  commercial  town  in  the  TyroL  Lan- 
berg  has  a  university,  attended  by  1000  students,  and  numerous  other 
literary  establishments ;  great  trade  in  com,  cattle,  and  coal ;  and  several 
manufactures.  One-third  of  the  population  are  Jews,  who  are  also  numer- 
ous in  all  parts  of  Galicia.  Cracow  {GertfMn  Krakau),  the  ancient 
capital  of  Poland,  and  more  recently  of  a  small  republic  which  was 
annexed  to  Austria  in  1846,  is  celebrated  for  its  cathedral,  which  contains 
the  tombs  of  many  Polish  kings ;  it  has  a  university,  the  library  of  which 
is  rich  in  MSS.,  and  near  it  is  a  tumulus  erected  to  the  memory  of  the 
heroic  Kosciusko,  the  William  Tell  uf  Poland,  who  died  in  Switzerland  in 
1817.  Sambor,  Bochnia,  and  Wieliczka,  are  famous  for  their  magnificent 
mines  of  rock-salt,  the  last  named  being  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world. 
It  contains  a  subterranean  town,  with  streets,  churches,  statues,  &c.,  all 
cut  out  of  the  solid  salt  rock,  the  effect  of  which  is  very  strUdne ;  but  the 
most  remarkable  circumstance  is  that  the  mine  contains  a  smaU  lake  and 
rivulet  of  fresh  water.    Drohobicz  has  iron-mines,  salt-works,  and  pitch- 


Jtity.  Brody  maintains  an  extensive  ttada  with  Rossis, 
roiiiBu,  luiu  iurkey.  Ciemowltz,  capital  of  the  new  province  Bucko- 
WLCB,.  has  manufactures  of  docks,  hardware,  and  aitver  goods.  Boda  and 
PHta,  on  oppoaite  aidsa  of  the  Danuba,  but  connected  by  a  huge  snspan- 
alon-bridge,  form  together  tlie  capital  of  t)ia  ancient  tingdoDi  of  Uungarr, 
DOW  restored  to  much  of  its  former  independencB.  Buda  (Oer.  Ofen), 
dartvea  its  name  from  its  hot  sulphur-nprii^.  It  is  an  ancient  city,  was 
lung  in  possession  of  ths  Turks,  who  were  eipelied  in  16G6,  and  still  con- 
talua  the  r^alia  of  Hungary ;  it  carries  on  an  eitenaive  commerce  in 
wine  of  excellent  quality.  Festh  contains  a  university  wliich  has  lOU  pro- 
fHSoiB,  and  is  attended  by  about  1300  students.  Komoni,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Danube  and  Waag,  la  uns  of  the  Btrongeat  fortresses  In  Europe. 
Frenbarg,  the  ancient  capital  of  Huniraiy,  the  former  seat  of  the  Hun- 
Karian  Diet,  and  the  place  where  the  Emperora  of  Austria  were  crowned 
kings  of  Hungary,  is  a  quiet  countiy  town,  surrounded  by  rich  vineyards. 
Sz^edin,  a  fortified  mnnufactiiri^  tonn  in  the  centre  of  the  Huugarian 
plom,  is  a  place  of  great  tiade.  Vaaarhely,  the  seat  of  several  annual 
faini.  Eecakemet,  with  five  great  annual  fairs  for  hordes  and  cattle,  has 
a  large  trade  in  com,  wine,  and  fruit.  Tokay,  a  small  town  ou  the  Theiss, 
is  famous  for  ita  wine,  ths  most  coatly  in  Europe.  Hoko  is  largely  en- 
caged in  the  manufacture  of  wine.  Arfld,  with  the  largest  cattle-market 
in  Uui^iary.  Groaawardsin,  with  hot  mineral  springs,  li  strengly  forti- 
fied. Bebreciin  contains  a  Calvinistie  college,  the  moat  important  insti- 
tution of  the  kind  in  the  empire.  Mi°koIti,  a  considerahla  town,  with 
irtm-mines,  frem  which  is  made  the  beat  steel  in  the  empire.  Ediemniti 
sod  Kremnitt,  two  celebrated  miiimg  towns,  where  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
lead,  copper,  iron,  sulphur,  and  arsenic  are  wrought.    Eaab,  where  the 

French  defeated  the  Anst  '"""   '         '  ' 

couth  of  the  Roab  and  Dai 

ill  raiaing  wine  and  tobacco.  Oedenbnrg,  u^u  .-^j-i  i.<d>u<s<uc<,  u. 
CiteusiVBinartfor  the  wine  grown  in  itevicially.  ElausBuhiiTg,  the  caji. 
of  Transylvania,  an  important  manufacturing  town,  is  the  birthplace  of 
Alatthlaa  Corvinus,  one  of  the  greatest  kings  of  Hungary.  Eranstadt, 
the  most  populous  and  commercial  town  in  the  prevince.  Hermtuistadt, 
the  naldencs  of  the  miUtary  commander  of  Transylrania,  a  Greek 
bishop's  nee,  and  the  seat  of  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  gymnasia, 
has  a  fine  national  mnaeum.  KarUburg,  a  small  town,  with  the  ricbeat 
gold-minei  in  the  empire.    Tsmeiwar,  capital  of  Banat  and  Servia,  is  a 

woollen  atutfa,  iron-warss,  paper,  tobacco,  and  oil,  and  an  eitenaive 
trade ;  it  waa  taken  by  the  Turks,  under  Solyman  II.,  in  1651,  and 
retaken  by  Prince  Eugene  in  1716.  Veraetz,  a  fortified  town  near  the 
Sana,  engaged  in  raising  wine,  silk,  and  rice.  Beusati,  one  of  ths 
■Ceamboat  stationa  on  the  Danube,  is  a  place  of  great  trade.  ZombDT, 
with  ntanofactures  of  silk,  and  trade  in  grain  and  cattle.  Theraaien- 
Mkdt,  tha  moat  populoua  town  in  the  Eauat,  consiala  of  an  aggregation 
olTillaget,  with  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  and  tobacco.  Agram, 
capital  of  the  united  province  of  Croatia  and  Sclavonia,  a  considerable 
tuvn  on  ths  Sara,  containK  a  Que  cathedral  and  several  monasteries, 
a  ttrongly.fortided  town  on  the  Drava,  with  bnrracka  capable  o( 
nodating  30,000  men.  Taraadin,  a  fortified  town  on  tfie  same 
rirer,  with  aulphor.batbs  and  extensive  vineyards.  Flume,  a  royal  Jree 
■eapoit  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Q'jamero,  and  the  outlet  for  the  produce  of 
Hnngary,  Zara,  a  small  town  on  the  Adriatic,  capita!  of  the  kingdom 
of  Dalmatia,  the  aee  of  an  archbishop,  and  strongly  fortified.    Spalatia, 


trians  in  1609,  is  a  steam-packet  station,  at  the 
inube.  Vasaruely-Somlo  la  extensively  engaged 
icco.     Oedenbnrg,  near  lake  Neuaiedler,  is  an 


260  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

noted  for  its  Roman  antiquities,  is  the  most  important  seat  of  comirieroe 
in  Dalmatia.  Bag^sa,  a  strongly-fortified  seaport  town  with  an  actiye 
coasting  trade,  is  frequently  visited  by  earthquakes.  Feterwardein,  so 
called  after  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  here  marshalled  the  first  crusade,  is  a 
most  formidable  military  position  on  the  south  or  right  bank  of  tiie 
Danube,  opposite  Neusatz,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  bridge  of 
boats :  it  was  the  scene  of  a  great  victory  over  the  Turks,  in  1716. 
Fancsova,  a  considerable  trading  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Banube, 
is  well  fortified. 

Capes  and  Islands. — Salvatore  and  Funta  di  Promontore,  S.  of  Istia, 
are  the  only  capes.  Islands. — Two  groups  in  the  Adriatic — viz., 
the  lUyrian  archipelago  in  the  Gulf  of  Quamero,  principal,  Veglia, 
Cherso,  and  Lossini ;  and  the  Dalmatian  archipelago  on  the  west 
coast  of  Dalmatia,  principal,  Ugliano,  Grossa,  Brazza,  Lesina,  Cor- 
zola,  and  Meleda. 

Seas,  Qulfs,  and  Straits. — ^The  Adriatic  in  the  S.W.,  the  chief 
branches  of  which  on  the  eastern  side  are — Gulfs  of  Trieste  and  Quar- 
nero,  S.  of  Illyria ;  Morlacca  Channel,  between  Croatia  and  the  Dly- 
rian  archipelago  ;  Gulf  of  Cattaro,  S.W.  of  Dalmatia. 

Surface  and  Mountains. — Austria  is  ahighly-moantainous  country, 
for  although  it  contains  several  extensive  plains,  as  the  Plain  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  Plain  of  Lower  Austria,  it  is  traversed  by  three  great 
mountain-systems — ^viz.,  the  Alps,  the  Sudetic  Mountains,  and  the 
Carpathians. 

The  Alps  in  the  S.W.,  extending  from  the  Swiss  frontier  to  near 
Vienna,  and  consisting  of  several  chains,  as  the  Camic  Alps,  between 
Venetia  and  the  Tyrol ;  highest  summit.  La  Marmolata,  in  S.E,  of  Tyrol, 
11,500  feet,  between  the  basins  of  the  Piave  and  Drave :  the  BJuBtvan 
A  Ips  in  Tyrol,  between  the  basins  of  the  Adige  and  Inn ;  with  Ortler 
Spitz,  the  culminating-point  of  Austria,  12,789  feet,  in  S.W.  of  the  Tyrol : 
the  Noric  A  Ips,  extending  from  the  Tyrol  to  near  Vienna,  and  separating 
the  Danube  from  the  Drave  ;  highest  summit.  Gross  Glockner,  in  £.  <h 
Tyrol,  12,776  feet :  the  Jvlian  Alps  in  Illyria,  and  the  Dinaric  Alps  in 
Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  between  the  Save  and  the  Adriatic ;  highest  sum- 
mit.  Mount  Terglou,  in  central  Illyria,  9343  feet. 

The  Sudetic  or  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Mountains,  foimmg  the 
N.W.  frontier,  and  consisting  of  the  BShmencald,  Erzgdnrge,  Hietengt- 
hirgCf  and  Sudetic  Mountains  (see  p.  252). 

The  Krafacks  or  Carpathians  in  the  east,  forming  a  great  curve, 
one  extremity  of  which  abuts  on  the  Danube  at  Pressburg,  and  after  sepa- 
rating Hungary  from  Galicia,  and  Transylvania  from  Moldavia  and  Wal* 
lachia,  returns  to  the  Danube  at  Orsova.  The  Carpathians  form  a  put 
of  the  great  water-parting  of  Europe,  separating  the  oasin  of  the  Danube 
from  those  of  the  Vistula  and  Dmester.  They  are  usually  divided  into 
two  great  sections — ^viz.,  the  Western  CarpcUhtans,  between  HungiiJ 
and  Galicia,  and  forming  a  crescent-shaped  rin^  around  the  head-wi^oi 
of  the  Theiss  :  highest  summit,  Gerlsdorfer  Spitze,  in  the  Tatia  gnnip, 
8685  feet;  and  the  Eastern  Carpathians  or  Tran^lvantan  Alps,  tie* 
tween  Transylvania  and  the  Danubian  principalities,  Boparating  tiw 
basin  of  the  Theiss  from  that  of  the  Lower  Danube :  higihett  eleritiiOB, 
Mount  Botschetje,  south  of  Kronstadt,  9528  feet    Xhia  moantidi^  t^ 


lOARIAN   EMPIRE. 


261 


„  ther  with  many  other  anmniita,  riaaa  far  above  the  anow-llue,  wl.ich,  in 
this  l&titude,  is  about  6000  f«et. 

Moobtaih-Pa^es. — The  principal  passes  ara  the  Joi/unia  Paa,  on 
the  route  from  Prasabuig  to  Cracow,  Ion.  19°  B.  ;  £ffrjio  Pais,  between 
Bistiitz  and  Bukowina ;  Gy/nee  Pass,  between  Transylvania  and  Mol- 
davia ;  floM  Pan,  riiriSu™  Pan,  MoUicitlAunn  Pott,  and  VjUcan  Pan, 
LHtween  Tianeylraiiia  atid  Wsllachia ;  Slelvio  Pan,  6100  feet,  from  Bormia 
in  Lomhardy  to  Oluiua  in  the  Tyrol ;  and  the  Srenatr  Pna,  between  the 
vulleya  of  the  Inn  and  Adige,  1650  feet  high.  The  Austrian  Goverament 
boa  made  all  these  passes  available  for  wheeled  earriagea  af        ....... 


Slvor-BaBlnB. — Notn'ithstanding  the  great  extent  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  the  only  great  river-basiu  contained  in  it  is  that  of  tlio 
Dannbe,  and  even  it  odI;  [lartislly,  its  sonroea  being  in  South  Ger- 
many, and  its  lower  bobin  in  Turkey.  Its  direct  length  is  estimated 
■t  9U0  miles,  and  its  area  at  306,001)  English  square  miles.  Tlie 
empire  also  emlirtiees  the  upper  basins  of  the  EUie  (area  of  basin, 
CCOOO  sq.  m.),  tlie  Oder  (15,200  sq.  m.),  and  the  Vistula  (72,300 
sq.  m.) 

Tlia  BlTer-System  of  Contial  EoropB. — The  followiug  tahle  com- 
wis«  the  riTEr-ayatem  of  Caiitrttl  Europe  from  the  PrcEel  to  the 
Rhine,  tJigether  with  the  basin  of  the  Danube  and  the  N.K  coast  of 
the  Adriatic,  Capitals  of  kingdoms  and  provineea  are  distinguished 
bj  8HALI.  CAPITALS,  towns  of  more  t!mn  10,000  inhabitants  by 
I^Jtoman  letters,  and  those  b«tween  6000  and  10,000  by  llalke. 

■.d  to  Ike  Baitia. 

Itiveri.  Tawiis. 

ilega, Kia-TTCplom,   Gniftn- 

nl^berg,  o.,  KUitrio, 

Qlogiu,  Breblad,  Oh- 
lau,  BTiec,  Oppela, 
Sttibor,  AeutitecAain, 

tT<?liflr,  1 i'otciKilt,  Pffidzlaw. 

Ihoa, OsUnau.  ainrgtird. 

Watthi, ,. . .  lAbdiiberg,  Pose:;,  Czan- 

N4tH) .  - . .  Inoariuiaa. 

yUlBt^  .'.'.'.Onarn. 

LDWur  Nela-'Oaben',  OUr]^  'iteicbeTi- 
a,  I  berg. 

Handan.  J.Zltbia. 

Liolier,! £i»an,  SoiaD,  n.,  fiuni- 

bm,  Hlmuhbaig. 
<i\uitt,t.,Lavban. 

Birtwh Frauiii&t.  a..  Bawitach. 

Orta,  .-.-.Krotoajinr 
Kstabuli.  i  T.iegBl1x,Jauer,a.,QM- 


2G2 


POLTTIOAL    OEOGBAPIIY. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  BaUie  (continaed). 


Rivers.  Towns. 

WeiBtritz,  {  Schweidnitz. 
8trieganer,Sene^att. 

Peile, Reiehenbach. 

Oelsa, Oels. 

Upper  Neis-  Neisse,  Frankenstein,  n., 

86, 1  Glatz. 

H  o  1  z  e  m-  Netutadt,  n. 

plotz,  I 
Klodnitz....Gleiwitz,  Benthen. 


Rivers.  Towns. 

Zinna,  { Lsobsehutt. 

Olsa, Tesehen. 

Oppa,  I Troppau. 

Peene, Wolgast,  n.  Anclam, 

Demmin. 
Str.  of  Oellen,  Greifgwald,n.,  Stralsoad. 
Warnow, Rostock. 

Nebal, Gostrow. 

Co.  of  ]f  eck- Wismar. 

lenbnTg-Sch., 


Basins  inclined  to  the  North  Sea. 


Elbe, 


Gluckbtadt,    Altona, 

Hamburg,  Harborg, 
Magdeburg,  Schime- 
beck,  Dessau,  Witten- 
berg, Toigan,  O^hatz, 
MeisseD,  Dresden, 
Pima,  TiiplitZy  Leit- 
meritZj  Kuttenberg, 
Koniggrdtz. 
Schwinge,  2  Stade. 

Stor, Itzehoe. 

Ilmenau,  ^Lttnebarff. 

Elde, &ra6oto,  Ludwigslust,  n. , 

Parehim. 
Biese, I  .,.. Oardelegen,  n. 

Uchte, StendaL 

Stepnitz, — PerUbera. 
Dosse,  I . .  Wittstock. 

Have], RathevMu,  Brandenburg, 

Potsdam,    Spandau, 
Neu-Strelitz. 

Rhin, Rnppin. 

Nuthe,  I . .  Luckenwalde,  JUterbogk. 
Spree,  I  ..Berlin,  Charlottenburg, 
Kottbns,     Sprewberg, 
Bautzen. 

Ihle, Burg. 

Ohre,  I Neu-HaHdenslehen. 

Nathe, Zerbst 

Saale,  { £a2&«,  Bernburo,  Halle, 

Merseburg,      Weisseu- 
fels,  Naumburg,  Jena, 

RUDOLSTADT,  Hof. 

Bode,  I . .  .Qnedlinburg. 
Holzem-Halberstadt. 
me, 
Fnhne, . . .  Eothen,  n. 
Wipper,  2  Aschersleben,  n. 
Bose,  2  ...Eisleben. 
White  El-  Herseburg.Leipsic,  Zeitz, 
ster,  Gera,     Ronneburg, 

Grbitz,  Plauen. 
Plci88e,.Altenbnrg,  SuhmSUin, 
Grimmitzcban,WeTdan. 
Grolt8ch,Reichenbach. 
Unstruth,  La/ngensdtzat    MiihUuLn- 
sen. 
'B%\TiM,l8angerhausen,  n. 
Zerza,2  Nordhausen. 


Wipper,2  Sondbrshausrn. 
Gera, . . .  Erfort,  Anutadt. 
Leina,GoTHA. 
11m,  2  ....Weimar. 

Mulde,  2 Eilenbarg,  Grimma, 

Glauchao,  Meerane,s.* 

Zwickau,     L6ssniiz^ 

Schneeberg. 

M  U  n  z  -  Dobeln^  Rossumn,  Nos- 

bach,     sen,  Freibera. 

ZBchov-Mittweida,    Hainiehenf 

pau,  2.      Frankenberg,  Zschop- 

©at*. 
Chem-  Cnemnitz,  Annaberg. 
nitz. 
Black  £1-Wittenbei^,  n. 
ster, 
Roda, I ... OrossenhoAn. 
Puluitz, ....  Leipa. 

Eger,  2  Levtmeritz,  Saatz,  E^ 

Moldau,  2  ..Prague,  Budweis. 
Beraun,  2  Pilsen,  Marienbad^  n. 
Bradaw-jr2cs/tatt. 
ka 
Czidlina,'  ...GUsehin. 

Isar, Jurt^funzlau. 

Chrudimka,2CArudim. 
Lauchna,  2    LeitomiseheL 
W  e  s  e  r  and  BRBMmr  Nienlwra,  Uiii- 
Werra,  dem.HamelnJivmdm: 

Esehwege,  AihmaikaUl 
n.,  Mbihingbv,  SUir 
burghansen. 
Hiinte,  2  . ..Oldexburo. 
Berne,  ...Berne, 

Aller Celle,  Heknstadt,  n. 

Leine,  2  .  .Haxotkb,  JSunbfeft^GM- 

Inner8te,Htld«cheim. 
Ruhine,  Kordkeim. 
Qoto,,..,OwUrode, 
Ocker,  2  ..BBumviCK,  ITol^lniM^ 
tel  Goskw, 
Zeltefw  KtmuaOaL 
bach,      

Werre,I....Herford,  Bldtftl^  ■« 

DlTMOUii 

Diemel  I  . 


ArSTRO-lIU.VGAEIAN   EMPIRE,                          263                     1 

B^i^..lin.d^.tk. 

VarlA  5ea  (aoDUnDed). 

I               RlJXT, 

Toant. 

JivMM,                 Tumn* 

1  &'■■ 

.Cum!.  Henfald,  Fuldi. 

Nodda.  ..HoMBDM,  n. 

.EiwnMjh. 

.aiW,n. 

Bapdlz.l  Biraberg,  Brinnson.Flirth, 

Vco.DrG.'F'iie 

-^iml«». 

K.    lud. 

■  Eo>8 

.Effiden,  Leer, 
.OmnbrOik. 

RMat,..Anspach. 
Iti, CobS. 

W       Hun,    .. 

■        Abe.[.... 

B^MsymBaireutk. 

Hmm.  ,... 

S^nlW,    F^IaS^' 

Hwrn  Die 

Vecht,        .. 

Neckar,  ....Minnlieliii,    HeldBlbem, 

Zwuta,  .. 

.ZwOLLt 

Hdlbnna,     Lndwigs- 
bmg,  C»»n«tflrff,    fia- 

Re^... 

,J(W*i- 

""•■ 

Kvniiea,  Jtiulrc.  Derenttr, 

iiOffia.KinhMim.'M- 

l^^A^.b^^^J^'- 

ftitwen  RaoUinKCB,  a.. 

BHii,  doiidi,  eortura, 

K(Mh8r,..Ho«.        "^ 

Ens.  J....Ffonheiiii. 

mericA,  Cfetwf  fl,  Vs- 

Rema Snuiiui. 

«l,c™fcld.i..  DtoMl- 

dorf,  BeuM.  BollDg™, 

bach,! 

D..  UUhdni,  CoUHViE, 

'is-SK  =«■„,. 

Bgnn,  J(r<«i.iid.  Co- 

blCDt.,  Bi»fl«n.  M»r- 

atarMl,  ..HBohlngen. 

Bnce,  Wi>™«,  Miinn- 

■»■"■' ■"•fS"--"-'" 

biifoi,  Bp«TBr,  OarmBi- 

8l.elin.d»BLBBllHE. 

SalEbsdi.  ..Btuclaat. 

Quelcii,(  ..Laidau. 

BEHArrHiUBBB.C-m- 

Murg Rastadt. 

»IB«™,  V.nuz,  COIBB. 

Ooabach,  I  Baden-BadiTt. 

lirre,  ... 

Modar,  J  . . .  HatTienau,  eitdiwUUr- 

dMbotn. 

Zoio.l  ..Sobct™. 

StnUl- 

Bbat 

Klnalg,  ,..,Z,eAr,n. 

bach, 

Bohr,.... 

chnSf  n.,  "(W.;  n.. 

CouiAR,  Uilldbauiea. 
LtEpTrat-  BtHariiHiui-Minee. 

Rmrter, 

Tbur,  i  ..MuMbanaen,  TAonn. 

lierlohn. 

Ell, Pvaihnre,  d. 

bJcT 

BrgoU,  (...LIEBTHAI. 

,Wlpi«r... 

.BeBMhoid.n.,  Solinjun. 
ilofijdor/,  Klbatfuid, 

Aar.i 4.aiD,8<.iEuni.,B™»iL 

BamEn. 

Limh,'(Oi*Rm 

Lennep, 

,»tg.   .... 

.Si^' 

LSSi.'.'.'zm':""'    '""'■        ^^^1 

S«W,(.. 

icoWeM,  TrevM.  TAion. 

BsTDsr   Baiuiek.                          ^^^^H 

VOHlll.  i 

^^^H 

>UJ<rMETi,PgnE.d- 

irauMon.NuBy.Toul. 

^^^^H 

tahn 

Kih^f  . 

01.d.  . 

fclibuh, 

.WllSBUi™. 

S«b.e.(.-Piut™oiic.                                       ■ 

.M.Tmo(,  FrankfQrt,  Of. 

tealncn.  Bompiu),  a., 

sri/"'"- 

8itWrn,  ..fljriisu,  ireimssj..                       ■ 

II 

2U 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Black  Sea. 


Rivers. 


Toums. 


Danube, Baha-Dagh,     Tultcha, 

Kilia,  Ismail,  Isaktchi, 
Jtenif  Galacz,  Braila, 
Hirsova,  Raswva^Silia- 
tria,  Oltenitza,    Oiur- 

?evo,  RuBtchuk,  Sis- 
Dva,  NIcopoli,  Widdin, 
Semendria,  Pancsova, 
n.,  Belgrade,  Semlin, 
Peterwardein,  Neusatz, 
Apatin,  Zombar,  n., 
MohacB,  Fanfkircheii, 
n.,  Baja,  Kalocsa,Pdks, 
Solt,  Fttldvar,  JDuna- 
VeczBy  Pesth,  Buda, 
Alt-Ofen,  Waltz  en, 
Gran,  Dorog,  Eomorn, 
Pressburg,  Vienna, 
Linz,  Passaa.  Strau- 
bing,  Ratisbon,  Ingol- 
Btadt,  Neutnirg,  Ulm, 
TvJttlingen. 
Pruth,  I... .Czernowitz,  8 ni atyn, 
Kolomea. 
Baglui,...jAS8r. 
Beretn,  I.... Galacz,  Baku,  Roman. 

Milkov,  ..Foktchany. 
Jalomnitza,  I  Tergcnnst. 

Lorn, Ra^grad^  n. 

Argish,  I .... Buchabest,  n. 

Jantra, Timova. 

Alt,  I Kronstadt,  n. 

Zibin, ....  Hermannstadt. 

Isker, Sophia. 

Schyl,  I Kn^jova, 

Harasch,  I. .  Verssetz,  n. 
Morava,  ....Semendria,  n,,  Passar(h 
vicz. 
W.    Mor-  Kara7iov€icz. 
ava,  I 
Ibar, . . .  Novi  -  Bazar,      Pristlna, 
Eossova. 
Nis8awa,..Ni88a  or  Nisch. 
Karasch,  (..Verset^  n. 
Temes,  2 . . . .  Pancsova,       Tembbwar, 

Lt^os. 
Save, B  B L o R  ADB,  Mitrovitz, 

AORAIC 

Drina, ....  Zvomik. 

Bosna, .  ...Bobna-Serai,  n. 

Posega,  I  Poseaa. 

Verbas,  ..BanuUuka. 

Unna, ....  Dubicza,  Novi. 

Eulpa, . .  ..Karlstadt. 

Lay  bach, , .  Laybach. 

Theiss,  I Nagy  -  Eikinda,     Zenta, 

Theresienstadt,  Szege- 
din.  VaBarheIy,Szente8, 
Felegyhaza,  n.,  Kesz- 
kemet.  n.|Nagy-EOrOs, 


Rivers.  Toums. 

Theisa —  n.,  Nyiregyhaza,  Czeg- 

continued,   led.   Szolnok,   Mikhs, 

Tokay,  Szigeth. 
Alt-Bega,2  Becskerek. 
MaroB,  2..Sategedin,   Arad,  Lippa, 
Mako,    Karlshurgt 
Haro8-yazarhely,iSza<2- 
Regen. 
AranyoB,TAor<2a. 
E5r0s,  I . .  Szarvas,    Bekes,    Czaba, 
Gyula. 
Berettyo,HezO-Tar,  Kardzag. 
Sebes-    BOszKrmeny,     Grosswar- 
E5r58,    dein. 
Zagyva,.  ..Gyongyos,  a. 
Erraa,....ErlatL 
Eoselo,  ...Debreczin,  Szoboszlo. 
Hemad, . .  Easphaa,     Iglo,     LetU' 
sehau. 
Si^o,....MiBkoltz,     Rosenau, 

Sehmdlnitz. 
TaT<^l  Eperies. 
'  Bodrog,  I  Vjhely,  n.,  Jf unXrocf,  n. 
Szamos,  {  Szathmary,       Elaosbn- 

BURO. 

Eraazna,  INagy-Karoly. 
LapoB, .  .Nagy-Bany. 
Sz&moa,  Bistritz,  n.  (on  the  Bia- 
trltzX 

Drave, Essek,  Warasdin,    Bfei- 

beuih. 
Mur,  {....GrAtz. 

Glan, ElagenfUrt. 

Sarvitz Szexard,     StUhlweisseu- 

bure. 
Eapos, . .  ..Keszthely. 

Sed, Veszprim. 

Gran,  I Qranf    Schemnitz,     n., 

Kremnitz,  ii.,NeusokL 

Waag,  I Eomom,  Tymau. 

Raab, Raab,  Papa,  n. 

Leitha,  { . .  Nenstadt. 
Toma, .  ...Vasarhely-Sonilo. 
Raabnitz,  Oedenbuig,  n. 
Guns, 2  ..OuTU. 
March     or  Pres8barg,01m1itz,  Stem* 
Morava,^      berg,  n. 

Thaya NikoMmrgt  n. ,  Znayrn. 

Schwart-BRttNV. 
za,  { 

Iglawa,Iglau. 
Litta-  AusterlUz. 
■wa.,1 
Miava,  l..Miava. 
Rumza, . .  .Prossnitz. 

Trasen, St  Polten 

Enns, Steyer. 

Inn, Passau,  iNNSSBttCK. 

Salza, Salzburg. 


AUSTEO-HtlKGARIAN   EMPIRE. 

M  aielinfd  la  Iht  Slack  Sea  (continued}. 

Tomu.  I        liivtn.  Tani. 

ihnt,  FTttiingA     Woniiti.  1 , .  BinHfeWW. 
ICH.  EBet,,....NirMiingtn 


ODirDtTriaate.TrlealA,    Capo    <rjitria. 


I       take*. — In  the  taBin  of  tLe  Dannte  are  Balaton  or  Platkn  See 
'  Bad  JVeasiedler  See,  in  tbe  west  of  Hungary  ;"  Traun  See  and  Atter 
See,  in  Upper  Austria ;  WSrt/i  See  aud  Weiteen  See,  in  Cstintliia.  The 
Itoazo  drama  Lake  Zirkailz,  in  Carniola. 

OUmaitc. — The  climatn  differs  yeiy  Rreatly  in  the  different  pro- 
TincBS,  'but  the  entire  empire  ia  coinpriaed  between  the  iaotherms  of 
60'  and  flO°  Fabr.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Vienna,  in  the 
centra  of  the  Austrian  dominions,  is  51°.  46,  winter  32°,  and  summer 

er.i. 

German  writeniiivide  the  empire  into  three  zones—a  northern,  middle, 
and  BOolhem.  The  first,  -which  emhrsces  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Sileaia, 
with  the  higher  parts  of  Hungary  and  Galicia— in  all,  about  715,000  sq. 
miles— greatly  reseniblBS  in  its  average  temperature  the  British  IbIbb  and 
Northem  France ;  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye  forming  the  usual  crops. 
This  may  be  called  the  lont  ^gmin,  /una,  aid  /unap.  The  central  zone, 
ntending  from  Ist.  49°  to  4^,  is  the  lone  of  mtue,  whtat,  and  the  Tine, 
embracing  an  area  of  about  150,000  sq.  miles;  while  the  third  or  eoutbern 
Hma,  embracing  the  part  of  the  empwe  south  of  46°,  is  that  of  the  olive, 
BHUberry,  figi,  and  rice.  The  Une  of  equal  rahifall  of  40  to  45  inches 
proceeds  from  Lake  Oarda  in  the  Tyrol,  to  Trieste,  Flume,  and  Karl- 
(tadt  in  Croatia ;  in  the  Alps  it  rises  to  S5,  60,  and  even  to  70  inches ; 
but  ia  Vienna  and  the  low-lying  diatricts  2S  inches  are  a  frequent  aier- 
■Ea.  Storma  are  cars  In  Lower  Austria,  but  in  the  provinces  at  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic  they  are  very  frequent  and  viuleut.  Barthquakos,  alsn, 
and  thnnderstorms,  are  very  frequent  in  the  latter  region,  as  well  as  iu 
Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

OMlog;  and  BUienaa.— A  fqll  half  of  the  empiro  ia  ooTored  with 
tertiary  and  post-tertiary  accumulations,  which  prevail  eBpeciaUy  in 
tlie  biulQ  of  the  Danube,  between  tlio  Save  and  the  Oerpathian 
Monntaius.     Secondary  ab^ta  occupy  extensive  areas  in  the  Comic 


•  TliB  Hnngari 


If  Bsltburg  are  vei;  smill. 

\i,  but  Id  liunuuir  its  bed  Is  dry  and  regularly  iiultlvatsd. 


266  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  Julian  Alps,  in  the  Carpathians,  in  the  greater  part  of  Dalmatia, 
Croatia,  and  Illyria,  together  with  &la^e  TOlt  in  the  N.W.,  extend- 
ing from  Vienna  to  I^ake  Constance.  Tne  palaeozoic  series  are  prin- 
cipally confined  to  the  W.  of  Bohemia,  the  N.  of  Moravia,  Central 
Silesia,  parts  of  Tyrol,  Upper  Austria,  and  Styria,  extending  in 
a  long  belt  from  Innsbruck  to  Neustadt,  and  in  detached  patches  in 
Illyria  and  Croatia.  Crystalline  rocks  prevail  in  the  Eastern  Carpa- 
thians, and  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  north-western 
provinces,  especially  between  Regensburg  and  Linz  on  the  Danube, 
to  Brtinn  on  the  Schwartza.  Igneous  rocks  line  the  southern  flank 
of  the  Carpathians,  and  occur  also  in  Transylvania;  and  granitic 
rocks  are  common  in  the  S.E.  of  Bohemia  and  the  N.  of  Upper 
Austria. 

Minerals. — No  country  in  Europe  excels  Austria  in  regard  to  mineral 
wealth.  Almost  every  valuable  kind  of  mineral  is  found  in  inexhaustible 
quantities.  The  precious  metals  are  very  abundant  in  Hungary  (the 
only  country  in  which  the  true  opal  has  been  found),  Transylvania,  and 
Bohemia ;  the  most  celebrated  mines  being  those  of  Schenmitz  and  ^em- 
nitz,  in  North- Western  Hungary.  Coal,  iron,  and  copper,  are  abundant  in 
all  the  provinces.  Native  steel,  more  valuable  than  that  made  by  arti- 
licial  means,  is  found  in  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Camiola.  Tin,  so  rare  in 
most  countries,  abounds  in  Bohemia.  A  very  valuable  mine  of  quick- 
silver, second  only  to  that  of  Almaden  in  Spain,  is  worked  at  Idria  in 
Camiola.  Lead  is  found  in  Carinthia,  antimony  in  Hungary,  sulphur 
and  arsenic  at  Schenmitz.  Salt,  building-stones  of  every  variety,  and 
precious  stones,  are  widely  diffused;  and  thermal  and  mineral  springs 
are  numerous — ^the  most  celebrated  being  those  of  Karlsbad,  Toplito, 
I^er,  Sedlitz,  and  Marienbad,  in  Bohemia ;  of  Baden  in  Lower  Austria; 
of  Gastein  in  the  Tyrol ;  and  the  Hercules  baths  in  the  Banat. 

Botany  and  Agricrdtnre. — The  portion  of  Austria  situated  N.  of 
lat  46°  is  embraced  within  Schouw's  second  botanical  r^on,  or  the 
region  of  the  UmbellijercB ;  the  remainder,  consisting  of  Dalmatia, 
Croatia,  &c.,  is  included  within  the  third  ot  Mediterranean  region 
of  that  naturalist ;  while  the  higher  elevations  of  both  pertain  to  hh 
Arctic-Alpine  region — (see  under  **  Europe  **).  The  total  number  of 
indigenous  plants  in  the  empire  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  the 
whole  of  Germany,  using  the  term  in  its  widest  acceptation,  is  said 
to  contain  7000  species,  of  which  2566  are  flowering-plants,  subdi- 
vided into  529  monocotyledons  and  2087  dicotyledons.  The  vege- 
tation of  the  empire  is  therefore  very  extensive  and  varied,  that  of 
Hungary  alone  embracing  nearly  all  the  plants  indigenous  to  Europe, 
with  many  others  that  have  been  imported.  About  a  fourth  part  of 
the  entire  surface  is  covered  with  forests.  The  Alps  and  Sudetic 
Mountains  produce  the  pine,  birch,  and  larch  ;  the  Carpathians,  firs, 
pines,  and  beeches ;  while  the  magnificent  forests  of  the  Hungarian 
and  Polish  provinces  consist  for  the  most  part  of  the  oak,  beedh,  and 
elm.  The  trees  attain  in  many  places  a  gigantic  size ;  and  the 
timber,  which  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  weU  aidapted  for  house  and 
ship  building,  is  largely  exported. 

Agriailiure. — Though  the  soil  is  characterised  by  great  divenity^  H  ii 


I 


AL-STRO-HUNGARiAN  EariKi:.  2C7 

tbr  the  mOEt  part  highly  Tertile ;  and  notwithftanding  the  antiquated  atid 
niukilfu!  methods  employed  iu  husliaDdry,  the  crops  are  rich  aad  abun- 
dant. In  the  vicinitji  of  the  large  rivers  the  soil  conaiata  of  a  blaek  vege- 
tahle  mould,  wlikh  ia  adniirahly  suited  for  the  grovth  of  wheat,  lu 
some  parts  of  Uun^jary  no  manure  ia  reijuired  for  the  pi'oduction  of  tho 
ehoicest  cropa.  It  is  estimated  that  About  one-third  of  the  whole  surface 
U  under  tillage.  In  the  northein  provinces,  the  usual  cereals  raised  am 
vheat,  buckwheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley ;  in  the  central  provinces,  luaiza 
and  wlieat;  while  tn  the  southern  are  mai»  and  rice.  The  Banat, 
Hndgary,  and  Galicia,  are  the  principal  corn-^^rowin^  pitivinces,  and  rye 
XonnB  everywhere  the  chief  food  of  the  people,  \ines,  hopa,  tobacco, 
safiroa,  Has,  hemp,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruit-trees,  are  also  cultivated ; 
and  mulberry-trees,  for  sllk-wornis,  are  extensively  ^wn  in  Dalmatia 
and  Hungary.  Vineyards  occnw  about  half  a  million  acres  of  the 
nuface,  and  yield  between  4  andSmillion  hhds.  of  wine  aonnally.  The 
ports  of  the  country  best  adapted  for  the  culture  of  the  vino  are  Styrin, 
Lower  Austria,  and  the  N.  B.  of  Hungary  ;  but  the  wines  are  of  inferior 
quality,  eicept  those  produced  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Theiss,  espe- 
dally  those  of  Tokay,  which  have  been  long  celebrated  for  their  eicel- 
lenee.  The  vine  cannot  be  cultivated  at  a  hi{;her  elevation  than  1750 
feet;  the  oak  extends  to  the  height  of  3O0O  feet,  the  cereala  generally  to 
4600  feet,  nines  to  6000  feet,  and  pasture  to  the  limit  of  perennial  con- 

Sslation,  which  in  the  Alps  is  at  a  height  of  8900  feet.  Pasture-lands  are 
mited  in  exteot,  save  in  the  Alpine  iirovincES  and  Moravia,  where  cattle 
■re  numerous  and  the  produce  of  the  dairy  considerable.  In  Hungary' 
and  Oalicia  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  sheep,  horses,  and 
cattle  ;  great  quantities  of  wool  are  exported  from  the  Buckowlna  ;  and 
goats,  swine,  and  poultry  from  most  of  the  provinces.  The  oil  of  Southern 
Jllyria  is  superior  to  that  of  Spain  and  Italy. 

ZouiOBJ. — The  fauna  of  Austria  is,  in  f^eneral,  the  same  as  that  of 
Germany,  and  the  remaiuder  is  common  to  Italy  and  Europeau 
Turkey.  Of  the  73  apecies  of  Hamnialia  iitbabitiiii;  Ceotral  Enri^, 
41  ore  camivora,  22  rodentia,  9  rumiuantia,  and  1  pachyderm.  The 
foUowiDg  are  the  prindpol  apeoiea :— the  bear,  wolf,  iox,  lynx,  and 
chamois,  in  the  Alps  and  Carpathians ;  the  marten,  otter,  marmot, 
beaver,  wild-boar,  wild-cat,  jaekat,  stag,  deer,  hare,  and  rabbit,  in 
Dalmatia.  Of  the  305  species  of  birds  beloiiRing  to  the  same  zoo- 
logical province,  the  eagle,  vulture,  hawk,  and  other  birda  of  prey, 
■re  common,  in  the  mountains  ;  and  the  pheasant,  wild-duck,  white 
heron,  and  game  of  all  kinda,  in  the  plains.  Canaries  are  reared  in 
(peat  numbers  in  the  Tyrol,  whence  they  are  largely  eiported. 
Among  the  31  reptiles  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Pnleui  anguinrvt, 
an  animal  resembling  the  water-lizard,  found  in  Lake  Zirknitz  in 
Camiola.  Fishes  are  abnndant  in  most  of  the  rivers,  especially  in 
the  Theiss  and  Lower  DaDQbe,  where  the  sturgeon  and  pike  attain 
to  ■  vast  size.  The  &esli-WRter  iishes  of  Camiola  alone  amount, 
Mcordiufc  to  Freyer,  to  32  species.  The  inoriue  specif  which  in- 
dnde  the  mackerel,  tunny,  nnd  anchavy,  are  embraced  within 
Forbea'a  '  Mediterranean  Region  of  Marine  Ufe,'  whii:1i  also  embraces 
_  the  Black  Sea.  A  pearl-hearing  mollusc  inhabits  the  waters  of 
LXansarr,  Bohemia,  and  the  Archduchy  of  Austria,  and  a  regular 
""•rPfisnerj  is  established  on  the  Vatava.     Insects  are  abundant 


268  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

in  the  low  marshy  grounds  of  Hungary,  especially  gnats  and  flies ; 
bees,  Spanish  flies,  and  the  cochineal  insect,  are  reared  in  ffreat 
numbers ;  leeches  are  numerous  on  the  Neusiedler  See,  and  are 
largely  exported  for  medicinal  purposes ;  and  corals  are  collected  on 
the  coast  of  Dalmatia. 

Ethnograpliy.— The  people  of  Austria  comprise  four  great  races, 
which,  in  1869,  existed  in  the  following  proportions, — ^viz.,  Sclavo- 
nians,  16,200,000 ;  Roumans  (including  Italians  and  Wallachians), 
3,450,000;  Germans,  9,040,000;  Magyars,  6,430,000;  Jews,  Gyp- 
sies, and  other  races,  1,354,000.  The  Sclavonians  fonn  the  majority 
in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  and  Hungary,  and 
constitute  almost  the  entire  population  of  Galicia.  The  Koumans, 
or  people  speaking  Komannic  languages,  are  numerous  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Tyrol  and  tlie  maiitime  distiicts  of  Illyria  and  Dalmatia. 
The  Germans  predominate  in  Styria  and  the  Tyrol,  are  very  numer- 
ous in  Bohemia,  and  are  almost  the  sole  inhabitants  of  Upper  Aus- 
tria, Lower  Austria,  and  Salzburg.  The  Magyars  are  the  dominant 
i-ace  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  The  Jews  are  most  numerous 
in  the  towns  of  Galicia,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Hungary  ;  and  the 
Gypsies,  Armenians,  and  Greeks,  are  scattered  over  all  the  eastern 
provinces  of  the  empire. 

Language. — ^The  languages  spoken  in  this  extensive  empire  belong  to 
four  distinct  families — viz.,  the  Sclavonic,  Teutonic,  Greco-Latin,  and 
Finno-Tartarian.  To  the  first  belong  the  Rutsniaky  spoken  by  the  Sola- 
vonian  population  of  Galicia  and  Hungary;  the  Servian,  in  parts  of 
Dalmatia,  Sclavonia,  and  Military  Croatia,  where  it  forms  the  vernacular 
of  about  1,300,000 ;  the  Bohemian  or  Tchekhian,  spoken  by  from  8,000,000 
to  4,000,000  of  the  population  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  Swwub  or 
Slovakiauy  by  about  1,800,000  in  the  N.W.  of  Hungary.  The  Slowaks 
are  descendants  of  the  original  Sclavonic  settlers  in  Hungary,  who,  in  884^ 
were  conquered  by  the  Magyars ;  but  though  a  subjugated  race,  they 
still  retain  their  original  language,  as  a  remnant  of  their  ancient  national 
existence.  The  second  or  Teutonic  family  of  languages  is  represented  by 
the  German,  which  is  the  language  of  the  Court  and  of  literature,  and  is 
spoken  by  nearly  9,000,000  of  the  population,  who  reside  for  the  most  part 
in  the  nine  German  provinces,  and  especially  in  the  Archduchy  of  Austria, 
Salzburg,  Styria,  and  the  Tyrol.— (See  under  "Germany,*  where  the 
literature  wiU  also  be  found. )  The  Greco-Latin  family  is  mainly  confined 
to  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  and  is  represented  by  three  languages — ^?ii., 
the  Italian,  in  the  south  of  the  Tyrol ;  the  WaMachian  or  Daea-Bemtnti, 
in  the  south  of  Transylvania,  into  which  it  has  spread  from  the  TcuiJsh 
provinces  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia ;  and  the  Albanian  orAmamte,  the 
remains  of  a  language  long  extinct,  and  which  formed  an  intermediate 
link  between  several  distinct  families,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Dalmatia. 
The  Amauts  differ  in  language  and  physical  conformation  tmm  all  tiie 
other  nations  of  Europe,  and  are  supposed  *to  be  descended  firom  the 
ancient  lUyrians.  The  Finno-Tartanan  family  is  represented  hj  the 
Magyar  or  Hungarian^  which  is  spoken  by  4,820,000  of  the  populatioii 
of  Hungary— the  remamder  consisting  of  Slowaks,  Groatians,  GennauL 
RuBsniaks,  Wallachians,  and  Jews.  Tlie  Masyars  are  a  pecmle  of  Finnkii 
extraction,  and  closely  allied  to  the  OstiaJcs  and  WognliL  beriMrau 
nordes  who  lead  a  wandering  life  in  the  upper  and  centnl  usin  of  tti 


iUSTRO-HUNGAHIAN    EMPIRE.  2G9 

Obi.     Tliey  catered  Europe  Id  tlie  iimtti  century,  sjid  Etufadued  Hungary 
'n  the  short  space  of  tea  years  ;  anii  though  then  di"^   '  "  '     ' 

eawcta  from  the  other  SAvage  tribflH  of  Central  ^ 

BDk  among  the  "~ 


in  the  short  space  of  teu  years  ;  anii  though  then  diifering  in  few  oi 
Is  from  the  other  savage  triboa  of  Central  Asia,  theT  aow  t 
mong  the  rorBmost  nsdons  of  Enrope  in  phyaiml,  moral,  and  ii 


t 


lectual  qnalitiflB.  Their  language  l:aa  eiperienced  a  similar  transmuta- 
tion, froin  ita  long-continued  contact  with  Enropeaji  civilisation  ;  hut  it 
■till  retains  those  weli-mailied features  nhich  have  always  characteris(d 
the  Finniah  branch  of  the  linguistic  family  to  which  It  belongs.  For 
example,  tlie  Magyar  resolves  its  vowels  into  two  classes,  one  of  which 
(a,  □,  n)  denotes  the  masculine,  and  the  other  (e,  I,  H,  il)  the  feminine : 
and  the  individual  words  of  the  language  are  so  formed  that  a  masculine 
■nd  a  feminine  vowel  are  never  allowed  to  meet  in  tha  same  vocable, 
whether  simple  or  compound.    This  curious  characteristic  of  the  Finnish 


dialects  strongly  reminds  the  Celtic  scholar  of  the  well-known  principle, 
ItalAan  rt  Iml&jin  it  coot  ri  caolj  or  "broad  to  broad,  and  Hmair  to 

Jieligimi Accoriing  to  the  'Alraannch  de  Gotha '  for  1870,  the  dif- 
ferent religlDufl  persuasions  in  the  empire  contained  the  following  nnra- 
beiB  in  1864  :  Roman  Cathnlics,  23,2S5,(K»[I ;  Greek  Catholics,  3,861,000; 
Prol«»tanta  (chiefly  Reformed),  S,1G5,00U;  Jews,  1,121,000  ;  Unitarians 

d  other  sects,  63,000.     The  Protestants  are  chiefly  found  in  the  Hun 


garian  |iravinceB ;  about  half  the  Magyars  are  Calviuista,  and  a  lai|:e 
proportion  of  the  remainder  Lutherans,  who  are  also  nuTiierons  in  the 

aprovinces.     The  adherents  of  the  Greek  Church  are  moat  numer- 

Gallcia, 


S 


all  the  eaatem  provhicea. 
SdHcaiion.— 01  late  years  education  has  made  rapid  advances  througL- 
out  tho  empire,  though  it  is  still  far  behind  Prussia.     In  the  German 

and  eastern  pravinces  a  great  obstacle  to  efficiency  is  presented  by  the 
different  larignages  spoken  by  the  pupils,  there  being  sometimes  no 
fewer  than  three  or  four  in  a  single  school.  The  law  requires  that  every 
child  between  tlio  ages  of  six  aud  twelve  shall  ha  educated  either  in 
sehcol  or  at  home;  while  in  the  manufacturing  districts  no  child  is 
allowed  to  he  sent  to  a  factory  before  completing  bis  ninth  year,  and  even 
then  he  is  obliged  to  attend  clossea  twice  a-week  until  fifteen  years  of 
age.  In  some  parts  of  the  empire  mairiage  is  prohibited  until  the  parties 
can  prove  their  ability  to  read,  wril«,  and  cipher.  Tliere  are  eight  iini- 
Terailies  in  the  empire — viz.,  at  Vienna,  ProgUB,  GrStn,  Olnilitz,  Inns- 
bitick,  Leoiberg,  Cracow,  and  Pesth.  The  number  of  students  atten'ling 
these,  bi  1670,  was  900(1,  nne-tourth  of  wlioni  belonged  to  the  University 
of  Vienna,  whicL  is  tlie  aeat  of  the  most  famous  medical  school  in 

GovBnunent,  Army  ajid  Hav?,  Berenne,  ftc, — The  form  of  gov- 
etoment  is  an  herediCaiy,  and,  in  some  respects,  a  couKtitntional 
monarchy.  Previona  to  the  late  war  with  Prusaiit,  tho  Emperor  of 
'  *a  was  all  but  absolute  in  Lis  own  domintona,  and  also  occu- 
lie  first  rank  in  the  Qarmanic  Confederation.     Aa  tlie  result  of 


.  It  the  liberties  of  his  own  aolijeotB.    The  entire  empire  m 
sort  of  double  state,  one  half  consisting  of  the  German  pro- 
3T  Aostria  Proper,  and  the  other  of  the  Magyar  or  Hungarian 


270  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

provinces.  Each  of  these  divisions  has  its  own  parliament,  laws, 
ministers,  and  government,  but  are  united  into  one  whole  by  the 
emperor,  and  by  a  common  parliament,  named  the  Delegations,  con- 
sisting of  120  members,  chosen  in  equal  numbers  by  the  two  grand 
divisions  of  the  empire.  All  matters  affecting  the  common  interests 
of  the  two  sections — especially  foreign  affairs,  war,  and  finance — 
come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  this  body.  Army  and  Navy. — In 
January  1871,  the  total  number  of  troops,  on  the  x)eace  footing, 
numbered  278,470,  with  42,200  horses.  The  navy  consisted  of  45 
steamers,  carrying  639  guns,  with  11,730  horse-i)ower,  together  with 
10  sailing  vessels,  with  79  guns.  Austria  also  possesses  24  fort- 
resses, many  of  them  of  great  strength.  The  Revenue,  in  1870, 
amounted  to  £51,241,000;  the  ^a;;>e7u2i^r«,  to  £58,438,000 ;  and  the 
Public  Debt,  to  £302,531,000.  About  a  third  of  the  entire  revenue 
is  derived  from  direct  taxes  on  land,  houses,  industry,  and  income, 
and  the  remainder  from  indirect  imposts,  the  chief  items  being 
customs,  and  the  duties  on  salt,  timber,  and  tobacco.  The  public 
debt  is  advancing  at  a  rate  which  threatens  national  bankruptcy. 
In  1846  it  was  only  £103,000,000  ;  in  1856,  £241,207,000  ;  while  it 
is  now  £348,531,000. 

Commerce,  ManufiBrCtureB,  Exports,  and  Imports. — ^The  foreign 
commerce  of  Austria  is  comparatively  unimportant,  the  sole  outlets 
being  Trieste  and  Fiume  on  the  Adriatic,  and  Constantinople  and 
Trebizond  on  the  Black  Sea,  to  which  the  only  access  is  by  steam 
navigation  on  the  Danube.  The  inland  ti-ado,  however,  is  very  con- 
siderable, the  empire,  owing  to  its  vast  dimensions,  being  compara- 
tively independent  of  other  countries.  In  1868,  the  number  of 
merchant  vessels  that  entered  the  port  of  Trieste  was  11,056,  carry- 
ing 1,006,211  tons  ;  cleared,  10,956  vessels,  carrying  1,052,068  tons. 
The  total  value  of  the  imports  of  the  empire  in  1871,  excluding 
bullion,  amounted  to  £30,628,031,  and  the  exports  to  £40,085,668. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  both  exports  and  imports  is  carried  on  with 
North  and  South  Germany.  Austria's  next  best  customer  is  Turkey, 
which  sends  into  the  empire  about  £3,000,000  worth  of  goods  annu- 
ally, and  receives  Austrian  exports  to  the  value  of  above  £5,000,000. 
Italy,  Russia,  and  the  United  Kingdom  follow  next  in  order,  but  at 
a  great  distance.  The  principal  commodities  exported  from  Austria 
to  the  British  Isles  are  com,  flour,  hemp,  tallow,  glass  beads,  olive- 
oil,  wine,  quicksilver,  currants,  cream  of  tartar,  lard,  seeds,  shumac, 
sponge,  wood,  and  wool;  while  our  chief  exports  to  Austria  are 
cotton  and  woollen  manufactures,  averaging  annually  about  £880,000. 
Very  little  Hungarian  wine  finds  its  way  to  British  ports,  though,  as 
a  wine-producing  country,  Austria  is  second  only  to  France.  The 
manufactures  of  the  empire  are  mainly  confined  to  the  Grerman  pro- 
vinces, and  especially  to  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The  former  is  cele- 
brated for  its  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  still  more  for 
its  manufacture  of  glass.  Moravia  is  also  much  engaged  in  tiis 
woollen  industry,  and  has,  in  Brunn,  the  second  largest  manitfactiir- 
ing  town  in  the  empire.     The  capital,  however,  is  &e  great  seat  of 


wiiziii(L,vxD.  271 

r  tte  manufacture  of  artii'lea  of  taste,  as  jtwfUerj-,  glass,  carriagi-s, 
porcelain,  silk,  and  books.  Hungnry  is  very  largely  tngagcd  in  the 
produution  of  wine  and  the  metals.  Mining  alao  forma  an  imiiortaiit 
branch  of  industry  in  Bohemia  and  the  mouutainoua  parts  of  Upfier 
Austria,  Styria,  and  Cariuthia.  Woodeu  articles  ai'e  executed  with 
muah  ingenuity  in  the  Tyrol,  while  leather  and  linen  gooda  are 
prodnced  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

Intantal  CommonicattoiL — The  Danube,  with  its  navigable  ti'ihn- 
taries  the  Theiei^  Save,  and  Dtave,  is  the  great  comujacuifl  thorou"li' 
fare  of  the  amplre.    The  cun'ent  of  the  main  river  ia  so  rapid  that 

__ 1  —  J      c. —  .__  jjg  j,[g(,  eitenaively 

The  total  extent  of 
4300  miles.     There 


a  alone  are  now  employed.  Steamers 
used  on  the  other  navigable  rivers  and  lakes, 
river  navigatiou  itt  the  empire  ia  estimated  a 
are  few  Canals,  except  ia  lower  HuDgaiy. 

Kailwatb  have  made  great  progress,  and  onnnect  the  capital  with  tlie 
most  distant  points  of  the  empire.  In  1B59,  208B  miles  were  open  tor 
troiBG  I  andluIS?!,  no  fewer  thaulD.DODm.,  embracing thefoUowIngprin- 
oipal  lines  :  Vienna  to  SHlmi,  OlmUti.  and  Prague,  and  thence  to  Drert- 
dsn  and  Berlin.  Vienna  to  Troppau,  Cracow,  Lembetg,  and  Czemowitz. 
Vienna  to  PressbuiB,  Perth,  SzBgsdin,  and  Tenieswar ;  with  n  branch  from 
Ciegled  to  Grossuardein,  Debruczin,  and  Tokay.  Vienna  to  Baab,  Eo- 
mom,  StUhlweissenburg,  andWarssdin.  Vienna  to  Gr£tz.  Cilly,  Laybach, 
and  Trieste  ;  with  a  branch  from  Cilly  \a  Agram.  Vienna  to  Linz,  and 
thenoe  to  Rattsbon  and  Inuabriick.  Another  important  line  traverses  the 
Tyrol  from  Mniiich,  in  Bavaria,  through  the  Brenner  Pass,  to  Verona 
and  Venice.  Excellent  earriage-road)  have  also  been  constructed  at 
nvst  eipenae  between  all  the  leading  cities  of  the  empire.  That  froni 
Pavia  in  Italy  to  Czemowitz  in  Galicia,  1120  milea  in  leneth,  Is  carried 
oorosa  rivers  and  monntain-chaiiu,  and  ia  niacadunised  throuEhout, 
^  Similar  roads  connect  the  capital  with  Prague,  Buda,  Trieste,  and  Milan. 

I  of  aiity  maimlaiii-pawei  have  bean  rendered  proeticBble  for 
leled  carriages,  at  an  enormous  expense.     Tlie  principal  of  these  are 
*    '    ■  le  p.  261. 


aerated  above,  s< 


SWITZERLAND. 

Position  and    Boandaries.  —  N.,    Lake    Constance    and 
\  Qrand-duchy  of  Baden ;  W,,  France  ;  S.,  Italy  ;  E.,  the  Tyrol 
Lat.  45°  Stf— 47°  60'  N.  ;  loa  B°  55'~10°  31/  E. 

Bern,  the  federal  capital,  is  nearly  on  the  same  parallel  with  Xantea, 

GAtz,  Jassy,  Azov,  and  Astrakhan ;  and  nearly  on  the  same  meridian 

M  the  Naze,  MUnater,  Straabourg,  and  Turin.    The  general  outline  is 

elliptiaal;  greatest  length  &om  E.  to  W.,  216  miles;  eitreme  breadth, 

110  miles.    The  surface  is  more  mountainous  than  in  any  other  eountry 

in  Europe,  two-thhils  of  the  whole  being  occupied  with  lofty  monntiiin. 

chaial,  and  the  remaining  third  consisting  of  an  elevated  plateau,  about 

ISOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  stndded  with  many  beautiful 

.-lakes.    This  plateau  forms  an  elongated,  undniathig  plain,  crossing  the 

■  -mntry  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  with  a  length  of  about  140  m.,  and  an  aver- 

9  breadth  of  betwi'an  20  and  30  m. 


272  POLITICAL   GEOGBAPUT. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  the  Confederation  amounts  to 
15,716  so.  m.,  being  a  little  more  than  the  half  of  Scotland;  while 
the  population,  in  1870,  was  2,669,095,  or  four-fifths  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Scotland,  being  161  persons  to  each  sq.  m. 

Political  Divisions. — Switzerland  is  divided  into  twenty-two  can- 
tons, which  comprise,  however,  twenty-five  distinct  states,  three  of 
the  cantons — Basle,  Appenzell,  and  Unterwalden — ^being  subdivided 
into  two  states  each.  There  are  seven  western  cantons ;  twdve 
north-eastern,  including  the  four  forest  cantoos  of  Schwyt^  lAizeniy 
Unterwalden,  and  Uri ;  and  three  southern  cantons. 

Seven  Western  Cantons. 

Geneva.— Geneva  47  (Rhone),  Carouge  6  (Arve). 
Vand. — Lausanne  27,  Vevay  6  (Lake  of  Geneva). 
Pribourg.— FRiBOURa  11  (Sarine),  Moral  (Lake  Morat). 
Neuch&teL— Neuchatel  13,  Vallengin  6  n.  (Lake  NeuchAtel),  Chauz- 
de-Fonds  20  n.,  Locle  8  n.  (Doubs). 

Bern.— Bern  36,  Thun  5  (Aar),  Bienne  6  (Lake  Bienne),  Langnaa  5 
(Emmen),  Laupen  (Sarine). 

Soleure.— Soleure  5,  Olten  2  (Aar). 

Basel- Basle  or  BIle  45,  cap.  of  BMe  Ville  (Bhine);  Liesthal  8,  cap^ 
of  B^e  Campagne  (Eigolz). 

Twelve  North-Eastern  Cantons. 

Aarg^u. — Aarau  5  (Aar),  Baden  3  (Limmat). 
Zurich.— Zurich   21,  Wadenschyl  5  (Limmat),  Winterthur  7  (Toess). 
Schaffhausen.— Sohaffhausen,  10  (Khine). 
Thurgau. — Frauenpeld  2  (Muig). 

St  GalL— St  Gall  17  (Steinach),  Sargans,  Pfeffers  (Bhine). 
Appenzell. — Appenzell  3,  cap.  of  Inner  Rhoden,  Herisaii  3  n.  (SittemJ^ 
Trogen  3,  cap.  of  Ausser-Ehoden  (Goldach). 

Glams.— Glarus  5,  N&fels  (Linth). 
Schwytz. — Schwttz  2  (Muota),  Morgarten  (L.  Sgeri). 
Zng.— ZuG  4  (Lorze). 

Luzem. — Luzern  15  (Beuss),  Sempach  (L.  Sempach). 
Unterwalden.— Stanz  2,  cap.  of  Nidwalden  (Engelbeig  Aa),  Sainai 
8,  cap.  of  Obwalden  (Saruer  Aa). 
Uri—ALTORP  2,  BUrglen,  n.  (Lake  Luzem). 

Three  Southern  Cantons. 

Grisons.— CoiRE  or  Chub  5  (Rhine),  Bemhardin,  SplHigvn, 
Ticino  or  Tessin.— Bellinzona  2,  Locarno  8  (Tidno),  Lugano  5  (Li3bs 
Lugano). 
Valais.- Sign  or  Sittbn  4,  MarHgny,  Leui  (Rhone). 

Descriptive  Kotes. — The  towns  are  remarkably  few  injofoportiaB 
to  the  XK>pulation,  there  being  only  five  (Geneva^  Blle^  Bcn^  Lm^ 


r 


BWnZEItlAND. 


GenarSi,  finely  sitanted  on  the  Blinne,  where  it  Usups  from  tlie  lake, 
is  the  largest  city  io  Switzerland  ;  noted  for  its  mannfactnre  of  watches 
■nd  jeweUsry ;  has  a  Protestant  college,  and  contains  the  federal  araeoaL 
The  names  of  Calvin,  Beza,  Knoi,  Cranmer,  Lesage,  Deluc,  Lefort,  Kona- 
sean,  Hecker,  Saussnca,  and  De  Candotle  odoni  the  annala  of  this  famooi 
dty.    lAoaanne,  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  in  the  midet  of  enchanting 

tlons,  Frlbonn;,  a  bnsy  manufacturing  town  on  the  Sarine.  fien- 
chfttel,  or  Neofthitel,  on  the  lake  of  same  name,  is  a  place  of  great 
trade,  eepeciall;  in  nine,  com,  cattle,  and  vatchea ;  has  a  college,  and  a 
cathedra!  where  the  doctriiiea  of  the  Eeformation  were  preached  as  early 
aa  1530.  ChaniHle-FondB,  Uke  QeneTa,  la  noted  for  ita  mannractnra  of 
watches.  Bern,  the  aeat  of  the  federal  diet,  and  therefore  usually 
regarded  as  the  capital  of  Switzerland,  pleasantly  aitnated  on  the  Aar, 
and  in  pop.  inferior  only  to  Geneva  and  BMe  ;  baa  a  university,  fonnded  in 
1H34 ;  a  puhlic  library,  containing  nnmeroua  books  and  MSS.  on  Bwiaa 
history;  numerous  manufactures,  especially  of  gunpowder,  Rrearma, 
mathematical  Instrumanta,  etraw-hats,  paper,  and  leather ;  the  birthplace 
of  Haller  the  poet.  Thun  (pronounced  Toon),  on  the  Aar,  near  where  it 
issaea  from  the  lake,  is  lenowned  for  its  romantic  situation.  Soleora,  a 
■maJl  town  on  the  Aar,  with  a  colleee,  a  pnblic  library,  and  botanio 
garden;  here  Kosciusko  died  in  1817.  Basle  or  BUe  {Gcr.  Basel),  a 
celebrated  and  ancient  city  on  the  Rhine,  near  its  great  bend.  It  dates 
from  the  fourth  century,  and  in  the  eleyenth  was  the  most  powerful  city 
in  Eelvetia;  itwoa  the  seat  oF  a  great  council  (1431-1437),  and  of  a 
inemorabia  treaty  between  France  and  Prasaia  in  179C  :  it  la  now  the 
■econd  city  in  the  confederatioa  in  point  of  population  ;  contains  a  univei- 
■itr,  and  numerous  mannfacturea  of  ailk  ribbona  :  the  birthplace  of  Euler 
and  Bemouilli,  the  celebrated  algebraists,  and  of  the  two  Holbeina  ;  here 
also  EraamuB  died  in  1536.  Znnch,  the  Athens  of  Switzerland,  contains 
s  university ;  has  important  manubctures  of  silk  and  cotton  fabrics ; 
hflra  Zwingle  preached,  and  here  the  first  entire  English  version  of  the 
BcTiptures  (CoTeniale'ai  was  printed  in  1535  ;  it  is  the  birthplace  of  Gess- 
ner,  lAvater,  and  FestalouL  Bchaifliausen,  on  the  Rhine,  near  its  pic' 
tuiesqae  falls,  has  a  college,  and  several  manufactures.  I^anenfeld,a 
small  towa  on  the  Murg,  with  cotton-mills  and  dye-works.  St  Gall, 
Appeniell,  and  HsriMW.,  have  eitensive  manufactures  of  muslin  and  of 
Bilk  and  cotton  fabrics.  Glama  eiports  cheese  in  great  quantities,  and 
has  printing  and  dyeing  works.  Lnlem.the  cajj.  of  Catholic  Switzer- 
land, is  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  sceoery,  and  has  s  lyceutn  with  It 
professors.  Altorf,  famous  for  the  resistance  of  William  Tell  to  tha 
tyrant  Geaalar,  in  1307.  Coire  {Fr.  Chnr),  in  tha  valley  of  the  Upper 
Rhine,  bos  an  active  trauait-trade  and  aoma  manniacturea. 


Uonntalna.— Switzerland  is  by  far  the  most  n 
in  Europe,  and  the  one  which  coutaina  the  grandest  scenery.     Thero 
are  three  principal  rangea  : — 

Ttie  Paniiu  Alpi,  in  the  8.W.,  betnean  Switzerland  and  Piedmont, 
— ■•  "letwean  the  basins  of  the  Rhone  and  Po,  contain  Mont  Blanc,  ir 
y,  the  loftiest  aummit  of  the  Alps,  and  now  (sioce  1860)  the  col-    , 
"-g  point  of  France,  16.781  feet  high;  Great  St  Bernard,  11,080  J 


274  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

feet ;  Mont  Cervin,  14,705  feet ;  and  Monte  Rosa.-  the  culminating  point 
of  Switzerland,  15,217  feet :  height  of  snow-line,  8900  feet. 

The  Lepontine  or  Helvetian  Alps,  between  Switzerland  and  Lombardy, 
form  the  water-parting  between  the  basins  of  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Po : 
highest  summits,  the  Simplon,  11,510  feet,  and  Mount  St  Gothard, 
10,900  feet. 

The  Bernese  A  Ips,  between  the  cantons  Bern  and  Valais,  and  between 
the  Aar  and  Upper  Rhone :  highest  summits,  Jungfrau,  18,718^  feat ; 
Schreckhoni,  13,386  feet;  Finster-aar-hom,  14,100  feet;  the  Qiimael, 
9700  feet. 

Mountain-FasBes. — The  following  are  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
passes  among  the  Swiss  Alps,  arranged  in  the  same  order  as  the 
mountain-chains : — 

1.  Pass  of  Great  St  Bernard,  8150  feet  high,  leads  through  the  Pennine 
Alps  from  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  to  Martigny,  in  the  ValaiB;  travened 
by  Napoleon  with  his  army  in  1800 :  the  Hospice,  erected  at  its  highest 
point,  IS  the  most  celebrated  institution  of  the  kind  in  all  the  Alps.    2. 
The  Cervin  Pass,  10,938  feet  high— the  loftiest  in  Europe — ^leads  from 
Chatlllon,   on  the  Dora-Baltea,  to  Visp,  in  Canton  ValaLs.     3.  The 
SimpUm  Pass,  6578  feet  high,  leads  from  Milan  and  Domodossola  to 
Canton  Valais  :  it  is  a  great  work,  executed  by  Napoleon  at  prodigious 
labour  and  expense ;  is  88  miles  long,  30  feet  wide,  passes  oyer  611 
bridges,  and  through  several  extensive  tunnels.    4.  Pass  qf  St  Ooth<ud, 
6808  feet  high,  from  Bellinzona  on  the  Ticino,  to  Altorf  on  the  Renss : 
it  is  the  only  road  carried  over  the  crest  of  the  mountains,  aJl  the  others 
being  conducted  through  deep  gorges  and  beds  of  mountain -torrents. 
It  is  now  a  good  carriage-way,  and  has  long  been  a  line  of  great  commer- 
cial Importance.     5.  Pass  of  BemJyardin,  7015  feet  high,  from  Bellin- 
zona to  Chur,  one  of  the  principal  routes  of  commerce  between  Italy, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany.    6.  The  Splikgen  Pass,  6946  feet  hi^h,  frmn 
Chiavenna  in  Lombardy  to  the  Grisons,  was  pas»3d  by  a  French  aimv 
in  1800,  but  greatly  improved  by  the  Austrian  government  in  1828,  ani 
carried  through  three  covered  galleries,  which  are  the  longest  in  the  Alps. 
It  has  now  nearly  superseded  the  Septimer  Pass,  7611  feet  high,  wMch 
was  formerly  the  ordinary  route  from  Eastern  Switzerland  into  Italy. 
7.  The  Oemmi  Pass,  through  the  Bernese  Alps,  7595  feet  high,  leading 
from  Canton  Bern  to  Valais,  about  24  miles  south  of  Thnn.     8.  The 
Grimsd  Pass^  7126  feet  high,  through  the  same  chain,  at  the  sontheni 
extremity  of  the  Hasll  Valley.    For  the  remaining  passes  across  the  Alpsb 
see  under  "Italy"  and  "Austria." 

Glaciers,  fto. — The  glaciers  of  the  Swiss  and  Italian  Alps  are 
among  the  grandest  and  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  nature. 
They  consist  of  huge  masses  of  ice,  or  of  snow  that  has  been  partially 
melted  by  the  heat  of  summer,  but  which  has  afterwarda  been  con- 
gealed, and  which,  quitting  the  higher  level,  descend  fax  below  the 
usual  snow-limit,  into  the  region  of  cultiyatian. 

This  descent  is  owing  to  the  inclination  of  the  bed.  the  annual  aoonmn- 
lation  of  snow  during  winter  in  the  higher  levels,  the  vlseoiiiB  or 
fluid  character  of  its  structure,  and  other  causes.    The  late  of  moti' 
the  descent  is  different  in  different  glaciers,  aocoiduig  aa  i^* 
lust  specified  vary ;  and  it  is  continuous,  though  not  iM^/bn 
Delng  wholly  arrested,  even  during  the  most  seven' 


SWITZEBLAKD.  275 

IncrettFes  with  the  alope,  while  the  aurfaeo  and  central  psrtu  movs  faatar 
than  the  bottom  and  aides.  Ona  celebrBted  glacier  (Mer  de  Olace)  mores 
■lown  the  sides  of  Mont  BUnc,  ia  Bumoiei  and  sutunin,  at  the  rate  ot 
4  feet  per  da;  in  some  parts  of  its  conrse.  while  in  others  it  does  not 
exceed  8  or  9  inches.  The  total  number  of  glaciers  in  the  Alpa  ii  e«ti- 
niated  at  400,  cnvering  an  ari^a  of  1440  aqnare  miles,  and  forming  tha 
Bonrces  of  several  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Europe,  as  wall  as  of  their 
principal  afBuenta.  Thus,  the  Rhine  and  Rhone  originate  in  glaciers  of 
same  name,  on  the  opposiM  sides  of  MontlSt  Gothara  ;  and  many  of  the 
liead-watera  of  the  Bhine,  Rhona,  Po,  and  Daunbe  Jmci  in  the  glnciera 
a  Dever-faillng  supply  of  water.  The  princlpat  region  of  the  tme  glacien 
extends  iroic  Mount  Pelvoui,  in  Dauphin^,  to  the  Gross  Olockner,  in  tha 
Rhation  Alps,  east  of  ivhjch  very  few  occur.  llVo  gronpa  of  glaciers  are 
partkularly  celebrated— cue  in  the  Pennine  and  the  other  in  the  Beruesa 
Alps,  or  Obertand.  The  tirst  ia  the  Group  of  Alont  Blane,  consisting  of 
34  anormoua  glaciers,  some  of  which  are  £0  miles  long  by  2  broad.  It 
includes  the  Mer  da  Glace,  covering  an  area  of  IH  sq.  m. ,  one  of  the 
laif;s3t  glaciers  in  the  Alps,  which  forms  the  source  of  the  river  Arveiroa, 
sbotit  2  miles  above  the  village  Cbamonni ;  and  the  Glacier  de  ia  Brenva, 
near  Conimaysur,  one  of  tha  most  beantit'nl  and  most  accessible  of  all 
known  glaciera.  The  other  is  the  Oroup  of  t6t  Oberland,  iti  tha  Bemeso 
Alps,  greatly  moiH  extensive  than  the  former.  It  includes  the  great 
Aletech  Glacier,  which  has  an  area  of  32  square  mites,  and  which  ia  fed  by 
the  snows  of  Mont  Aletsch ;  and  the  Claciar  of  the  Lower  Aar,  which  has 
bean  described  and  repeatedly  visited  by  the  celebrated  Swiss  natnmlist, 

Avalaathti  are  tha  most  dangerous  and  terrible  phenomena  to  which 
the  Alpine  valleys  are  exposed.  Tiiey  originate  in  tiie  higher  regions  ot 
tha  mountains,  when  ths  accumulation  of  snow  becomes  SQ  groat  that 
the  inclined  plane  on  which  the  mass  rests  cannot  any  lon^r  lupport  it : 


niccesaive  leap,  both  greater  dimeosiona  and  increased  spe«l,  till, 
riving  at  the  lower  vi^eyn,  it  covers,  destroys,  or  carries  a' —  — ■ 
thing  that  opposes  its  course — tress,  forests,  honsss,  rocks, 


Walatfalu.  —  Among  tha  most  oslsbtatad  waterfalls  h 
may  be  enumerated  the  following :  Fall  of  Lanuta,  near  SchaShauaea, 
on  tbe  Rhine:  it  has  a  total  dascsnt  of  100  feet,  and  forms  one  of  tlir 
moat  imposing  phenomena  of  the  kind  In  Europe.  The  Slaai-harh,  ii 
the  I*nterbrunnen,  Canton  Bam,  on  the  White  Lutchine,  an  affluent  a 
tha  Aar.  This  is  one  of  the  highest  falls  in  Europe,  the  river  piojecting>  1 
itself  over  a  precivics  trom  SOQ  to  900  feet  high.  I'aU  of  Sandtk,  on  I 
the  Aar,  sear  tha  Grimssl  glacier.  Fall  qf  OiuAadi,  also  on  tha  A" 
near  Lake  Brienz.  Fall  ^  Rtitheihadi  (a  tributary  of  the  Aar),  n 
MeyriBgan,  in  the  Hasli  Valley,  and  in  the  S.E.  ot  Canton  Bern,  f  . 
t)f  Tola,  on  the  river  Toccia,  m  the  Val  Fornioiza,  above  DomodossDlSf 
noted  (or  it*  great  volnme  of  water.  Fait  of  SallmcAe,  o  "  "*  - 
L «___.  ..  It.  n,.„.  i_  r'— ■-„  valais.  and  10  m 

fjliaeral  Springt  and  JtarAi.—Switierland  contains  upwards  of  3 
■'^~'  apriagi.  18  bath  eatabUalmiants  of  the  lint,  i— '  '^°  -'  ' 


'^S3^ 


re  thoia  of  3chini 

1  LiiuBiat.  both  in  Cantol 

D  the  ValaiB ;  of  Iavbi,  1) 

'I  UoriU,  In  the  Vpe 


276  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Ei^adine ;  Grisons,  &c.  The  first  mentioned  is  chiefly  fireqiiented  hy 
French  visitors :  the  great  bath-honse  contains  160  baths,  360  beds,  and 
saloons  in  which  500  persons  can  dine  tcmther :  the  temperature  of  tha 
waters  is  abont  60°  Falir.  Those  of  Baden  are  sulphureous,  have  a  trai- 
perature  of  117**  Fahr.,  and  are  chiefly  frequented  by  the  Swiss. 

Places  of  Historical  Interest. — ^There  arc  many  such  in  Switzer- 
land, but  the  following  are  especially  famous :  — 

Morqarten^  on  the  boundary  between  Schwytz  and  Zug,  where,  on  the 
15th  l^ovember  1315, 1300  Swiss  defeated  an  army  of  20,000  men,  under 
Leopold  of  Austria,  this  being  the  first  battle  fought  for  Swiss  independ- 
ence. In  1798,  the  Swiss  also  defeated  a  French  force  in  the  same  place. 
TelVg  Platte f  by  the  lake  of  Luzem,  where  William  Tell,  the  Wallace  of 
Switzerland,  escaped  from  the  tyrant  Gessler.  Sem-pack,  on  the  lake  of 
that  name,  in  Cimton  Luzem,  where,  on  the  9th  July  1386,  1400  Swiss 
routed  4000  Austrians  :  the  action  is  rendered  memorable  by  the  heroic 
death  of  Arnold  von  Winkelreid,  and  is  celebrated  by  an  annual  festiTaL 
Burglen,  in  Uri,  where  Tell  was  bom ;  and  A  Itorf,  in  the  same  canton, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  shot  the  apple  off*  his  son's  head.  Morai,  in 
Fribourg,  where  the  Swiss  totally  defeated  the  invading  army  of  Chaiies 
the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burerundy,  22d  June  1476.  Lawpen,  Canton  Bern, 
where  the  Swiss,  under  Rudolf  of  Erlach,  totally  defeated  the  Austrians, 
21st  June  1339.  Fravhrunnen,  near  Bern,  where  Enguerrand  de  Oouey, 
a  French  noble,  with  an  army  of  adventurers,  was  defeated  by  the  Bern- 
ese, in  1375.  NdffiUy  where  the  Austrians,  invading  Glams,  were  de- 
feated, in  1388.  *  WildhavseUj  in  St  Gall,  where  Zwingle  was  bom,  in 
1484 ;  and  Cappel,  in  Zurich,  where  he  was  killed  in  a  skirmisih  against 
the  Ositholics,  in  1531. 

Biver-Basins. — Switzerland  comprises  portions  of  four  great 
river-basins — ^those  of  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  JPo,  and  Danube.  It 
is  principally  embraced,  however,  in  the  Rliine  basin,  wbich 
contains  an  area  of  75,000  sq.  m.,  and  21  out  of  the  25  capitalB 
of  Switzerland  ;  while  the  Rhone  basin  (in  all  37,900  sq^m.) 
contains  only  3,  and  the  Po  basin  1  capital  For  Tabular  view 
of  Rivers  and  Towns,  see  "  River  System  of  Central  Europe^" 
imder  "  Austria,"  p.  261. 

Lakes.— These  are  more  numerous,  in  proportion  to  its  dse,  than 
in  any  other  European  country,  except  Scandinavia  and  Finland. 
The  two  largest  are  the  Lake  of  Geneva  (area  221  aq,  m.,  heij^t 
above  the  sea,  1230  feet)  and  the  Lrake  of  Ck>n8tance  (188  aq.  m., 
height  above  the  sea,  1200  feet).  They  all  belong  to  the  same  three 
river-basins  as  contain  the  25  capitals  :  there  are  10  in  the  basin  of 
the  Rhine,  viz.,  Z/oke  Constcmce,  or  Boden  See,  in  t^e  l^.B.,  diained 
by  the  main  river ;  77tun  and  Brienz,  by  the  Aar ;  ^mrkh  and 
Wallenstadtj  by  the  Limmat ;  Ztig  and  Luzem,  by  fhe  BensB ; 
Bienney  Neuchdtd,  and  Moral,  by  the  Thiele.  The  Lake  if  Cmjw 
is  drained  by  the  Shone ;  and  Maggiore  and  Lugano  by  tiia  Tbdno^ 
an  affluent  of  the  Pa 

Climate.  —  Owing  to  the  great  elevaticm  of  tha  i 
which  is  not  less  tl^  1800  fee^  and  the  lofty  xam 


277 

wfcioh  cover  tte  greater  part  of  the  enrfane,  thti  climnte  of  Switzer- 
land is  GODsidBr&bly  tdotb  severe  l^nji  its  ^ograpliical  sitiiatioa 
TFonld  indiuote.  Lying  miflirny  between  the  Pole  End  the  Equfltor, 
and  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  central  porta  of  France,  its  climate  ii 
tai  more  riRormis  ajid  variable,  preaanting  in  rapid  snoccssiuo  the 
graateBt  eitremes  of  temperature  and  the  inostTJoleDt  contraata  of 
■weather.  In  Geneva,  at  an  elevation  of  12S0  feet  above  the  sea. 
tike  thermometCT'  ranges  from  SS°.9,  the  mean  in  winter,  to  6S°,SS 
In  Bmnmer,  whOe  the  mean  annual  iemjierature  of  the  whole  plateau 
ia  4°  lower  than  that  of  Engl&nd,  The  mean  preeanre  of  the  bar- 
ometer at  Geoeva  is  27  inches,  and  the  annnul  fall  of  rain  29  inches ; 
while  on  Mont  St  Bernard,  which  is  20  miles  farther  south,  the  thrai- 
mometar  ranges  from  18°  to  43°  Fahi.,  the  mean  height  of  the  hai- 
ometer  being  21  inches,  and  the  fall  of  rain  65  inches.  At  elevatioua 
of  from  IDOO  to  1600  feet,  the  climate  is  pure  and  healthy  ;  but  in 
tbe  deep  and  narrow  vaUeya  it  is  usually  inaalnbrionB,  and  gcttre,  or 
lierl^mre  neck,  as  also  eretiniimi,  are  very  prevalent.  The  vine 
grows  in  the  Talleys,  and  extends  to  an  elevation  of  1900  feet ;  whila 
oransei,  olives,  and  pomegranatea  come  to  maturity  in  the  threa 

Owtlog;. — The  Alpine  region  in  the  B.  contdsts  for  the  most  part 
of  crystalline  rocks  reposing  on  a  granitic  basis  :  a  narrow  belt  of 
secondary  strata  eitands  N.E.  from  Martieny,  dd  the  Eboue,  to  Chni 
OD  the  Rhine,  in  the  line  of  the  Bernese  Alps  ;  and  another  belt  from 
Geneva  to  Basle,  in  ths  line  of  the  Jura  Monntains.  The  elevated 
platean,  between  the  Bernese  Alps  and  the  Jura  Chaiit,  constats  of 
tertiary  strata.     PaheoEoic  rocks  do  not  oocor. 

^t?irraii.— The  mineiBl  products  ore  somewhat  nnmenniB,  hot  not  Bi- 
tensively  wrought :  iron,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  and  copper  combined  with  ailrar, 
are  Tonnd  in  the  QrisoiiH,  but  the  mines  are  now  ahandoned.  Iron  i* 
woriied  with  advantage  in  the  Jura  Mountains  ;  coal  in  Zurich,  St  Gall, 
AargBu,  and  Bnale ;  rock-salt  in  Vaud  ;  saline  and  other  mineml  springs 
at  Berg,  audinnonieraus  other  localities,  a:  also  sulphur,  Bsphalt.  gj^panm, 
marble,  aiahaster,  and  limestone, 

Satan;. — The  indigenons  yegetstion  ia  pecnh'arly  rich  and  varied. 
The  chorsi^ristic  Hums  of  all  countries,  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Sorth  Pole,  are  here  found  arranged  in  aucceBsive  belts  on  ths 
ddes  of  the  mountains,  as  we  ascend  from  the  deep  sheltered  vaUeya 

to  the  Buow-i:iad  smnmita.     The  following  lones  of '— ' 

easUy  marked — (1. )  The  vine. zone,  in  the  Talleya,  a 
eieyation  of  !S0O  fcct;   (2.)  Oak,  2600  feet;  (8.)  The  E 
nutsimd  chestnota  to  30D0  feet;  (i.)  Beechea,  S2D0feet:  (6.)  Birchea.  J 
^_4£0llleet :  (6.)  Pine  forests,  spruce,  larch,  Scotch  fir,  and  dwarf  pii 
■mod  feet;  (7.)  Bhododendra,  esODfeet;  (S.)  Alpine  herbs,  7500  fe 
^^K)  Hosses  and  lichens,  extending  to  the  region  of  perennial  sr 

lor  taoti 


Jlffneullmt  is  well  conducted,  hnt 


i  woatUi  is  the  rich 


280  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Switzerland.  There  are  several  short  Canals,  one  of  which  connects 
the  Lake  of  Geneva  with  Lake  Neuch&tel,  and  another  the  lakes  of 
Zurich  and  Wallenstadt.  RaUwaya  have  made  ^reat  progress  within 
the  last  few  years,  the  following  being  the  principal  Imes  : — ^That 
from  Yverdun  to  Lausanne  connects  the  lakes  or  Neuchfttel  and 
Geneva;  a  second  from  Basle  proceeds  S.  to  Bern,  and  S.K  to  Lucerne ; 
a  third  joins  this  in  the  E.  of  Soleure,  and  proceeds  eastward  through 
Aarau,  Zurich,  and  Frauenfeld,  to  Rheineck  on  Lake  Constance,  and 
thence  S.  to  Pfeffers  (in  St  Gall),  Chur,  and  Bellinzona,  with  branches 
to  Locarno  and  Lugano  ;  a  fourth  connects  Winterthur  with  St  Gall, 
and  another  important  line  sets  out  from  Geneva,  skirts  the  lake  to 
Villeneuve,  and  thence  to  Martigny,  in  Valais.  In  1868,  there  were 
810  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic ;  but,  in  1870,  there  were  848  ul 


ITALY. 

Position  and  Boundaries. — Italy — the  central  and  by  far 
the  most  interesting  of  the  three  great  peninsulas  of  Sonthem 
Europe — ^is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Alps,  which  separate  it 
from  the  Tyrol  and  "Switzerland  ;  on  the  W.,  by  France  and  the 
Mediterranean ;  on  the  S.,  by  the  Mediterranean  and  Ionian 
seas  ;  and  on  the  E.,  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto,  the  Adriatic^  and 
Ulyria. 

Including  Sicily,  it  is  comprised  between  the  parallels  of  36*  42^  and 
46**  42^  N.,  and  the  meridians  of  6"*  55'  and  18"*  SO'  E.,  and  hence  embraces 
10^  of  lat.  and  12**  of  Ion.  Rome,  the  ancient  capital  of  Itahr,  sHoated 
almost  exactly  in  the  centre  of  this  area  (lat.  41  54',  Ion.  \V  w'K\  is 
nearly  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  as  Oporto,  Saraffossa,  Ajaodo^ 
Scutari,  Adrianople,  Sinope,  Tifiis,  Khiva,  Pekin,  Great  Salt  Lake  Qty, 
Iowa,  and  New  York ;  and  nearly  on  the  same  meridian  as  OopenhagBO. 
Leipzig,  Munich,  Venice,  Tripoli,  and  St  Paul  de  Loando.  Toe  genmu 
outline  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of  a  high-heeled  bwt,  ths 
toe  of  which  approaches  Sicily,  while  the  heel  is  directed  against  TnnE^y. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  peninsula,  from  the  Alps  to  Cape  Sptrti'vent(H 
is  750  miles ;  the  average  breadth  is  about  110  mues ;  but  between  Xonfe 
Blanc  and  the  Isonzo  it  is  330  miles,  while  at  the  namywest  part^  belwesu 
Gaeta  and  Vasto,  it  is  only  80  miles.  The  coast-line  is  estimated  at  S174 
miles ;  but,  except  in  the  S.,  the  shores  are  but  di^^TtiidAiited.  Tbs 
N.E.  coast  is  low  and  flat,  especially  around  Venice.  The  western  sidtt 
of  Tuscany  and  Campagna  di  Boma  are  also  low  and  InsdnMom^  bat 
the  remainder  of  the  coast  is  considerably  more  elevated. 

Area  and  Population. — Including  Lombardy  and  VenfltMi  leosnlly 
acquired  from  Austria,  but  omitting  Savoy  and  Nios^  now  oedad  to 
France,  the  total  area  of  the  peninsula  and  iduida  aiiioimti  ft 
112,677  sq.  m.,  or  considerably  less  than  the  area  of  ihs  r  ^ 
Isles;  whue,  in  1872,  the  population  was  26,80l9000y  or  a] 
elevenths  of  that  of  the  United  Eingdom.  In  x^ 
of  population,  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  xa;^  m  ti|A 


■••..*'. 


rTALT.  281 

Europe,  being  only  suroaBsed  by  Belgium,  lie  Netherlands,  and 
the  United  Kingdom.  There  are  237  iJerKons  to  each  eq.  m.,  Lom. 
bardj,  Venice,  and  what  was  receo'tly  known  ns  the  States  of  the 
Cburch,  being  the  most  popiilDiiB,  and  the  old  Kingdom  of  Sardinia 
the  least. 

loUtlcal  DlTlBlonR. — As  the  resolt  of  recent  revolutionB  in  Ttaly, 
out  of  the  eix  independent  etates  formerly  existing  ia  the  jieninsiila 
— via,,  Sajilinia,  Parma,  Modeca,  Tuscany,  Najiles,  and  the  Ponti- 
fical States — there  ia  now  only  one  atate— the  Kingdom  of  Italy, 
formed  in  1861,  whose  sovereign  is  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  which 
has  Rome  (and  no  longer  Florence)  for  its  capital.  Parma,  Modena, 
TuHCany,  and  part  of  the  Papal  States  were  annexed  to  Sardinia  in 
1859  ;  tombardy  and  Venetia  in  ISSS  ;  and  the  entire  remainder  of 
the  Papal  States  in  1870.  For  administrative  prnTioaes  the  former 
seven  monarchies — Sardioia,  Forma,  Modana,  Tuecany,  Ifaples. 
with  parts  of  Austria,  and  the  States  of  the  Cburch — now  embraced 
within  that  kingdom,  were,  in  1S62,  divided  into  69  diatricta, 
named  in  general  after  their  respective  chief  towns.  These  are 
grouped  into  16  provinces,  which,  with  their  principal  towns,  are  aa 
followa  :— 

Piedmont  and  L^ila.*— Turin2I3.  Casa]e2G,  CarmognolalS.Salnzzo 
16  {Po),  Vigevano  18  (Tidno),  Norara  37  {Tenioppio),  Voghera  13 
(Staffoia),  Alesaandria  57,  Asti  SO  (Tanaro),  Fossano  17,  Coni  20  ISturs), 
Mondori  11  |Pes[o),  Veroelli  25  (Seaia).  Bacconigi  II,  aavigliano  17 
(Malra),  Pinerolo  16  (ansone),  San  Benjo  10,  Genoa  130,  Savona  11, 
Chiavari  10.  Speida  H  (G.  of  Genoa).  Tortona  13,  Novi  11  (ScriTio). 

Tdubu  hL  BOOO  ana  10.000  InkoMftinU— Yaleaa,  Trtno,  OhlvuBO,  Wonoig- 
Ilul,  Carigluno,  VilloftimisB,  Cavone,  Barge,  Treoate,  Olegglo,  Jtrannjro- 


*  !□  prDQonnalng  Ttaljia  proper  names,  tha  stadent  will 
lowing  nilea  : — 
H  ^  a  In  EDgUih/w.  as  In  Uortin,  Noviro, 

(  =  MiiinMi(.  SBMpHiDalFisa.  ArplDO(ifH-«!s'Tia.i>ee', 


ltd  bfth 


doppio. 


BufliiS 


a,  Pe-na'Ja,  P 


Lncoi,  Porogfa,  Poimolt  (Loot'jto 

ai  =  ai  In  oiih,  u  Main,  Cafro  (JTf 'ni,  Kin). 

(W  =  am  In  ndu,  aa  In  Asw  (Ow'w). 

at  makes  two  Byllahlm.  u  in  OaeU  (Oo'e-M). 

is  alio  makes  two  ejUables,  u  Pienia,  Pimnonto,  Tri«te  {Pt-ta'ia,  Fit-mm'li, 
IVi-Mf  or  IVi-rfU). 

e  and  M  bflfoie  a,  o,  u  =  it.  *■  Cassia,  Uoauoo,  Lncca ;  hot  bnftin  r,  1,  u  =  ;A 
in  ehvmh,  m  in  Tlcino.  Placmn,  Lecea  (Ti-ehf-no,  IH-a<hm'ta,  LifeM. 

—  --■ s,C]DsaM(A«'M4,St^'na.i:^'Uk 


c/i  =  ehtamimank,i»B«xULObita»,ia<SeaU 
Bio,  ew,  «<u  =  «Aa,  «Mi  Shu  In  BagUslL  ■*  Ptsa 
0  benin  s.  a,  n  =  g  In  gmt,  as  Qnela,  Borga,  I? 
itlt,  u  Oenova,  Olrgenti  (Jt-nn'm.  Jir^m'U). 


asi, 


uAtehem.V 
1.  MFagUnni 
•r  A  SfUil- 

\  PUMi, 
latAaa. 


Ptsoli.  UlMIO  (fWsiu),  Jf 


(hMAa-.litiUitatt, 


282  FOUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Island  Sardinia.— Cagliari  31  (S.  coast),  SaHsari  25  (Turritano),  Orla- 
tano  7  (Oristano). 
Quarto,  Bosa,  Alghero,  Ozieri,  Sempio,  Igleaias. 

Lombard^. — Milan  200,  fiusto-Arsizio  10  n.  (Olona),  Viadana  14, 
Casal-Ma^ore  15,  Cremona  31,  Codogno  10  n.  (Po),  Brescia  40  (Mella), 
Lodi  19,  Como  18  (Adda),  Bergamo  39  (Brembo),  Monza  16  (Lambro^ 
Pa^^a  30  (Ticino),  Voghera  10  (Staffora). 

Varese,  Revere,  Villafinanca,  Lonato,  Sale,  Pontevico,  Boresina,  Chiari,  Trevig- 
lio,  Lecco,  Sondrio,  Crema,  Caravaggio,  Boighetta,  Binasco,  Abbiate-Grasso. 

Venetia.— Venice  129,  Bassano  12(Brenta),  Adria  11  (Po),  Oonzagol6 
n.  (Secchia),  Mantua  30  (Mincio),  Cavarzere  12,  L^^nago  10,  Bovigo  86, 
Verona  67  (Adi^e),  Est^  11  (Agno),  C!hioggia  27,  Padna  66,  Vicenza  23 
(Bacchiglione),  Treviso  18  (Sile),  Belluno  14  (Piave),  Udine  28  (Boja). 

Mestre,  Cittaddla,  Lendinara  Tiene,  Schio,  Conegliano,  Feltre,  SerravaUa. 

Emilia.— Parma  46  (Parma),  Ferrara  68,  Guastalla  10,  Piacenza  40 
(Po),  Pontremoli  11  (Magra),  Modena  32  (Secchia),  Finale  12  (Panaro), 
Keggio  30  (Crostolo),  Carrara  6  (Avenza),  Massa  15  (Frigido),  Bologna 
116  (Reno),  Imola  11  (Santemo),  Faenza  30  (Lamone),  Ravenna  50,  Forli 
38  (Montone),  Rimini  38  (Ansa). 

Comacchio,  Cervia,  Lugo,  Borgo,  San  Donino-Mirandola. 

Umbria  and  the  Harcbes.— Pesaro  11  (Fc^lia),  Ancona  46,  Rinigaglia 
11,  Fano  20  (Adriatic).  Jesi  19,  Fabriano  17  (Esino),  Osimo  16  (Miu(me), 
Recanati  19,  Macerata  19  (Potenza),  Tolentino  11,  OBmerino  12  (Chienti), 
Fermo  18  (Fermo),  Ascoli  11  (Tronto) :  Perugia  44  (Tiber),  Tenii  15 
(Nera),  Rieti  14  (Velino),  Spoleto  7  (Marogia). 

Urbmo,  Ixneto,  Orvieto,  Gubbio,  Fo^gno. 

Tuscany.— Florence  167,  Empoli  16,  Pisa  51  (Amo),  Volterra  18  (En), 
Peschia  12  (Nievoli),  Pistoja  22  (Ombrone),  Prato  12  (Bisenzio),  Arezzo 
37,  Montepulciano  12  n.  (Cbiana),  Lucca  65  (Serchio),  Leghorn  97  (W. 
coast),  Siena  25  (Arbia). 

Montevarchi,  Foppi,  Vinci,  Ck)lle,  Cortona,  Castel-Fiorentino,  Torta-Vvmio, 
Grosseto.  * 

latium.— Rome  244  (Tiber),  Viterbo  14  (Arcone),  CivitaVeccUa  10 
(W.  coast),  Velletri  13  (Astura),  Alatri  11  n.  (Cossa). 

Frosinone,  Tivoli,  Cometo,  Bolsena,  Astura,  Albano,  Teixadna,  AoM^ai, 
Falestrina,  Pontecorvo. 

Campania.— Naples  447,  Portici  12,  Giugliano  11,  Afira|g;ola  16  s., 
Pozzuoli  15,  Torre  del  Annuuziata  15,  CasteUamare  20,  Resma  12  (Bar 
of  Naples),  Gaeta  15  (G.  of  Gaeta),  Teano  12,  Aipino  12  n..  Son  IS 
(Gari^liano),  Capua  8  (Voltumo),  Benevento  20,  Anano  18  n.  (Galon), 
Avellmo  21  (Sabbato),  Caserta  28  n.,  Maddaloni  18  il,  ATena  16  n., 
Aceira  12,  Nola  12  (Lagni),  Samo  15  n.  (Samo),  Salerno  21  (G.  of  SalemoX 

Fondi,  Sorrento,  Nocera,  Amalfl,  Baccino,  Sala,  Policastro,  Trqfa,  Bovino. 

Calabria  and  Baailicata.- Reggio  80  (Star.  Messina),  Oatansaro  18, 
Rossano  14  (E.  co.),  Cosenza  18  (Crati),  Potenza  9  (Basente),  Mateia  14, 
(Gravina). 

Marsico,  Oppido,  Paola,  Pizzo,  Falmi,  Scylla,  Cotrone,  fhiiiiwmo,  GHtaorilkiL 

Apulia.— Altamura  17,  Gravina  14  (Gravina),  Tuanto  27  (G.  of  Tn^ 
anto),  Lecce  15,  Brindisi  10,  FrancaviUa  17  jl,  Gioja  17  Jl,  Oskodlflb 
Mola  12,  Bari  50,  Bitonto  22,  Molfetta  22,  Tnmi  ^Ooiato  26^  Andria 
80,  Terlizzi  18,  Barletta  27  (E.  coast),  Cerignola  17,  Minsrviiio  U  s.. 


rHelfl  10  (Ofanto),  Fpgyia  34,  Lncera  IS  (Salsola),  San  Severn  17  (iladi- 
Gsllipoli,  Nardo.  MajJredonia,  ■Vieitl, 
AbnuEO  and  MolisB.  — Caropoliasao  14,  Vaeta  12,  Lanciano  1 8  n.,  Ortons 

13  (AdriBtict,  C!iieti  16,  Snlmona  13  E.,  Aquila  10  n.  (PeBcara),  Teramo 
lU  (Trontino). 

Island  of  Sicily.— Palermo  220,  Termini  26,  Cafiiln  11,  MiatrdU  11, 
Milazio  10,  Partinico  19,  Alcamo  19  n.,  Monrealo  12  n.  (N.  coast),  Tra- 
[lani  30,  Marsala  31,  CastelVBtrano  IS  fW.  cobeII,  Sciacca  14,  QirgenU  MO 
n.,  Alicflta  13,  Terranova  14,  Soicli  10  (S.  coaatj.  Nota  13,  SyracusB  14, 
Agosta  14,  Calania  84,  Acireale  35,  Messina  112  (K  coast),  Corieone  16 
(Belid),  Naro  10,  Canicatli  20  (Naro),  CaltanisettalS  n.,  Caatrogiovanni 

14  (Salso).  Maziaiino  11,  Piiasa  20,  CaltagironB  22  n.  (Terranova),  Vit- 
toria  15,  ComiBO  16  (Comieo),  Raeuaa  22  (RaensaJ,  Modico  30  (Bcidi/, 
Paternol4,  Nicosia  14  (Giaretta|,  Lipari  14  (I.  Lipari). 

Sm  Utuino.~SAN  Uasino  fi  (Ansa,  above  Eimini). 

Deaerlptlve  MotM. — The  Kingdom  of  Italy,  after  its  alwofption  ol 
the  Papal  Territory,  contains  ten  cities  of  more  than  100,000  in- 
habitants (Naples,  Kome,  Turio,  Milan.  Palermo,  Gcdos,  Florence, 
Bologna,  Venice,  and  Measiua)  ;  twelve  cities  rangioe  betweea 
100,000  andSO.OOO  (LezliorQ,  Catania,  Ferrara,  Verona,  jUesaaadria, 
Kavenna,  Modena,  Fadna,  Pisa,  Reggio,  Lucca,  and  Parma) ;  sixty- 
live  citiea  with  less  than  50,000.  bat  above  20,100;  while  there  are 
about  one  hundred  and  forty  with  between  20,000  and  10,000  in- 
habitants. 

Tniin  {one.  Augnata  Taurinorum,  llaL  Torinoi,  capital  of  Piedmont, 
ranks  08  the  first  eitj  in  Italy  for  lie  namber  and  importance  of  its  Utar- 
ary  institutiona,  araongat  wMch  the  DnivBraitv  occupies  the  Hnt  place.  It 
was  an  important  placB  even  in  the  time  of  Hannibal,  who  deatroved  it ; 
but  Augustus  made  it  a  Roman  colony.  Near  Turin,  on  tlie  S.W.,  ars 
the  three  vaUeya  which  in  the  middle  ages  fonned  the  home  of  the  Wal- 
denaes,  the  early  pionacra  of  the  reforroed  religion.  Casale,  once  ths 
capita!  of  the  celebrated  Maiijuisea  of  Montferrat,  has  an  important 
maaufactoty  of  Bilk  twist.  Vigevano,  occupied  with  the  manirfaclure  of 
■ilk  stnSs,  hats,  soap,  and  macaroni.  Alesaudila,  a  large  fortified  town  , 
on  tiia  Tanara,  wiUi  extensive  trade  and  two  annual  fans.  Aiti,  celo- 
bnted  is  the  middle  igea  for  its  iudnst^  and  commerce ;  the  birthtila<«  ' 
of  AlSeri,  the  dramatist,  in  1749.  The  country  around  abonndi  to 
mine™]  spriuj^  and  prodnces  the  heil  wines  in  Piedmont.  TercelU 
contains  a  valoabie  library  of  old  MSS.,  including  a  copy  of  the  lav-  -* 
the  Lombards,  and  a  US.  of  the  Gospels,  written  by  Eniebiui  ii 

fourth  century  :  it  cairiee  on  a  Urge  trilB  in  rice,  which  is  raised  ii , 

vicinity.  BMconigi  and  Bavigluno,  with  important  manufBctiim  of  ] 
silk,  Imen,  and  woollen  fabrics.  Tinerolo,  a  trading  and  mannfactnring  j 
town  it  the  foot  of  the  Alpa.  Marengo,  memorable  for  the  decisive  vto»  1 
tcryotthe  French  over  the  Austrians,  14th  June  1  BOO.  Genoa(fIaL  J 
Genova,  tfitf ,  Genua),  a  celebrated  and  ancient  city,  originally  the  chkl  1 
town  of  the  Lignnsnie,  did  not  rise  to  any  hiitonol  ImporUnce  ontU  Uw  ■ 
imjdgUsaeea  from  the  lltb  to  the  IStb  century  it  wis  Itaiq 
■callaleI1^laI  lepBblic,  which  planted  nmceroos  colonics  in  tlw  ^ 
.  .  .  m  thediomofthe  Blseit  Bco.  It  was  taken  by  the  Frendl  T 
U 87,  Mtd  ceded  t«  Sudidla  b  U15.    It  ii  a  Qo>ariihing  seaport,  th»  I 


284  POLITICAL    GEOaRAPHY. 

seat  of  a  nniversitr,  and  of  extensive  trade  :  was  the  birthplace  of  Colum- 
bus, in  1435.  I^ovi:  here  the  French  were  defeated  by  the  Austro- 
Bussian  army  in  1799.  Cagliari  (anc.  Caralis),  originally  a  Carthaginian 
colony,  and  the  capit-al  of  the  island  Sardinia  under  the  Bomans,  is  a 
fortified  maritime  city,  the  residence  of  a  viceroy,  and  the  seat  of  a  uni- 
versity.  Sassari,  the  most  important  place  in  the  island  except  Cagliari, 
has  a  university,  museum,  and  public  library,  and  a  trade  in  tobacco  and 
fruits.  Milan  {Ttal.  Milano,  anc.  Mediolanum),  formerly  capital  of  the 
Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  an  ancient,  populous,  and  magnificent  city 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Olona ;  adorned  by  numerous  elegant  public  build- 
ings, is  of  a  circular  shape,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  a  wall  surrounded 
by  broad  ramparts  nearly  eight  miles  in  circumference.  From  its  posi- 
tion on  the  great  line  of  railway  leading  from  Venice  to  Turin,  and  ott 
the  principal  route  across  the  Alps,  it  is  favourably  situated  for  trade. 
Milan  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Insubres,  who  founded  it,  B.O.  400 ; 
was  taken  by  the  Romans,  B.o.  222;  was  inhabited  and  embeUished  by 
many  of  the  Roman  emperors.  On  the  division  of  the  empire  ondfflr 
Diocletian  it  became  one  of  the  capitals,  and  continued  to  be  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Emperors  of  the  West  till  the  invasion  of  the  Huns,  who 
took  and  plundered  it.  The  poet  Vu^gil  studied  at  Milan ;  it  was  the  see 
of  St  Ambrose,  and  the  birthplace  of  many  popes  and  eminent  men ;  was 
capital  of  a  republic  in  1056  ;  in  the  end  of  the  14th  century  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan ;  passed  successively  under  the  do- 
minion of  Spain,  Austria,  and  France ;  in  1805  became  capital  of  tiie 
Kingdom  of  Italy ;  was  restored  to  Austria  in  1815 ;  was  taken  by  the 
French  and  Sardinian  army  in  1859,  and  ceded  to  Sardinia  by  the  treaty 
of  Villafranca  in  the  same  year.  Cremona,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Po,  long 
famous  for  its  violins.  Brescia,  an  important  commeibial  and  manufac- 
turing city,  noted  for  its  fine  wines,  cutlery,  and  firearms.  Lodi,  cele- 
brated for  the  decisive  victory  obtained  by  Napoleon  I.  over  the  Aus* 
trians  in  1796.  Como,  at  the  S.W.  extremity  of  the  beautiful  lake  of 
same  name,  has  extensive  manufactures  of  cloth  and  sil^  and  is  the 
Dirthplace  of  the  Younger  Pliny.  Bergamo,  a  fortified  city,  with  nume- 
rous manufactures,  and  a  great  annual  fair,  at  which  the  sides  some- 
times amount  to  £1,200,000.  Honza :  here  are  kept  the  r^pilia  and 
iron  crown  of  Lombardy.  Pavia  (Ticinum,  and  afterwards  Papia)  U  a 
place  of  historical  interest ;  has  a  university,  founded  by  Charlemagne^ 
m  wL^h  Spallanzani  and  Volta  were  professors.  Venice  {IkU,  VenedUy 
ane.  Venetia),  a  famous  city  of  Italy,  built  on  piles  in  the  centre  of  a  Ian 
lagoon,  was  for  many  centuries  tne  capital  of  a  celelnated  lepabll 
which  dates  its  origin  from  the  invasion  of  Attila  in  46^  and  whic 
attained  its  acme  of  x)rosperity  in  the  15th  century,  vhen  it  vai 
reckoned  the  first  maritime  and  commercial  power  in  the  woricL  It 
began  to  decline  in  the  16th  century,  and  its  overthrow  was  oom^etad 
by  Napoleon  in  1797 ;  it  was  made  over  to  Austria  in  1814^  andnow  vonni 
the  capital  of  the  province  Venetia.  It  is  the  birthplaoe  of  Oanova,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  modem  scxdptors :  and  Titian,  the  pzfaice  of  poirtnifc- 
painters,  was  bom  in  its  vicimty.  Bagsaao :  hero  fha  Fxench  OBlfaatfid 
the  Austrians  in  1796.  Adria,  an  ancient  seaport  town,  vUdh  gin«  tti 
name  to  the  Adriatic,  is  now  fourteen  miles  inland,  and  in  the  oontn  oC 


the  delta  of  the  Po :  contains  many  remains  of  spHendid  edifloei. 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  Mincio  ;  the  poet  Vligu  wu  bom  in  f 
Verona,  a  large,  strongly-fortified  city  on  the  AidUp^  '"'' 
interest,  and  containing  numerous  Boman  zenwina. 
theatre,  the  most  perfect  of  its  kind  now  ezliti' 


I 


mnks  and  Bilk-miUa  ;  and  the  birthplai^e  or  ComBlius  Nepos,  Catullus, 
the  elder  Pliny,  Paul  Veronese,  nnd  several  otjier  eminent  men.  Chiog- 
gia,  on  au  island  in  the  Venetian  lagoon,  is  a  fortified  seaport  town  of 
eonsiderable  commorcial  importance.  PadnSii  acekbrated  and  strongl; 
fortified  city  on  the  Bocohiglioue,  witli  a  university  once  very  famona 

'    ittended  by  1800  atudents,  among  whom  were  Tasso  and  Coliuubiu. 

the  tirthpUoe  of  Livy  the  historian,  anil  Belmni  the  traveller. 

^eenza,  an  important  manHfactnring  city,  exlenaivcly  engaged  in  the 

'^Ik  trade ;  birthplace  of  Palladio,     Treviaa  and  Ddina  have  numerous 

urafaetareH  of  ailk,  cotton,  linen,  snil  paper.     ParmB,  formerly  cap, 

durhy  of  some  name,  haa  some  silk  mannfactiires  and  a  fine  picture- 
gallery.     Piacenu  (anc.  Placential  waa  founded  liy  the  Romans,  b.c.  21(1. 
as  a  protoction  gainst  the  recently-aabdaed  Oaula.      It  is  a  weU-built 
and  handsome  city,  adorned  with  many  fine  works  of  art.    Hero  Han- 
nibal defeated  the  Komans,  B.C.  21S;  it  is  the  birthplace  of  Pope  Grfr- 
gory  X.,  Cardinal  Alberane,  Pidlavieiui,  and  Laurentius  Valla.    Uodena 
{anc  Mntina),  of  Celtic  oriein,  and  the  hist  place  which  the  Romans  took 
from  tire  Boii,  was  forraBrly  cap.  of  duchy  of  same  name ;  contains  a 
nnivorsity,  botanic  garden,  and  rich  cabinets  of  natural  history.    Seggio, 
a  fortified  city  on  the  Crostolo,  the  birthplace  of  Arioato  in  1474,  and 
of  Corraggio,  thepaintor,ii]1494.    Canara  ond  Maaia  have  famous  quar- 
ries of  statuary  marble.      FlorenM  lane.  Florentia,  I<at.   Firinie),  for- 
merly cap.  of  IliB  Grand  Duoliy  of  Tuscany,  end  then  of  the  Kinedom 
of  Italy,  is  a  walled  city  on  the  Arno,  surroundeii  by  most  deli^htAil 
BfiBnery,  and  adorned  by  many  magnificent  works  of  art.     The  Ploi-en- 
tine  Gallery  contains  the  richest  collections  of  paintings,  acnlpturs,  and 
antiqnitiea  in  the  world;   also  a  university,   and  nnmeroua  scientific 
and  educational  estabUshinenls ;  various  manufactures  of  silk,  carpets, 
Btraw-hats,  mosaic  work,  porcelain,  and  .jewellery ;  birthplace  of  Dante, 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Boccaccio,  Uadiiavetli,  Amerigo    Vespucci,   Van- 
nuchi,  Cellini,  and  Pope  Leo.  X.     Pisa,  an  ancient  decayed  city  on  tlio 
Amo,  containing  many  noble  edifices  built  of  marble— a  fine  cathedral — 
a  famous  leaning  tower,  178  feet  in  height,  the  topmost  story  of  which 
overhangs  the  base  about  13  feet — au  ancient  university,  which  is  still 
the  great  csntre  of  education  In  Tnscany.      Pisa  was  one  of  the  twelve 
cities  of  ancient  Etruria ;  from  the  lOth  1o  the  14th  century  it  was  the 
capital  of  anenlerprisin^; republic;  and  here  Galileo  was  bom  In  1561. 
Tolterra,  with  numerous  Etruscan  antiquities  :  in  the  vicinity  are  singular 
borai  lagoons,  rich  copper-mines,  brine-aprings,  aall-worka,  and  quar-    I 
Ties  of  alabaster,  fr«m  which  beanijfnl  vasaa  are  largely  ejiportod.     FlI-    I 
tcgft  claims  the  mvention  and  first  manufacture  of  pistols  ;  and  continuM    j 
to  construct  firearms,  cutlery,  and  surgical  instmments.     ftatOinnma*'  i 
roos  manufactures  and  copper-works  for  smelting  the  copper  found  in  I 
its  vicinity.     Aiexto  {one.  ArreUum),  one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  citiel  r  J 
birthplace  of  Mecnuuia,  Pettaroh,  Michael  Angelo,  Vasari,  Onido,  aoA  M 
Bsdi.    I.nec«,  originally  a  Ligorian  town,  has  an  ancient  amphitheaUv  J 
B  state  of  preservation,  and  of  great  siie  ;  a  cathedral  « 


e  paintings ;  : 
d  for  its  mine 


.-„.  ;  manufactures  of  silk, 
s  mineral  baths.     Leghorn  (ItaL  Li 
twelve  indepeni'    '  "' 
U  the  fall  of  Ui 
g  remains  nf  nntlqitlty  :   It 


286  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  remains  of  Smollett  the  novelist.    Siena  was  the  capital  of  a  power* 
fal  republic  in  the  middle  ages,  when  it  contained  100,1)00  inhabitants ; 
several  magnificent  public  edifices  adorned  with  paintings  of  the  Sienneae 
school,  and  contains  a  university.    The  mountains  in  the  vicinity  contain 
rich  marble  quarries.    Ferrara  (Forum  Allieni),  capital  of  a  delegation, 
and  the  most  northern  city  of  the  Papal  States,  on  an  arm  of  the  JPo  ;  is 
fortified  and  garrisoned  by  Austrian  troops.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  famous 
university,  at  which  Ariosto  was  educatect ;  contains  a  public  library  of 
80,000  voliunes,  besides  numerous  MSS.,  including  some  of  Ariosto  and 
Tasso ;  and  was  for  a  time  the  asylum  of  Calvin,  Marot,  and  other  re- 
formers.   Bolonia  (Bononia),  once  the  cai>ital  of  the  Etruscans,  and  now 
of  a  legation.    In  regard  to  population,  it  is  the  second  city  of  the  Papal 
States ;  is  the  seat  of  a  famous  university,  which,  in  1841,  had  560  stu- 
dents; the  birthplace  of  Galvani,  Aldrovandi,  Malpighi,  the  painters 
Guido,  Albano,  Domenichino,  and  the  three  Caracd.    Faensa  (Faventia), 
long  celebratea  for  its  earthenware,  and  supposed  to  have  been  fhe  first 
ItaUan  city  where  the  manufacture  of  that  article  was  introduced.    It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Torricelli.  the  inventor  of  the  barometer.  BaTenaa* 
a  very  ancient  town,  founded  oy  the  Pelasgi ;  the  residence  of  the  em- 
perors when  Italy  was  threatened  by  the  barbarians,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal stations  of  the  fleet.     It  is  rich  in  antiG[uitie8  of  the  eariy  nuddle 
ages.    Forli  (Forum  Livii),  the  seat  of  a  umversity,  and  of  a  cardinal 
le^te;  possesses  considerable  trade  and  manufactures.     Tt-fmiTil  (An- 
mmum),  originally  an  Umbrian  town,  was  colonised  by  the  Romans,  B.a 
268 ;  became  the  seat  of  a  great  ecclesiastical  council,  A.D.  359 ;  and  has 
important  sulphur-mines  in  the  vicinity.  Ancona,  capital  of  a  delegation, 
and  a  fortified  seaport,  which  is  one  of  the  best  frequented  in  Italy. 
Loreto  owes  its  origin  to  a  famous  chapel  of  the  Vimn,  over  wluch  a 
magnificent  church  has  been  built.    XTrbino  (Urbinum  Hortenae),  capital 
of  delegation  Urbino  e  Pesaro ;  contains  a  aucal  palace,  a  cathedxal,  a 
college,  and  a  manufactory  of  pins,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Baphaal  in 
1483.    Perugia  {anc,  Perusia)  was  one  of  the  twelve  Etmscan  cities: 
under  the  empire  it  was  the  most  important  city  of  Etruria,  and  long  de- 
fied the  power  of  the  Goths.    Some  of  the  most  interesting  Etruscan  anti- 
quities niave  been  found  here.    It  is  now  the  capital  of  a  delegatioin,  soad 
only  noted  for  its  two  great  annual  fairs.    Tend,  noted  for  t£e  xna^mifi- 
cent  waterfalls  in  the  vicinity,  unrivalled  in  Europe,  though  of  artrndal 
origin.    Sieti  {anc.  Reate),  situated  in  a  lovely  valley,  which  is  said  to 
rival  in  beauty  the  Thessalian  Tempe.    Gubbio  (one.  Igavium) :  here  were 
discovered,  in  1444,  in  the  ruins  of  tne  temple  of  Jupiter,  seven  bronze  tabks 
with  Umbrian  inscriptions,  forming  most  interesting  remains  of  that  lan- 
guage ;  they  are  known  as  the  Eugubian  Tables,  and  ara  stillpreseorved  at 
Gubbio.    XTaples,  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
beautifully  situated  on  the  bay  of  same  name,  is  by  far  the  most  popul- 
ous city  in  Italy.    It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  founded  about  roar 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era.   It  is  the  principal  seaport  of  southern 
Italy,  and  the  centre  of  its  learned  institutions.    In  its  vicinity  are  the 
celebrated  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  which  wero  buried  during 
an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  (a.d.  79),  and  accidentally  discoyeredin 
1720,  since  which  time  the  excavations  have  brought  to  light  manyof  tlie 
most  valuable  relics  of  antiquity.    Castellamare :  here  the  cdder  Flfaiy 
perished  in  the  catastrophe  which  buried  Pompeii.  A.D.  79.    Gaitfti  a 
fortified  seaport  town,  which  formed  the  asylum  oif^  Pius  IX.,  uriben,  in 
1849,  he  fled  from  Rome,  to  join  the  fugitive  King  of  Naples.    Capu  !■ 
strongly  fortified,  and  is  the  only  fortress  that  covers  tna  appcoach  t9 


r 


ITALY.  287 

Naplaa.  BsnflTentO  was  the  seal  of  several  counnils  in  the  eleventh  anil 
twelfth  centuries.  AvBlllno :  near  it  the  Val  di  Gargano,  famous  for  the 
Tiotar;  of  thB  Bamnites  over  tbe  RonuuiB,  in  the  year  of  Rome  43S. 
Balamo,  noted  for  its  aaciant  school  of  maiiicine,  contains  a  uniTBisitj-. 
Baggio,  DppDsits  Meaaina,  is  the  most  southern  city  and  seaport  of  con- 
tinental Italy,  and  very  ancient.  It  was  tmiohad  at  by  St  Paul  on  hii 
Toynga  to  jRome.  Taranto,  an  aLcieiit  city  of  great  historic  celebrity, 
but  now  a  place  of  little  importance.  Barletta,  a  fortified  seajJort  town, 
carrying  on  a  brisk  coasting  trade.  Foggia,  is  considered  the  second  city 
in  Naplea  far  Health  and  im^iortance.  Aqoila,  birthplui^e  of  Sallust,  is 
one  of  the  most  commercial  cities  In  the  kingdom  of  Naplea.  Palermo, 
capital  of  Sicily,  and  the  fourth  city  in  Italy  aa  regards  po^nlation,  is  of 
Tery  ancient  origin,   having  been  rounded  by  the  PhtBuiciana.     It  ia  a 

rciona  and  wall-built  city,  with  eitensive  commerce.  It  was  tlie  scene 
the  masaaera  called  the  "Sicilian  Vespers"  (in  1283),  which,  com - 
mencing  ia  the  freak  of  a  Frenchman  who  had  insulted  a  Sicilian  lady 
going  to  church,  ended  in  the  extermination  of  every  Franchman  in  the 
uland.  Trapanl,  a  hnsy  commercial  town  ei^aged  in  the  coral  fishery. 
Mareala,  noted  for  its  wines,  which  it  largely  eiporta  to  England.  Qlr- 
nntl,  a  very  nnoient  and  celebrated  city,  is  the  chief  port  in  Sicily  for 
the  exportation  of  sulphor.  Syracnae,  founded  hy  Corinthian  colonials, 
B.o.  734,  was  for  ages  a  place  of  great  hiatoric  importance :  it  was  ths 
birthplace  of  Archimedea,  and  the  rssidanca  of  Plato  and  Cicero,  but  has 
now  dwindled  into  inslgnihcence.  Catania,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna, 
and  the  third  moat  important  city  in  Sicily,  has  been  repeatedly  ruiaed 
by  earthquakes  :  the  housea  are  built  and  the  streets  paved  with  lava  :  it 
has  manufactures  of  silk,  and  warea  made  of  lava  and  amber,  and  exports 
com,  macaroni,  olives,  figs,  raw  silk,  wine,  and  snow  from  Mount  Etna, 
XeMina,  the  most  populous  city  in  Sicily,  except  the  capital,  which  it 
equals  in  commercial  importance.  The  harbour  is  reearded  as  one  of  the 
fi£est  in  Europe,  and  ia  well  fortiDed.  The  Strait  of  Messina,  with  a  rock 
named  Scylla  on  the  one  side,  and  an  eddy  called  Charybdia  on  the  other, 
ms  much  dreaded  by  ancient  mariuera.  Liparl,  in  an  island  of  same 
name,  exports  pnmice-stone  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  aa  also  anlphur, 
Dltn,  and  soda.  Eome,  on  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  cap.  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy,  is,  next  to  Jerusalem,  the  most  celebrated  city  in  the  world.  It 
wai  founded  B.C.  763 ;  at  the  beginning  of  our  era  it  had  upwnrda  ol 
1,000,000  inhabitants,  and  was  the  mistress  of  the  then  known  world;  in 
A.D.  ilO  it  WHS  conquered  by  the  Goths  under  Alaric ;  it  was  given  to  the 
Jiopes  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  in  the  eighth  century,  since  which  time 
It  baa  been  the  capital  of  the  Pontifical  States.  Rome  is  unrivalled  for  ita 
artiatic  and  architectural  riches,  but  has  a  sad  and  deaolata  appearance. 
The  Btreets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  unpaved,  the  finest  palacea  and  the 
most  -wretched  hovels  being  in  eloaeat  jnitaposition.  The  Cathedral  of 
8t  Peter's  is  the  largest  and  most  snmptuons  structure  of  tbe  kind  In  the 
world,  and  the  Vatican  Palace  adjoining  is  the  permanent  residence  of  tlio 
Dopes.  The  university,  which  dates  from  124,  is  well  attended,  but  is 
lesa  celebrated  than  the  college  of  the  Propaganda,  in  which  natives  of  all 
paita  of  Europe  are  trained  aa  miasiouaries  for  jpropagatiiig  the  "  Catholic  " 
faith  throughout  the  world.  Civita  Tsodiia,  the  principal  seaport  of  the 
Pontifieal  States.  Telletri,  the  birthplace  of  the  Emperor  Augustas,  b.o. 
tS.  SanHarina,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  smallest  and  most  ancient 
ope,  which  has  an  area  of  only  H  aqoare  miles,  luul  a  pop 
S  Inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  ocoapled  in  meal  Induatr}'  a] 


288  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Capes  and  Islanda— Piombino  and  Argentaro,  in  Tuscany ;  Cizw 
cello,  S.  of  Latium ;  Palinuro  and  Yaticano,  W.  of  Campania, 
Spartivento,  Nau  or  Colonna,  and  Leuca,  S.  of  Calabria;  Otrantoand 
Gargano,  in  the  Adriatic ;  Passaro,  San  Yito,  and  Bas  Cidmo,  in 
Sicily;  Teulada  and  Carbonara,  S.  of  Island  of  Sardinia.  The 
Italian  islands  are  arranged  into  fonr  groups  or  clusters — yiz.,  the 
Sardo-Corsican,  Sicilian,  Maltese,  and  Ponza  groups. 

The  Sardo-Corsican  Islands,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Tyr- 
rhenian Sea,  are  chiefly  Sardinia  (the  second  largest  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  area,  9167  sq.  m. ;  pop.  588,064) ;  Corsica,  which  belongs  to 
France ;  and  Elba.  The  Sicilian  Oroup,  which  nearly  connects  the  Ita- 
lian peninsula  with  the  African  coast,  consisting  principally  of  SicUy 
(the  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean ;  area,  11,1^  sq.  m. ;  popiUa- 
tion,  2,392,414) ;  the  Lipari  Islands  (Stromboli,  la^iri,  Vulcano,  etc.), 
Ustica,  Favignana,  and  Pantellaria.  The  Maltese  Gfroup,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  and  consisting  of  Malta  (area,  98  sq.  m. ;  pop.  13i,0d6)  ,* 
Gozo,  and  Comino.  The  Poma  Oroup,  W.  of  Naples,  chiefly  Ponay 
Ischia,  and  Capri 

Seas,  Oulte,  and  Straits  (all  forming  parts  of  the  Mediterranean) : 
the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  between  Italy  and  the  Sardo-Corsican  Islands ; 
Ionian  Sea,  between  Italy  and  Greece ;  Adriatic,  between  the  Itab'an 
and  Hellenic  peninsulas.  Gulfs  of  Genoa,  Gaeta,  Naples,  Salerno, 
Policastro,  and  St  Eufemia,  on  the  W.  side ;  of  Squillace  and  Taranto 
on  the  S.  ;  and  of  Manfredonia  and  Yenice  in  tne  Adriatic  Str.  of 
Messina,  between  Calabria  and  Sicily  ;  Bonifacio,  between  the  islands 
Corsica  and  Sardinia  ;  Otranto,  between  Apulia  and  Turkey. 

SurflEuse  and  Mountains.  —  Italy  embraces  three  great  natural 
divisions— viz.,  first,  the  great  plain  of  Lombardy  in  the  north,  be- 
tween the  Alps  and  the  Apennines,  sloping  towards  the  Adriatic, 
watered  by  the  Po,  Adige,  and  other  streams,  and  extremely  fertile ; 
second,  the  long,  narrow  peninsular  portion,  projecting  into  the 
Mediterranean  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and  having  the  long 
mountain-chain  of  the  Apennines  as  its  back-bone;  and,  third,  Sicily, 
Corsica,  and  Sardinia,  or  the  insular  portion.  Corresponding  to 
these,  there  are,  in  like  manner,  three  great  mountain-ranges ;  the 
first  of  which  (the  Alps)  separates  Italy  from  the  rest  of  the  contin- 
ent ;  the  second  (the  Apennines)  traverses  the  mainland  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  greatest  length,  and  extends  to  the  farthest  extremity  of 
Sicily ;  whue  the  third  stretches  from  N.  to  S.  through  the  Sardo- 
Corsican  islands.  The  Aips  have  been  alreadv  described  under 
'*  Europe,"  as  {dso  under  France,  Switzerland,  and  Austria. 

The  Apennines  branch  off  from  the  Maritime  Alps  near  Genoa,  extend 
in  a  S.E.  direction  through  the  entire  length  of  the  peninsula,  and  form 
the  water-parting  between  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  the  Adriatic.  They 
are  of  greatly  less  elevation  than  tne  Alps,  and  nowhere  attain  the  height 
of  the  snow-line,  except  in  Sicily,  though  some  of  the  continental  sum- 
mits are  covered  with  snow  for  nine  months  in  the  year.  MowU  Como, 
in  the  N.  of  Naples,  the  highest  summit  of  the  continental  Apennines, 
9521  feet;  Monte  Velino,  in  N.W.  of  Naples,  8180  feet ;  M.  Vettmut, 


ITALY.  289 

,r  Naples,  30i3  feet ;  il.  Etna  in  Sicily,  tlie 
entire  range,  10,874  feet :  line  of  perennial  anow. 

The  Sanlo-Coriican  range   eiftands  from  ._...._.._ 

Corsica,  to  Oape  Spartiveuto  in  t1ie  S.  of  Sanlinin,  and  forma  the  nater- 
parting  between  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  the  Meditenanean  proper: 
highest  Biunmita,  Monle  RotoTido,  in  Coisica,  9063  feet,  and  Monte  Oen^ 
aiyBi/B,  in  Sardinia,  7000  feet. 


and  leading  from  Coni  to  Nice.  Paji  ijf  Mont  GenivTe,  in  the  Cottian 
Alpa,  6560  feet,  from  Susa  to  Bilanfon.  Pati  of  Mont  Cenii,  from  Suaa 
to  8.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  in  SaToy,  677fi  feet  Paa  qf  Great  St  Bernard, 
8150  feet,  between  Piedmont  and  the  Valaia,  Slmplan  Pan,  6582  feet, 
tnaa  Milan  and  Domodosaola  to  Canton  Valaia.  For  the  remaining 
paeaes  acrosa  the  Alps,  see  under  "  Switzerland  "  and  "  Austria." 

BJTer-Bnsliu.^ — Owing  to  the  peninsular  character  of  the  conntry 
and  the  position  of  the  jnonntain-chajns,  there  ia  only  one  extensive 
river-baHm  in  all  Italy— viz. ,  that  of  the  Po,  which  ia  limited  by  the 
Alps  on  the  one  side  and  the  Northern  Apenninas  on  the  other,  and 
embraces  (if  we  include  the  rivers  which  flow  into  its  delta)  mt  area 
of  31,600  s().  Tn. 

Table  or  Rivers  and  ToimB. — In  the  following  table  will  be 
found  all  the  principal  rivers  and  affluents  of  rivers  of  the  Italian 

KDinaula,  beeintiiOK  at  the  G.  of  Genoa  and  ending  at  th«  G.  of 
ieste,  together  with  all  the  towna  containing  6000  inhabitants  and 
^BpwnrdH  situated  on  their  banks  : — 

Saaint  inelined  to  the  IVr^eniaa  Sea. 


,..8an  Hbiuo,  Pprto  Mat 


ilm^ru 


»,  Chiavj 


Frlgido Masat--1[-C»rtiu». 

fiantalD,  -.  -.  ,-LncQL 

Aaiy, Fiiia,  Bmpoll.  Fldrehck 

SiffnOt  Jti/nteoarchi 
Pagpi,  Pimii. 

JSta™li,"!!!Pe»chiii. 

BIsi.  1 CcBe. 

Ombiqne,...FiBtoJi. 
BlMlulo,. . . .  Fmlo. 
Chlana,  1. . . ,  ArezEO.    Moatepulclano 

Co-omiscKDy,  Leghorn. 
OmbiODa  Sen-  OrDtMto. 

AtUta..'.... -Siena. 

Suta, .ComtU,  Solatnjl. 

Akodb,  l...VlteTba. 
f  CD^RiDUllia]  a>lta  Vecchla. 


PigllB, Onieto. 

lopia,  I  ....Folitpio. 

CblB9«i,..OuAM0,  n. 

UlTOgiii,  ISpoleto. 

rtnis. T8lletri.J»ani),iL 

maaeHB,  ....  Trrradna. 
.oC<iiitAa,...Pondi,  n.,<iiietii. 
Osrigllano Ponte  Cwro,  Atplno,  b., 

Ss«o, Atioffni,  B.,  Paltitrina. 

Cosaa,  I  .  .Fraiinimt,  Aiatri,  o. 

BavoDB, Teino. 

Vollomo Capos,  7«mfa,  B. 

Sablwto/lAvBlllno.   ' 
Legnl Caserta,    n..  Haddslnnl, 

Noli" 
G.  of  Nniilen.-.PoiiuoU,    Afragola.    n„ 
Fratta  Magglore,  QiB- 
gllano,    HiPLES,    Pur. 
tlid,  Tom  dBl  AuBUd- 


290 


POLITICAL   OEOGRAPHY. 


Barifu  inclin&d  to  th$  Tyrrhenian  Sea  (oontinuedX 


Rivera.  Totnu, 

Sarno Koeera,  Sarno,  n. 

G.  of  Salerno,  ,Amaifi,  Salerno  ;  Ruins 
of  PcBStum. 
Sele, BucdnOt  Sola, 


Riverg.  Towm, 

O.  of  Policas-  Polieagtro. 

tro. 
West  Go.  Ca-  Nica8tro,n.,iH2Zo,Pao2a» 

labria,  Palmi. 

St.  of  Messina,  SeyUOt  Beggio. 


Basine  inclined  to  the  Ionian  Sea. 


East  Go.  Ca-  Gatanzaro,  CotronOf  Ros- 

labria,  sano. 

Crati Cosenxa. 

Sibari,  l....Ca88ano, Ccutro-Villari. 
G.  of  Taiajito,Tarajx.to,NardOtOaaipoli. 


Agri, Marsioo. 

Basente «...  .Potema. 
Bradano,.  ...Matera,  n.,  Opvido. 
Gravina,  ..Altanmra,  n.,  Gra?ina> 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Adriatic. 


East  Co.  Ot-Lecce,n.,J3n9u2is<,  Fran- 
ranto,  cavilla,  Ostuni 

Co.  of  Bari,...Mola,  Gioja,  n.*  Bari, 
Bitonto,  Molfetta,  Tra- 
ni,  Gorato,  n.,  Andria, 
n.,  Terlizzi,  Barletta. 

G.  of  Manf^-  Mar^fredonia,  Viesti. 
donia, 
Ofanto,  ....  Cerignola,  n. » Minervino, 

n.,  Melfl. 
Oervaro, ....  Bovino,  Troja,  n. 

Cesone Foggia. 

Balsola,  I  .Lucera. 
Radicosa,  ..SanSevero. 

BifernOy Gamx>o-Basso. 

Sangro,  Atessa. 

Co.Abrazzo,..Va8to,  Lanciano,  n.,  Or- 
tona. 

Pescara, Chieti,  Solmona,  Aqnila. 

Piomba, S.  Angela. 

Trontino, Teramo. 

Tronto, AscolL 

Fermo Fermo. 

Chienti, Tolentino,  Camerino. 

Potenza, Becanati,  Maceiata. 

Mnsone, Loreto,  Osima 

E.  Co.  Marches,  Ancona. 

Esino, Jesi,  Fabriano. 

Misa, Siniga^ia. 

Metauro, Fano,  urbino,  n. 

Foglia, Pesaro. 

Ansa, Rimini,  San  Marino. 

Savio, Cervia,  n. 

Montone, Ravenna,  ForlL 

Lamone Faenza. 

Sfuitemo, Comacchio,  Imola. 

Reno, Bologna. 

Po, Adria,  Ferrara,  Revere, 

Guastalla,  Viadana,  Sa- 
bionetta,  n.,Casal-Mag- 
giore,  Cremona,  Codog- 
no,  Piacenza,  Pavia, 
Fa^enza.Casale,  Trino, 
Creseentino,  Chivasso, 
TuBiK,  Moneaglieri, 
CarignanOf  Carmagno- 


Po— continued   la,  ViOafranca^Caieor- 
re,n.  ,Salazs>,n.  ,Bar9». 
Panaro,   ....  Finale. 
Secchia,   ...Gonzago^HoDENA. 
Mincio,  I  Mantaa,Ki{2fl(/^rai>ca^  £•• 

(L.  Garda),    naJto,  ScUo. 
Oglio,  I  (L.  Pontevicot  Soretina,  Chi' 
Iseo),        ari. 
Hella,  I  ..Brescia. 
Crostolo,  ..GuastaUOf  Reggio. 
Parma,  ....  Parma. 

Taro,  Borgo-San-Oonlno,  n. 

Adda,  I  (L.  LodiI,Tr0i^Ito,  n.,  Lecea, 
Como),      Como,  Sondrio. 
Serio,  I  ..Cremat  Caravaggio. 
Brembo,  I  Bergamo,  n. 
Lambro,  I . .  Bhoirgetta,  Monza. 
Olona,  I . . .  .Milan,  Busto-AndsIOyB., 

Varese. 
Ticino,  I  (L.  Pavia,  Binaaeo,  n.,  Vig»- 
Maggiore),    vano.  Abbiate-Orasso, 
n.,  Treeate,  Intra,  Lo- 
carno, Beixinzona. 
Toccia,  ..Domodossola. 
Tresa,  1{Il  Lugano. 
Lugano), 
Terdoppio,  I  Kovara,  Oleggio, 
Staffora, ....  Voghera. 
Gogna,  ^....Jfortoro,  n.,  Borgo-MO" 

nero. 
Scrivlo,  ..  ..Tortona,  NovL 
Tanaro,  ....Marengo,  Alessandria, 
San-Salvatore,  Aati. 
Atha^  Bra,    Cherasoo^ 
Bene,  b.,  Oaressia. 
Bormida,  Acqui. 
Orbe,  ,.Ca8telkuuo,  Qavi,  Ova- 
da. 
Belbo^ . . .  ,Ni3HM-Monferra^. 
Stnra,  I  ..Fossano,  Coni. 
Pesio,  I  ..Mondovi,  il,  Chiusa. 
Sesia,  I  ..  ..Vercelli. 

Cervo,  .....Bie22d. 
Dora-Baltea,Ca2u«o,  Ivrea^  Aotta, 

V 

Orca,  I  ....  CMvasso,  Looama, 


I 


Tbbih,  Bicoli. 


BncdilglloDe,  Chinggli,  Pndiia.Yii 


..CiTariwo,  HoYlgo,  ten- 
dinara,  LegDago,  Ver 
oub,  Baveredo,  Trieni 


thetaBin  of  tliB  _  . 

Coma,  MaggiorB,  Ic,  are  unrivalled  for  their  enchantrng  aoenery.* 
They  are  numerous  also  in  Central  Italj,  lutween  the  brnnchea  of 
the  Apennines,  where  they  sometimes  oncupy  the  oratera  of  oitinct 
volcanoes,  and  have  no  visible  outlet.  The  following  are  the  priuci- 
pal  lakes  in  tlia  ordiir  of  the  river-hasina  in  wliich  they  occur  : — 

B«Bin  of  the  Po—Gar^  (560  811.  m.;  elevation,  227  feel  above  tho  aea), 
di«inod  hy  UiB  Mincio  ;  7s(o,  by  the  Oglio;  Cotao,  by  the  Add?.;  Maagiore, 
by  the  Tiiino ;  Lagano,  Ijy  the  Treea,  Ombrona — CasUglione  and  Orbi- 
ttlla,  in  tlie  Marerama  of  Tuscany.  Arena — Bmcciano,  In  |)tovintB 
Latlum.  Msrta — Bolsena,  in  province  Latium.  Tiber — Ferugia,  with 
no  visible  discham.  Garlgliano— Cefaiio  or  fWBO,  in  Abruizo,  drained 
by  an  artiScisl  channel  Avenw,  10  milea  W.  of  Naples,  occopiea  the 
crater  of  a  volcano. 

OllinaM.— From  its  positian,  foim,  and  configaration,  Italy  anjoya 
m  eitremely  delightful  climate,  which  permits  the  productions  of 
the  temperate,  and  some  of  the  torrid  zone,  to  minde  on  its  almost 
nniformly  fertile  aarfacfl.  In  the  northern  parts  3ie  cold  ia  some- 
times  severe  ;  but  it  is  little  felt  in  the  centre  and  aouth,  where  the 
plaina  enjoy  an  almost  perpetnal  spring.  The  valley  of  the  Po  con- 
wderably  reseinhles  in  temperature  the  central  pnrta  of  France  :  the 
lakes  tteezB  in  winter,  and  the  orange  and  lemon  will  not  ripen  in 
the  open  air.  At  Rome  froat  seldom  lasts  aver  tha  night,  and  snow 
hlls,  on  aa  avers^^  on  only  two  days  In  tha  year,  as  also  at  Florence, 
Naples,  and  Palermo.  At  Veuice  snow  falls  on  live  days  anaually, 
at  Milan  on  ten,  while  in  Malta  aoow-Sakea  are  nevEr  seen.  In  the 
north  the  rainfall  iagreat,  bainffat  Tnlmezzo,  nearUdine,  100  inches; 
at  Bome,  35  inchoa  ;  while  at  Palermo,  in  Sicily,  it  ia  only  23  inehea, 
The  aver^fB  for  the  entire  peninsula  is  about  ^5  inches.  The  mean 
annual  Mmperature  of  Rome  is  SS'.S;  mean  winter,  4fi°.2 ;  and  mean 
■ammer,   If-i.    The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Milan  is  fiS* ; 


Naples,  61' 
Tha  higher  Alps 
•  ThB  laSM  or  N.  Italy  i 
la  ia  Uie  Urgeat;  anrl  la 


to  the  level  of  9600 


at  betuttfat,  and  Coint 


292  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

feet.  Nearly  one-half  T>f  Mont  Blanc  is  always  protected  by  a  snonry 
envelope,  wnich  thickens  every  winter  by  fresh  accumulations,  and  ecu- 
tracts  again  in  summer  and  autumn  by  ihe  action  of  the  sim's  rays,  and 
by  the  constant  discharge,  from  its  lower  margin,  of  those  famous  glaciers 
which  are  the  admiration  of  all  travellers. — (See  under  "  Switzemi^") 
The  climate  is,  generally  speaking,  highly  salubrious,  save  in  the  pesti- 
lential marshes  of  Tuscany,  called  the  Maremma,  and  the  Campagna  di 
Romaf  in  the  Pontifical  States,  the  malaria  from  which  is  extremely  ii^- 
ious  to  human  life.  The  prevailing  winds  are  W.  and  S.W.,  and  during 
their  continuance  the  air  is  pure  and  healthy ;  but  the  soumem  portion 
of  the  country  is  frequently  visited  by  the  pestilential  winds  of  AMca, 
during  which  vegetation  is  arrested,  and  the  human  frame  becomes  languid 
and  feeble. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — ^Tertiary  and  post-tertiary  strata  cover 
greatly  more  than  a  half  of  Italy,  especially  the  extensive  basin  of 
the  Po ;  the  northern  portion  of  the  peninsula  from  Genoa  to 
Civita  Vecchia,  on  the  W.  side ;  and  the  entire  belt  lying  between 
the  Apennines  and  the  Adriatic,  on  the  E. ;  together  wiw  a  large 
part  of  Sicily  and  Malta.  Secondary  strata  occupy  considerable 
areas  in  central  and  southern  Italy,  especially  from  the  Tiber  to  the 
G.  of  St  Eufemia ;  a  large  tract  in  the  centre  of  Sicily ;  and  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Rhsetian  and  Carnic  Alps.  The  central  and 
higher  ridges  of  the  Alps  consist  of  gneiss  and  other  primary  rocks, 
flanked  by  limestone,  sandstone,  and  slate ;  and  primary  strata  pre- 
vail on  both  sides  of  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and  in  the  east  side  of 
Corsica  and  Sardinia.  Granite  rarely  occurs  except  in  the  islands 
just  named,  where  it  covers  large  areas.  Trap-rocks  are  found  in 
numerous  small  patches  around  the  G.  of  Genoa  and  N.  of  the  Po ; 
and  volcanic  formations  are  extensive,  especially  around  Rome, 
Naples,  Malfi,  the  E.  side  of  Sicily,  and  the  N.W.  comer  of  the 
island  Sardinia,  more  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Syracnse 
and  Mount  Etna,  as  also  in  the  Lipari  Isles,  where  StromboU,  Ynl- 
cano,  and  Vulcanello  are  still  active  volcanoes. 

Minerals. — ^The  mineral  products  of  Italy,  though  numerous,  are  not 
turned  to  much  account,  mining  being  everywhere  neglected.  Th^re  are 
few  metals,  except  iron  and  lead,  the  first  of  which  is  very  abundant  in 
Elba,  while  copper,  manganese,  cobalt,  and  quicksilver  are  found  in  the 
Apennines :  coal  is  plentiful  in  Venetia,  Sardinia,  and  Tuscany ;  salt, 
alum,  and  borax  in  many  localities ;  alabaster  in  Tuscany ;  and  beautifiil 
statuary  marble  at  Carrara  and  other  places.  But  the  volcanic  products 
of  Italy,  especially  sulphur,  nitre,  and  lava,  are  of  greater  value  than  all 
its  other  mmerals,  nearly  all  the  sulphur  required  in  Europe  bdng  ob- 
tained from  Sicily.  The  principal  mmerals  of  the  Alps  are  iron,  copper, 
lead ;  but  quicksilver,  rock-salt,  and  some  gold  and  silver,  are  met  with. 

Botany  and  Agriculture. — The  indigenous  vegetation  of  Ital^, 
including  the  Alpine  region  in  the  N.,  is  mainly  embraced  withm 
Schouw's  first  and  third  phyto-geographic  regions.  The  first,  or 
Arctic- A  Ipine  Region^  comprehends  liie  summits  of  the  lofty  moun- 
tain-ranges, while  the  low  grounds  belong  to  the  third  or  Meditem* 
nean  Region.  Italy,  as  a  whole,  presents  an  admirable  epitome  of 
the  characteristic  floras  of  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  Western  Afiii^ 


and  Nortliern  Africn.  According  to  Cesati,  the  nnmlier  of  flower- 
in^-planta  in  Lombardy  alone  nmoants  to  2S6S  species,  of  whicli  514 
are  monocotyledons,  and  2064  dicotyledons. 

In  Sicily,  Xaples,  and  Malta,  in  addition  to  tliB  planta  common  to  bU 
tlie  peniusuln,  not  a  few  tropicnl  species  appear,  sucti  hb  the  cotton-plant^ 
Hugar-cane,  papyrus,  piataehio,  nod  date-palin.  The  Indian  fig  also,  s 
Epocies  of  cactus,  grows  wild  in  Siyily.  All  these  ripen  at  an  elevation  of 
about  600  feet ;  BTergreens  flourish  at  2O00  feet ;  tTie  oak  and  chestnut 
grow  on  the  mountam-Bidos  as  high  as  4000  fiset ;  wheat  thrives  at  4500 
feet ;  and  the  heecli  at  6000  feet.  In  Central  Italy  we  And  the  flanks  of 
the  Apennines  covered  with  a  rich  and  varied  vegetation  up  to  S2D0  feet ; 
the  lower  aine  is  occupied  by  the  orange,  citron,  oJive,  and  palm ;  -fnrests 
are  rare ;  and  the  mountaina,  above  the  level  indicated,  present  bare  rocks 
devoid  of  vegetation.  The  Alps  afford  excellent  pastnre,  and  the  forest* 
contain  a  great  variety  of  timber.  The  vertical  limits  of  vef^tation  along 
theii  sides  are  as  follows : — The  dwarf-palm  and  orange  arrive  at  matti' 
rity  at  the  foot  of  the  Maritime  Alps ;  wheat  is  cnltlvated  at  the  height 
of  SaOO  feet ;  oata,  4300  fept ;  barley,  6100  feet ;  the  chestnut  grows  In 
the  valleys  at  3600  ;  oalt,  4SO0 ;  pine  and  larch,  8500  feet,  Hnmaii  in- 
habitants are  found  as  high  aa  6300  feet,  where  potatoes  and  turnips  are 
the  only  esculents.  Tlie  Knno  lying  between  the  npper  limit  of  trees  anil 
the  lowerlimitof  perennial  snow,  is  the  province  of  the  A  (pine  fiora  share 
allnded  to,  characterised  by  the  juniper,  alder,  rhododenilron,  willow, 
cranberry,  aaxifroRes,  moaaea,  and  lichena,  eitonding  to  BSOO  feet 

Agriralinn. — Were  the  Itahana  as  active,  industrious,  and  skilful  as 
their  soil  is  good  and  their  climate  propitiona,  few  countries  in  the  world 
conld  rival  Italy  in  agricultural  wealth  and  prosperity.  So  far,  however, 
is  this  from  hehig  the  case,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  country  oa  the  con- 
easeful  husbandry.  In  Loml>ardy,  Venetia,  and  Piedmont,  however, 
^riculture  is  better  nnderatood ;  the  soil,  which  ia  a  rich  alluvium,  is 
cuitivBted  with  great  care,  and  artificial  irrigation  is  extensively  praiv 
tiaed.  Here  the  principal  crops  are  rice,  maiie,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  ' 
Tines,  olives,  flga,  oranges,  citrona,  homp,  flax,  and  the  mulberry  plaiA,  i 
About  two  fifths  of  the  peninsula  are  under  cultivation,  the  remaiudei  I 
belDg  either  bare  rocks,  devoid  of  vegetation,  or  available  only  for  euia- 
merpastntnge.  Vegetation  is  never  interrupted  on  the  lower  gronnda, 
especially  m  the  southam  half  of  the  poninsnla.  Tlie  vine  fiouriahea  uni- 
Tersally,  bat  the  wines  of  Italy  cannot  compete  with  those  of  France  and 
Spidn.  Littie  wine  is  exported-  except  from  Tuacany  and  Bicily.  The 
TuscsD  wines  are  of  inferior  quaUty,  hut  the  Marsala  wines  of  Sicily  are 
extensively  consumed  in  England  and  America,  owingto  their  cheaimeBS. 
The  Neapolitan  wine  is  the  best  in  Italy  ;  the  celebrated  LoAryiitii 
Chritli,  a  red  wine  of  great  excellence,  is  grown  in  vineyards  on  the  flanks 
of  Veauvins.  Olive  oil  ia  the  principal  article  of  export  from  the  Neapo- 
litan portion  of  the  kingdom,  but  some  good  oil  is  also  produced  in  Tus- 
cany. In  many  districts,  however,  the  mulbeny  plant  ia  now  supplant- 
ing the  olive.  In  Southern  Italy,  where  the  soil  is  volcanic,  well  watered, 
and  highly  fertile,  the  chief  oiops  are  wheat,  maize,  rice,  cotton,  indigo, 
tOgH,  olive  oil,  tobacco,  dates,  melons,  and  other  frails. 

ZeolORT. — There  aeera  to  be  few,  if  any,  wild  animals  peculiar  t» 

^  Italian  peninsula,  unless  the  crested  hedgehog,  found  in  the 
Ellth  of  Naples,  be  an  exception.      On  the  other  hanil,  however, 


294  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPEY. 

few  species  are  wanting  here  of  those  fonnd  in  the  other  parts  of 
Southern  Europe. 

The  Mammalia  comprise  68  species,  including  42  camivora,  16  rodents, 
9  ruminants,  and  1  pachyderm— viz.,  the  wild  boar  of  Calabria.  The 
camivora  embrace  the  bear,  badger,  marten,  dog,  wolf,  fox,  civet,  wild- 
cat, shrew,  desman,  and  numerous  bats;  the  ruminants,  the  bufiGeJo, 
deer,  goat,  and  sheep ;  and  the  rodents,  the  hare,  squirrel,  dormouse, 
and  arvicola.  Of  the  294  species  of  Birds  there  are  numerous  species 
unknown  in  the  British  Isles.  Reptiles  of  every  order  are  very  nume- 
rous, embracing  no  fewer  than  47  species.  Of  the  444  Fishes  found  in  the 
Mediterranean,  the  great  majority  frequent  the  coasts  of  this  peninsula ; 
and  some  of  the  fisheries  there  established,  especially  those  of  the  tunny, 
anchovy,  pilchard,  and  mackerel,  are  of  great  value.  The  Articulated 
animals  are  also  very  numerous,  including  the  bee  and  silkworm  (both  of 
which  are  of  great  economic  importance) ;  the  tarantula,  scorpion,  and 
white  ant,  all  highly  noxious ;  the  locust,  which  not  unfrequently  makes 
its  appearance  in  devastating  swarms ;  and  the  butterflies,  remarkable 
for  the  number  and  beauty  of  the  species.  The  molluscs,  crustaceans^ 
echinoderms,  sponges,  and  corals  of  the  Mediterranean  are  very  numerous, 
but  seldom  diner  specifically  from  those  of  the  Lusitanian  and  West 
African  regions,  from  the  former  of  which,  especially,  its  fauna  appears 
to  have  been  a  colony.* 

Ethnograpliy. — From  the  earliest  dawn  of  history,  Italy  contained 
a  number  of  distinct  races.  Who  were  its  earliest  inhabitants,  and 
from  what  country  they  entered  the  peninsula,  are  questions  still 
involved  in  great  obscurity.  It  is  pretty  generally  allowed,  how- 
ever, that  the  aborigines  of  the  south,  who  are  known  by  the  vari- 
ous names  of  Pelasgi,  Siculi,  (Enotrians,  and  Itali,  were  a  Sanscritio 
race,  and  allied  to  the  Celts,  Teutones,  and  Sclaves,  the  earliest 
settlers  in  Western  and  Northern  Europe ;  that  they  entered  Italy 
from  the  north,  at  various  times,  from  2000  to  1350  B.O.;  and  that 
they  were  subsequently  driven  southwards  by  the  Etruscans,  Liga- 
rians,  and  other  tribes  of  uncertain  origin.  In  753  B.O.  Rome  was 
founded,  according  to  some,  by  the  descendants  of  a  colony  ttom 
Troy,  and  gradually  extended  its  sway  over  the  entire  peninanla, 
and  at  length  over  the  greater  part  of  the  whole  world  as  known  to 
the  ancients.  In  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  the  Gtoths  invaded 
Italy,  and  overthrew  the  Roman  Empire.  The  Italian  people  of 
the  present  day  are,  therefore,  a  very  mixed  race,  formed  of  the 
union  of  the  aborigines  with  Greeks,  Gauls,  Goths,  Germans,  and 
Arabs. 

LangtMge,  —  The  Grecian  colonists,  ia  common  with  all  the  other 
tribes  above  enumerated,  came  in  the  course  of  time  to  lose  their  ori^pnal 
dialects ;  and,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Augustus,  Latin  was  tiie  spcd^en 
language  of  all  Italy.  The  modem  Italian,  a  soft,  euphonious  language 
is  more  closely  allied  to  the  Latin  than  any  other  Greco-Roman  toiunie. 
Of  its  numerous  dialects,  which  differ  widely  ttom  each  other,  the  Tni- 
can  is  the  most  refined  and  harmonious,  being  spoken  by  fhe  eduoated 

*  The  LtiBitanian  region  of  marine  life  embraces  the  eastern  Bids  of  the  AXkuHk 
from  the  N.W.  of  France  to  the  Canary  Isles,  and  lies  between  the  Oettia  and 
African  regions.— <Ske  p.  104.) 


aea  in  nil  pirlj  af  the  peninaula,  and  liaiing  been  long  tbe  almost 
exelnsiTe  cbannel  of  Italian  literature. 

Stligion.  and  Sducatiim— The  entire  population  of  Italy,  witb  tbe  el- 
ection ot  26,000  Waldensian  Pidtestanta  in  Piedmont,  wbo,  after  sees 
of  pBraeeuttMi,  are  Bow  allowed  freedom  o(  worship,  belongs  to  the 
R.  Uatbolio  Cburch.  Until  tbe  recent  revolutions,  wben  tbe  Pope's 
temporal  power  was  bo  terribly  shaken,  no  other  form  of  wotsliip  was 
tolerated  in  any  part  of  the  peninsnla.  Now,  however,  this  state  of 
things  is  changed  conaiderahly for  the  better;  Protestants  ara  allowed 
freedom  of  worship  in  all  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy, 
while  even  in  the  former  Papal  States  a  limited  degree  of  toieratlon 
eiiata,  and  Protestanta  are  allowed  to  meet  for  worship  inside  the 
walls  of  Bome^  The  education  of  the  people  Is  sIed  better  attended  to. 
Formerly  Tery  few  ot  the  peasantry  conld  either  read  or  write,  eieept  in 
Ssitlinia,  which  for  many  yeara  has  formed  an  honourable  exception  to 
the  general  rule.  But  now  common  schools  are  beginning  to  appear  in 
oU  directions  ;  nawspapera  and  railways  are  on  the  increase,  and,  above 
nil,  WiB  Word  of  God  in  the  vemacolar  may  now  happily  be  seen  in  miU- 
tilndes  of  villages  end  hamlets  throughout  the  pen' — '-      " — '  — 


0  the  revolution  of  1880,  there  were  live  nniversitiee  in  the  kingilon 
of  Sardinia — viz.,  those  ot  Turin,  Genoa,  Cagliari,  Sassari,  and  Pavia 

in  Tuscany,  three — thoar  -' ™—  ™ --^  "' ■"- - 

State*,  four— the  Uni' 


le  of  Pisa,  Florence,  and  Siena ;  in  the  Pontifical 

J ersltyof  Rome,  tbe  University  of  Bologna,  tho 

Collegio  Homano.  and  tbe  Collecio  de  Propaganda  Fide ;  in  Naples,  three 
—those  of  Naples,  Palermo,  and  Catania.  Altogether,  there  are  now  22 
nnlveraities  in  Italy,  many  ot  tham  being  of  ancient  foundation. 

KftUonal  CIiaTaot«r.— The  modern  Italians  are  described  m  "a 
hnndsome,  lively,  and  intelligent  people.  The  men  are  well  formed, 
rather  alim  than  stout,  bat  atrong  and  agile,  with  a  dark  complex' 


hajr.  The  women  have  narrow  Ibreheads,  black  or  iSrk-brown  bi 
large,  brilliant,  and  expressive  eyes,  a  be^ntifnl  nose,  which,  with 
the  forehead,  forms  the  eleeant  Roman  profile  ;  but  tbe  lower  classes, 
In  coDsequence  of  living  wholly  on  vegetabl«  food,  and  of  hard  labonr 
muler  a  Duming  sun,  rarely  display  any  peculiar  attractions.  Tbe 
prominent  traits  of  the  Itatiaji  character  are  love  of  ease  and  pleasnre, 
Knd  an  inborn  capacity  for  appreciating  the  beantifal  in  every  depart- 
ment of  ut,  which  has  rendered  their  country  the  chief  school  for 
ficulptuia,  painting  and  mnaic." 

UMTa1iiix& — From  the  splendid  galaxy  of  literati  which  for  ages 
haa  illnmined  thia  classic  connti-y  we  can  only  iostance  a  few  of  tka 
moat  conspicuous  stam  : — 

ClabBIcaL  Litehaturk;  Plantna,  Terence,  Lnoretiua,  Cicero,  Ctesar, 
Tirgil,  Horace,  Livy,  Ovid,  aalltiat,  Nepos,  Juvenal,  Pliny,  Taoitns, 
QninBliim,  Ssored  Lttehstdhe  :  Gregory  the  Great  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Cajetan,  Baronius,  Bellannine,  Paolo  SorpI,  Paliavicinl,  Martini,  Diotati, 
Db  Bossi,  Cardinal  Mai.  Postbt  :  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boocaccio,  Pulci, 
Bdaido,  Ariosto,  Bemi,  Colonna,  Gnarini,  Taasq,  Metostasio,  Alfieri, 


Faiisd.    UisToni :  Platina,  Machiavelli,  Varchi,  Dai^  Unic- 

„~  I,  Strada,  Mafibl,  Mnrat«ri,  IauzI,  Vasarl,  Denina, 

Faiini,  Vico.  _PAnrmra :  (Smabuo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 


I,  Bentirogili 


296  POLITICAL   OEOaSAPHY. 

Ginlio  Romano,  Borocci,  Sacchi,  Claude  of  Lorrain,  Ponssin  (Gaspaid), 
of  the  Roman  ScJux>l.  Titian,  Paolo  Veronese,  Canale,  of  the  Venetian 
School.  Correg^o,  Caracci,  Guido,  Grimaldi,  Colonnii^^  of  'ttie  Lombard 
and  Bolognae  School.  Sculpturb  :  Niccola  Pisano,  Donatello,  Cdlini, 
Bernini,  Algardi,  Michael  Angelo,  Canoya.  Music :  Palestrina,  Fan- 
neUi,  Paganini,  Lully.  Science  and  Philosopht:  Cardan,  vanini, 
Galileo,  ToriceUi,  Malpighl,  Cassini,  Moigagni,  Galvani,  Volta,  MellonL 
Travels  and  Discovebt  :  Christopher  Columbus,  Amerigo  Vespacci, 
Marco  Polo.  Miscellaneous  Literature  :  Poggio,  Laurentins  valla, 
Politian,  Pico  Mirandola,  Bembo,  Aldo  lilanuzio,  J.  C.  Scaliger,  Maiana, 
Gravina,  Crescimbini,  Facdolati,  Forcellini,  Beccaiia,  FHangieri. 

Goyemment  and  Finance. — ^With  the  exception  of  Sardinia,  which 
has  enjoyed  free  institutions  since  1848,  all  the  Italian  states  had  for 
generations  been  groaning  under  despotisms  of  the  most  extreme 
type.  Civil  and  religious  liberty  were  everywhere  unknown ;  and 
freedom  of  worship,  freedom  of  speech,  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
liberty  of  the  subject,  effectually  suppressed.  The  inextiugtdshahle 
love  of  liberty,  however,  in  the  bosoms  of  the  people,  stimmated  by 
the  example  and  influence  of  Sardinia,  broke  out  at  length  in  a 
general  revolution,  which  terminated  in  hurling  the  despots  from 
their  thrones.  In  1859,  Lombardy  was  wrested  from  Austria  and 
ceded  to  Sardinia;  in  the  following  year  Parma,  Modena^  and 
Tuscany,  having  exi)elled  their  sovereigns,  also  attached  themselves 
to  that  state ;  while  still  more  recently,  Garibaldi,  a  Sardinian 
general,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  Sicily,  crossed  Uie  Strait 
of  Messina,  overran  the  Neapolitan  territories  and  the  Pontifical 
States,  and  thus  laid,  all  the  remainder  of  Italy,  with  the  exception 
of  Rome  and  Venetia,  at  the  feet  of  Victor  EmmanueL  Finally, 
Venetia  was  ceded  by  Austria  at  the  termination  of  the  Continent 
tal  war  of  186C  ;  while  during  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870,  the 
French  garrison  having  evacuated  Rome,  that  city  with  its  t^ritory 
was  taken  |)ossession  of  by  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  legislative 
authority  rests  conjointly  in  the  kins  and  parliament,  the  latter 
consisting  of  two  chambers,— viz.,  the  Senate,  which  consistB  of 
princes  of  the  blood-royal,  and  of  an  unlimited  number  of  mem- 
bers nominated  for  life  by  the  king ;  and  a  Lower  House,  elected 
by  a  majority  of  all  citizens  who  are  25  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  40  lire  (£1,  12s.)  The  executive  is  vested  in  the 
king,  and  is  exercised  by  him  through  responsible  ministera.  In 
1874,  the  army  numbered  200,000 ;  the  navy,  91  vessels  of  war, 
carrying 800 guns;  receipts,  £62,000,000;  expenditure,  £62,000,000; 
public  debt,  £390,000,000. 

Uannfactures  and  Ck)mmerce. — ManufiEusturine  industry  is  still 
at  a  low  ebb  in  all  parts  of  the  peninsula,  notwithstanding  the  great 
political  changes  that  have  recently  taken  place.  A  liberal  oonsti- 
tutional  government,  favourable  to  free-trade  and  moderate  tulflh^ 
with  the  many  other  advantages  resulting  from  the  inooiporatian  of 
the  numerous  states  formerly  existing  in  the  country  into  one  kiiig* 


ITAI.T.  S97 

Ann,  CBlmot  faD  to  insn^mtfi  a  new  ers  in  tlie  cammercisl  tiii 
mannfactmiiig  bistoi?  of  tiie  coMitry. 

GenecaDy  Bpeaking,  ItoliBD  'workmsn  are  inferior  to  tLuee  uT  otlier 
EniDpean  conutriea.  Tbeir  leading  diBraeteriBSc  is  that  their  efforts  nre 
□mre  dincted  to  the  prodnctiffii  cl  BTticIeB  of  Iniory  than  to  thoM  <if 
utility.  Among  teirtllt  fabrics,  Eilke  and  velvets  are  the  most  impiatsiit, 
espedaHy  in  northern  end  oeiitniJ  Italy.  By  for  the  greater  part  of  t^ 
law  and  ttrovu  Eillc  imported  into  Engijmd  from  France  is  not  produced 
in  that  country,  bnt  in  Italy.  The  ammal  valne  at  the  ailli  cnm  is  bbU- 
nuted  to  eicsed  £10,000,0(10.  BesidtiB  these,  woullen  teitutes  for  home 
cocEoinptios  are  manufactured  in  Sardinia;  paper  and  stmir-pbit  in 
!ri]aGany ;  leather,  gloves,  mnaical  instmmecte,  ^aas  wares,  cordage, 
iriiie,  and  soap,  iu  central  Itujy,  where  also  snlpkor  ani  salt  are  prei^red 
for  erportation;  irhile  in  I^aples  the  principat  orliEles,  heskdes  silks, 
an  woollezis,  linens,  hosiery,  Btraw-hats,  saasa^ies.  iniicaroni,  esantccK, 
perfumery,  ^asE,  bobp,  inoEical  striugs,  filigreB-nort,  md  coral  omamenti.- 
9)he  manDfadmiee  of  Vimetia  are  my  varioDH.  The  famoas  glsssworkt 
al  Venioe  jirodnce  mftgnificent  mirrors,  with  every  variety  of  artifidal 
pearU  uid  gema,  beada,  enamel,  and  rnDsaic  "wortB,  See. ;  whdlfi  jewetUer^, 
gtdd  and  silver  staffs,  velteU,  silks,  laces,  soaps,  aiid  wai-lj^ts,  an 
•iteuaiyely  manufactured.  The  commeree  is  oonaideiable,  is  rapidly 
iocrearaD^  and  is  chiefly  carried  on  'with  Great  Britain,  the  sc>iith  OS 
Enrepe,  and  the  Levant.  Fully  two-thirdB  of  the  foreigu  trade  of  Venice 
IE  csmed  on  under  tJie  Britifih  flog.  The  chie£  articles  of  exportatitm  an 
aUka,  olive  oil,  irincs,  siilj>liar,  boiax,  fruits,  oak  and  ddt^  iurli,  ascbo 
_.  .,  macaroui,  essenees.  eoap,  aud  the  other  articioa  above  ennmeialed : 
■vjiile  the  mincipal  imports  are  cotton  Etnffs,  iron,  flteel,  hardwaie,  and 
fnou  Great  Britain ;  wool  from  the  Levant ;  com  from  Odessa  ;  and 
1  &imi  Fmnce  and  Siiain.  In  1S73,  Britain  amt  to  Italy  goods  tt> 
value  of  £7,S0O,OO0,  and  reoeivad  in  return  goods  to  tbe  value  oS 
.--,018,582.  The  imports  from  France  into  IlJj  average  £8,000,000 
■tariing,  and  tSe  eiporta  from  Italy  into  France  are  about  equal  in  value. 
Next  in  order  to  France  and  Btitain,  hnt  far  lieiow,  come  Ausfria  and 
Bwitierland.  The  commeralia  marine  of  tbe  Kinffdom  of  Italy,  in  1S70, 
oompiiied  17,500  soiling  vessels,  carrying  926,000  tona.  imd  103  steamen, 
canTing  £5,000  tona— in  all,  17,600  vcskU,  cairying  9G0,000  tons, 

Ijitenal  nimiimi¥i4n»iWmi  —  Owing  to  the  want  of  energy  on  tbe 
part  of  the  people,  their  abject  poverty,  and  the  innnmerable  dia- 
conrngementb  to  which  they  have  been  aubjeoted  by  their  rnlera,  the 
gr«at  iboroughfarefi  of  commerce  are  still  in  a  backirard  condition. 

Till  very  reoentlj;  ^ailuayi  were  almost  unknown  in  tie  peninsola,  the 
total  number  of  nules  open  for  traffic,  in  1858,  being  only  700 — vii.,  for 
Sardinia  390  milee,  for  Fnnua  and  Modena  06  miles,  for  Tuscany  150 
ndlea,  nnd  for  Naples  M  miles.  Ot  late  years,  however,  the  railway  ejs- 
tem  has  made  rapid  i>rogre«s  Uirangbont  all  parts  of  the  peninsnla.  In 
"  ere  were  3667  mSes  open  for  traffic  tn  the  Eiogdcrm  of  Ita1;r, 
1871  they  amonnted  to  4287  miles.  The  most  important  tine  is 
it  Ceni*  railway,  which  forms  the  abortest  route  from  Paria  to 
idria,  and  wfaicb  at  present  carries  pur  East  Indian  mails.  Begin- 
'  H.  Cenis.  it  follows  the  course  of  ths  Po  to  Fioceusa,  thence  to 
tliB  AdriattE,  the  coMt  of  whidi  it  travaTses  to  ErfndisI  aetit 
extremity.  Lombardy  abonnds  with  Canata,  but  they  are 
id  tor  th«  purpoiea  d(  irrlgotiou,  the  ^rlnoipal  exceptions  beiug 


^■ttuna 


298  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  canal  from  Milan  to  the  Ticino,  prolwhly  the  oldest  canal  in  Europe^ 
and  that  fh)m  Milan  to  Pavia.  Venetia  aboanda  with  canals,  11111011  in 
general  are  ver^  short.  In  Tuscany  there  is  a  canal  from  Pisa  to  Le^ioni| 
another  from  losa  to  the  Serchio,  uniting  the  Amo  with  the  Serdiio ;  ana 
a  third,  named  the  Chiana  canal,  87  miles  in  lengtk  nniting  the  sooroes 
of  the  Amo  and  'Hber.  In  Venetia  and  Piedmont  the  roads  are  well  con- 
structed  and  kept  in  good  rej^^ ;  but  in  central  and  southern  Italy  they 
are  in  a  most  wretch^  condition.  There  are  no  good  roads  leading  across 
the  Apennines,  notwithstanding  their  moderate  eleyation,  and  they  are  hi 
general  not  available  for  wheeled  carriages.  For  the  various  mountain- 
passes  leading  from  Italy  across  the  Alpn,  see  p.  289. 


GREECE. 

Position  and  Boundaries. — The  Kingdom  of  Greece  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  European  Turkey ;  W.,  by  the  Ionian 
Sea ;  S.,  by  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  K,  by  the  mgean  Sea  or 
Archipelago,  which  separates  it  from  Asia  Minor.  The  conti- 
nental portion  lies  bet  lat  36°  23'  and  39*  SC  N. ;  and  bet 
Ion.  20'  45'  and  24°  T  E. 

Athens,  the  capital,  near  the  centre  of  this  area,  is  on  the  same  parallel 
of  latitude  as  the  Azores,  Cordova,  Moimt  Etna,  Smyrna,  TabriiL  Astra- 
bad,  Yarkand,  Tsi-nan,  San  Francisco,  and  Washin^n j  and  on  tne  same 
meridian  as  Hammerfest,  Mittau,  Lember^  Widdm,  I)ema  (in  Tripoli), 
and  Cape  Delgado.  The  form  is  extremely  irregular,  being  broken  up  by 
straits  and  deep  inlets  of  the  sea  into  a  series  of  peninsulas  and  ishmds, 
which  stand  to  Europe  in  the  same  relation  as  Europe  does  to  Asia.  Ex- 
treme length  of  the  continental  part,  200  miles ;  breadth,  on  the  paral- 
lel of  Athens,  170  miles.  Surrounded  by  the  sea  on  tnree  sides,  and 
stretching  out  between  the  three  continents  of  the  Old  World,  Greece  was 
the  most  favourably  situated  of  all  ancient  countries,  not  even  ezoeptiDg 
Palestine.  In  proportion  to  its  area,  the  coast-line  greatly  exceeds  tliat 
of  any  other  country,  being  estimated  at  one  mile  of  seaboard  to  every 
seven  miles  of  surface.  The  surface,  however,  is  highly  mountainous, 
while  the  centre  of  the  Morea  forms  an  elevated  plateau. 

Area  and  Popnlation.^The  area  of  Greece,  including  the  Ionian 
Islands,  ceded  to  it  by  Great  Britain  in  1864^  amounts  to  20,152  sq. 
UL,  or  two-thirds  the  size  of  Scotland.  The  population,  in  1871, 
was  1,457,894,  or  somewhat  more  than  two-fifths  the  population  of 
the  latter  country.  This  area  ^ves  nearly  72  persona  to  each  aq. 
m.  Ancient  Greece,  including  Epirus  and  Thessaly,  is  supposed  to 
have  contained  at  one  time  3,500,000  inhabitants. 

Polltioal  Divisions.— Previous  to  1830,  and  whilst  Greece  was 
under  the  yoke  of  Turkey,  the  country  was  divided  into  three  pro- 
vinces—viz., Livadia  in  the  N.,  Tripolitza  in  the  S.,  and  t|ie  Anhl" 
pelago  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  In  1838  it  was  divided  into  twentr-foar 
governments,  twelve  of  which  were  in  the  Mores*  eight  in  mUii% 


while  the  rfmaining  Tonr  conijitiseil  the  Cycladea  and  Sporailca.  Bnt 
in  1845  the  whole  country  waa  divided  into  the  rolloning  IS  memos, 
the  last  four  of  whieh  are  insular: — 

Helus  oa  NoRTHKHH  Grbecb. 

AcftTDuiia  and  Stolitk— Missolonghi  6  (G.  of  Patraa),  TcnitiiB  3  (G.  of 
Arta),  Lejianto  3  (G.  of  Lepanto). 

Fhthiotis  and  Phoois  .—Lamia  6  n.  (G.  of  Lamia),  Balonn  B,  Custri  n. 
fBny  of  Saiona),  TheTvutpyia  (Hellnda). 

Attica  and  Bteotia.— Athens  45,  FiraanB  6  (G.  of  ^gina),  Thehes  9 
(Asopo),  Livadia  9  n.  (L.  Topoliaa),  MaraOum  (K.  Co.  of  Attica). 

Enboa  or  UegTopont,— Negropont  6  (Chan,  of  Talania),  Karysto  3 
(a.Bn.  ofE),Tii»). 

The  Mqhea. 

Argolis  and  Corinth.— NanplialO.ArgoB  9,  Spezda  10,  Hydra  10  (G. 
of  Argolis),  Corioth  2  n.,  Voatitza  3  (G.  of  Lepantoj. 

AchaUand  EUs.-Patraa  20(G.  of  Patras),  Ofjmpio  (Eufia). 

"    — Calamata  6  (Nerioo),  CypariBsia  3,  Navarino  2  (W.  Co,) 


Arcadia.- TrLpoIit2:a  7  (Roufial. 

TuE  Islands. 
CycUdM.— Syra  21  (I.  Sjti),  AndroaG  (L  Androa),Naiia5(LNaiOB). 
Ionian  IsIm.— Corfo  15  (L  Corfu).  Argoatoli  fi  (I.  Cephaiooia),  Zaiila 
20(1.  Zante),  Atnoxichi  7  (E.  Co.  Leiicadia), 

DoKilptlve  Hotel.- The  towna  of  Greece  are  all  very  nnall ;  of 
those  enumerated  above,  not  more  than  twenty  exceed  fiOOO  of 
populatiou  ;  eight  eiceed  10,000;  while  ooly  four  exceed  20,001), 

BBwlonghi,  a  small  fortified  town,  which  greatly  diatingnished  itself  in 
the  war  of  independsnea :  here  Lord  Byron  died  io  1324.  Lepanto  or 
Ifepakta,  near  which  the  fleet  ncdB[Don  John  of  Anstrla  totally  defeated 
that  of  the  Turks  in  1671.  Lamia  or  Zeitonn,  neiir  tlie  famons  pass  of 
Tbennopyls,  where  Leonidas,  vilh  his  300  Spartans,  fell  in  opposing  the 
Pereian  invadara  nndar  Xerses,  B.C.  480.  Saiona,  at  the  soothem  base 
of  Mount  PamassuB  ;  on  its  acropolia  are  pictaresi^iie  niins  of  its  ancient 
citadel  Cutri,  near  the  famona  Castaliaa  Sprlna :  liere  stood  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  Apollo,  the  principal  seat  of  his  worship  r  here  were 
celebrated  the  Pythian  games ;  and  it  was  one  of  the  two  places  of  meet- 
ing of  the  Ampbictyonic  Cooncll.  Athena,  capital  of  the  khigdoui  of 
Greece,  is  one  of  the  niost  celebrated  citiea  in  the  world,  and  the  most 
Kjanowned  for  its  literature,  science,  and  fine  arts.  It  is  eitremely  ancient, 
^^~  - '  g  been  fouuded,  at  least  in  part,  by  Cecrops,  a  hero  of  tlie  Pelaagie 
„.  ,  B.C.  1S66.  It  was  bonit  by  Xn^es  n.c  4SU,  but  was  soon  rebuilc 
W  Themistocles,  and  sot  many  yenn  later  it  was  adorned  by  Pericles 
Ttb  the  moat  splendid  aMhitectnral  worka  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The 
ttendoat  of  Athens,  howerer,  chiefly  conalstedin  its  public  buildings,  for 
He  private  houuis,  even  those  of  itn  greatert  men,  ware  iuaignihcant,  nnd 


300  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  streets  narrow  and  irregular.  The  city  suffered  severely  during  the 
siece  of  Sulla,  B.C.  86.  Hadrian  embellished  it  with  many  splendid  pub- 
lic buildings,  A.D.  123.  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  in  a.d.  396,  reduced 
it  almost  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  Since  then  it  has  belonged  successively  to 
(roths,  Byzantines,  Burgundians,  Franks,  Catalans,  Florentines,  Vene- 
tians, Turks,  and  Greeks.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  middle  ages  it 
was  an  almost  deserted  place ;  but  in  1833  it  became  the  seat  of  the 
Greek  Government.  Athens  was  the  birthplace  of  many  illustrious  per- 
sons, among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Socrates,  Plato,  Phidias,  Pericles, 
and  Alcibiades,  Pirseus,  the  port  of  Athens  on  the  Gulf  of  wSgina,  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  Themistocles.  Thebes  or  Thiva,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  Greece,  founded  by  Cadmus  about  B.O.  1551,  and  at  one 
t  ime  a  place  of  great  wealtli  and  importance.  Here  Cadmus  the  Phoenician 
first  introduced  the  use  of  letters  into  Europe.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Hesiod,  Pindar,  Pelopidas,  and  Epaniinondas.  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
tragic  fate  of  QEdipus,  and  of  the  war  of  "the  seven  against  Thfebes." 
Livadla.  the  capital  of  Hellas  under  the  Turks.  Marathon,  a  hamlet 
situated  in  a  plain  watered  by  the  Charadrus.  In  this  plain  was  fought 
the  celebrated  battle  between  the  Persians  under  Datis,  and  the  Athenians 
under  Miltiades,  B.C.  490.  Negropont  (Egripos)  a  maritime  town,  and  capi- 
tal of  the  island  Eubrea.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town,  and  planted  numerous 
colonies,  among  which  were  Cumse  in  Italy,  and  Naxos  in  Sicily.  It  was 
also  a  place  of  great  military  importance,  as  it  commanded  the  navigation 
between  the  north  and  south  of  Greece.  Here  Aristotle  died,  B.c.  322. 
Nauplia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Argolis,  is  a  strongly-fortified  town,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  in  modem  Greece.  ArgOB,long  the  capital  of  Aigoli& 
is  considered  the  most  ancient  city  of  Greece.  Corinth,  once  a  great  and 
opulent  city,  and  the  emporium  of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  A^ia, 
is  now  reduced  to  but  a  mere  vill^e,  exporting  currants,  wheat,  oil, 
honey,  and  wax.  Its  citadel,  on  a  hill  1500  feet  nigh,  would,  if  properly 
fortified,  be  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  the  world.  Its  navy  was 
numerous  and  powerful :  here  jtjie  first  triremes  were  built ;  and  the  first 
sea-fight  on  record  was  between  the  Corinthians  and  their  colonists  the 
Corcyramns.  Spezzia,  beautifully  situated  on  an  island  of  same  name  in 
the  G.  of  Argolis,  is  remarkable  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate.  Hydra» 
an  important  commercial  town,  situated  on  a  barren  rock  in  an  island  tk 
same  name.  Fatras,  a  fortified  seaport,  and  the  principal  seat  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Greece.  Olympia,  the  name  of  a  small  plain,  where  the 
famous  Olympic  Games  were  celebrated  from  the  eariiest  times ;  bat  the 
Olympiads  were  not  employed  as  a  chronological  era  till  the  viotorv  of 
Coroebus  in  the  foot-race,  b.o.  776.  Calamata,  near  the  head  of  the  Qnlf 
of  Koron,  maintains  a  brisk  trade  in  oil,  silk,  and  figs,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  bishopric  of  Messenia.  It  was  burnt  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1826,  bat 
has  been  rebuilt.  Navarino,  a  fortified  seaport  town,  is  ohieflr  cele- 
brated in  modem  times  for  the  victorv  of  the  wigflBlyFgench,  and  B^ 
sian  fleets  over  those  of  the  Turks  and  Egyptians  in  Ini?.  Sparte.  aflv 
long  lying  desolate,  is  now  being  rebuilt^  and  has  become  t^  ea^td  of 
Laconia.  In  ancient  times  it  was  the  chief  city  in  the  Pelopanneiiu^  and 
one  of  the  most  fatuous  in  Grecian  historv.  Tnpolitni  the  capital  of  tin 
Morea  under  the  Turks,  was  stormed  and  taken  liy  tlifl  Greek  inaiuynta 
in  1821,  and  again  by  the  troops  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  the  same  TMr,  win 
razed  it  to  the  ground  :  but  it  nas  been  sinoe  rebuilt.  Bm  or  jgwaaa. 
lis,  the  principiil  commercial  dty  in  Greece,  and  tlifl  nBU^»M » ' 
of  most  European  States.  Thb  Ioniav  Isua.— OorftL  f  * 
republic  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  haa  been  Btnn|^  fbrtmi 


» 


OREECB.  301 

ir  B,  imiieniity.  Zante,  a  tliriving  town,  aud 
densely  peopled  of  all  tlia  loniau  lelejiilti, 
■Puntft  and  Scvopha,  W,  of  Hellas ;  Klarenai,  "W.  of  the 
Mores ;  Gallo,  Matapao,  and  Malea,  8.  of  the  Morea ;  Skillo,  K  of 
the  Morea ;  Colonna  and  Daro,  S.  E.  of  Hellas. 
Pujita,  the  ancient  jlcfiutn,  off  which  Augustus  gained  the  great  naral 
ctoir  over  Anthony  and  CleopatrB.  Colonna  (ancient  Sunium},  ea 
uned  from  the  epiendid  temple  of  Athena  which  cravnedita  biavr,  ths 
itiiani  of  which  still  eiist. 

lElamla. — The  inlands  are  very  numerona,  and  consist  of  (our  lead- 
ing groups.  I.  The  Ionian  Ixlea,  W.  of  Greece,  the  pi-iodpal  being 
Oorft,  Santa  Maura,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  aud  Cerigo.  2.  Hegropont 
or  Eubcea,  E.  of  Eelias,  and  the  largoat  island  in  Greece.  3.  The 
Cvclades,  between  the  Morea  and  Aaia  Minor,  piincipal—AndrOS, 
Tinos,  Naxos,  Pares,  Sjra,  Zoa,  Thormia,  Serfo,  Sipbanto,  and  Milo. 
*.  The  Sporadra,  or  "scattered  islands,"  partly  in  liia  Gulf  of  Egiiift, 
and  partly  N.K.  of  Negropont. 

Onlft  and  atralta.— Gnlf  of  Arta,  N.W.  of  Hellas  ;  Patraa  and 
Lopanto,  between  Hellas  and  the  Morea  ;  Koran,  Laconia,  and  Ar- 
gofis,  S.  of  the  Morea  ;  Egina,  between  AvRolis  and  Attica  :  Chan- 
nels of  Egripo,  Talanta,  and  Trikeri,  between  £ab<:ea  and  the  main- 

Sni&oe  and  Uountalna — The  surface  is  almost  whollj  monn- 
tainuus,  but  the  hills  are  interspersed  with  fine  viilleya  and  a  few 
of  litntled  extent.  The  centre  of  the  Morea  forma  an  elevated 
1  enclosed  by  three  mountain  -  chaitia,  one  of  which  mus 
d  to  the  deeply-penetratJngGulf  of  L*panto,  which ia supposed 
have  been  formed,  at  a  remote  age,  by  an  earthquake. 
The  mountams  of  Hellas  are  a  continnation  of  Mount  Pinilna,  which 
Beparatas  Theasaly  from  Albania.  On  arriving  at  tie  Grecian  frontier  it 
separates  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  (Mount  Othrys)  forms  the 
bonndaiy  between  Theasaly  and  Greece,  and  Heparates  the  baalna  of  the 
Salembria  and  Hellada ;  highest  snnunlt,  5S7»  feet.  The  other  liranrh 
pursues  a  S.E.  direction  to  Cfipe  Colouua  in  Attica,  and  is  thence  prolonged 
through  the  weatem  chain  of  the  Cjcladeato  Bontorini.  It  consists  of 
two  minor  ranges — viz.,  the  Oeta  range  in  the  N.,  about  7000  feet  high, 
bnt  containing  Mount  Ouioua,  the  culniinatjng-pohit  of  Grocce  (87S3  it-), 
■epomied  from  the  Othrys  range  by  the  basin  of  the  Hellada;  and  the 
Pamaaaus  range  hi  the  8.,  eeparated  from  the  Oeta  range  by  the  liasin  of 
the  Gavrioa,  and  fi-om  the  Morea  by  the  Gulf  of  LepantA :  lughest  snm- 


Sn: 
J  tainu 

■  lioha 


0  ft. 


there  ramifies  in 


lettns,  3370  ft    A  branch  from  Mount 

,hmua  of  Corinth  into  the  Morea,  and 

tliree  small  chains,  which  support  between  them  ths 


_  _    _         _ ipport  be 

tatdi-luid  of  Arcadia:  h%he3t  snmmitA,  Mount  I'awetus  or  St  Elias, 
7908  n. :  Cylene  or  Zliio,  7788  ft :  Malevo,  6355  ft.  None  of  the  monn- 
b^ns  of  Greece  folly  teach  the  une  of  perpBtuol  congelatian,  though 

tat  them  doaely  approadi  iL 
■<  and  lAkfls.  — Owing  to  the  peoinsnlar  character  of  the 
oad  th«  niuoeroDi  deep  indeotatioDS  of  the  surrounding 


302  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

seas,  none  of  the  rivers  of  Greece  attains  to  any  considerable  mag- 
nitude, the  principal  streams  being  the  Aspropotamo  (anc  Achddw)t 
the  Fidaris  (anc  Evenus),  the-Ronfia  (anc  Alph^),  the  Baaili- 
Potamo  (anc  Eurotaa),  and  the  Hellada  (anc.  SpercJuus).  The  only 
lake  of  importance  is  Lake  Topolias  (anc.  Copcus),  in  the  east  of 
Hellas,  and  even  it  is  little  more  than  a  reedy  marsh. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  is  in  general  warm  and  delightful,  and 
only  inferior  to  that  of  Italy. 

The  summer  is  extremely  warm,  the  temperature  often  rising  to  100" 
Fahr.  ;  but  it  is  greatly  moditied  by  sea-breezes.  At  this  season  rain 
seldom  falls ;  the  smaller  rivers  are  dried  up ;  the  air  is  remarkably  clear, 
not  a  cloud  being  seen  for  several  weeks.  In  autunm  rain  liecomes 
frequent  and  copious,  and  the  streams  fill  their  channels.  Winter  does 
not  exceed  two  montns'  duration,  and  is  marked  by  rain  in  the  plalna 
and  snow  in  the  mountains,  the  latter  retaining  their  covering  till  sum- 
mer is  far  advanced,  though  none  of  them  attams  the  limit  of  perennial 
congelation.  Snow  appears  in  October,  and  continues  to  fall  tiU  Aprfl. 
In  ^larch  the  olive  buds  and  the  almond  is  in  blossom,  while  gram  is 
ready  for  the  sickle  in  May.  The  mean  temperature  of  tiie  whole  coun- 
try ranges  from  64°  in  the  S.  to  59°  in  the  N.  Mean  temperature  oi 
Athens  60",  winter  41°,  summer  77". 

Geology  and  Minerals. — Crystalline  rocks  cover  the  south-eastern 
part  of  the  Morea,  as  also  Attica,  Euboea,  the  Cyclades,  and  Sporadea 
Tertiary  strata  line  the  western  side,  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  to  Na- 
varino  in  the  Morea.  The  entire  remainder  is  occnpied  with  second- 
ary rocks,  which  are  chiefly  of  limestone,  and  hence  the  numerous 
caverns,  subterranean  rivers,  and  fissures  emitting  mephitic  vaponis, 
which  ministered  so  largely  to  the  mythology  and  poetry  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  :  the  limestone  often  assumes  the  form  of  the  finest 
marble,  which  is  extensively  used  for  building  and  statuary.  Vol- 
canic rocks,  though  not  found  in  the  mainland,  form  consideTable 
masses  in  some  of  the  islands,  one  of  which  (Santorini)  is  indeed  only 
a  recently -extinct  volcano.  The  Mineral  treasures  of  Greece  are 
considerable,  though  very  sparingly  worked.  Marble  is  abundant, 
together  with  salt,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  lignite,  asbestos,  mill-atonei^ 
whetstones,  serpentine,  fuller's  earth,  porcelain  earth,  aigentiibroDi 
lead,  and  traces  of  gold.  The  mainland  is  dnffnlarly  devoid  of 
metals,  but  iron  is  found  in  Euboea  and  some  other  isUiids ;  and  ooal 
occurs  in  Euboea,  Corfu,  and  the  Morea.  Wells  of  petrolenm,  which 
were  known  to  Herodotus,  still  exist  in  Zante. 

Botany  and  Agriculture.— The  botany  of  Greece  conaidenUy  »- 
sembles  that  of  Southern  Turkey  and  Albania.  "Dt  Sibthoz^  in  Im 
*  Flora  Grseca,'  enumerates  850  species,  which  he  oolleoted  pmusnal^ 
iu  Attica  and  Beotia.  Most  of  our  finer  garden-flowen grairinldte 
Greece,  as  the  Hyacinth,  Ranunculus,  TnbB-roae,  NaroiBBni^  Iilib  nd 
Anemone.  The  natural  vegetation  of  the  oouitiy,  from  flM 
level  to  the  height  of  1500  feet,  exhibits  as  great  a  Tiriflbrof  Ti 
trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  as  can  be  found  in  an  wat^  •^•*— »*  ** 
try  anywhere  throughout  the  world.  Among  v 
and  useftil  may  be  reckoned  the  olive,  vine^  on 


QBEECX.  SOS 

KHg,  almonil,  tliB  dBta-palm  (in  Attica),  the  curraiit  grspe  of  Coriiitli, 
Wfiich  is  &  ipecieB  of  vine  yielding  tlie  cummta  of  commerce,  the 
citron,  pamegrannte,  and  bonanEi.  The  wcLter-melons  and  gonrds  nro 
excellent  At  elevations  less  than  1600  feet,  the  myrtle,  mostich, 
and  plane-tree  flourish ;  while  the  mouutniuB  ore  covered  with  foresta 
of  pice, 

ApriimUure. — Ouly  abont  B  tenth  of  the  anrface  is  under  cnltivstion, 
and  tlie  amUe  land  is  of  vtry  limiud  extent.  A  great  part  of  the  soil  is 
of  ■  thin  and  by  no  means  fertile  Datnre.  Agricultural  implementa  and 
operations  are  of  the  moat  prlmitiva  description,  and  the  grain  raised  is 
only  abont  two-t  hbds  of  that  required  for  home  conanniption.  The  plough 
in  nse  differs  in  no  respect  from  that  described  by  Hesiod,  nearly  StM) 
years  ago.  The  principal  crops  are— wheat,  barley,  maize,  rice,  coffee, 
tobacco,  cotton,  mwlder,  flax,  and  des  ;  but  the  olive  takes  precedence  of 
all  othen,  both  soil  and  climate  being  partlcaliirly  favourable  to  its 
growth.  The  soil  in  most  parts  of  Greece  and  the  Ionian  lalands  is  ad- 
nurablT  fitted  for  the  culture  of  the  vine,  which  in  ancient  times  formed 
B  highly  iijiportant  article  of  industry;  but  owing  to  the  niismle  and 
TBpBcity  of  the  Turks,  for  four  centuries  its  cnltlvation  was  ahnost  totally 
abandoned.  It  is  now  beginning  to  revive,  and  will,  doubtless,  era  long 
lesome  its  proper  place  in  the  markets  of  Europe,  Tino,  one  of  the 
Cycladas,  is  famous  for  its  Malmsey  wine,  and  Sikind  and  Santorin  pro- 
dnoe  wines  of  good  quality.  The  coltiVBtJon  of  the  mulberry  has  also  of 
late  been  greaUy  eilended. 

Axllogy.  — The  moat  common  wild  QuadTapedx  are  the  bear,  lynx, 
wildcat,  hoar,  stag,  toebnct,  goat,  badger,  marten,  wolf,  foi,  weasel, 
jackal,  hare,  and  hedgehog,  Birdt  comprise  the  vulture,  falcon, 
owl,  cuckoo,  roler,  kingfisner,  teal-dack,  stork,  partridge,  pigaoo. 

Snail,  snipe,  blackbird,  goldfinch,  nightingale,  swallow,  marten, 
amiueo,  and  pelican.  The  domeMic  animals  are  of  inferior  breeds, 
and  thJe  ass  is  almost  the  only  beast  of  burden.  Sheep  are  very 
nnmerons,  ami  form,  with  goata,  the  only  animals  from  which  dairv 

Cidnce  IB  obtuned.      Beea  are  extensively  reared,  and  honey  la 
gely  exported. 

BthnogTapliy.— The  people  of  modem  Greece  are  a  mixed  nice, 
the  pure  blood  of  the  Pelasgians  having,  in  the  course  of  aii^es,  be- 
come largely  intermixed  with  Sclavonic,  Teutonic,  and  even  Turkisli 
elements.  In  some  parts  of  Northern  Greece,  as  also  in  the  nortbeni 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  Morea,  and  some  of  (he  islands,  Albaniana 
EODatitute  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 

ZanjTuaac— The  ancient  Greek  formed  one  of  the  principal  membera  of 
the  Greco-Latin  branch  of  the  great  Ludo-Euiopeau  family.  Modem  Greek 
or  Ramaic  dilfere  as  little  Cram  tke  ancient  as  some  of  the  dialects  of  the 
latlar  lUffered  from  each  otha 
Romanic  lancuacea  (Kn;ni-Ii.  Il 
90).  The  All.  ■ 
Dlyrian  pri. 
theSclavoi,.' 


304  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

fallibility  of  ecclesiastical  councils;  in  administering  the  Eucliarist  in 
two  kinds ;  in  denying  tiie  doctrine  of  puigatory  and  the  adoration  of 
images,  (though  that  honour  is  freely  conced^  to  paintings  of  the  Deity, 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  of  other  saints);  and,  finally,  in  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy,  and  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  laity.  Bomap  Catholics 
are  numerous  in  the  Ionian  Isles  and  the  Cyclades,  and  enjoy,  with  other 
sects,  a  limited  amount  of  toleration. 

Education  is  in  a  backward  state,  but  strenuous  efforts  are  made  by 
the  state  to  improve  it.  Besides  the  Universities  of  Athens  and  Corfu, 
there  are  gymnasia  at  Athens,  Nauplia,  Patras,  Syra,  and  Hydra;  to- 
gether with  normal,  polytechnic,  and  naval  schools.  Indeed,  every  imr 
portant  town  has  its  gymnasium,  and  every  village  its  common  schooL 

Literature. — The  literature  of  Greece,  the  most  copions  and  bril- 
liant in  the  history  of  our  race,  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  ancient 
times,  and  every  scholar  is  more  or  less  familiar  with  it.  Of  the  few 
names  contained  in  the  following  list,  several  were  not  natives  of 
Greece : — 

Poets  :  Homer,  Hesiod,  Tyrtseus,  Sappho,  Anacreon,  Pindar,  .^schy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Arist^hanes.  Historians  :  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Polybius,  Diodoms  Siculus,  Diogenes  Laertius, 
Plutarch.  Orators:  Empedocles,  Goigias,  Isocrates,  Demosthenes, 
^schines,  Hermogenes,  Longinus.  Philosophers:  Thales  of  Miletus, 
Auaximander,  Anaximenes,  Anaxagoras,  Pythagoras,  Heraclitus,  Demo- 
critus,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Epicurus,  Zeno,  Plotinus.  Matheua- 
TiciANS  AND  Astronomers  :  Eudoxus,  Euclid,  Eratosthenes,  Archimedes, 
Apollonius,  Hipparclius,  Ptolemy,  Diodes,  Proclus,  Isidorus,  Diophan- 
tus.  Geographers:  Posidonius,  Strabo.  Physicians:  .fisculapius^ 
Hippocrates,  Herophilus,  Galen.  Fine  Arts  :  Ageladas,  Myron,  Phidias, 
Polycletus,  Polygnotus,  Apelles,  Aristides. 

Oovemxnent,  &c. — Greece,  which  had  for  ages  groaned  under  the 
yoke  of  Turkey,  revolted  against  that  power  in  1821 ;  and  after  a 
long  and  severe  struggle,  in  which  it  was  aided  by  liie  European 
powers,  secured  its  independence  in  1829.  In  1832  Otho,  second 
son  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  was  appointed  king,  but  abdicated  in 
1862,  after  which  Prince  George  of  Denmark  accepted  the  crown. 
The  government,  at  first  nearly  absolute,  became,  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1843,  a  constitutional  monarchy.  The  executive  is  vested  in 
the  king  and  his  responsible  ministers,  assisted  by  a  council  of  state. 
The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  who  are  chosen  by  universal  suffrage, 
consists  of  170  members.  The  army,  in  1873,  amounted  to  12,800 
men  and  officers,  including  1500  of  a  reserved  force.  The  navy 
embraced  2  frigates,  2  corvettes,  and  8  steamers,  carrying  164  guns. 
The  estimated  Revenue  for  1870  amounted  to  £1,218,000 ;  the  Ex- 
penditure to  £1,210,000  ;  and  the  Public  Debt  to  £18,800,000. 

Commerce  and  Maimfactures. — The  chief  resource  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Greece  consists  in  their  maritime  commerce.  The  Greeks 
are  expert  mariners  ;  the  great  extent  of  coast-line  gives  them  many 
facilities  for  maritime  pursuits  ;  and  they  have  for  a  long  time  been 
the  principal  agents  in  conducting  the  commerce  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Mediterranean.     In  1869,  the  total  number  of  vessels  that 


TURKEY. 


Of  these,  638,  with  a  tonnage  of  321,997,  \ .^_ 

j^incipat  porta  are  the  Pirsns,  ^tras,  NaupUa,  Syra,  and  Corfu. 
The  mannfactnres  are  few,  and  chiefly  domestic,  consisting  of  silll, 
cotton,  and  woollen  stu^a ;  coarse  pottery,  leather,  beetroDt-sugiir, 
and  soap,  are  made  in  the  principal  towns ;  carpets,  sail-cloth,  imd 
Btraw-hats  in  some  of  the  islands:  the  women  excel  in  etabroidery, 
and  dyeing  in  bright  colours  has  been  perpetuated  from  ancient  times. 
ShiphnUding  is  also  carrisd  on  at  Syra,  Lepanto,  and  other  ports. 
The  Exports  embrace  currants  (the  average  annual  value  of  which 
to  Britain  amonots  to  £700,000),  cotton,  olivB-oil,  wine,  tobacco, 
wool,  honey,  wax,  gum,  silk,  sponge,  and  valouia  (a  species  of  acorn 
naed  by  tanners),  ImporU  :  manufactured  goods  (chiefly  cotton  from 
.     Great  Britaiu},  colonial  prodnce,  flax,  timber,  rice,  drugs,  &o. 

Tnlnnfl  Communication, — The  roads  are  few  in  camber  and  of  the 
most  wretched  description,  except  neat  the  capital ;  and  sach  as  exist 
are  infested  with  bands  of  robbers.  A  railway,  however,  now  con- 
nects Athens  with  the  Pirsus  (being  a  distance  of  7  miles),  opened 
in  186B ;  while  a  canal  is  coutemplated  to  cut  through  the  Isthmoa 
K  flf  Qorinth. 

^B  The  Turkish  or  Ottoman  Empire  comprehends  ali  the  conn- 
^BWeHuiwhicfiTurkiBhaupremaeyiB  directly  or  indirectly  recog- 
E^irised.  Its  area  and  population  are  ill  defined — the  authority 
of  the  Snlt&n  heing  little  more  than  nominal  in  many  extensive 
provinoea.  Its  vaet  territoriea,  though  situated  in  the  three 
continents  which  constitute  the  Old  World,  are  strictly  contanii- 
oua,  comprising  a  large  territory  in  the  extreme  S.  of  Eorope ; 
another,  six  times  aa  large,  in  the  W.  of  Asia  ;  and  a  third, 
of  still  greater  dimenaiona,  in  the  N.E.  of  Africa.  IC  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  hy  the  Tran^cancaaian  provinces  of  Russia,  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Eouniania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro;  on  the  W.  by 
Montenegro,  the  Adriatic  and  Mediterranean  Seas,  Alceria, 
and  Nigritia  ;  on  the  8.  by'  the  equator,  AbyeBinia,  and  the 
Golf  ot  Aden  j  and  on  the  E.  by  Arabia  and  Persia.  Lat,  0° 
—14=  8'  N.;  Ion.  7°  46'— 48°  16'  E. 

This  wido  eiponra  of  territory,  equal  in  dimensions  to  the  most  famous 
empiiea  of  antiquity,  is  intensely  interesting  to  every  reflecting  miiid.  It  is 
i/ieffrajMtaltg  interesting,  as  ly!n|;  midway  between  the  four  great  Oceana, 
this  occupying  the  central  area  of  the  Old  World.  It  is  KiitoriaCly  intar- 
eatins,  ucomprebending  theaceneofman's  eulieat  history— his  high  origin, 
Ilia  haw;  Paradise,  his  early  rebellion,  and  the  first  promise  of  hia  fatore 
restoiBOon  to  fellowship  with  his  Maker,  Here  tbe  Antediluviane  lived 
~  It  tlieir  unturies  of  violence,  and  here  the  ark  of  Noah  fioated  Becurelr 


aboTB  that  flood  which  extemvinated  the  rebellious  race ;  here  tbe 


306  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

arcli  alighted  to  people  afresh  the  desolate  earth,  and  here  his  descendanta 
attempted  anew  to  oppose  the  decrees  of  Heaven ; — ^here  the  most  ancimt 
empires  were  founded,  the  iirst  cities  bnilt,  the  earliest  arts  coltiTated, 
the  temple  of  science  founded,  and  the  saving  truths  of  revelation  first 
published  I — here  wandered  those  pilgrim  fathers  who  lived  "  as  seeing 
Him  who  is  invisible ; "  here  their  onsprin^  were  held  in  bondage,  am 
the  power  of  the  Divine  arm,  working  in  their  behalfl  was  revealed ; — ^here 
was  situated  that  "good  land"  which  the  Most  High  had  kept  in  reserve 
for  His  peculiar  people,  "  when  He  divided  to  the  nations  their  inheritance, 
and  separated  tne  sons  of  Adam ;"  here  seers  prophesied,  and  inroii^ 
bards  sang ; — ^here  Gk>d  tabernacled  amongst  men,  and  the  Skm  or  God 
assumed  the  human  form  ;  here  He  suffered  and  died  for  man,  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  a  kingdom  that  is  destined  ere  long  to  embrace  all  the 
tribes  of  mined  humanity.  The  capital  of  this  vast  empire  is  Ck>nstanti* 
nople,  situated  on  the  strait  which  separates  the  European  from  the 
Asiatic  provinces,  and  contains  600,000  inhabitants.  The  empire  is  said 
to  consist  of  24  divisions,  called  vilayets,  12  of  which  are  in  Europe,  and 
12  in  Asia.  The  African  provinces  are  nearlv  independent,  while  the  tie 
that  connects  many  of  the  remainder  with  the  Sultan  of  Constantinople 
is  verv  slender.  The  total  area  is  vaguely  estimated  at  1,820,000  sq.  m., 
but  the  population  is  very  sparse,  not  exceeding  40,000,000,  or  a  little 
more  than  that  of  the  British  Isles. 

Historical  Sketch. — The  Ottoman  Empire  was  founded  at  Prusa,  in 
Bithynia,  in  a.d.  1298,  by  Osman  or  Othman  I.,  sumamed  Elghazi,  or  the 
Victorious.  In  1353,  the  Turks  first  entered  Europe,  under  Solyman, 
who  crossed  the  Hellespont  and  landed  at  Gallipoli.  In  1360,  Amurath 
I.  overran  Eastern  Europe,  from  the  Danube  to  the  Adriatic.  Adrianople 
became  the  capital  of  European  Turkey  in  1362,  and  Constantinople  was 
captured  by  Mahommed  II.  in  1453,  thus  terminating  the  Byzantine  or 
Ei^tem  Roman  Empire.  Servia  was  conquered  in  1458,  Moldavia  in  1476, 
li^ypt  in  1516,  Belgrade  in  1521,  Rhodes  from  the  Knights  of  St  John  in 
152^  Hun^uy  became  subject  to  the  Turks  by  the  battle  of  Mohacz  in 
1526,  when  Louis  of  Hungary  was  slain.  Cyprus  was  ceded  by  the  Vene- 
tians in  1573,  and  Candia  taken  in  1669,  after  a  25  years'  siese.  In  1686, 
Buda  was  retaken  by  the  Imperialists,  and  Hungary  wrested  from  Taricey. 
Transylvania  was  lost  in  1699.  Montenegro  was  ceded  to  Turkey  in  1718^ 
bv  the  peace  of  Passarowitz ;  but  she  lost  the  Crimea  in  177^  Besnr- 
abia  in  1812,  Greece  in  1829,  and  Roumania,  Servia,  Montenegro,  in  1878; 
while  Bulgaria  is  nearly  free,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  are  occnpied  hf 
Austria,  Cyprus  by  Great  Britain. 


TURKEY   IN    EUROPE. 

(Together  with  Roumania,  Servia,  MoNTXNao&o,  Ac) 

Position  and  Bonndaries.— N.,  the  Hungarian  provineaiof 
Austria  ;  W.,  Dalmatia,  the  Adriatic,  and  the  Ionian  Seat  &» 
Greece,  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  E..  the  Blade 
Sea  and  Bessarabia.  It  lies  between  lat  38^  bT  and  4IB^^'^- 
and  between  Ion.  15°  54'  and  29°  40'  E.,  thus  occapyiog  a 
than  9°  of  lat.  and  nearly  14°  of  Ion. 


TURKEV,  307 

Conataatiaopla  (Ut.  41°,  Ion.  29°),  tte  cnpital  of  ths  empire,  sitnated 
not  for  from  its  (centre,  is  nearly  on  the  aame  parallel  as  New  York, 
Maiiriii,  Naples,  Bokhara,  and  Pekin ;  and  nearly  on  the  aame  meridian 
as  St  Patersijurg,  Alexandria,  and  Pott  Natal.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
(July  1878),  thoUmita  of  European  Turkey  are  now  reduced  to  abont  one- 
half  their  former  dimenaions.  The  principalities  of  Eoumania,  Bervia, 
and  Montenegro,  formerly  tributary,  are  now  independent,  and  have  had 
their  areas  considerably  enla^d  ;  Bulgaria  is  reduced  in  size,  bnt  made 
praotioaliy  independent ;  Bosnia  and  HerieKOvina  are  occupied  and  ad- 
ministered by  Anstro-Hungary;  while  the  southern  parts  of  Albania  and 
TbessaJy  are  to  be  annoied  to  Greece.  Further,  Kusaia  baa  retaken 
possession  of  that  jjart  of  Roumania  lying  N.  of  the  Danube  and  B.  of 
the  Pmth,  which  she  was  compelled  to  cede  to  Turkey  by  the  Treaty  of 


Paris,  1856,  in  return  for  which  Hnumania  has  obtained  posse 
that  part  of  Bulgaria  named  the  Uobrudscba.  Turkey  has  also  been 
obIi|red  to  cede  toRnssia  a  lat^  portion  of  Armenia,  including  Kais  and 
the  seaport  Batoum,  Finally,  by  the  Anglo-Tnrkish  Convention  of  the 
same  year,  Britain  assumed  nvtectorate  of  Asia  Minor,  for  which,  in 
return,  the  Sultan  assigned  Cj-pruB  to  be  occupied  by  her. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  Eurapean  Turkey,  aubsequent 
to  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  U  estimated  at  69,159  aq.  m.,  and 
the  popnlatioD  at  5,044,000  ;  while  the  area  and  population  of  the 
dilfereQt  sections,  then  either  entirely  or  practically  made  free,  are 
OS  follows  : — 


Eegllsh 
squaco  mUos. 

Population. 

5,376,000 
1.676,822 
286  000 
1,859,000 

1.213.000 
751,000 

Sema 

Montenegro, 

Bulgaria" 

Bosnia,   Herzegovina,  and  sandjak  of 
r_  Norf-Bazar 

p                          Torai,        .       .        . 

18,859 
3,666 
24,754 

23,443 

is,m 

138,879 

U  061  622 

Political  DlvlBloiia. — The  European  portion  of  tha  empire  (in 
clatiing  Esstera  Knmelia,  which  is  still  ander  the  euzerainty  of  tbs   j 
Sultan}  consists  of  tlie  following  fire  piovincea : — 

Romalift.— CoHSTANTiHOPLB  (with  Pera)  600  (Bospoma),  Hodoato  21 


(Twtaa),  PrUtina  I 


»((W),  E 


308  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Eastern  Sximelia.— Philippopolis  28,  Tatar-Bazardjik  10  (Maiitza), 
Selimnia  20,  Eski-Sagra,  20  n.,  Kezanlik  10  (Tni^a). 
Burghas,  Jamboli. 

Thessaly.  — Labissa  25,  Trikhala  12  n.  (Salembria). 
Ambelakm,  Pharsala  or  Satalge,  Volo. 

Albania.— ScuTABi  20  (Bojana),  Jacova  18,  Prisrend  35  (Drin)^  Kroya 
15,  Tirana  10  (Jantra),  Herat  12  (Ergent^jDelvino  10  (Flstricza),  Janina 
3D  (Lake  Janina),  Durazzo  10,  Valona  8  (w.  coast). 

Podgoricza,  Carbonara,  Tepeleni,  Mezzovo,  £1  Bassan,  Aigyro-Kastro,  Arta» 
Prevesa,  Ochrida. 

Crete.— Candia  13,  Retimo  8,  Canea  12  (N.  coast). 

BoTunania.— BuoHABEST  177  (Dumbovitza),  Galatz  80,  Ibraila  28, 
Guirgevo  21  (Danube),  Jassy  90  n.,  Huscli  18,  Botuchany  40  n.  (Pmth), 
Bonianie,  Fokchany  20  (Seretb),  Berlat  26  (Berlat),  Piatra  20  (Bistritsa), 
Buseo  11  (Buseo),  Ployesti  33  (Jalomnitza),  Krajova  23  (Scbyl). 

Matchin,  Adjiud,  Baku,  Hirsova,  Rassova,  Kustendjeh,  Oltenitca,  Teigovist, 
Blatina,  Earakal,  Rlmnik,  Kalefat,  Tchemecz. 

Servia. — Belgrade  28,  Semendria  10  (Danube),  Nissa  10  n.  (Morava). 
Gladova,  Passarovitz,  Kitigrojevatz,  Uzitza,  Eroschevatz,  Leskovitza. 

Montenegn^o. — Cetione  1  n.  (Boyana),  Antivari  8,  Dulcigno  7  (Adri- 
atic). 
Pudgoritza,  Nicksics,  Spizza. 

Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Novi-Bazar. — Bosna-Sebai  or  Sebajbvo 
50  (Migliazza),  Zvomik  10,  Fotcha  10  (Drin),  Banialuka  15  (Verbas), 
Mostar  12  (Narenta),  Trebinje  10  (Tribinschucza),  Novi-Bazar  15  (Ibar). 

Travnik,  Doboi,  Jaitza,  Livno,  Dubitza,  Kliutch. 

Bulgaria.— Sophia  18  (Isker),  Silistria  23,  Rustchuk  28,  Sistova  20. 
Nicopolis  20,  Widin  19  (Danube),  Rasgrad  10  (Ak-Lom),  Timova  12 
(Jantra),  Plevna  15  n.  (Vid),  Varna  16  (Black  Sea),  Shumla  20  (Kamt- 
chik). 

Bazardjik,  Osman  •  Bazar,  Bergovatz,  Dubitza,  Samakov,  Lovatz  or  Lofeha, 
EostendiL 

Descriptive  Notes. — European  Turkey,  Including  the  independent 
provinces  above  mentioned,  contains  only  two  towns  (Constantinople 
and  Bucharest)  above  100,000  inhabitants ;  five  between  100,000 
and  50,000  (Adrianople,  Saloniki,  Bosna- Serai,  Galatz^  Jassy); 
twenty -eight  between  50,000  and  20,000;  and  thirty  between 
20,000  and  10,000. 

Constantinople  (Turk.  Stamboul,  ane.  Byzantium),  a  larae  and  oele* 
brated  city,  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  formerly  of  the  Bynn- 
tine  or  Roman  Empire,  occupies  a  triangular  promontory  of -land  between 
the  Bosporus  and  its  inlet,  the  Golden  Horn.  Its  aspect,  when  approached 
by  water,  is  of  the  most  striking  and  beautiful  description,  presenting 
a  crowd  of  domes  and  minarets,  backed  by  the  daik  foliage  of  the 
cypress  and  other  trees  which  shade  the  extensive  cemeteries  beyond  fhe 
walls.  The  streets,  however,  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and  are  infested  with 
dogs,  which  act  as  public  scavengers.  The  most  striking  of  the  pablio 
buildings  are  the  Seraglio,  or  imperial  palace,  which  with  its  gronndi 
occupies  an  area  of  three  miles ;  the  church  of  St  Sophia,  bnilt  bvtiie 
Emperor  Justinian,  in  the  sixth  century,  now  converted  into  a  liooan- 
medan  mosque ;  and  the  mosque  of  Achmet,  a  fine  stractnre,  with  i 
beautiful  marble  pavement  and  six  minarets.  Mannfactam  nnimpormii 


TOEKEY.  309 

ohiefly  af  morocco  leather,  saddlery,  shoeB,  and  niearacLaum  pipes.  By- 
nclium  WEUfounilfd  bjr  Byzas,  the  leader  of  a  Megarian  colony,  B.C.  E£8; 
wRsrabviilt  by  Con.^itantine  the  Great,  a.d.  330;  was  taken  by  the  Cruaa- 
dera  in  1204,  who  retained  it  till  1361 ;  and  by  the  Torka  in  1453,  an 
event  which  marked  the  Snal  extinction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  ths 
East.  Constantinople  is  the  seat  of  the  principal  foreign  trade  of  Turkey, 
and,  inclnding  Galata  and  Pera,  has  tiOn,ODD  inhahitanta,  Ihns  rankine  as 
the  fifth  city  on  the  Coetinent.  Gallipoli  (anc.  Kallipolis),  tlie  brat 
European  town  taken  by  the  Turks  (1356),  is  row  the  princii>a!  station 
of  tha  Turkish  fleet;  it  ia  a  place  of  great  trade,  and  is  noted  for  ita 
moroceo  leather.  Adrianople,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Adrian,  B.C.  378. 
wBfl,  neit  to  Constantinople,  the  chief  city  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and 
.WB9  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  1366  to  1463.  It  is  tlia 
third  most  populous  city  in  Turkey  Proper,  has  an  active  commerce  in 

manufactured  goods ;  numei  '  -     -'       -      » ■ 

linens;  dyeworks  andtanuBri 

the  centra  of  the  cultivation , 

(anc  Thessalonica),  a  laree  seaport,  and  the  nBcond  commercial  city  in 
European  Turkey,  has  a  large  trade  in  British  produce,  and  numerona 
eiporta.  FUibi  (om:.  Philippi),  where  the  Gospel  was  first  preached 
in  Europe.  Plllllppopolll,  founded  by  Philip  of  Maoedon :  under  the 
Romans,  it  was  one  of  the  most  Important  towns  of  the  country ;  baa 
flourishing  manufactures  of  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  fabrics,  leather, 
soap,  tobacco,  and  a  considerable  transit  trade.  ButghU,  the  prin- 
cipal seaport  town  of  Eastern  Rumelia,  noted  for  its  large  exports  of 
com.  and  Bne  clay  for  tobacco-pipes.  IiBTisia,  once  the  capital  of  the 
Pelaagi,  is  an  important  manufacturing  town  noted  for  its  dyeworks, 
Near  it  Satalgs  {aiic.  Pharsalus),  memorable  for  the  decisive  battle 
between  CiBsar  and  Pompey,  B.C.  48,  which  made  Qesar  master  of  the 
Roman  world.  Scutari,  once  the  most  important  town  of  lllyricum, 
and  the  residence  of  the  lUyrian  King  Gentius,  ia  the  capital  of  Albania, 
and  the  centre  of  a  great  inland  i^de.  Prlarend,  the  residence  of 
the  Turkish  governor,  contains  nnmeroua  moaqnaa,  with  mannfaoturea 
or  flrearms,  which  are  much  celebrated.  Juiina  has  a  melancholy 
celebrity  from  its  connection  with  the  infamous  Ali  Pasha,  who  reduced 
it  to  ashes  in  1820,  In  its  vicinity  once  stood  Dodona,  the  seat  of  the 
most  celebrated  oracle  of  antiquity.  Candla,,  a  fortified  seaport,  and  cap. 
of  the  Island  Crete,  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in  1669.  Bnnhuest, 
capital  of  Boumania  since  1861  (formerly  capital  of  Wallachia),  is,  though 
poorly  and  irregularly  built,  a  thriving  place,  and  tha  princi]^  entrepot 
for  the  commerce  between  Turkey  and  Austria.     Here  w '" 


a  the  left  hank  of  the  Danube,  the  chief  porta  of  Eoumania;  at  these 
two  places  the  ButslBn  army  crossed  the  Danube  In  June  1877.  Juiy, 
formerly  capital  of  Moldavia,  »nd  now  the  second  city  in  fioumania, 
maintains  an  active  commerce  In  agricultural  produce.  Enstandjeh 
is  a  fortiiied  seaport  on  the  Block  Sea.  at  the  E.  termination  of  Tr^an's 
WalL  Belgrada,  capital  of  Secvia,  is  a  strongly  fortified  city  at  tha 
confluence  of  the  Danube  and  Save,  an  entrepfitof  the  commerce  between 
Turkey  and  Anstria,  and  the  most  western  outpost  of  Mohammedaniim 
in  Europe,  mwa  or  Hitch,  pilndpsi  place  in  the  new  territory  acquired 
^■»"-"""  *n  187S.  Catiffng,  capital  of  Montenegro,  is  a  me™  villagB. 
.  .m  elevated  valley.  Aativarl  and  IhUdgno,  the  two  seaports 
■U ODten^ro.  The  latltr.  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  toftv  peninsula, 
^^  the  niqjeot  of  mocb  diplomatic  litigation  between  I'urWy  vxA  Vw. 
-  "-— -n  poiwpi  ial8M.    iMMt^wtf  cr "  '" — 


310  POLITICAL  GEOGBAFHT. 

well-built,  fortified,  and  commercial  city,  is  the  capital  of  Bosnia,  a  pro- 
vince now  occupied  by  Austria.  Mostar,  capital  of  Herzegovina,  noted 
for  itR  ancient  Koman  bridge,  which  consists  of  a  single  arch  95  feet  in 
span;  has  manufactures  of  swords  and  firearms,  and  exports  hides, 
wool,  and  cattle.  UTovi-Basar,  capital  of  sandjak  of  same  name,  lying 
between  Servia  and  Montenegro,  which  was  ceded  to  Austria  in  1878, 
but  still  administered  by  Turkey.  Sophia,  present  capital  of  Bulgaria, 
situated  in  a  beautiful  plain  on  the  Isker,  and  on  the  grand  route  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Belgrade.  Silistria,  Sustclmk,  Siatova,  NioopoUs,  and 
Widin.  commercial  and  fortified  towns  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube, 
and  the  scenes  of  numerous  conflicts  between  the  Turks  and  Rnssianfl. 
Timova,  a  fortified  town  of  Bulgaria,  was  captured  by  the  Busaians 
July  1877,  after  a  lengthened  siege  and  several  bloody  engagements. 
Varna,  the  principal  port  of  Turkey  on  the  Black  Sea,  is  the  place  fttmi 
which  the  Anglo-French  army  embarked  for  Sebastopol  in  1854.  Migml^ 
situated  in  one  of  the  main  passes  of  the  Balkans,  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  reckoned  one  of  the  keys  of  Constantinople ;  but  its  fortifications, 
together  with  those  of  all  the  other  strongholds  in  Bulgaria,  were  ordered 
to  be  demolished  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878.  Pleviia,  the  strong- 
hold of  Osman  Pasha  during  the  late  war,  was  finally  captured  by  the 
Russians  after  a  protracted  and  deadly  struggle. 

Capes  and  Islands. — Linguetta,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Albania; 
Faliuri,  Drapano,  and  Monte  Santo,  the  extremities  of  three  penin- 
sulas on  the  coast  of  Macedonia ;  Helles  Boumu,  at  W.  entrance  of 
the  Dardanelles ;  Emineh,  N.E.  of  Rumelia ;  Ealagria,  E.  of  Bul- 
garia. The  Islands  belonging  to  Turkey  are  Crete,  Scarpanto,  and 
Caxo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ^ean  Sea ;  the  Turkish  Sporades  (the 
chief  of  which  are  Leninos  or  Stelymene,  Imbros,  Samothi^Eiki,  Thaso^ 
and  Strati),  in  the  N.  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  The  islands  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  as  Lesbos,  Scio,  Samos,  Rhodes,  and  Cypms,  b^ong 
rather  to  the  Asiatic  portion  of  the  empire. 

Seas,  Oolfii,  and  Straits.— The  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas,  bet 
Turkey  and  Italy  ;  ^gean  Sea,  bet.  Thessaly  and  Anatolia ;  Sea  of 
Marmora,  bet.  Thrace  and  Anatolia;  Black  Sea,  bet.  European 
Turkey  and  Caucasia.  Gulfs  of  Drin,  Avlona,  and  Arta,  W.  of 
Albania;  Str.  of  Otranto,  joining  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas; 
Channel  of  Corfu,  between  Corfu  and  Albania;  Gulf  of  Volo,  S.K, 
of  Thessaly ;  Gulfs  of  Salonika,  Cassandra,  Monte  Santo,  Gonteasa, 
and  Saros,  S.  of  Rumelia ;  the  Dardanelles  or  Hellespont,  connecting 
the  ^gean  Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  the  Bosporus,  or  ChannM 
of  Constantinople,  uniting  the  Sea  of  Marmora  witn  the  Black  Sea; 
Gulf  of  Burgas,  N.E.  of  Rumelia. 

Surface  and  Mountains. — The  greater  part  of  the  snr&ce  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey  is  an  undulating  region  of  hills  and  yalleys,  moontaini 
and  table-lands,  of  moderate  elevation.  There  are  tnree  principal 
mountain-ranges,  which  divide  the  country  into  three  almost  equal 
climatic  regions,  and  which  form  the  great  water-partings  between 
the  principal  river-basins — viz.,  1.  The  Western  range,  sepaiating 
the  basins  of  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas  from  those  of  the  Danube 
and  iEgcan  Sea  ;  2.  The  Balkan  range,  or  Mount  Hsemna,  between 
the  Danube  and  the  ^gean  Sea ;  an<£  8.  The  Eastern  Cupathiu% 
between  the  basins  of  the  Theiss  and  Lower  Danube. 


of  llic  Julian 
,  ^  tier,  and  sepa- 

nttiiiE  the  basins  of  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seaa  from  those  of  tha 
DsJiiibe  and  JEgean  Sea.  Thia  l-snge  is  known  as  the  Linaric  Alpiia 
the  north,  and  as  Griimmn>  or  the  Pi-ndv)  Cltain  in  the  south :  Mount 
Olympna,  in  the  }t.  of  TheEsaly,  the  culniinatmK  point  of  the  whole 
peninsoli^  674B  feet,  lies  considerably  E.  of  tbti  nuge.  The  other  loftiest 
■njnmits  are,  Mount  Dinara,  la  Croatia,  7458  feet ;  Mount  Pindus, 
between  Allunia  and  Thessaly,  8930  feet :  and  Mount  Ida,  in  Ciet«, 
707*  feet    Height  of  snow-line  on  Monnt  Olympus,  9000  feet. 

The  Balkan  or  Uamva  Han^,  hranching  off  at  right  angles  from  tha 
Hellenlo  range,  and  eitending  eastward  to  Cape  Emineh  m  the  Slack 


rvigo,  named  Despoto  T>agh  (anc,  HAodope),  hranchea  off  sonthwarda 
trom  the  middle  of  the  main  range,  sepanituig  the  basins  of  the  Maritia 
and  Kani-sUp  and  containing  Kilo  D^h,  8313  feet,  a  '  "  '  '  " 
ontlier,  06SS  feet. 
TheHai 


m  that  of 


HuDKarianproTu 

the  Cower  Dannba  (see  under  " 

Momtttiin-PaiHi, — Trajan's  Gate  and  the  Shnmla  Pass,  In  the  Balkan 
range ;  the  Iron  Gate,  Vulcan  Pass,  Bnthenthnrm  Pass,  Boia  Pass,  in  the 
Carpathians,  between  Wallachia  and  Transylvania ;  Gymea  Pass,  hetween 
Moldavia  and  TransyWania. 

FUndpal  KiTBT-BEiEiiLa.  —  The  rivers  of  European  Turkey  are 
naturally  diTideJ  into  three  groups — viz.,  those  flowing  westward 
to  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  S<^as  ;  those  flnwiug  southward  to  tha 


of  basin  18,200  sq.  m.  ;  and  those  Howing  eastward  to  the  Black 
Sea,  the  principal  being  the  Danube,  1785  to.  long,  area  of  basin 
SOS,  000  sq.  m. 

TaUe  of  Rlvara  ajid  Towns.  ^The  follon-ing  table  comprises  50 
of  the  principal  rivers  of  Turkey,  cf  which  18  enter  the  sea  directly 
and  32  indirectly.  Though  the  Dannhe  with  its  tributaries  was  given 
at  Jenffth  under  Austria,  we  insert  again  here,  for  the  conve 
~'te  student,  the  portion  of  its  basin  belonging  to  Turkey. 


d  Ionian  Scai. 


!  ..Stolaa. 
. .  Jmosnlif,  Litno, 

...Sodubi.Cktibhb,  n, 

...Podffonaa. 

...Alt-iB.Oclirida. 

.  .".Kmra,  Titinii. 

.  ..Et  Aaiaa,  Karlija, 


Deropuli,  !...^rovro-Ka 

KstricHi, IMvino. 

ArUG.SBdB,,/V<Mm.  ^ 

Co.  iltumin,  ..^iTjffonri,  . 


312 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Bcuins  inclined  to  the  ^ean  Sea. 

Riven.  Toums.  \       Jtivers. 

Balembria, ....  Larissa,  A  m^lakia,  Tri-  G.  of  Lagos, . . Lagos. 


Townt. 


cala,  n. 
Satalge,  ....  Pharsala. 
G.  of  Ssuonika,  Salonika, 

Karasu, Servicij  Kastoria,  n. 

Mauronero,  ...AUtklieti,  YenUfja-Var- 
dar. 

Yardar, Yodena,  n.,  Istib,  n.,  Eu- 

piili,  Uskup. 

Tzema, Monastir. 

Strymon, Neokliorio,  Seres. 

Angites,  I  ..Filibi,  Drama. 
G.  of  Kavallo,  Kavallo. 


Maritza, EnnSt 


n.,     AdrUmoplef 
polls  or  FiUbi, 
Tatar-Ba!zar4jlk,iroiea- 
nitZt  Samakov, 
Erkeneh,  l..Uirep6U. 
Teams,  ...Kirk-EUlssla. 

Tondja, Adrianople,  JawJMif  8«> 

llnmla,  Bski-Sagra,  n., 

Dardanelles, . .  GallipolL 

S.  of  Marmora,  Rodosto,  Erekli. 

Bosporus,  ..  ..GONSTANTIKOPLE,  P«fTL 


Basins  inclined  to  the  Black  Sea. 


E.  Co.  of  Ru-  Midia,  Ainada,  Burgas. 

melia, 
Eamtcbik, ....  Shumla,  Eski-Djuma. 

Pravadi Varna,    Pravadi,    Yeni- 

Bazar. 

Danube, Baba-Dagh,  Ellla,  Ismael, 

Jteni,    Galacz,    Ibrail, 
Matsnint  Hirsova.Rcu- 
sovOt  SiLisTRLA.,  OUcn- 
itza,  Turtukai,    Giur- 
gevo,  Rustchuk,  Sisto- 
va,  Nicopoli,  Widdin, 
Kal e/a t,   TcTiemecz, 
Seinendria,    Pancsova, 
Belgrade,   Aeo. — (See 
under  '•  Austria,") 
Jalpuch,  2  ..Ismael,  Bolgrad. 
Ptuth,  I ,,  ..Beni,  Husch,  Jassy,  n., 
Botuchany,  n.,  Czemo- 
"witz. 
Sereth,  I.... Galacz, Adjivd, n., BcAu^ 
Roman. 
Berlat,  I . .  Berlat. 
Bistritza,  Pietra,  Bisfritza. 
Jalomnit-  Hirsovat  Ployesti. 
za,  I 


Argish, Oltenitza,    Tergovist, 

Argish. 
Dumbo-  Bucharest. 
vitza,< 

Lorn Osman-Bazar. 

Ak-Lom, . . .  .Rasgrad. 

J  antra, Timova. 

Alt  or  Alu-  Nicopoli,  Slatina,  RitH' 
ta,  I  nikt  Kronstadt^  n. 

Isker, Sophia. 

Schyl,  I  .... Kn^ova. 
HoTovsi,  ....Krago^evaez,   n.,  Kruh 
ehewxez,      Lescovitza, 
Nis8a.li. 

Ibar, Not!  -  Bazar,      Fristtna, 

Kotsova. 

Save, Belgrade,  SehavaeM. 

Drin, Zvomik.  Belina. 

Bosna,.... Dofroi,  Maglai,  Tnumlk, 
n. 
Migliaz-BosNA-ScRAL 
za, 
Yerbas,. .  .Banialuka,  JiUcMO. 
Unna,....0radi8to,  Novi,  Bikaei, 
JDtUnetA. 
Sanna,  Novi,  KUiUek. 


Lakes. — The  principal  lakes  are  Scutari,  in  the  N.W.  of  Albaniif 
drained  by  the  Boyana ;  Ochrida,  between  Albania  and  IfaoedonUt 
drained  by  the  Drin ;  and  Janina^  in  the  S.£.  of  Albania,  in  tiie 
basin  of  the  Arta.  There  are  also  several  lani^  fresh-water  Ifl^ooni 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  as  Rassein,  Jalpuch,  &o. 

Climate.— Owing  partly  to  the  elevation  of  the  snr&ee,  andjparllj 
to  its  exposure  to  N.  E.  ^^dnds  from  the  interior  of  Russia,  the  oumata 
of  Turkey  is  more  severe  than  its  latitude  would  lead  ub  to  eKpest; 
and  it  is,  moreover,  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  flnetuatioiUL 

Though  few  of  the  mountains  reach  the  limit  of  peraimial  oongaHattaii^ 
snow  lies  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  the  rocosses  of  tlia  liUhtf 
elevations ;  while  in  the  plains  of  Rumania,  the  thennamoter  <"' 
sometimes  to  15°  below  zero,  and  the  sledge  is  used  for  tnsnS^^ 
Russia.    A  great  portion  of  Albania,  being  protectsd  bj  HKmn 
N.£.  winds,  eigoys  a  delicioos  climate ;  but  this  r^^ion  is  ! 


TUKKEV.  313 

TfsiteJ  ty  destniclivB  eartliqiiakes.  In  the  rofky  districts  of  the  interior, 
and  in  tba  maritime  valleys  of  the  W.,  Uio  aumnier  is  eicassiTel;  hot. 
Around  Ihs  capital  the  climate  is  Eitiemely  Toriable,  especially  in  winter 
«nd  spring— mow  and  hard  frost  alternating  with  mitd  weather,  andtha 
temperatora  sometiniea  cbandng  to  the  extent  of  S0°  in  a  eii^a  night. 
At  tha  mouth  of  tha  Danuhe  the  winter  tompBrature  ia  the  aaine  as  in  the 
interior  of  Iceland.  The  isotherm  for  January,  which  passes  through  the 
centre  of  that  Island  and  the  S.W.  of  Norway,  through  Holland  and 
Fnknkfiirt-on-the-Main,  crosses  the  Danuhe  at  Begensburg  in  BaTaris. 
and  the  Theisa  at  Szegedin  in  Hungary,  proceeds  along  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  Wallachia,  and  quita  the  contment  at  Lake  Baaaein  In  Bulgaria. 
At  Constantinople  the  mean  temperatnre  for  the  year  is  58°.S,  tor  winter 
40',  and  for  summer  72°.  The  annnal  quantity  of  ram  is  moderate  over 
the  entire  peninsula,  rarely  exceeding  32  inches. 
fieology. — The  geology  of  Turkey  has  not  been  very  accurately 
.  Biplored;  but,  bo  far  as  presently  known,  crystalline  rooks  covae 
almost  the  entire  area  hounded  by  tlie  Bsjkana,  Mouat  Pindna,  and 
the  basin  of  the  Maritza,  together  with  a  somewhat  extensive  tract 

5.  ofthe  Golf  of  Burgas.  SUurian  strata  do  not  occur,  hut  N.W.  of 
Constantinople  there  ia  a  small  tract  of  upper  palieoioic;  another 
in  the  Balkan  Mountains  ;  and  a  third  on  the  Danabe,  near  Orsora, 
Secondary  strata  chiefly  occupy  the  western  prorincea,  together  with 
■  long  belt  S.  of  the  Balkans,  extending  from  the  Morava  to  the 
Black  Sea.  Rumania,  and  the  N.  part  of  Servia  aud  Bosnia,  all 
lying  in  Che  basin  of  the  Safe  and  Lower  Danube,  belong  to  the 
tertiary  series  ;  as  also  the  S,  W.  of  Albania,  from  the  Scombl  to  the 

6.  of  Arta,  together  with  the  basin  of  the  Moritzo, 
MintralL—Coil  is  nowhere  fonnd,  except  a  small  quantity  in  the 

moontains  of  Rumelia.  Iron  of  the  best  quality  is  very  abundant,  but 
the  mhios  in  actual  operation  are  few  in  number.  Many  of  the  veins 
■which  traverse  the  prystaUms  schists  aro  highly  raetalliferons,  and  lead 
yielding  a  considerable  percentage  of  silver  has  at  difibrent  periods  been 
wrought  to  some  extent ;  but  neither  govemmeut  nor  people  seem  In- 
olinod  to  turn  the  mineral  treasures  of  the  country  to  good  acconnt. 
Other  minerals  are,  goM  in  small  quantities,  copper,  magnstio  irou, 
marbie,  sulphnr,  salt,  and  alum. 

Botajiy  BJid  AErlotiltiar& — Turkey  belongs  entirely  to  Schauw*3 
third  phyto-geographic  region,  and  its  ftora,  therefore,  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  other  two  great  poninsnlaa  of  Southtrn  Europe  (see  p. 
82).  A  great  difference,  however,  eiiists  betweon  tha  Tegetation  of 
the  basin  of  the  Dannbe  and  tliat  of  the  pravinoea  S.  of  the  Balkans. 
In  the  fanner  tha  foreati  lonsEst  of  the  pina,  beeoh,  oalc  (vhich  yields 
the  Valonia  acorn,  so  vbIuliIjIi'  for  taiiuini;),  lime,  nud  ash.  bcaidea 
the  apple,  pear,  oherry. 
throughout  extenaiv I-  i' 
oonSnod  to  the  aides  "i 
hibit  the  plane,  loapli-, 
"It  treei,  ta  alaa  the  l". 
;b  fonista  at  flr  and 


I  Tha  oliva  thrives  in  the  nudtiin 


314  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

orange  and  citron  are  cultivated ;  and  the  vine  in  all  the  proyiacee,  though 
in  the  valley  of  the  Danube  the  fruit  is  deficient  in  saccharine  matter. 
littie  wine  u  produced  for  exportation,  as  it  is  so  carelesfdy  manu&ctmed 
as  to  be  unfit  for  shipping.  While  Candia  and  CypruB  were  poesessed  by 
the  Venetians,  they  supplied  all  Europe  with  the  choicest  deeaert  winei. 
Now,  however,  the  total  produce  of  the  vintage  of  these  islands  does  not 
amount  to  one- tenth  of  wnat  it  then  was.  Fruit-trees  of  nnmenniB  spedet 
are  ex^mely  abundant,  especially  in  Albania ;  while  the  Bonthem  base 
of  the  Balkans,  especially  the  plain  of  Adrianople,  is  remaikable  for  the 
abundance  of  its  roses,  from  which  the  celebrated  attar  (otto  of  roses) 
is  distilled.  About  800,000  roses  are  required  to  produce  an  oimoe  of  the 
oil,  which,  when  pure,  fetches  an  enormous  price.  The  opium  and  other 
drugs  for  which  Turkey  is  so  famous,  are  confined  to  the  Asiatic  pro- 
vinces. The  system  of  agriculture  pursued  is  of  the  rudest  descriptKni, 
and  only  a  small  x>ortion  of  the  country  (probably  not  more  than  a  sixth) 
is  under  cultivation,  though  the  soil  is  in  most  parts  abundantly  ferffle, 
and  better  adapted  for  the  CTowth  of  the  cereals  than  any  other  jwrt  of 
Europe.  Maize  is  cultivated  in  the  S. ;  rice,  cotton,  rye,  and  barley  in 
the  central  parts ;  wheat,  barley,  and  millet  in  Moldavia. 

Zoology. — The  fauna  of  the  Hellenic  peninsula  does  not  differ  vexy 
materially  from  that  of  the  Italian.  It  comprises  65  Mammals,  42 
of  which  are  camivora,  14  rodentia,  8  ruminantia,  and  1  pachyderm 
— viz.,  the  wild-boar.  The  camivora  include  the  bat,  bear,  badger, 
marten,  wol^  dog,  fox,  civet,  and  wild-cat.  The  rodents  embrace 
the  squirrel,  beaver,  hedgehog,  vole,  mouse,  rat,  and  hare.  The 
ruminants  include  the  deer,  antelope,  chamois,  and  wild-ox.  The 
lion,  anciently  found  on  Mount  Olympus,  has  lone  been  extirpated. 
Birds  comprise  259  species,  of  which  31  are  birds  of  prey,  15  climben, 
100  songsters,  12  gallinaceous  birds,  64  waders,  and  87  swimmen. 
The  bustard  and  partridge  abound  in  the  valleys,  and  game  is  plen- 
tiful in  the  mountains.  The  Reptiles  are  27  in  number,  embracing 
land-tortoises,  lizards,  frogs,  and  serpents.  The  Fishes  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, so  far  as  presently  known,  are  444  in  number,  and  nearly 
all  occur  on  the  W.  and  S.  coasts.  Tunny,  coral,  and  sponge  fisheries 
are  characteristics  of  the  Mediterranean.  Trout  and  other  fish  are 
plentiful  in  the  rivers ;  and  leeches,  which  abound  in  the  marshes, 
form  an  important  article  of  exportation.  The  fishes  and  other 
inhabitants  of  the  Black  Sea  are  regarded  as  a  colony  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  though  fewer  in  number,  do  not  greatly  differ  in 
species. 

Ethnography. — The  population  of  European  Turkey  belonsa,  for 
the  most  part,  to  three  distinct  races — the  Sclavonian,  Greco-Latin, 
and  Turkish. 

The  Sclavoniaus,  who  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  people  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  Bosnia^Herzegovina,  Montenegro,  and  ThesMly.  The  Greco- 
Latins  occupy  W  allachia,  Moldavia,  and  the  greater  part  of  Albania,  and 
also  embrace  about  a  million  of  Greeks  proper  in  Rumelia  and  Thesatly, 
The  large  province  of  Bumelia,  especially  the  part  of  it  extending  from 
the  Vardar  to  the  Black  Sea,  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  the  Turks  or  Osman- 
lee,  so  named  from  Osman,  the  ancestor  of  the  present  rulmg  dynasty 
and  founder  of  the  Turkish  Empire  (a.d.  1298).    The  Osmanlee,  who 


Tl-p.ELY. 


315 


0  iaQed  Otton 


I 


.   ...        f  Asiatic  "rigin,  and  ore  dJstinpiiBlied 

s  I'j  tlidr  luiftiite«.  custDmE,  and  pbi^LtoJ  uhamcur. 

Bongn  xLe  aanuniuii  isoe  in  Emojjean  Turkey,  tljey  an  nnniBriiailly  a 

ore  fraolJon  of  the  popnlalion,  proliBbly  not'  BXCEeding  1,500.000  pET- 

nu.    Bceidoe  the  capi^  and  tlie  eastern  part  of  B-muelxa,  they  lean 

cmiBideralile  fruction  of  the  population  trf  moEt  of  iIib  lor^  towns. 

be  Turkish  Impnape,  a  rich  sua  polinhed  tonpne,  forme  an  imjiortant 

ember  of  tike  gT^at  FinaoTortarian  familv  {aee  under  "Aoa").     The 

mndpal  SclaTonic  dialects  upoten  in  Turkey  are  th?  Bnlgsriiui,  Bflirian, 

gngninn,  and  Ooatian ;  vhile  the  chief  Greco  -  Latin  Um^neE  are  tin 

Smnoic  or  UodflriL  Qreek,  the  Wallaciuan,  ^^eb  is  little  elije  tiian  a 

comiptcd  Latin,  and  tbe  Albanian  or  AmantB,  the  probaUe  nnireseii- 

t«tivB  of  the  KDcient  DljTiBii.      The  SclasoniaiiB    and  Greco -LatinB, 

ntunbering  logBthBT  abont  10,000.(100,  twlortg  to  the  Qreek  Churofa  ; 

Oie  Osmatdae,  together  witb  a  large  portion  of  the  inbobilairt*  of  A!- 

tenia,  omonntinc  in  the  aggregate  to  upwards  of  d,0fl0,0nu,  are  HoliiaD- 

medame  ;  vMle  the  remainiler  of  the  population  are  Bataan  CaUudicg, 

ArmmiiajiB,  ProleBtontc,  Jews,  and  GjpflieK.     Formerly  tbe  poniahmeiil 

cf  death  waF  inflicted  on  edy  one  rsDomiGiiig  the  reli^on  of  the  £.oTin  ; 

BUd  thoQgh  by  a  recent  decree  of  the  emperor  aU  persecution  on  rsligiouB 

groimde  k  abolished,  the  bigntn  of  the  UDhmnmedaiiB  remninB  niimiti- 

pited.      BincE  tbe  Crime&n  var,   hrrweret,  Soriptoral  truth  bas  made 

considerate  progn^.     The  peat  mase  of  tbe  people  are  almost  irlioily 

— ^ — ■ ^    lOTiliouplj  elementarj'  8[:biiolB  are  aomewbot  numerona,  the 

— Tbe  literature  of  tbe  Turte  is  of  ancient  oripn  and 
lughlv  resj'ectalile.  Ihiring  tbe  reign  of  QthtDon  and  Ida  immolate 
•QcoeBBort — that  is,  in  tbe  tbirtestrtb  ajid  fonrteentli  centimes — it 
mniisted  for  the  most  part  of  tranalatiianE  from  tbe  Arabic,  Peidan, 
Greek,  Sid  Latin,  and  mare  recently  from  tbe  F-ngli"*',  French,  and 
German.      These  traiialatJDna  embraced  "WDr^  on  bistory,  geography, 

gaaal  or  native  literature  if  of  a  higher  order  tiiaa  is  usaally  Hnp^ioBed. 

Aabik  Paaha,  the  oldest  Tntkiah  poet  of  renown,  lived  during  tlie  reign 
•a£  OsniaiL  The  reign  of  Bayand  ll.  was  dietuiguisbed  by  the  poete  Jie- 
Jtti,  DOnsidGnid  the  first  lyric  poet  of  bia  time  ;  Ueeibi,  wimm  ' '  Ode  to 
iQpniie"  it  higMy  oelebiUed;  and  Soki  U>t>>  1600).  genoisllT  tegarded 
—  ■"--  — atBst  Turkish  poet  Tbe  last  century  produced  Nabi  Btandi, 
in,  and  £4ieMb  Pasba,  called  "tbeBuJtan  of  thepoetc  of  Bum." 
aj  niimeroua.  and  aume  of  them  bigbly  esteemed  for 
and  the  concise  besutr  of  then-  style ;  ae  Ali,  a  canteni- 
foMT-tC  SaU, -wluiH  mirk,  entitled  'Mines  of  History,' is  one  of  the 
*a4aia«Biinin^rinstbe  earlier  and  middle  periods  of  TnrMah  histoi?. 
<Mfcf  aMiinjUiilwlliiitonant  an  Solafc  Zade.  Haji  KhaUab,  Sdria,  Salma, 
^^dfl,  •judb  BbUo,  and  Waauf  (A.S.  1SU0-17TJ).  Tbe  most  distin- 
g^Mbad  in  Biocnpby  is  Latifi,  who  irroui  the  lives  of  aliont  SUO  TmMsh 
poota.  Turkish  litoatuie  has  also  been  enriched  by  numerous  vorka  on 
—  — 'i,  drrinity,  and  philosophy.     Their  pbiloeopbT,  which  originBted 

' "jB  Bcbool  of  Jtokiiiro,  lias  a  mystical  cbaiacter,  imd  re- 

ry  points  tbe  speculative  doctrines  of  BcbeUiug,  especially 
imn  ragaia  vi  pantheism. — Peniy  Cyclop. ,  vol.  xir. 
OonmBMBt  md  nnaim.~The  eDi-enaucut  i^  au  heradltajy  ab- 


I  tiie  : 


316  POLITICAL   GEOOBAPHY. 

flolutism,  the  Saltan  or  Emperor  being  assisted  by  thirteen  ministers^ 
at  the  head  of  whom  is  the  Grand  Vizier. 

On  his  accession  to  the  throne^  the  Sultan,  instead  of  being  crowned 
like  other  European  sovereigns,  is  girt  with  the  sword  of  Osman,  and 
made  to  swear  that  he  will  govern  tne  empire  in  strict  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  the  Kor^.  The  government  of  the  provinces  is  admin- 
istered  by  pashas,  who  are  absolute  in  their  respective  tenitorieSy  bat 
hold  office  only  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Sultan.  Persons  of  the  meanest 
origin  and  basest  character  are  frequently  elevated  to  the  office  of  pasha : 
hence  many  of  the  provinces,  especially  in  Asia,  are  reduced  to  deserts, 
from  the  rapacity  and  extortion  of  their  rulers.  Corruption,  indeed,  ^- 
vades  every  department  of  the  state,  whether  civil,  military,  or  ecclesias- 
tical,  and  the  entire  empire  threatens  to  fall  speedily  to  pieces — a  consum- 
mation which  had  long  ere  now  been  realised,  except  for  the  intervention  of 
other  European  powers.  The  two  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia were  united,  in  1861,  by  a  firman  of  the  Sultan,  and  named  Rumania. 
The  reigning  prince,  who  is  styled  Hospodar,  is  Charles  I.,  of  the  House 
of  Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen.  The  government  is  hereditary,  and  con- 
stitutional. The  Sultan  receives  from  Rumania  an  annual  tribute  of 
£40,000.  Servia  was  ruled  by  native  princes  from  1815  to  1856,  when  it 
was  placed  under  theprotection  of  the  great  European  powers,  as  a  semi- 
independent  state.  The  government  is  vested  in  the  Prince,  assisted  by 
a  council  of  five  ministers,  who  are  responsible  to  the  nation,  bat  who 
must  be  nominally  recognised  by  the  Sultan.  In  Montenegro  the  ruling 
prince  is  styled  Hospodar,  whose  authority  is  permitted,  but  not  recog- 
nised, by  the  Porte.  The  military  force  of  Turkey,  on  the  peace  footing, 
numbers  460,000  men,  including  75,000  auxiliaries  from  the  three  tribu- 
tary provinces.  Previous  to  the  late  war  with  Russia,  the  navy  comprised 
70  vessels,  carrying  4000  guns.  Most  of  these  ships  were  destroyed  by 
the  Russians  in  1853,  and  others  foundered  in  the  Black  Sea.  During  the 
last  ten  years  the  navy  has  been  entirely  remodelled,  and  now  embraces 
185  ships  of  war  (several  of  them  ironclads,  built  in  England),  carrying 
2370  guns.  In  1870,  the  Revemie  amounted  to  £16,000,000 ;  the  Expendi' 
twe,  to  £18,000,000 ;  and  the  Public  Debt,  to  £74,000,000. 

ManofactnreB  and  Commerce. — Manufacturing  industry  is,  for  the 
most  part,  confined  to  the  production  of  coarse  articles  for  home  con- 
sumption, as  woollen  and  cotton  stufifs,  shawls,  leather,  firearms,  to- 
gether with  dyeing  and  printing  works.  In  the  caplttd,  however,  and 
some  of  the  chief  provincial  towns,  silks,  fine  cottons,  embroidery* 
filigree  ornaments,  and  meerschaum  pipes,  are  extensively  prodac«!a. 
In  1874,  the  total  value  of  the  exports  and  imports  amounted  to 
£38,000,000.  The  former  chiefly  comprise  grain,  wool,  raw  cotton, 
silk,  tobacco,  attar  of  roses,  and  hides.  In  1873,  Torkey  exported 
to  Britain  goods  to  the  value  of  £6,068,993,  the  main  articles  being 
com  and  raw  cotton  (about  £1,000,000  each)  ;  receiving  in  letoin 
goods  to  the  value  of  £7,733,842,  two-thirds  of  which  conaisted  of 
cotton  cloth  and  yam.  She  exports  silks  in  great  quantities  to  Mar- 
seilles, hides  to  Trieste,  and  attar  of  roses  to  various  European  coun- 
tries. The  principal  articles  imported,  besides  the  above^  are  me- 
tallic goods  and  colonial  produce.  Constantinople  is  the  chief  seat 
of  the  foreign  trade,  which,  together  with  the  internal  traffic,  li 
mainly  conducted  by  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  English.    The  Bereniw 


KUBSIA.  317 

amonnta  to  £22,000,000,  wliich  ia  ulwavs  grentlj  exceeded  by  tiie 
Ex[ienditui'e,  Mid  a  liiiajidal  collapse  is  daily  HSpected. 

Internal  Communication. — Very  few  of  the  roads  are  practicable 
for  carriages,  and  boraeB  or  mules  are  generally  employed  for  tlie 
GomeyaTice  of  passengers  and  goods.  On  the  moat  freq^uented  lines  of 
road  are  placed  caravanaerai  oc  hhant,  which  are  large  bnildings  with 
an  open  courtyard  in  the  centre,  for  the  acooraioDdatioQ  of  travellers. 
The  Danube  is  the  great  highway  of  commerce  for  the  noithem  pio- 
TTBcef,  especially  since  its  several  mouthscame  to  be  embraced mth- 
in  the  boundary  of  Turkey.  The  navigation  of  its  lotrer  course  is 
under  the  control  of  a  turojiean  oommisaion,  appointed  in  1858, 
which  holds  ilB  sittings  at  Galacz,  The  only  railways  hitherto  con- 
utracted  are  the  line  uniting  Constantinople  with  Adrianople  and 
Phillipolia  ;  that  from  Varna  to  Kustcbnk  ;  and  from  Eustchni  to 
Jaesy  and  Lemberg. 


RUSSIA. 


Thb  BuBsian  Empire  is  the  largest  state  in  the  world,  with 
tile  exception  of  the  Britiab,  which  considerably  exceeds  it.  In. 
additLon  to  its  Enropean  ttiiritories,  which  occupy  more  than  a 
ifcalf  of  the  continent^  it  embmces  one-third  of  the  vnst  continent 
,*f  Asia.  It  is  4830  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  along  the  Arctic 
'eiicle,  has  an  average  breadth  of  about  1760  miles,  and  an  area 
of  nearly  8,000,000  sq.  m,— being  upwards  of  one-aeventh  of  the 
land-surface  of  the  globe.  Its  population  is  remarkably  email 
in  proportion  to  its  pcodirions  extent,  being  only  83,260,000 

Sirsons,  or  one-sixteenth  of  the  population  of  the  globe.  The 
ritish  Empire,  with  an  area  of  8,616,000  sq,  m.,  has  282,054,000 
inhabitants  ;  the  Chinese  Empire,  with  an  area  of  3,925,000  si], 
has  425,000,000  inhabitante;  and  the  United  States  of 
srica,  with  an  area  of  3,603,884  sq.  m.,  liaa  a  |H>pnlatioa  of 
'25,000.  The  following  table  presents  at  one  view  the  area 
population  of  the  different  sections  of  this  vast  empire  : — - 


Aral  in  EngUsb 
Square  MOsa. 

Rnssla  in  Enrops  (Inolud-  1 
LDg  Finland  and  Poland,  { 

Caucasia, 

Kbaria  and  Central  Aala. 

2,110,317 
170.798 
S,586,S7B 

71,710,090 
6.200,000 
6,8*2,000 

818  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


RUSSIA    IN    EUROPR 

Position  and  Boundaries. — ^N.,  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Nor- 
way ;  W.,  Sweden,  the  Baltic,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Moldavia ; 
S.,  the  Black  Sea  and  Mount  Caucasus ;  E.,  the  Caspian  and 
Siberia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Ural  river  and  moun- 
tains. Two  governments  (rerm  and  Orenburj?)  extend  beyond 
the  proper  lunits  of  Europe ;  but  these,  together  with  Trans- 
caucasia, we  shall  here  regard  as  belonging  to  European  RuBsia. 
The  strictly  European  portion  of  the  empire  lies  between  lata. 
40°  20'  and  70°  K,  and  between  Ions.  17°  SC  and  67*  E.,  and  so 
embraces  nearly  30°  of  latitude,  and  49°  of  longitude. 

Moscow,  the  former  capital  (lat.  55°  42',  Ion.  87**  390,  is  situated  ahnoft 
exactly  in  the  centre,  and  is  on  the  same  parallel  as  Nain  in  Labrador, 
Edinburgh,  Copenhagen,  Tomsk,  and  the  middle  of  the  peninsula  of 
Kamtscmttica ;  and  on  tiie  same  meridian  as  Onega,  Kertch,  Aleppo, 
Damascus,  Medina,  Gondar,  and  Quilliman^ ;  but  St  Petersbuig,  the 
modem  capital,  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  0.  Farewell,  Lerwick,  and 
Christiania.  If  Poland  be  omitted,  the  form  of  European  Russia  is  a 
tolerably  regular  oblong,  having  its  greatest  length,  from  N.  to  S.,  about 
2000  miles.  The  extreme  breadth,  in  the  latitude  of  Warsaw,  is  1500 
miles.  The  coast-line  is  about  4700  miles,  being  1  mile  of  coast  to  every 
448  m.  of  surface.  This  seaboard  belongs  to  four  distinct  seas — ^viz.,  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  2000  miles ;  the  Baltic,  1000 ;  the  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of 
Azov,  1000 ;  and  the  European  coast  of  the  Caspian,  700  miles.  The 
northern  seaboard,  however,  is  comparatively  useless,  being  frozen  for 
nine  months  in  the  year ;  but  the  deficiency  is  compensated  for  by  the 
numerous  canals  and  navigable  rivers  with  whidi  Russia  is  intersected  in 
all  directions. 

Area  and  Population. — Area  2,110,817  sq.  m. ;  or,  including  Trans- 
caucasia, 2,281,115.  This  area  is  only  a  little  more  than  the  fourth 
part  of  the  entire  empire,  and  yet  it  is  seventeen  times  that  of  the 
British  Isles,  or  about  three-fifths  of  the  entire  area  of  Europe.  In 
1867  the  population  of  European  Russia  was  71,716,690  ;  or,  includ- 
ing Transcaucasia,  76,916,000,  being  about  32  persons  to  the  square 
mile.  In  1726  the  population  of  the  entire  empire  was  only  14, 000, 000 ; 
at  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  in  1825,  it 
amounted  to  61,000,000  ;  while  it  is  now  more  than  83,000,000.  This 
single  fact  most  vividly  represents  the  aggressive  policy  of  Russia. 

Political  BiviBions. — European  Russia,  including  the  region  beyond 
the  Caucasus,  is  divided  into  68  distinct  governments  and  8  terri* 
tones.  These  are  usually  grouped  into  10  main  sections,  which, 
though  no  longer  regarded  as  political  designations,  are  so  familiar  to 
the  Russians  themselves,  and  are  so  frequently  mentioned  in  the  geo- 
graphical, historical,  and  statistical  details  oi  the  present  day,  uiat 
an  acquaintance  with  them  is  of  great  importance.  The  geographical 
position  of  these  divisions  is  as  follows  : — 

L  The  Baltic  Provinces,  containing  the  capital,  in  the  eztieme  W.  of 


r 


the  6ini)ire,  bat  the  Bait.in  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  2.  Tlio  Princi- 
pality of  Finlanil,  in  the  N,W,,  and  chieHy  bet.  the  Gulfa  of  Finland  and 
Botlmia.  3,  Maacovy,  or  Great  Rnasid,  in  the  S.,  N.E.,  and  centre.  4. 
Czantte  of  Easan,  bet.  Maicovy  and  Siberia.  B.  Czaiatfi  of  Astrakhan, 
liet.  Kaaan  and  the  river  Ural.  6.  Ruasiaa  Poland,  in  ths  S.W,,  bet. 
Austrian  and  Prussian  Poland.  7.  West  Russia,  S.  of  the  Baltic  Pro- 
vinoea,  and  bet.  Poland  and  MuseOTy.  S.  The  Ukraine,  or  Little  Boesia,  S. 
of  Grant  Russia.  9.  Bouth  Russia,  bet.  Little  Russia  and  the  Black  Sea. 
10.  Cancaaia,  bet.  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  Muscovy  formed  the 
original  nuclvus  of  the  empire ;  it  was  freed  from  the  Tartar  yoke  by  Ivan 
Ba^owlbc,  the  first  Czar,  in  1479  ;  the  kingdom  of  Kasan  was  conquered 
from  the  descendants  of  Zenghiz  Khait  In  1662'  Astrakhan,  formerly  a 
Tartar  kingdom,  was  annexed  to  Ru)!sia  in  1557;  the  Ukraine,  long  a  cause 
of  Btrife  between  the  HubcdiIMs,  LithnanianB,  and  Mongols,  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Cuirs  in  1636  ;  tlie  Baltic  Provincee  were  seized  &om 
Sweden  between  1700  and  1710,  and  Finland  in  1309  ;  South  Russia  was 
ceded  bj  Turkey,  partly  at  the  Peace  of  Jaeay  in  1792,  and  partly  at  the 
Peace  of  Bnchareat  in  1812;  the  region  of  the  Caueaaiis  was  wrested  from 
Petaia  between  1723  and  1813 ;  Russian  Poland  was  annexed  at  the  tliree 
BiiooeasivB  partitions  of  that  ill-fated  kingdom,  in  1772, 1793,  and  1795  ; 
vhile  CiicaBBla  has  been  subjugated  dnring  the  last  few  years- 

ToE  Baltic  Provisces. 
-      Bt  Feterabni^  or  Ingria.— St  P£TBl<SBDB06d7,Eronstadt4Sn.  (Keva), 
I  2arskoi-3elo  11  n.  (laohora)- 

Tavnt  lutuieen  5000  otkI  10,00(1  in*a6f(flii!».— GatshinB,  Sarva, 

ZsUuniu.— Rbvul  29  lO.  of  Finland). 

LivoniOr— RiOA  102  (Dlina),  Dorpat  14  (Embach),  Pemau  7  (Pemau)- 

Coinluid. — MmAti  2S  (Treider-Aa),  Libau  9  (W.  coast). 

pRisciFALirr  or  FntLiND. 


Mcscovr  OR  Great  Enasi.L 

Arkhangel.* — Abehaniiel  25  (Dwina). 

•  The  Russian  alphabet  now  in  usb  canaktB  of  3«  letten 
Wweli.  3  MiDi-vowels.  and  n  consonants.    Not  a  few  or  lite 


iimi^  £e<n  Ini 

gnpUes  emplnyed- 
jimaouDclBB  F— '- 
■IWeet  of  Sni 

"""Si" 


[e  discrepancy  has  a 


Itogcllicr 
IB  ortho- 


Rnssfa.    Thevn-Bl 


TbD» 


vely  K, 


ol  It  greatly  reaeqiblM 

(Aiialfer-in^rxirg). 

cA  la  nhurch,  as  Czar,  Toropec:  (Tiar  or 

JaroalaT  (Tar-a-tlia'). 


Tttar,  Tar-trpatt  or  Tet-o^Uh', 
L  J,  medial  or  final  =  French  J,  erVin  pimmt™,  u  NiJnl-BovgDroa  (Jf  iiA'Bi-ffo 
glish,  as  Wolgi,  TwBrtia  (VuVga,  Tiwpfiirt 


320  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

01oneti.--PETROZAYODSE  11  (Lake  Onega),  Olonetz  3  (Lake  Ladoga). 

Vologda.— Vologda  19,  Ustiug- Veliki  13  (Sukhona). 

Novgorod.— Novgorod  18  (Volkhov),  Borovitchi  12  (Msta). 
Staraja-Russa,  Tikhvin. 

Jaroslav.— Jaboslav  30,  Uglitch  11,  Rybinsk  15  (Volga). 
Rostov. 

Kostroma.— Kostroma  14  (Volga). 

Pskov.— Pskov  17  (Velikaja),  Toropecz  6  (Toropa). 

Tver.— Tver  80,  Rshev  19,  Ostashkov  10  (Volga),  Torshok  16  (Tvertsa), 
Vishnel-Volotchok  14  (Tsna). 

Vladimir. —  Vladimir  13  (Kliazma). 
Alexandrov,  Pereslav,  Murom,  Melenki,  Visa. 

N\ini-Novgorod.—NiJNi- Novgorod  42  (Volga),  Aizamasl2  (Tiosha). 
Potshinki,  Murashkino,  Pavlovo. 

Smolensk.— Smolensk  23  (Dnieper),  Viasma  13  (Viasma). 
Dorogobusk,  RoslavL 

Kaluga.— Kaluga  37  (Oka),  Shisdra  10  (Sliisdra),  Borovsk  5  (Protva). 

Tula.— Tula  58  (Upa),  Bielev  7  (Oka),  Jefremov  7  (Metscha). 

Riazan.— Rdlzan  22,  Kasimov  11  (Oka),  Skopin  13  (Werda). 
Pronsk,  Mikhailov. 

Moscow. — Moscow  620  (Moskva),  Kolomna  16,  Seipuchov  11  (Oka). 
Borodino,  Troitskoi-Monastere. 

Orel.— Orel  44,  Mzensk  14  (Oka),  Jeletz  30,  Livny  14  (Sosna-fiis- 
tra'ia). 
Eatchev,  Bnansk,  Sievsk,  Bolkhov. 

Kursk.— Kursk  27,  Putivl  7  (Seim),  Bielgorodl5  ponetz),  StaroX-Oskol 
11  (Oskol). 
Eorotcha,  Rylsk,  Miropolie,  Oboian,  NovoX-Oskol. 

Voronetz.— VoRONETZ  41  (Vorona). 
Birioutclie,  Javrov. 

Tambov.— Tambov  36,  Morsliansk  16  (Tzna),  Lipetsk  13,  Kozlov  29 
(Vorona). 
Jelatom,  Usman,  Shatzk. 

CZARATE  OF  KaSAN. 

Perm.— Perm  19,  Kungour  12  (Kama),  Ekaterinbuig  22  (Isset),  Nqoi- 

Taglisk  27  (Tagil),  Neviansk  18  (Neiva). 
Irbit,  Euslivinsk. 

Viatka.— ViATKA  15  (Viatka). 

Kasan.— Kasan  79  n.  (Volga),  Tchistopol  10  (Kama), 

Simbirsk.— Simbirsk  25,  Syzran  21  (Volga). 

Penza.— Penza  25  (Sura),  Saransk  13  (Saranga,  a^,  Alatyry. 

Erasno-Slobodsk,  N^ni-Lomov. 

Czarate  of  Astrakhan. 

Saratov.— Saratov  93,  Wolgsk  24,  Dobovka  12,  KhvaUndc  11  (VolliJb 
Kusnetz  13  (Sura). 
Eamyschin,  Petrovsk. 

Samara.—SAMARA  34  (Volga). 


BUBSIA. 


OrenliiiM,— ORENBUEa  ! 


(.UralaklKUral). 
48  (Volga). 


Astrakhan. — Af 
Dfa.— Uf4  16  (Ufa). 

KiNGDOK  OF  Pound. 
Waraiw.— Warsaw  280  (Viatnla),  Lodz  34  n.  (Bznni),  Cientocliov  13 
iWartha),  Kalisch  U  (ProEna). 
Sadom. — Radom  3  (Radomka). 
Lnblin.— LuBLis  22  (Biatriija). 
Plock.— PLOca  17,  Praga  8  {Vistula) 
I       Augnstowo.— SuwiLKi  17  (Szezupa). 


Wlad 


>,  Kalna 


West  Rdsbia. 


KOTDO.— KovNo  35  (NiPmen),  Eoaaienjl2  (Dubiaa),  SliivU  18(Kovno), 

Vilna.—  VnjJi  79  (Vaia). 

Titebak,— Vitebsk  28,  Polotsk  12,  Dtoaburg  28  IDilua), 

aradao.— GitoDNO  26  (NieineD),  Slonim  II  (Shtshara),  Brzesc-Litovski 
El  (Bog),  BUlystock  17  (Bialy). 

Mlmk.— Minsk  36  n.,  Bobmisk  IS  (Beradna),  Pinsk  11  (Pina). 

XoUleT.— MOHCET  40  (Dnieper),  Gomel  13  (Soj). 

Yolhyni*.  — JiTOMia  3S  (TetareT),  Stare  -  Eonstantinov  12  (Slutcb), 
Kreincnetii  10  (Irra). 

Lntsk,  Vladlniir. 

Podolia.— Kaminietz  21  n,,  Mohilev  10  (Dniester),  Balla  15  (Kodj-ma), 
Vinnitiall(Biig). 

The  Ukhaise  ok  LinLK  Roasu. 
TohernifOT.— TcHESNioov  11  (Desaaj,  Nejiu  18  (Deter),  Glutchov  11 
(Kltveul,  aiarodub  11  (Babintza). 
Bereina,  Butnitia. 

KioT.— Kiev  74,  Tcberkasi  20  (Dnispet),  Vasilikhov  12  (Stugma),  Bar- 
ditchav  63  a.  (TetBtev),  Svanigorodka  11,  Umaii  14  n.  (Smiukaj. 

Poltava.— Poltava  31  (Vorskla),  Ereraantacbug  23  (Dnieper),  Per^a* 
lav  10  (Tnibeabl,  Prilnki  11  (Sula). 
Kobyliikl,  Mirgorod. 

KhaikoT.— Ehabeov  87  (EbarkoTa),  Starabielali  13  n.,  Tsinm   1 
ieU),  Aklityrka  15  (Vorskbi),  Lebadin  14,  Snmj  13  (Paiol, 
iper),  Bielopol  12  s.  (Sdm). 


ft 


South  Bdsbu. 


BeSBUabla.— ElBHEBAcl04|Buik  affl.  Doiaeter),  Akerman  2d,  Bender 
23,  Chotyn  19  (Dniaater),  Kilia"  7,  Ismail"  21  (Dacnbe). 

Kbenon.— EaEBEOK  46  (Dnieper),  Odesaa  IBS  (S.  coast),  Kicolatev 
eO  (Bug),  Bobrinatx  ID,  Ellzatietgrad  35  (Ingnl). 

Taurida,— 8™FKiiopOLl7(8alBhir),KBraim-l>aMrlB(Karask),  BakcLl. 
feni  11 D.  (Alma),  Sebaahipcd  3  {Tcbemajal,  Beidiausk  IS  (Sea  of  Azov), 
Kertcba  (Stp.  of  YeaikalBli). 


322  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Ekaterinoslav.  — Eeaterinoslav  20  (Dnieper),  Taganrog  24  (Sea  of 
Azov),  Rostov  39,  Nakhitchevan  11  (Don),  NovomoskovriL  10  (Samara). 

Don  Cossacks.— Novo-TcHEBKASK  17  n.  (Don). 

Caucasia  (Ciscaucasia  and  Transcaacasia).* 

StayropoL— Stavropol  17  (Jachla),  Kizliar  12,  Mozdok  11  (Terek). 
Ekaterinograd,  Georgievsk. 

Ter.  of  the  Kuban.  —  Jeisk  17  (G.  of  Taganrog),  Ekateriuodar  10 

(Kuban). 

Ter.  of  the  Terek.— Vladi-Kaukas  4  (Terek). 

Tiflis.— TiFLis  71,  Elizabetpol  15,  Akhalzikh  15  (Kur). 

Erivan.— Erivan  12  (Zenghi),  Alexandropol  15  n.  (Arpar). 

Shemakha.  —  Baku  13  (Caspian),  Nukha  21  (Kur),  Shusha  20  n. 
(Aras). 

Ter.  of  Daghestan.— Derbend  11  (Caspian),  Kuba  11  (Kuba). 
Kutais.— KuTAis  4,  Poti  (Rion). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Including  the  provinces  of  Transcaucasia, 
European  Russia  contained,  at  the  last  census,  six  towns  of  upwards 
of  1()0,000  inhabitants  (St  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Warsaw,  Odessa, 
Kishenev,  Riga) ;  nine  bet.  100,000  and  50,000  (Saratov,  Vihia,  Kiev, 
Nicolalev,  Kasan,  Tifiis,  Tula,  Berditchev,  Kharkov) ;  fifty-one  bet 
50,000  and  20,000;  and  ninely  bet.  20,000  and  10,000. 

St  FetersbuTff,  the  capital  of  European  Russia  and  of  the  whole  Russian 
empire,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Neva,  and  on  several  small  islands 
formed  by  the  river,  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1703.  It  is  chiefly 
built  of  wood,  but  the  palaces  and  public  buildings  are  massive  stone  erec- 
tions. Its  commerce  is  extensive  with  all  parts  of  the  world :  the  annual 
imports  are  valued  at  £3,000,000,  and  the  exports  at  £2,000,000;  and 
there  is  regular  steam -communication  with  all  the  principal  ports  of 
Europe.  The  low  islands  of  the  Neva  are  strongly  fortified,  and  the  city 
is  defended  by  the  impregnable  fortress  of  Kronstadt,  the  principal  naval 
station  of  the  empire.  zarskoi-Selo,  the  Versailles  of  Russia,  contains 
the  summer  residence  of  the  Czar.  Eevel  or  Beval,  a  strongly-fortified 
seaport  town,  founded  by  Valdemar  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  in  1218,  ms 
taken  from  Sweden  by  Russia  in  1710,  and  was  at  one  tune  thejneat 
emporium  of  the  Hanseatic  League  for  the  trade  with  Novgorod.  fag9^ 
a  large,  fortified,  and  commercial  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bttna,  was 
founded  in  1200,  and  remained  long  one  of  the  chief  Hanseatio  towna.  It 
contains  several  colleges,  a  public  library,  and  many  sdentifio  eeteUiih- 
ments.  It  exports  largely  flax  and  hemp.  Doxpat  contains  a  cdebnted 
university,  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632.  XtttftO,  noted  fat 
its  gymnasium  and  literary  societies,  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  soan. 
Helidngfors,  the  capital  of  Finland  since  1819.  is  the  teat  of  a  unlwiOT 
which  has  a  library  of  80,000  vols.;  it  has  a  harbonr  suited  for  linMK^ 
battle  ships,  and  defended  by  the  strong  citadel  of  Qvee^otyj  teds  te 
timber,  com,  and  fi.sh.  Abo,  the  former  capital  of  Finland,  ud  thtenfli;' 
of  its  Christianity,  was  at  one  time  a  celebrated  and  flourir  ' —  *^ —  "^ 
was  almost*  wholly  rained  by  fire  in  1827.  ^-rVkmrn^ 
tant  city  in  the  north  of  Russia,  was  the  only  iM|ic^ 
vious  to  the  founding  of  St  PetersbuTK,  after  whk 

*  For  the  part  of  Armenia  ceded  to  Busl 


.lit  it  still  remaiiiB  the  enii»iiura  of  tbe  traJa  with  SiberiaaiiJ  tlie  iiortb- 
em  goventincnta.  It  ia  stroiigly  fortiHed,  nail  the  seat  of  a  depot  of  tlia 
Russian  militoiy  mariDe.  f  etraiaTodBk  has  two  eiiaGioiis  docks,  an  im- 
perial oaiLDDn-foniidiy,  powder-jmlls,  aiid  mamifaoturea  of  fiilka.  Tolog- 
OA,  n  place  of  CDDsideTsble  trade,  with  a  large  aanual  fair.   Korgorad,  at  one 

b  Peterstui^  m  17 

iBTOBlav,  an  important  nmnufacturing  town  on  tbe  Votga.  Kostroma 
and  PskOT,  eelebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  nis*ia  leather.  Tver,  an 
important  fortlHed  town  on  the  Volga,  and  on  a  canal  which  eetahliahea 
a  connection  between  the  Baltic  auil  Caspian,  poBsesses  an  estenaiva 
trade.  Ylodlmir,  the  capital  of  the  Grand-Dncliy  of  Bossia  from  11S7 
to  1328,  has  a  trade  in  fruit,  and  manufactures  of  lluen  and  leather. 
Knrom  and  Tixa,  with  valuable  iran-mines,  the  latter  being  among  the 
moat  extensive  in  Russia.  IT^ni-S'ovgDrod,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Oka 
and  Volga,  noted  for  its  great  annual  fair,  the  Ini^est  in  the  world,  which 
lieglna  on  the  Ist:  of  Jnly,  and  coatinues  for  eiEht  weeks,  at  which  time 
the  populatioQ  amounts  to  a  quarter  of  a  million  :  merehnnta  from  all 
parts  of  Enrope  and  Aeib  attend,  and  the  salea  are  valued  at  £22,000,000 
sterling.  Smolensk  was  a  place  of  great  Importance  as  earl;  as  the  mnth 
century ;  was  taken  by  the  French  army  after  the  famous  battle  of  Smo- 
lensk, and  a  great  part  of  it  redni^ed  to  ashea.  Viaama :  here  the  French 
aniiy  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  in  October  1812.    Kalnga,  one  of  tha 

consisting  of  muskets,  cloth,  oil,  paper,  cotton,  leather,  Jcc  Tola,  the 
Birmingham  of  Russia,  and  the  great  seat  of  its  iron  manufactures  ;  hero 
vast  quantities  of  arms  ore  mads  annually,  giving  employment  to  20,000 
panons.  HOECow,  formerly  the  capital  of  Russia,  and  still  the  second 
city  In  the  empire,  greatly  anrpasaee  St  Petershurg  in  tha  eitant  of  it» 
commerce,  having  water- communication  with  all  the  principal  cities  and 
jHirta  In  tha  empire.  The  view  of  the  city  from  a  distance  excites  the 
ailiuiraCiou  of  all  tiavellers  ;  the  innnmerable  towera,  some  with  cupolas, 
others  rising  in  the  form  of  minarets,  and  the  many  gardens  and  trees 
intemiiied  with  houses,  give  it  quite  an  Oriental  appearance.  Its  manu- 
factures of  cottons,  woollens,  silks,  and  carpets  are  immense,  employing 
40,000  vpaavers,  Moscow  was  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury ;  was  sacked  by  tho  Moguls  in  1233  and  1293 ;  and  burned  by  the 
Russian  general  after  his  defeat  by  the  Fnsnch  army  at  Borodino,  sept. 
7, 1812,  thus  compelling  Napoleon  to  commence  hia  disastrous  retreat.  J 
Otel,  tbe  entrejiGt  for  the  commerce  between  N.  and  8.  Russia.  Jelrtl^J 
liaa  eitansive  iron-mines  in  the  vicinity.  Konk  and  Torooetl  are  in^  4 
|iortant  luanufactnring  and  commercial  towna.     TamboT,  atronglj' fortk-fl 

lied,  has  a  college  and  a  military  school  for  noblai,  and  an  activ * 

trade.  Perm  has  a  ^reat  trade  in  uietolUc  productx,  which  are 
extensively  iu  the  naiglibonrhaod,  and  Is  the  principal  emporiu 
trade  betwaen  Russia  and  China.  Ekaterinburg',  on  the  Aslat 
the  Urals,  is  the  ceutre  of  all  tha  great  ironworka  belonging  to  th 
e  inhabitants  are  lar^Iy  engaged  in  mining,  and  in  polishiuc 
•thyats,  jaspers,  and  other  nrecions  atones  obtained  in  tl 
|R]t>  camea  on  great  trade  with  Aatrakhau,  ArkhAneel,  and  the  cb 
_ . .  . .  -Ton  machinery.  Kaisn,  the  great  antrcL 
a  bvtweea  Siberia  Bokhara,  and  Euiopean  Russia,  i 

_.^  t  !■__  iiL.  -J : — 1  eitablishnients.    8imbink  ni-' 

■>'      Penta  has  manuf 
vitiiel  an  found  ii 


324  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUV. 

ity.    SaratOY,  a  large,  fortified,  coTnmercial  and  manufacturing  city  on 
the  Volga.    Samara,  the  capital  of  a  goveminent  of  same  name,  con- 
tains some  ironworks,  and  a  trade  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  fish.      Oren- 
burg, a  fortified  city  on  the  Ural,  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  with  Bok- 
hara and  other  i)arts  of  Central  Asia.    Astrakhan,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Volga,  is  a  thriving  commercial  city,  with  manufactures  of  cotton,  sflk, 
leather,  and  shagreen :  from  its  favourable  situation  it  has  become  the 
entrepdt  between  Russia,  Persia,  and  India.    Ufa, cap.  of  newgovemmeDt 
of  same  name,  is  a  walled  town  with  16,000  inhabitants.    Warsaw,  the 
capital  of  Poland  since  1566,  and  the  great  entrepdt  of  its  commerce,  is 
in  point  of  population  the  third  city  in  the  empire,  and  contains  the 
largest  Je\vi8h  population  of  any  city  in  Europe.    Warsaw  is  strongly 
fortified,  is  one  of  the  pnncipal  stations  of  the  Russian  army,  and  the 
scene  of  unparalleled  atrocities  on  the  part  of  the  Russians  during  the 
Polish  insurrection  of  1863.     Ealisch:  near  it  the  Poles  defeated  the 
Swedes  in  1706.    Lublin  has  extensive  cloth-manufactures  and  trade  in 
com  and  Hungarian  wines :  also  three  large  fairs,  each  lasting  a  month. 
Flock  has  manufactures  of  leather  and  skins,  and  an  active  transit  trade. 
Eovno  is  famous  for  its  mead,  has  an  active  trade  in  com,  and  some  linen- 
weaving.    VUna,  the  former  capital  of  Lithuania,  is  a  large  town  with  a 
considerable  trade.    Vitebsk,  built  of  wood  and  enclosed  by  walls,  has  a 
college  for  nobles,  and  manufactures  of  woollen  cloth  and  leather.    Grod- 
no :  here  Stanislaus,  last  king  of  Poland,  abdicated  his  crown  in  1795. 
Minsk  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  timber,  iron,  and  russia  leather,  and  has 
manufactures  of  woollen  cloths  and  hats.    Moghiley  conducts  a  large 
export  trade  in  agricultural  products.    Jitomir  has  a  flourishine  trade 
in  woollens,  silks,  linens,  salt,  and  agricultural  produce.     Eamimeti,  a 
fortified  town,  containing  a  theological  seminary.    Tchemigov,  a  ve^ 
ancient  town,  containing  numerous  buildings  of  antiquarian  interest,    ft 
was  taken  by  the  Tartars  in  1239,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  again 
by  the  Poles  in  1617.    Kiev,  once  the  capital  of  Russia,  is  an  ancient  and 
fortified  city,  with  an  arsenal  and  a  nchly-endowed  university.    It  is 
noted  for  its  ancient  catacombs.    Berditchev  has  great  commerce,  and 
four  annual  fairs,  at  which  goods  to  the  value  of  £600,000  are  disposed 
of  annually.     Poltava  or  Pultawa  contains  a  monument  to  Peter  the 
Great,  who  here  signally  defeated  Charles  XIJ.  of  Sweden,  27ih  June 
1709.    Kharkov  or  Eharkova  has  numerous  manufactures  and  eztensive 
trade ;  its  fairs  are  among  the  most  important  in  the  Ukraine.     in«ii— iii 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  woollen  cloths.     Akennan,  a  fortified 
town  on  the  Dniester,  has  large  exports  of  salt,  obtained  in  the  adjacent 
lakes.     Here  was  concluded,  in  lb26,  a  famous  traaly,  exempting  the 
Danubian  provinces  (Moldavia  and  Wallachia)  from  all  bat  a  nominal 
dependence  on  Turkey.    Bender,  taken  and  stomied  by  the  Rnasiant  in 
1770  and  1809 :  here  Charles  XII.  resided  for  seven  yean  after  the  battle 
of  Poltava.    Ghotyn,  formerly  an  important  border-unrtansi  of  the  Toiki, 
and  frequently  the  object  of  stmggles  between  them  and  the  Bunius. 
Kherson,  a  fortified  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  and  a  place  nf 
great  trade :  near  it  is  the  tomb  of  Howard  the  philanthropist  woo  died 
here  January  20,  1790.    Odessa,  a  strongly-fortified  seaport  citr,  and 
the  great  commercial  emporium  for  the  BlacK  Sea  and  Daanbe  tiafflo^  «u 
founded  in  1792.    Its  trade  chiefly  consists  in  the  exportation  of  gmin 
and  in  importing  foreign  goods.    It  has  several  hundred  laige  grain-iaaga* 
zines,  and  is  now  the  third  commercial  citv  in  the  empba:  expoHa    '"*' 
imports  valued  at  £5,000,000  annually.    It  nairowlT  ewapad  or 
ment  in  the  late  war  with  Russia.    HfcolaXer,  a  lortmed  town  at  ^ 


I 


Buence  of  the  Ingul  and  Bii^,  the  atation  o[  the  Russia  GUck  flea  fleet, 
uid,  giucBthe  dtistructiDD  ot  ^bastopol,  the  pniicipal  naval  arsenal  of 
Buuia  in  the  Black  Sea.  BimferoDol  ia  ths  reaidence  of  all  the  Kaeaiaa 
ButhoritieB  in  the  Crimea.  Bakclu-Serai,  near  the  Alma,  a  smaU  riv^r, 
DQ  whoBB  hanks  the  allied  army  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Itussisna,  SOth  Septembsr  1854.  Bebutopol,  at  the  month  of  the  Inker- 
•nnnii,  fonnerly  too  Gihraltac  ot  Enisia,  was  fonnded  by  the  Empresa 
Catharine  in  1787,  and  made  the  ehief  naval  arsenal  for  the  Knssian  fleet. 
Imiaediatfily  after  Turkey  declared  war  against  Rnt^m,  e.  large  BiiasiaQ 
aqaadron  issued  from  Seliaatopol  and  destroyed  tliE  greater  portion  of  the 
Tliriiiah  fteet  at  Sbope,  November  13, 1853,  when  lOOO  Turks  perished. 
To  avenge  this  ontr^e,  and  to  check  the  nnmeroua  encroachments  ol 
Kiuaia,  sWland  and  fVance  declared  war  against  Russia  in  the  following 
Maich.  l^ey  sent  one  fleet  to  the  Baltic,  which  destroyed  Bomarsund, 
ki, ;  and  another,  together  with  a  large  military  force,  o^i^iitist  Sebaalflpol. 
Tha  landing  was  effected  at  Old  Fort,  about  thirty  niitea  south  of  Eupa- 
"-  "-    —  "-   "-    September  1SS4;  and  on  the  2(lth  Sepl«mber,  25th 

, lovember  following,  were  fought  the  memorable  battles 

Cf  the  Alma,  Balaklava,  and  Inkemiann  ;  on  the  8th  September,  1865,  the 
Hslakoff  Tower  was  taken,  and  the  day  following  the  Russians  evacuated 
Beteatopol,  which  was  reduceii  to  a  heap  of  ruins  hy  the  allied  army. 
IkaterlnoBlav,  founded  in  honoorof  Cathaiiue  II.  of  Russia,  in  1787,  has 
mBunfactorea  of  cloth,  and  an  Important  annual  wool  fair.  Taganrog, 
ithe  great  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the  countries  drained  by  the  Don. 
Stanopol,  cap.  of  government  of  same  name,  and  of  all  Ciscaucasia  {which 
consists  of  one  government  and  two  inoiganiaed  tarritoriea),  ia  a  forti- 
fied biwn  with  some  manufactures  of  soap  and  leather.  Kizliar,  a  forti- 
fled  town  on  the  Terek,  with  an  active  trade  in  wins.  Jieek,  capital  of 
the  territory  of  the  Kuban,  founded  in  1848,  is  a  modem  seaport  town  Qti 
the  Sea  of  Azov.  Tlodi-Eankaa.  a  town  and  fortress  at  the  N.  entrance 
of  the  Darisl  Pafls,  the  principal  pass  of  the  central  Caucasus.  Tiflis, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Georgia,  and  now  ot  Tranecaucitaia,  ia  well  fortiHed, 
and  ia  the  great  mart  for  the  interchange  of  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Per- 
sian produce.  Aldialtikh,  a  fortified  town  taken  by  the  Buasiana  ftoni 
the  Torks,  with  trade  in  silk  and  honey.  EtItiui,  formerly  capital  of  the 
Penian  province  Aierbijan,  sltuatad  on  the  great  cnravan-routa  between 
Tiflle  and  Erooum,  has  a  considerable  transit  trade.  It  has  a  etroug 
citadel,  taken  by  the  Russians  in  ISOi,  Alaiandropoli  a  strung  fortress 
at  aD  elevation  of  6860  feet,  where  the  cold  is  often  intense.  BaiU.  capi- 
tal of  province  Shemakha,  bas  the  best  harbour  on  the  W.  aide  of  the 
Caapian  ;  ileiports  vast  quantities  of  naphtha  and  salt  from  the  Apsheron 
pfluloiula,  Within  10  m.  of  this  town  is  Atash-ja  ("sacred  Same"),  tha 
place  of  nil^mage  of  the  fire-worshippers  of  Asia.  Bere  the  soil  it,  im- 
pregnatBd  with  sulphur  and  inflammable  gas.  Berbend,  a  place  of  great 
atrengtb  and  importance,  being  tituated  at  the  entrance  of  a  defile  iu  tha 
Caucams,  called  by  the  ancients  the  Albanian  Gates. 
Cams,  PanlnanlttB,  anfl  IBlanilB.— Zelania,  N.  of  Novaia  2emli«  ; 

_     :         "  r,  on  either  side  of  the  entrani-e  to  the  White  Sea ; 

lanpo  Head,  S.W.  of  Finland;  DoiQeaaes,  N.  of  Courland;  Kiu- 
a  Point,  S.W  of  Teurida  ;  Cheraonese,  S.  of  the  Crimea ;  Ap- 
Dn,  the  E.  eKtnentity  of  Mount  CancnsOB.  The  only  importuit 
Sheraokhovskaia.  b-t  tha  While  Sea  and  the  G.  o( 


326  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Sisters,  10*  N.  of  Norway;  Kolguev,  between  Vaigatch  and  Cape 
Eanin ;  Solovetskoi  group,  in  the  White  Sea ;  Ahmd  group,  S.  W. 
of  Finland ;  Eronstadt,  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland ;  Dago, 
Oesel,  Worms,  Nuko,  and  Moen,  W.  of  Esthonia. 

Seas,  Onlfti,  and  Straits. — Eara  Sea,  N.£.  of  Arkhangel;  Vai- 
gatch Str.,  bet  Vai^tch  I.  and  the  mainland;  Earskaia  Str.,  bet 
Vaigatch  and  Novaia  Zemlia ;  Tcheskaia  G.  and  White  Sea,  in  t^e 
N.  of  Arkhangel ;  Varanger  Fiord,  bet.  Arkhangel  and  Finmark ; 
the  Baltic,  bet  Rnssia  and  Sweden ;  G.  of  Bothnia,  bet  Finland 
and  Sweden  ;  G.  of  Finland,  bet.  Finland  and  Esthonia  ;  G.  of  Biffi, 
bet.  Esthonia  and  Courland  ;  Black  Sea,  bet  Russia  and  Asia  Minor; 
G.  of  Odessa,  S.  of  Eherson ;  G.  of  Perekop,  N.W,  of  the  Crimea; 
Sea  of  Azov,  bet.  Taurida  and  territory  of  the  Euban ;  Str.  of  Eertch, 
uniting  the  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azov ;  Caspian  Sea,  separating 
Russia  from  Persia  and  Independent  Tartary. 

Monntalns. — Russia  is  the  least  mountainous  country  in  Europe ; 
for  though  two  immense  mountain-chains  skirt  its  K  and  S.K  fron- 
tiers, the  latter  containing  several  summits  greatly  loftier  than  Mont 
Blanc,  the  whole  of  the  interior  and  west  consists  of  one  enormous 
plain,  which  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Black  Sea,  and 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Caspian,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
Valdai  Hills,  at  the  sources  of  the  Volga.— (See  under  **  Europe," 
p.  70.) 

The  Valdai  Hills,  in  the  government  of  No^rod,  divide  the  waters 
flowing  into  the  Baltic  from  those  entering  the  Gstspian.  Highest  sum- 
mit, between  Ostashkov  and  Valdai,  1100  feet 

The  Ural  Range,  separating  European  Russia  from  Siberia,  and  the 
basins  of  the  Petchora  and  Volga  from  that  of  the  Obi,  Reckonine:  as 
is  usually  done,  from  Orenburg  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  they  traverse  18^  of 
latitude ;  but  as  they  in  reality  commence  near  the  Sea  of  Ajal,  and  have 
an  insular  prolongation  in  Vaigatch  and  the  two  islands  of  Novaia  Zemlia, 
they  extend  over  30°  of  latitude,  or  2000  English  miles.  The  highest 
summits  are  the  following :  — Eoiyak-Ofski  (lat  59''66'),  6397  ft.;  Obdorsk 
(lat  67°),  6286  ft.;  Taganal  (lat.  65°  20'),  3692  ft  The  Urals  nowhere 
attain  the  limit  of  perpetual  congelation,  and  are  usually  of  very  modcnrate 
elevation.  They  are  covered  wiui  dense  forests,  and  are  rich  in  gold,  pre- 
cious stones,  and  other  valuable  minerals.  The  mountain-passes  are  not 
remarkable ;  the  onlygood  carriage-road  leads  from  Perm  to  Ekaterinburg. 

The  Caucasus. — This  vast  chain,  the  loftiest  in  Europe,  extends  from 
Cape  Apsheron,  in  the  Caspian,  to  the  Peninsula  of  Taman,  between  tiie 
Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azov,  being  a  total  distance  of  760  miles.  They 
separate  Europe  from  Asia  on  the  S.E.,  and  the  basins  of  the  Euban  and 
Terek  irom  those  of  the  Kur  and  Rion.  Mount  Elburz,  the  culminating- 
point  of  Europe,  18,571  ft. ;  Mount  Eazbek  (Ion.  44'  2O0,  16,528  ft.; 
elevation  of  line  of  perennial  snow,  11,000  ft  Cultivation  of  grain  extends 
from  7000  to  8000  ft.  The  existence  of  glaciers  is  uncertain.  The  range 
is  covered  with  timber  to  a  great  height.  The  north  side  is  abrupt  anl 
precipitous,  but  the  south  side  descends  by  a  silcc»»3ion  of  terraces.  The 
Caucasus  contain  no  active  volcanoes,  but  they  are  frequently  "risited  Inr 
earthquakes.  They  consist  mainly  of  crystalline  rocks ;  while  the  prised 
pal  mmerals  are  copper,  lead,  iron,  sulphur^  and  coal. 


The  only  iloKHlaui-paiies  practicatla  for  cnrrisRes  are— The  Dsriel 
Pass,  from  MoBlok  ta  Tidia,  by  tha  vaEoy  ot  tlie  Terek,  8000  ft.  high  ;  and 
the  Paas  of  Derbenil,  ou  the  eiist  coa^t. 

The  ifotoitni**  ^  the  Ctimea  are  a  mere  prolongation  of  Moiutt  Cau- 
casus :  cuUninating-point,  Tchatir-Dagh,  5000  ft.  high. 

Etrer-BoaliiB. — The  river-syEtem  of  Kuasia  belongs  to  I  distinct 
riVEr-bflBins— viz.,  those  inclining  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Baltic, 
the  Black  Sfa,  and  the  Caspian.  The  two  former  are  the  least 
pxtensive,  althoneh  possessinj:;  the  greater  number  of  rivers,  the 
principal  of  which  ore  the  Petchora,  Mezen,  Dwina,  Nova,  Dtlna, 
and  Niemen.  The  two  latter  are  represented  by  the  Dniester. 
Dnieper,  Don,  Knr,  Volga,  and  Ural.  These  12  basins  comprise  j 
of  the  area  of  Russia,  and  B7  ont  of  the  71  capitals,  or  nearly  i  of  tha 
entire  nnmber.  Three  haaina  {Neva,  Dnieper,  and  Volga)  contain 
S9  capitals,  or  about  f  of  the  whole,  and  drain  en  area  of  822, 000  gq. 


r  i  of  the  area  of  R 


I 


miles,  being  considerably  o' 

the  Volga  alone  is  527,000  aq.  miles. — (For  nm  uj-hla  ui  me  uiuer 

baeina,  see  pp.  72-76.) 

TaUaoraivawandTowm.— In  the  folio wini;  table  168  rivers  are 
enumarated,  33  of  which  are  principal  rivers,  entering  tlie  sea  imme- 
diately, the  remainder  being  their  affluents  ;  and  the  total  number  ot 
towns  exceeding  5000  inhaliitatits,  contained  in  their  basins,  is  S20. 

Bmins  iiicUtied  to  thi  Arctic  Ocean. 


..Krooauiatn.,  aiPETEiia- 


I  VftlUoT  (L.  NovGOitoii. 

Lwat,'. , .  .S(nrafii.JI«M! 
"■-  l.,....K*fioi7i,n. 
L  One-  PEiHOiATOuai 


.an.., 

VeUkaJa,....! 


A,  Dniisbnrg.Polutili, 


Torcppa, Toni(leca. 

[ndao,  - Qoldxngej 


JLemon, Meme!,    TllsJt,    Kovso, 

Gbocso. 

SUWILKL 

DubiM. Rasaienr. 


H.B.  —For  [he  Freg9l,  VIstolB,  A 


828 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Biuins  inclined  to  the  Black  Sea, 


Rivers.  Towns. 

Dniester Akennan.   Bender,    Mo- 

hilev,  Eaminietz,   n., 
Chotyn,  Sambor. 

Baik, KiSHENAU. 

Sered,  I TamopoL 

Zelota,  I....  Brezezany. 
Bistrica,  ....Stanislawaw. 
Tissmanicka^Drohobicz. 
Co.  of  Kherson,  Odessa. 

Bug, Nicolalev,  Vinnitza. 

Ingul,  I Bobrinetz,  Elizabet^n'ad. 

Smioka,  2.. .Svenigorodka,  Uman,  n. 
Kodyma, .  ...Balta. 

Sab,  I Lipovetz. 

Row, Bar. 

Dnieper Khebson,  Alexandrovsk, 

Ekatebinoslav,    Ere- 
mentschug,  Tcherkasi, 
Kiev,  Hohilev,  Smo- 
lensk, Dorogobusk. 
Samara,  I  ...Novomoskovsk,     Pavlo- 

gradt  n. 
Yorskla,  I  ..KohyliaM,      Poltava, 
Akhtyrka. 

Fsiol,  I Lebedin,  Sumy,  Miropo- 

lU,  Obaian. 
Khorol, . . .  Khorolf  Mirgorod. 

Sula,  2 PrUukL 

Trubesh,  {..Perejaslav. 

Stugma Vasilikhov. 

Desna,  {....Kiev,     Tchernioov, 
Berezna^  n.,  Sosnitza, 
Brianek. 
Oster,  Z...Nojin. 
Seim,  2....Bielopol,n.,i2]/28A;,KuRSK 

Eleven,  Glutchov,  n. 
Sudost,...  Pofcar. 
Babintza,  Staj-odub. 
Nerussa,  {  Trubtchevsk,  Dmitrovsk. 

Sieva,  {  Sievek. 
Sae;ja,  { .  ..Brianek^  KarcUchev. 
Teterev, ..  ..Jitomir,  Berditcliev,  n. 
Pripet, Mozyr,  Pinsk,  n. 


Rivera. 


Tottnu. 


Slntch,. . . .  Staro-KonstantinoT. 

Styr, LtUtk^  Bro<ly. 

Irva, ....  Eremenetz. 

SoJ,  2 Gomel,       TcherikoVt 

Mstistavl. 
Iput,  l....Stiraj. 
Ostr,  I  ....Roelavl. 
Berezina,  ...Bobruisk,  Minsk. 
W.  Co.  Crimea,  Eupatoria. 

Alma, Bakchi-Seral,  n. 

Tchemaya, .... Sebastopol,  Inkermaim. 
S.  Co.  Crimea,  Balaklava,  Kaffa, 
S.  of  Yenikaleh,  Eertch. 

Salgbir, Simfebopol. 

Earask,  ....  Earasu-bazar. 
Sea  of  Azov, . .  Berdiansk,     Mariop o /« 

Taganrog,  Azov. 
Don, AzoVf  Nakhitchevan,Ros- 

tOV,  NOVO-TCHBBKASK, 

n.,  L^>edian. 
Manitcb,  {..StaroT-Tcherkask. 
Egorlik,  I  Stavbopol,   n.,   ou  the 
Jachla. 

Aksai, Novol-Tcherkask. 

Donetz, Starobielsk,    n. ,     Isium, 

VoUchanak,  Bielgorod. 
Bakhmuta,£aJl;Amut. 
Oskol,  { . .  Novoi  -  Oskol,     8 1  a  r o  T- 

OskoL 
Eharkova,  Ehabkhov. 

V<ldi,....Zolotchev. 
Eorotcha,  Korotcha. 
Medviditsa,  IPetrovsk. 
Bitiug,  I.... Bobrov. 
Vorona,  I.., Voboketz,   (Tsmany   n. , 

Lipetsk,  Eozlov 
Sosna  -  Bis-  Jelelz,  Livny. 

trala, 
Metscha,  .,,Jefremov. 

Euban Ekaterinodar. 

W.  Co.  Circas-  Anapa,  PitzuTidra,  Svik' 
sia,  um-Kaleh. 

I  Bion EuTAis,  Poti, 


Batine  inclined  to  the  Caspian, 


Eur T I  r L 1 8,  5Ae?na*o,  n., 

Elizabetpol,  n.,  Akhal- 
zikh,  n.,  Nukha,  n. 

Aras Shusha,  n.,  Ebzroum,  n. 

Eara-Su,..  J.rda5tt  (Persia). 
Vei^sh,  I  Shnsha. 
Eotur, ....  Ehoi  (Persia). 
Mahou,... .Bayozid  (in  Turkish  Ar- 
menia). 
Zenghi(L.  Erivan. 
Erivan), 
c 
Arpar  or  Alexandropol,  n.,  Eais. 
Ears,  I 
Alazon,  i ,.,Telavi. 


W.Co.Caspian,BAKU,DERBEND,TARKi,li. 

Euba Euba,  Kukfot. 

Sulak AkhtdgOj  Kwraita. 

Terek, Eizliar,  Mozdok,  Ikaiet 

Volga Astrakhan,     TeA^mof- 

yair,  Dnbovka,  JEohhw* 
o/im,  Saratov,  Wolguc, 
E3iTalinsk,  Syzran, 
Sahara,  Simbibsx,  Ka- 
8AN,  Mwrathkino,  Ku- 
Ki-NovooROD,  KoexRO- 

XA,  JaBOSIiAT,  Bf- 

Unzk,  U^toh,  Tna^ 
fitorttao,  BdiiT,  Oi> 
ttthkor. 


Tchlatopol,  KoBgout,  B,, 

Wcr<ta,'sitopli..' 

Vlatks,. 

com.:. 

Bars. 

.Pkbh,  Knineli. 

Nn.Tl.I...SBrpnr^tinv. 

AIMjt-.i 

/•oMAinW. 

ProHo,  1.  .BoroTjt,  Vcn^ja, 

Su«igii.8aniDsk. 

Lmhi,.  .Jrafoi-JarDi.'aciri. 

Ola, 

.SijBi-NovnoHoo,  /"acij- 

8hisdrB,i  Shl9dr.. 

«,  jWbt™,  Jf<fan*i, 

Vlasma,  IVtaima. 

Jgtai™,  Ksalmov, 

Ul-.77...Tu.^. 

llIASAN,  Eolomnii,  Sec- 

KoitTonis,  IKoemoHi,  OalUcli,  d. 

pnctaoT,  Kaluqi,  BU- 
Un.  BDlihBv,  n.,  Mi- 

Shekm»{L."iKiioar«fr'. 

HbIo), 

Kutcba 

n,l 

Duhait  ..TmiWirf. 

HmK. 

Tiertia,  (  ..TVin,  TorBhob. 

aoluha. 

.Kratna-SM^k.  Nijni- 

Tbm,  i ..  ..VlBhnel-Vniotchok. 

tdkes. — Russia  iil)oaii<la  in  lakes,  more  cspooiallj  in  tlie  north- 
wefltem  provinces.  In  general  thoy  arrangB  theniaalves  in  cluatars 
around  take  l^doga,  the  largest  freah-water  lake  in  Enrope  (area 
7150  Bq.  ni.),  and,  along  with  it,  discharge  thsir  snrpliia  watara  into 
the  Ouff  of  Finland,  For  a  fnll  liat  of  the  lakes  of  Riisaia  and  of  tho 
rivers  that  drain  them,  see  p.  78.  Of  salt-water  Lakes,  tha  Caspian 
is  by  far  tbe  largest  in  the  world,  having  an  area  of  178, 866  sq.  m. ;  and 
a  tbis  ia  probably  but  a  small  part  of  the  area  it  occupied  il 


Continsntai  Streams. 

CUmaita.— The  watershed  inclining  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  much 
colder  than  in  carresponiUng  latitudes  in  Scandinavia,  the  surface  of 
alal^  portion  of  it  being  constantly  frozen,  notwithstanding  the 
oontmna]  presence  of  the  sna  for  many  weeks'  duration.  Beyond 
the  arctic  circle  mercury  freezes  in  the  month  of  September.  Erau 
at  St  Petersburg  (lai  6B°  6ST  tbe  thermometer  sinks  in  January  to 
22°  below  zeru;  while  in  July  it  rises  to  90°  ;  mean  temperature, 
38*.7  Fahr.  South  of  lat.  68"  the  mean  temperature  varies  from 
40°  to  S5°  I  the  winters  are  muah  shortei  than  on  the  northern  slope, 
but  almost  equally  severe,  while  the  Bummsrs  are  long  and  hot. 
Notwithstanding  these  striking  extremes  of  temperature,  the  climate 
of  Bnssia  is  favourable  to  health ;  diseases  are  not  commau,  ami 
bntnan  life  very  frequently  attains  to  its  maximum  length.  Aunoat 
fait  of  rain  at  St  Petorsburg,  16  inches ;  number  of  rainy  daya,  171. 
ICL  the  basin  of  the  Volga  tue  rainialL  amounts  tu  only  IS  iuL'hea. 


330  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

mainly  due  to  Sir  Roderick  Impey  Murchison  and  his  coadjutors. 
For  the  particulars,  however,  we  must  refer  to  the  **  Geology  of 
Europe,"  p.  79. 

Minerals  are  numerous  and  very  valuable,  especially  in  the  govern- 
ments of  Perm  and  Orenburg,  on  both  sides  oi  the  Ural  Mountains, 
which  are  richer  in  valuable  minerals  than  any  other  mountain-system  in 
Europe.  Numerous  mines  of  gold,  platinimi,  copper,  magnetic  iron, 
and  salt  are  wrtmght,  giving  employment  to  a  large  and  flourishing  popu- 
lation.  In  Perm  alone  100,000  persons  are  employed  in  mining  operations. 
The  greatest  mineral  wealth  of  the  chain  is  on  the  eastern  side,  between 
lats.  5i°  and  60** ;  but  the  western  side  famishes  marl,  gypsum,  lime- 
stone, sulphur,  and  copper.  Iron  abounds  in  the  southern  provinces. 
Coal  is  deficient  in  the  Urals,  but  prevails  exteusively  in  southern  Poland, 
and,  on  the  Oka,  is  found  associated  with  iron.  Lignite  and  brown-coal 
are  found  in  the  Crimea.  In  1844  enormous  deposits  of  coal  were  dis- 
covered in  the  government  of  Moscow ;  while  the  coal-field  on  tiie  Donetz, 
100  miles  in  length,  has  long  been  celebrated.  Amber  is  found  in  Poland 
and  Lithuania ;  iron,  lead,  sulphur,  arsenic,  nitre,  in  Finland ;  salt  and 
alum  in  many  places :  diamonds  of  small  size,  and  other  precious  stones, 
in  the  Urals. 

Botany  and  Agriculture.  —  Russia  is  wholly  included  within 
Schouw's  first  and  second  phyto-geographic  regions,  which  are, 
for  the  most  part,  separated  by  the  arctic  circle.  The  first,  or 
farthest  K.,  is  the  home  of  the  arctic  alpine  flora,  described  under 
**  Europe,"  p.  81.  The  second  embraces  all  the  rest  of  Russia  and 
Central  Europe  (see  p.  82).  The  botany  of  Russia  has  not  been 
fully  investigated,  and  we  cannot  yet  state  how  many  species  of 
plants  it  embraces.  Finland,  however,  is  said  to  contain  abiout  1000 
flowering  plants.  The  most  peculiar  feature  of  its  botany  is  found  in 
its  immense  natural  forests,  which  cover  about  2-6ths  of  its  entire 
surface.  These  abound  chiefly  in  the  central  districts,  between  52" 
and  60°  lat.,  and  are  of  most  essential  value  to  the  inhabitants, 
aflbrding  fuel,  shelter  from  the  biting  winds,  and  numerous  useful 
articles,  as  timber,  pitch,  tar,  turpentine,  and  potash.  The  trees 
which  most  frequently  occur  are  the  pine,  Scotch  fir,  and  other 
coniferous  trees.  The  northern  limit  of  the  coniferse  •passes  through 
the  N.  of  Lake  Imandra  in  Lapland,  Cape  Sviatoi,  and  the  confluence 
of  the  Petchora  and  Ussa.  The  largest  forest  in  Europe  extends  from 
the  Mezen  to  the  Onega,  and  covers  an  area  greatly  larger  liian  the 
?>ritish  Isles.  The  oak  extends  as  far  N.  as  Abo,  Novgorwi,  Vladimir, 
Simbirsk,  and  Orsk ;  the  vine  to  lat  474° »  the  beech  to  a  line 
drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  south-eastward  to  the  month 
of  the  Terek ;  the  olive  and  orange  refuse  to  grow  in  any  part  of 
European  Russia  except  the  Crimea,  in  the  southern  valleys  of 
which  the  vine  and  mulberry,  the  olive,  fig,  pomegranate,  and  orange, 
all  flourish  in  the  greatest  profusion. 

Over  the  whole  empire  agriculture  is  in  its  rudest  state ;  the  soil  is 
various,  but  generally  excellent ;  and  greatly  more  com  is  raised  than  is 
required  for  lome  consumption.  The  upper  basin  of  the  Volga  is  the 
most  fertile  part  of  Russia;  and  the  governments  of  Nyni-l^vgoiod» 
Penza,  Easan,  and  Simbirsk  may  be  denominated  the  granaiy  of  the 


empire.  Here  the  ediI  conskta  of  n  rich  bki^k  moiild  of  deesyeJ 
Tegetahle  matter,  and  is  of  siirpiising  fertility.  The  Ukraiue  ia  aim 
very  fertile,  and  enports  enormous  quantitica  of  wheat.  Forests  cover 
a  great  part  of  the  eurface  of  the  Polish  and  Baltic  provinces,  but  the 
former  produce  cattle  and  great  quantities  of  com.  Kasan  ia  level 
and  fertile,  abounding  lit  com  and  foreata  of  oak.  Southern  Russia 
uid  As1J^BkhaQ  consist  chieBy  of  iltppfi,  or  immense  deserta,  which  are 
divided  by  the  Don  into  two  regions  ;  the  high  steppea,  lying  westward, 
are  charocteilaed  by  the  absence  of  trees,  and  by  foug  coaraa  graaa  and 
wild-flowers  in  spring  and  early  aummer,  but  as  the  heat  increases,  they 
asBume  the  appearance  of  a  sunburnt  waste.  The  low  ateppes  to  the  E. 
are  much  more  sterile,  having  a  saline,  sandy  soil,  interspersed  with 
intensely  salt  lakes.  The  steppes  are  inhabited  by  nomadic  tribes, 
who  keep  large  flocks  of  camels.  The  vast  r^aa  extending  bom  tJie 
Arctic  Ocean  to  lat.  64°  is  a  swamp  in  summer,  ajid  is  covered  with  ice 
for  nine  months  in  the  year.  The  grains  mast  generally  cultivated  are 
rye  and  oats,  the  former  being  the  principal  article  of  lood  used  by  the 
inhabitants.  Rye  eirtenda  to  lat.  fis",  harley  to  67°,  oats  to  62°,  wheat 
to  eO°,  millet  to  B5%  maize  to  48° ;  while  rice  ia  cultivated  only  in 
Transcaucasia.  The  northern  limit  of  the  cereala  ia  marked  by  a  line 
passing  N.  of  lakes  Enara  and  Imandra,  and  S.  of  the  town  of  Mezen, 
meeting  the  Urals  in  lat.  60°.  The  extent  of  land  under  cultivation 
bears  but  a  small  proportion  to  the  whole  area  of  the  country.  Hemp 
and  flax  are  chiefly  cultivated  on  the  upper  Volga ;  tobacco  in  the 
Ukraine ;  the  vine  in  the  Crimea,  Odessa,  Caucasia,  and  the  lower  baaina 
of  IJis  Don  and  Volga ;  and  rice,  silk,  cotton,  madder,  melons,  pomegran- 
ates, and  even  the  sugar-cane,  in  Transcaucasia. 

Zoology. — So  accarate  statistics  have  been  fnmished  of  the  fanna 
any  more  tlian  of  the  flora  of  Russia,  Dotwithstanding  the  solid 
foandatioDs  for  both  departments  of  knowledge  laid  by  the  illiis~ 
trious  PallsB  ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  isothenn  of  41° 
Fair,  (which  divides  Northern  from  Central  Europe,  and  which 
passes  tbroogiiTrondhjem,  Stockholm,  Kaluga,  Penia,  and  Orenburg) 
has  on  the  H.  side  of  ii  31  species  of  camivora,  212  birds,  10  reptiles, 
and  24  cetacea.  In  the  higher  latitudea  the  reindeer  is  a  source  of 
■wealth :  the  dreary  regions  of  Novaia  Zeinlia  are  treijuented  by  the 
great  white  bear,  which  seldom  paaaes  beyond  the  limita  of  perennial 
snow;  the  bison  is  found  near  the  sources  of  the  Karew ;  in  the 
ntirthern  forests  there  are  elks,  several  species  of  deer,  hares,  and  wild 
hogs.  The  wild  animals  that  are  hunted  for  their  skins  are  very 
nnmerons,  as  bears,  glul;tons,  badgers,  wolves,  foxes,  martens,  pole- 
cats, weasels,  ermines,  otters,  squirrels,  and  marmots.  !□  the  steppes 
are  found  wolves,  foxes,  wild  bogs,  wild  asses,  wild  horses,  and  other 
cattle.  The  domestic  animals  of  England  are  found  in  most  parts  of 
Jtnaaia.  Horses  are  very  numeroos  in  the  central  and  southern  pro- 
vinces, as  also  black  cattle  and  sheep  of  varions  species  ;  camels  and 
bofialoea  in  the  ateppes,  and  dromedaries  in  the  Crimea.  Bees  are 
tOimd  wad  in  the  forests,  and  the  silk-worm  succeeds  in  the  south, 
StlmoBiaplir.— Tho  people  of  European  Bnssia,  thoagh  broken 
-pinto  a  great  number  of  distinct  nations,  all  belong  to  two  great 
Kjliviuons  of  the  human  family— the  Caucasian  and  Jlongolisii. 


332  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  first  of  these  divisions  is  almost  exclusively  represented  hy  the 
Sclavonians,  who  embrace  nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  entire  population. 
The  principal  subdivisions  of  t^e  Sclavonic  race,  within  the  limits  of 
Russia,  are  the  Russians  proper,  the  Poles,  the  Letts,  and  the  Lithuanians, 
of  which  the  first  mentioned  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  wide- 
spread. These  occupy  the  central  and  most  fertile  provinces ;  the  Poles 
are  for  the  most  part  confined  to  Poland  and  West  Russia ;  and  the 
Lithuanians  and  Letts  to  the  Baltic  provinces.  The  second  grand  divi- 
sion is  represented  by  the  Finns,  Samoiedes,  Tatars,  and  Calmucks.  Of 
these  the  Finns  are  the  most  numerous,  amounting  to  upwards  of 
2,000,000.  The  Samoiedes  are  few  in  number,  and  are  confined  to  the 
government  of  Arkhangel.  ITie  Tatars  inhabit  the  country  north  of  the 
jBlack  Sea  and  the  river  Kuban,  and  are  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  Finns ; 
while  the  Calmucks  are  confined  to  the  lower  basins  of  the  Don  and  Volga. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  up^-ards  of  a  million  of  Jews  in  European 
Russia,  and  about  a  third  as  many  Germans. 

Lanffuofje.  — The  languages  spoken  in  European  Russia  are  even  mora 
numerous  than  the  races  that  inhabit  it ;  but,  in  common  with  the  latter, 
they  are  nearly  all  reducible  to  two  great  families — ^the  Indo-European 
and  Fiuno-Tartarian.  The  nations  of  Sclavonic  blood  speak  either  the 
Russian,  or  one  or  other  of  its  cognate  tongues — the  Polish,  Lithuanian, 
and  Lettish.  The  Finno-Tartarian  family  embraces  the  Finnish,  Samoiede, 
and  Greorgian  of  Mount  Caucasus ;  while  the  Wallachian,  spoken  in  Bess- 
arabia, is  a  Greco-Latin  tongue. 

Religion,, — The  Sclavonians,  and  more  especially  the  Russians  proper, 
belong  to  the  Greek  branch  of  the  Eastern  Church;  but  the  great 
majority  of  the  Poles  are  Roman  Catholics.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  population  of  Finland  and  the  Baltic  provinces  are  Protestants  of  the 
Lutheran  type ;  the  Tatars  and  Circassians  are  for  the  most  part  Moham- 
medans :  while  the  Calmucks  are  generally  Buddhists.  The  emperor  is 
the  head  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  in  doctrine  and  rites  closely  approx- 
imates  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Though  other  religions  are  allowea  to  be 
professed,  the  amount  of  toleration  enjoyed  is  of  the  narrowest  possible 
description.  Any  attempt  at  propagating  opinions  at  variance  with  those 
of  the  national  Church,  or  of  proselytising  any  of  its  adherents,  is  pun- 
ished with  imprisonment,  and  for  the  thircl  offence  with  exile  to  Siberia ; 
or  the  convert  is  condemned  to  loss  of  property,  and  to  detention  for 
life  in  a  convent. 

Ediication. — Russia  is  the  worst  educated  country  in  Europe,  there 
being  only  1  out  of  every  84  of  the  population  at  school,  while  in  Ger- 
many the  proportion  is  about  1  in  7.  Tiie  schools  are  under  the  surveil- 
lance of  the  priests,  and  religious  instruction  constitutes  the  basis  and 
sum  of  all  school  training.  Public  establishments  for  the  pursuit  of 
science  are  numerous,  and  are  liberally  endowed  by  tJie  Government— 
the  most  celebrated  of  them  being  the  "Academy  of  Sciences**  at  St 
Petersbuig.  There  are  now  only  six  universities — viz.,  those  of  P^pa^ 
Moscow,  Kharkov,  Kasan,  St  Pe'tersbtirg,  Kiev — ^the  universities  ofmlna 
and  Warsaw  having  been  suppressed  by  the  Government. 

Llteratnre. — The  literature  of  Russia  is  extremely  meagre,  and 
confined  within  narrow  limits.  The  only  branches  of  sdence  tliat 
have  been  cultivated  with  success  are — their  own  national  history, 
topographical  descriptions  of  foreign  countries  (chiefly  Aaiatic),  and 
philological  investigations  relative  to  the  Sclavic  langoagos,  in  wluflh 
they  have  displayed  great  ingenuity  and  perseverance.     Fbiloeopfaji 


EtTMA.  SSI 

A  the  diHerent  'branoheE  oF  mLtoral  acienoe,  liare,  tD]  Tecmtly,  liesn 
^  fntii>Ti  uflgleoted.  AEtTonon!;,  hmiBVer,  is  prasecutpd  with  the  (^reateEt 
■ncoew,  eapeciallT  at  tbH  great  and  BjJendidlT  aquipped  nationiil  6b- 
■erratoiy  of  PulkovB  (fonnded  in  18361,  where  W.  and  Otto  Strove 
have  highly  dietinmiished  tLeniselTes.  Thr  foUnwing  are  n  tew  uf 
the  most  duitingnislied  names  in  JLuaaian  literature : — 

HistciST:  The  TBUenble  NeBtot,  Loni  }05fl,  laid,  by  Ids  '  Ammla/tlii- 
Michael  LamanDsaf,  liom  1731,  ieregardi^d 


an  BolBvic  history.  ,        „ 

t  litentuic     ^vicholal  Kflr^"i*n'^i  author  ol  tl 
Btiitiire,'  extending  tc  the  nsign  of  ti^Jion 


Bamanot!,  died  ia  1836  ;  iin4  V'l 
Great.'    PoEntr  :  Uabnel  Dmahiiyi 


gold.  OD  white  1 


',  autior  of  a  ^Life  ol  Peter  the 

,     .  bom  iim,  oelehnitDd  far  hiE  iui- 

Deity,'  whii^  hu  Imen  tntualiLtud  iulo  nuuiy  fioropcan 

DEfi.     The  ChineH  Einiieror  lias  it  jirinted  in  ieaen  of 

itin,  Bud  )mn|:  up  in  liia  paluic.      Alexmidar  Puahldn, 

.  .    .  ETEtttBst  jjoet  ROBBia  lias  produced  {hom  irSH). 

pHTU>uiGi:  AlaxondcT  VuiitakaE,  the  lint  Sclavii;  Bciiolar  in  Europe ; 
Kowalorgfci,  dietingni^edfor  hie  iaiowledgK  of  the  UnnmUan  iBngnages; 
BichDOTtD,  the  best  Chinese  Buhuiar  hi  EoEiiia ;  SenkowEki,  tliB  celebnLted 
QnuitBliiit  i  Bulial^xk,  aatlior  of  the  fauiaus  '  History  uf  l^e  Bdevic 
Ijnpiufi-  nid  Lituratnre  :'  Merslaki^  the  first  litutaty  critiE  in  BuBEia ; 
Dobtiv^j,  aBuneiiriui,  author  of 'Gronuusr  of  tlieSdavauicLanpagee;' 
and  the  celebrated  FallaK,  a  (itiniuin  liy  Ijirth,  who  was  not  only  a  dis- 
tingoished  DntucaliBt,  aiid  histOTiRU  of  the  Mocguium  iiutiocii,  hot  aJiiD  a 
labOTiona  and  indefaCijialile  ]jlulologiBt.  Ky  comnumd  ol  tlie  Empress 
GBtiunne,  he  underluok  a  eompomtive  vocahuliiiy  of  ail  the  languages  of 
^w  WOTld,  two  volumaa  of  wMch  were  jjulilished  at  Bt  pBtersburg,  in 
ITBB.  Theyconlain^SS  words,  iu  200  liuigUBges  of  Asi&BudEurope.  A 
thiid  volome,  which  never  apjieared,  was  intended  to  embrace  the 
laugDiEeE  of  Africa  audAiuHrica.  Theological  Lir£SATCEE  :  Xbeopboii 
ViSarrttdi.  OEoally  nvled  the  Bnssian  Chrysostom,  died  1756  ;  Platou 
Levshin,  the  most  prodnGliTe  of  the  eocleaiastual  wrilars ;  AnastnMUS  Br»- 
lonofeki  vho  talus  the  firat  place  niuong  Kuntuui  pulpit  orators.  Pnoei! 
WsmSKS  *;>0  Sovklibte  :  Zagoskiii,  Gretsch,  BestucheS,  Mamniefi^ 
Batonhkoff,  Sncmelikin,  Odojeweky,  Bulgaiiii.  Politics  akd  Statis- 
tics :  M,  L.  de  Tecobaiaki,  author  of  '  ConunentadeB  on  the  ProdDCtrfa 
FoTcee  of  Bubbib,'  1856.  Pbtsical  Science  :  Tenner,  Stmve,  Winuedie, 
flsd  many  others. 

Goventmant,  Army  and  BaTy.  ftc — The  govennnont  is  id  absolate 
heri'ditarj  monaridiy  ;  ail  poWL-r,  biilh  iii  Church  and  Stale,  emanates 
from  the  eni|H!rur,  and  m  his  dueiHioii  all  matters  of  importsnee  must 
lie  Babniitted.  He  caiiaot,  however,  aafoly  diaregard  the  laws,  nor 
the  opiniona  and  wiabea  of  the  nobiKty,  who  have  greater  politicnl 
influence  in  Russia  than  in  any  other  European  eoautry.  One  half 
of  1.11  the  laod  of  the  country  ia  in  their  puasession,  but  they  have 
•uffurcd  u  heavy  loss  by  the  ■  eeent  emancipation  of  the  serJs  on  Iheir 
'"'iKt^E.  The  emperor  is  aided  in  all  matteis  that  come  under  hia  j 
oiedlitte  oognieance  by  a  Privy  Colmdl.  SubordJiinte  t 
m  nre  foax  great  boards  of  odminiatratioQ — viz.,  the  Impo 
nnsil,  lh«  Directing  Seoato,  the  Holy  Synod,  and  Uie  CuuimU  .^ 


334  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

greatest  in  the  world.  In  1868^  the  regular  army  amounted  to  780,000 
men  and  officers,  besides  an  irregular  force  of  177,000  light  cavalry,  con- 
sisting for  the  most  pcurt  of  Calmucks  and  Cossacks.  The  regular  anny 
consists  of  eight  nand  divisions — ^viz.,  the  Guards,  the  Armv  of  the  South, 
the  Army  of  the  West,  the  Army  of  Lithuania  and  Poland,  the  Corps  of 
the  Caucasus,  the  Finland  Corps,  the  regiments  of  the  military  colonies, 
and  the  army  of  reser\'e.  The  Navy,  in  1868,  consisted  of  26/  steamers 
and  29  sailingvessels.  These  were  manned  by  60,230  men,  and  carried 
3749  guns.  This  force  was  divided  into  two  principal  fleets — ^the  Baltic 
Fleet  and  the  Black  Sea  Fleet.  Besides  these  there  were  24  irondada 
and  a  fleet  of  steam-rams,  carrsring  149  guns,  building  at  St  Petersburg 
and  Nicolalev.  A  great  number  of  the  ships  composing  the  Black  Sea 
fleet  were  sunk  by  the  Bussians  in  the  harbour  of  SebastopoU  in  185^  to 
prevent  the  Anglo-French  fleet  from  entering.  The  Baltic  fleet,  in  like 
manner,  protected  itself  behind  the  fortifications  of  Kronstadt.  The  army 
is  maintamed  at  a  comparatively  small  expense,  and  both  army  and  navy 
do  not  cost  more  than  £24,000,000  annually.  The  Public  Debt,  which  in 
1853  amounted  to  £63,537,000,  had  in  1869  increased  to  £203,000,000. 
In  the  same  year  the  Reven%be  of  the  empire  amounted  to  £80,846,000, 
and  the  Expenditure  to  £72,606,000. 

Commerce  and  Manufactures. — The  commerce  of  Russia  is  chiefly 
internal  No  country  in  the  world  can  so  well  dispense  with  a 
foreign  commerce.  The  empire  is  a  world  to  itself,  and  wants  almost 
nothing  with  which  the  wider  world  can  supply  it.  It  is  the  only 
country  that  produces  train-oil  in  abundance  on  one  of  its  coasts, 
and  olive-oil,  in  scarce  less  abundance,  on  another, — ^that  can  ex- 
change its  native  seal-skins  and  ermine  furs  for  its  native  silk  and 
cotton, — that  makes  gin  from  its  barley  and  rye,  brandy  from  its 
wine-lees,  and  rum  from  its  sugar,— that  barters  its  cranberries, 
gathered  on  the  wastes  of  Siberia,  for  its  pomegranates  reared  in  the 
Transcaucasian  provinces, — and  that,  while  it  mixes  up  its  barley- 
bread,  in  one  of  its  districts,  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  flr,  makes 
its  cakes  of  unimported  rice  in  another.  Its  commerce  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  its  innumerable  navigable  rivers,  and  its  vast  and  ex- 
cellent system  of  canals,  by  means  of  which  its  four  seas  are  con- 
nected together  in  many  directions,  and  a  complete  system  of  inland 
navigation  established,  the  centre  of  which  is  Moscow.  A  great  por- 
tion of  the  internal  trade  is  transacted  at  annual  fairs,  the  most  re- 
markable of  which  are  those  of  Nijni-Nov^orod,  Berditchev,  Kursk, 
and  Lublin  in  Poland.  The  foreign  trade  is  conducted  by  means  of 
caravans,  which  periodically  leave  Orenburg  for  Asia,  and  Perm  for 
Siberia.  The  chief  seaports  are — St  Petersburg  and  Riga  on  the 
Baltic,  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  Astrakhan  on  the  Caspian,  and 
Arkhangel  on  the  White  Sea. 

Manufactures, — Owing  to  the  sparseness  of  the  population,  the  general 
deficiency  of  coal,  and  other  causes,  Russia  can  never  become  a  great  manu- 
facturing country ;  but,  since  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  manniiacticras 
liave  made  very  considerable  progress.  Most  of  the  articles  used  by  the 
peasantry  are  made  in  the  villages,  each  of  which  is  usually  devoted  to  a 
single  branch  of  industry.  The  principal  articles  manufactured  on  a  Ittge 
scale  are-linen,  sail-cloth,  cordage  (the  chief  factories  for  which  are  MoMOW 
and  its  vicinity),  cotton,  woollen,  and  worsted  stuffis  in  mott  of  tbe  T 


ti3,  and  silk-spinQiiig  at  Moscow,  whkti  is  reuomifld  for  its  brocaJt 
Bna^tduidsilveTemliraiileiies.  Hard  wore,  cutlery,  and  Srearms,  mee 
tBiiBiveljr  muinfactared  at  Nijni-Novgorod,  Tula,  and  other  places.     B 


'ailed  r 

Russia  also  bolda  a  distin- 

malaciiitB  (^en_  topper 


goislied  place  in  tiie  maiiufo 

on)  sad  of  oraameutai  glass  ;  wbiic  Astrakliaa  ia  famans  tor  Its  isinglass, 

•bsgreen,  and  caviars, 

Tha  Ei^HirU,  In  1872,  were  Talned  at  £50,000,000  sterling,  and  tbs 
IiKi>ortia,t  £65.600,000.  The  chief  exports  are  com,  tallow,  hides,  liemp, 
flax,  linseed,  timber,  tar,  pitch,  potash,  russra  leather,  fnrs,  wool,  oil, 
wax,  honey,  copper,  iron,  ptatina,  cordage,  and  sail-datL.  Great  Britain 
ia  Hossia'a  best  customer,  taking  three-fonrths  of  her  Hox  and  hemp. 
thtBe-fonrtha  of  her  tailow,  three-fifths  of  her  oleaginous  graine,  two-fifths 
of  her  exported  com,  &c.  The  total  value  of  her  exports  to  the  United 
Singdom,  in  1S73,  amounted  to  £21,000,000  (or  more  than  half  of  the 
entire  amount) ;  while  she  received  from  us,  in  return,  goods  to  the  valna 
□f£S,aOO,000,  consisting  chieHy  of  cotton  stofTs  and  yam,  machinery  and 
mill-work,  hiudware,  iron,  wooileus,  tea,  lead,  tin,  together  with  lama 

Jnantitiea  of  coal  and  salt.  Tha  mercantile  marine  ia  small,  and  the 
iieign  trade  ia  principally  conducted  hy  other  nations.  In  1S65,  there 
arrived  In  Russian  ports  11,643  vessels ;  cleared,  11,839,  carrying 
2,890,000  tons.  Tlie  priucijial  imports  are  articles  of  colonial  produce, 
together  with  raw  silk  and  cotton,  manufactured  goods,  wine,  indigo, 
cochineal,  and  madder.  Tea  is  Imported  by  the  overland  caravan-route 
from  China,  and  many  other  articles  come  in  the  same  way. 

Inlajiil  QommnnlcaUDn.— The  Roada  are  in  general  wretuhed,  with 
the  exception  of  that  from  the  capital  to  Moscow,  nhich  is  said  to 
be  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  condition  of  the  roads,  however,  ia 
of  less  importance,  as  they  are  covered  with  ice  and  snow  for  many 
months  in  the  year,  when  sledge- travelling  is  universal. 

The  Cbnab  are  very  numerous,  and  of  the  highest  importance.  Amoiw 
the  principal  may  be  mentioned  :— 1.  The  Canal  ^  Vithnei  Vololtkai^ 
connecting  the  Twertza  with  the  Msla,  thus  nnitlng  the  Baltic  with  the 
Caspian,  which,  by  this  route,  is  3200  miles  distant,  and  yet  the  canal  is 
only  3  miles  lon^.  It  is  free  &om  ice  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end 
of  October,  and  la  frequented  by  about  2000  vessels  annually.  Another 
cawJ,  Jotaing  the  Neva  with  the  Volga,  is  the  Canal  qf  TiiAsiK.  2.  The 
Cimal  q/'  £*bimt,  uniting  the  Caspian  ivith  the  White  8ea,  3.  The 
JIaria  Canal,  uniting  a  small  river  flowing  into  lake  Bielo  with  another 
flowing  into  Lake  Onega — thus  connecting  (by  the  aid  of  So.  2)  the  Bal- 
Hc,  Caspian,  and  White  Seas.  i.  The  Ladoga  Canal,  and  the  iSiai  and 
Sva-  CaJiali,  form  a  navigable  chain  around  tlie  south  and  south-east 
aides  of  Lake  l^oga.  Tliis  is  the  most  frequented  of  all  the  Russian 
canals :  it  ia  said  that  25,000  Tesseis  pass  through  its  principal  sluice  an- 
nually. Hailtmy  communication  is  very  limited,  consideriuc  the  eitent 
of  the  empire.  In  1858,  only  715  miles  were  completed;  but  m  1872  there 
were  lO.SOO  milea  open  for  tra,ffic  The  principal  railways  akeody  executed 
are : — The  great  line  from  St  Feterabnrc  to  Moscow,  400  miles,  with 
hranchea  to  MUni-Novgorod,   Kodov,  and  Orel ;   and  the  line  ftiim  St 

^  to  Warsaw  and  Cnwow,  with  branches  to  Elga,  Vitebsk, 

I,  sod  K^igsberg ;  and  a  line  from  Odessa  to  Balta,  in  Podolia. . 
ere  S1,S10  miles  of  lelegmpliic  commonicatiniL 


336  POLITICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY  (SCANDINAVIA). 

Boundaries. — The  kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  now 
united  under  one  sovereipm,  embrace  between  them  the  entire 
north-western  peninsiilii  of  Europe,  usually  called  Scandinavia. 
N.,  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  AV.,  the  Atlantic,  North  Sea,  and  Katte- 
gat ;  S.,  the  Skager  Rack  and  the  Baltic ;  E.,  the  Baltic  and 
Finland.     Lat.  55"  20—71"  6'  N. ;  Ion.  4*  50'— 31'  5'  K 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  (lat.  59*  17', 
Ion.  18"  3'X  is  nearly  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  as  Lerwick,  GhristlMiia,  St 
Petersburg,  Tobolsk,  Mount  St  Elias  (in  X.  -west  America),  and  Cape  Farewell  (in 
Greenland) ;  and  nearly  on  the  same  meridian  as  Spitsbergen,  Danzig,  Buda,  Mos- 
tar,  Otranto,  Qulf  of  Sidra,  and  Cape  Town.  Scandinavia  is  the  lu^est  penin- 
sula in  Europe,  and,  in  common  with  nearly  all  the  others,  stretches  oat  in  a 
general  southerly  direction :  extreme  length,  1190  miles;  greatest  breadth,  490 
miles.  The  )ieninsula  is  traversed,  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length,  by  an 
immense  njountain-range,  which,  being  confined  to  the  side  next  the  ocean,  ^res 
Norway  a  highly  Alpine  character ;  while  Sweden,  or  the  eastern  half,  is  in  gene- 
mi  low  and  level ;  but,  towards  the  mountains,  it  rises  in  a  succession  of  ter- 
races, marked  by  cataracts  in  the  numerous  streams,  which  generally  follow  a 
straight  course  towanls  the  Baltic,  and  frequently  expand  into  long  narrow 
lakes.  Coasts  low  and  sandy  on  the  eastern  side,  but  deeply  indented  on  thd 
western  by  rock-bound  inlets,  called /2ord«,  and  lined  by  an  innumerable  multi- 
tude of  small  islands,  Coast-line,  without  including  the  inlets,  about  8000  miles, 
or  one  mile  of  seaboard  to  every  98  square  miles. 

Area  and  Population. — ^The  area  of  the  entire  peninsula  is  29S,918 
sq.  m.,  of  which  123,297  belong  to  Norway,  which  is  very  little 
larger  than  the  British  Isles ;  and  170,621  to  Sweden,  which  ia 
nearly  half  as  large  again  as  Norway.  In  1873  the  united  popula- 
tion amounted  to  6,061,000;  that  of  Norway  being  1,763,000,  or 
about  half  the  population  of  Scotland ;  and  that  of  Sweden  4,298,000, 
or  one-fourth  larger  than  the  population  of  the  latter  country.  Scan- 
dinavia is  thus  the  most  thinly  peopled  countiy  in  Europe,  having 
only  20  persons  to  each  sq.  m. 

Political  Divisions. — Sweden  is  divided  into  three  ItiTgd  protfineu, 
or  for  administrative  purposes,  into  twenty-four  Uins,  and  Norway 
into  six  stifts  or  counties. 

Sweden,  Three  Provinces. 
Gothland.*— Gothenburg   62  (Gotha),  Malmde  28,  HeUngboocg  9^ 

*  In  Swedish,  the  vowels  a,  e,  r,  d,  and  6  have  the  same  Mnnds  u  In  Gcnim; 

as  in  Karlstad,  Wener,  Indals,  MSlar,  JSnkOping. 

a  =  0  in  stone,  as  Abo,  Lulea  (O'boOf  Lule-o). 
o  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  =  oo  in  food,  as  Orebro  (OKf-droo);  in  oUiar  < 
0  in  not. 
XI  =  00  in  food,  as  Umea  (Oo'me-o). 
y  =  German  tJ,  as  NykOping  (Niifcho-ping). 

g  and  j  before  a  vowel  =  y  in  you,  as  Gene,  JOnkOpliig  (FdtT^*  ^*" 
ki  or  kj  =  cA  in  church,  as  LinkiSping,  Li]iXJQpIii&  or  U* 

t  —  is^z&in  German.    All  other  consonaats  m  MmidB^ ' 


SWEDEN   ASD   NORWAY.  337 

LasdekTona  7,  Lund  11  n.  {the  Sonsd),  Carkcruca  13,  Kalmu'  9  (Ihe 
Baltic),  Nonktiping  22,  Linkoping  8  (Motala),  JUnkapiog  11  (Lake 
Wett«r),  Cliriatianatad  6  (Helge). 

Brealand. — Stockholk  147,  Wosleriis  6  (L.  Mielar),  Orsbro  B  (L.  Hiel- 
mai),  Upedall,  Dumemora  (Sala),  Fahlnn  5n.  (Dal),  Nyki^piDgG  (K  co.) 

Borrliuid.— Bemosand  2  (Angermann),  Guile  16  n.  (Dot),  SnndavBll  G 


(ludalit). 


NORWAT,   Set  STlFTil. 


Agenliniis.*— Chbibtiania  73,  Frederickahiild  7  (Q.  of  GliilstlaDia), 
DiamraBn  14  (Drammen),  Fredsrickstodt  B  (GloramenJ. 

Christiajiaani— Chriatiansaiid  11  (Tomsdals),  StaTttrger  18  (BnkkB 
Fiord),  Mandal  3  (Skager  Rack). 

Bargen.— Bergen  SO  (Kore  Fiord). 

TrondhJBln.— (^Troniil'jeii  or  Drontheim  21  (Trondhjera  Finrd),  Roraas 
4  (Glommen). 

FotdUai— Tromsiia  3  (W.  coaat),  AlsUhong  1  (Wesaen). 

FinmaTkeii.— Haumeifest  1  (Whals  Island),  Aitengaard  2  (Atten). 

SescriptlTe  Motea, — There  are  ODlfBixteealxiwnsintbe  whole  pen- 
insala  with  more  than  10,000  inbabitants,  of  which  only  seveD  exceed 
20,000 — viz.,  Stockholm,  Chriatiaaia,  Gothenbuj^,  Bergen,  MalmOe, 
NorrkOping,  Trondhjem;  while  Stockholm  alone  exceeds  100,000. 
Sweden. — Gothenburg,  the  second  city  in  Sweden  both  as  regards 
population  and  comnierce,  has  ahipbuildiiig  docks,  numerous  manufac- 
tarea,  and  a  large  eiport  trade  in  herrings,  iroQ,  ateet,  copper,  and  timber. 
XalmM,  a  etrongly-Eortified  manufacturing  town  on  the  Sound.    Land, 
a  very  ancient  town,  where  the  kinga  of  Scania  were  elected  in  the  middle 
a^,  li  the  aeat  of  a  university.    Carlaeiona,  by  far  the  best  naval  eU- 
tion  in  Scandinavia,  baa  a  large  export  trade  in  metaia,  potofib,  and  other 
Baltic  produce.    EslmoT,  famous  for  the  treaty  of  1S97,  which  united 
the  Idngdoraa  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden.    Hoirkajing,  s  thriv- 
ing mannfactoring  tjiwn,  noted  for  ita  broadcloth.    Llnkjiplng,  an  ancient 
town,  near  wMeh  was  fought,  in  15D6,  Iha  battle  of  Stangebro,  in  which 
Sigismnnd  was  defeated  b;  hia  uncle  Charlea  IX.     Stockholm,  V 
of  Sweden  since  the  seTeutaenth  oentury,  and  the  chief  commi 
porium  of  Scandinavia,  ia  boilt  partly  on  the  mainland,  and  partly  oB.  ij 
a  number  of  ialanda  on  the  strait  oonnectiug  Lake  Mailar with  the  Baltia tm 
the  houaea  are  chiefly  of  brick  or  paintod  wood,  the  Btreeta  iinpaved,  nai^.a 
row,  crooked,  and  duty,  but  the  palace  and  aoma  of  the  public  buiMingan 
""  very  fine.    It  has  numerona  learned  st""""  '"" '    -'-■^— ■-'  -*" 

1,  Celsius,  Bergmann,  Sc 


338  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  Berzelins,  were  professors.  Dannemora,  the  site  of  the  lai^gest  and 
most  valuable  iron-mines  in  the  world.  FaJilim,  with  a  great  copper- 
mine,  which  has  been  wrought  for  upwards  of  1000  years.  Gefle,  (me  <A 
the  principal  towns  in  Sweden  as  regards  shipping  and  commerce. 

Norway. — Christiania,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Norway,  finely  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  a  long  narrow /Eoni  on  the  south-east  coast,  is  a  small 
city  possessed  of  no  architectural  beauty,  but  the  streets  are  straight, 
broad,  and  well  paved,  and  the  environs  are  exceedingly  picturesque.  It 
contains  a  university,  a  royal  palace,  the  national  arsenal,  and  various 
educational  and  scientific  establishments.  Frederickshald,  noted  for  its 
strong  fortress,  in  besieging  which,  in  1718,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was 
killed.  Christiansand.  a  trading  seaport  town,  with  shipbuilding  docks. 
Bergen,  the  commercial  capital  of  Norway,  and  its  most  important  fish- 
ing-station, is  well  fortified,  and  is  a  station  for  a  naval  squadron :  not- 
withstanding its  high  latitude,  the  harbour  is  seldom  frozen.  TrOBdh- 
jem,  the  ancient  capital  of  Norway,  and  the  place  where  its  sovereigns 
are  still  crowned,  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  deals,  dried  fish,  tar,  and 
copper.  Boraas,  noted  for  its  extensive  copper-mines.  HammerfiBSt, 
the  most  nortliem  town  in  Europe  (lat.  70"  SSO>  ^"d^ojs  the  light  of  the 
sun,  in  summer,  for  two  months  without  interruption.  Altengiuiid,  noted 
for  its  raised  beaches,  which  conclusively  show  that  in  the  course  of  ages 
the  surrounding  country  has  attained  a  greatly  higher  elevation  turn 
formerly. 

Capes  and  Islands. — Cape  Nordkyn,  the  most  northern  point  of 
the  continent  of  Europe  (lat.  71**  5');  North  Cape,  on  the  island 
Mager5e;  Statland,  S.W.  of  province  Trondhjem ;  the  Kaze,  the 
most  southern  point  of  Norway.  Islands  :  MagerOe  and  Sor5e  groups, 
N.W.  of  Finmarken  ;  Tromsoe  and  Lofoden  groups,  N.W.  ofNord- 
land ;  Vigten,  Froyen,  Hitteren,  and  Smolen,  off  the  coast  of  Trondh- 
jem ;  (Eland  and  Gothland,  S.E.  of  Sweden. 

Gulfs  and  Straits. — ^Varanger  Fiord  and  Porsanger  Fiord,  N.  of 
Finmarken ;  West  Fiord,  bet.  Nordland  and  the  Lofoden  Isles ; 
Trondhjem  Fiord  and  Romsdal  Fiord,  W.  of  Trondhjem;  Sogne 
Fiord  and  Hardanger  Fiord,  W.  of  Bergen ;  Bukke  Fiord,  "W.  of 
Christiansand ;  Skager  Back,  bet.  Norway  and  Denmark ;  the  Kat- 
tegat and  Sound,  bet.  Sweden  and  Denmark ;  Ealmar  Sound,  bet 
Sweden  and  (Eland ;  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  bet  Sweden  and  Fuland. 

SnrflEkce  and  Mountains. — An  immense  mountain-range,  known  as 
the  Scandinavian  or  Norwegian  Alps,  traverses  the  western  side  of 
the  peninsula,  from  the  Naze  to  the  North  Cape,  the  southern  ludf 
of  it  being  confined  to  Norway,  and  the  nortnem  forming,  for  the 
most  part,  the  boundary  between  Norway  and  Sweden.  Its  total 
length  is  about  1150  miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  firom  200  miles 
in  the  south  to  60  in  the  north.  The  range  consists  of  a  series  of 
plateaux  or  elevated  table-lands,  separated  here  and  there  by  deep 
narrow  valleys,  and  is  very  rich  in  minerals.  It  is  usually  dividea 
into  three  sections — ^viz. : 

Bardanger  Field,  in  the  south  of  Norway,  separating  the  waters  that 
enter  the  Skager  Rack  from  those  that  flow  westward  to  the  Atlantic : 


SWEDES   AND   SOKWAV.  339 

— ^'liBst  auiniuit,  Skagesliiestinden,  tliB  culrainating-point  of  Scaniliniirifl, 
8670  feet  (lat  61°  Wj.     Height  of  anoiv-linB  in  thia  chun,  50GO  feet, 

Desn  FUld,  between  Agershuus  ^il  Trondbjem,  separatiD^  the  basins 
of  the  Glommen  and  Gotha  from  the  Atlantic:  highcBt  annmiit,  Sneehit- 
ten,  7620  feet  (lit.  62°  SWl- 

Ktolfii  HouiUaim,  between  Norway  and  Sweden,  forming  the  waler- 
parting  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Atlantic  :  higheat  aommi^  Sulitelma, 
6200  feet  (lat.  67°  3').  Height  of  anow-Iine  on  Sulitelmi^  3500  feet.  Tiie 
total  extent  of  countrT  elevated  above  the  anow-Une  ia  said  to  exteeA 
SSOOaq.  niilea. 

Glaoiera,  Ito. — The  glaciers  of  Scandinavia  are  munerouB,  tliough  less 
known  thsa  thoas  of  Switzerland.  They  are  fonnd  in  three  principal 
groups— viz.,  a  soutlieni,  central,  and  northern  gronp.  The  farthest 
aoiith  containa  the  Folgefond  glacier,  S.E.  of  Bergen  (lat.  80°),  wliicb  is 
the  ficst  glacier  met  with  travelling  northward ;  and  the  Nygoaid  and 
Lodal  glaciers,  near  Sfcagealbestinden.wMch  in  anmmerdiacharge  6,000,000 
cubic  tatboma  of  snow  per  day  tuto  the  river  Justedal.  The  second  group 
is  in  the  Kiolen  Monntsins :  it  includes  Sulitelma,  and  is  usually  called 
theFondal  group.  The  last  gronp,  called  JokulHtield,  ia  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Alteng^nl,  and  ia  remarkable  aa  descending  to  the  level  of  Iha 
aea,  into  wldch  it  projecta  aome  of  its  niembera  a  conaiderablo  distance. 
The  WATEHTiLLa  of  Scandinavia  have  long  been  celebraled.  The  most 
remarliable  is  the  Trolbatta  Fall,  on  the  Gatha.  The  river  descends  1 1 2 
f«et,  in  several  succesaivs  leaps,  presenting  a  spectacle  extremely  grand, 
the  quantity  of  water  being  greater  than  in  any  other  waterfall  in  Europe. 
Tba  other  principal  waterfalls  in  Norway  are  the  Saipen,  on  tbeOlommen, 
near  Frederickatadt,  60  feet  high  ;  the  Rinkan  Fos,  formed  by  the  Moan, 
which  issues  from  the  mountain-lake  of  MiBs-Wasser,  in  the  Upper  Telle- 
mark,  and  descends  perpendicularly  60O  feet;  and  the  Vilnng-Fos,  in 
Beigen,  which  descends  horn  a  height  of  900  feet. 

River-BailiiB. — These  are  all  small,  owing  to  the  pecnliar  con- 
flguration  of  the  country,  and  its  being  traversed  by  mountains  and 
elevated  table-lands  through  itB  entire  lEngtll.  There  are  no  reliable 
data  for  estimating  the  area  of  any  o[  them,  except  the  Glommen 
(16,000  sq.  m.)  and  the  Gotha  (17,000  sq.  m.) 

Lakes. — The  lakes  of  Scandinavia  are  extremely  numerous.  In 
ITorway  alone  there  are  said  to  be  30,000;  but  they  are  iienerally  of 
very  limited  extent  Nearly  one-eighth  of  the  surface  of  Sweden  is 
oovered  with  lakes,  some  of  them  being  of  considerable  m^^itade, 
»s  Wener,  2020  Bij.  m.;  Wetter,  710  bi].  m.;  and  Msjlar,  472  aq.  m. 
The  largest  lake  in  Norway  ia  Mioseu,  63  m.  long  by  12  m.  broad. 
Almost  all  the  lakes  of  ScanillnaTia  are  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
ramt  monntain'cbain.  In  the  basin  of  the  G/omjnen  is  L.  Mitiaen  ; 
OolJia,  Wener,  Foemund;  Matala,  Wetter;  Mmlar,  Mslar,  Hiel- 
inar ;  Dal,  Siljan  ;  Uiaea,  Stor-Uman  ;  Skelefiea,  Stor-Avan  ; 
Lviea,  Stor-Lnlea ;  Tornca,  Tomea, 

Tabl*  of  Riven  uul  Towns.— All  the  important  rivers  of  the 

peniDsnla  take  their  rise  on  the  eastern  slope  ot  the  mountains,  aod 

pursne  a  S.E.  course  to  the  Skager  Rack  nnd  Kattegat  (branches  of 

.   the  North  Sea),  or  to  the  Baltic;  while  Uie  W,  slope  ia  traversed  by 

I   mmerous  luouutain  torrents  and  by  deejily -penetrating  fiords. 


340 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHT. 


Bcuins  inclined  to  the 
Rivers,  Totone. 

Alten, BjLVMEBjrESTfAltengard. 

WesHen Alstahouo. 

TrondMem      Tbondhjem  or  Dron- 

Fior^  THEIM. 

Snndal, Chrietiansund, 

Kors  Fiord,  ..Bergen. 
6akk6  Fiord,  Stavanger. 
Mandals,    ....  Mandal. 
Torrisdals,  . . .  CHRiSTiANaAKD. 

Nid, ArendaL 

Skeens  Elf,  . .  Skeen. 

Lauven, Laurvig,  Kongsherg. 


Atlantic  and  North  Sea. 

Rivers,  Toiuns. 

G.    of  Chris-  Frederlckshald,   Freder- 
tianla  ickstadt,  Chbistxavxa. 

Drammen, . .  Brammen. 
Glommen,  { Frederiekttadtt  Roraas. 
W.  CO.  Goth-  Uddevalla,  Halmstad. 
land, 

Gotha Gk>THXirBnRa^      Weners- 

bora,  Maileatad,  Carl- 
Clara,  Caristad. 

The  Sound,. ..EeUingborgy  Landskrona, 
Land,  MalniOe. 


Basins  inclined  to  the  BdUie. 


8.    CO.  Goth-  Ystad,  CarlsJiamn,  Carls- 
land,  crona. 

Helge,  Christianstad. 

KalmarBomidtChristianopely  Ealmar, 
WestervOc. 

Motala,  Link5ping,    NorrkOping, 

JOnkdptng. 
L.  Mselar  and  Stockholm,  Westerds. 
R.  Arboga, 


Sala,  I Upsala,  Dannemora. 

Hielinar, . . .  Orebro. 
Dal Getlx,  n. 

Fahlnn,  {  . .  Fahlnn. 

Indals, SundsvaU,  Ostersund 

Angermann, . .  HernOsand. 

Umea (Tmea. 

Pitea, PiUa, 

Lulea, Lulea. 


Climate. — Owing  to  its  being  nearly  surrounded  by  the  sea,  Scan- 
dinavia enjoys  comparatively  a  very  mild  climate.  On  the  western 
side  of  the  great  mountain-chain  it  is  milder  than  on  the  eastern 
side,  and  greatly  more  humid.  The  snow-line  is  much  higher  than 
in  corresponding  latitudes  of  other  countries,  and  the  cereals  extend 
much  farther  N.  In  Siberia  the  cultivation  of  grain  ceases  at  lat 
60°,  while  in  Norway  it  extends  to  lat.  70".  Even  at  the  North 
Cape  the  sea  never  freezes  ;  but  the  shallow  and  comparatively  fresh 
water  of  the  Baltic  and  Skager  Rack  are  generally  covered  with  ice, 
in  winter,  near  the  coasts.  In  the  interior  of  Sweden  the  sammers 
are  very  hot,  and  the  winters  extremely  cold.  Here  mercury  often 
freezes  north  of  lat.  61**,  and  snow  covers  the  ground  for  nearly  six 
months  in  the  year.  Spring  is  almost  unknown,  and  from  eight  to 
twelve  weeks  usually  suffice  for  sowing,  ripening,  and  reaping  the 
crops.  Owing  to  the  length  of  the  day  and  the  great  heat,  barley 
may  be  sown  and  reaped  at  Hammerfest  within  the  space  of  six  weeks. 
The  fall  of  rain  on  the  west  coast,  where  the  mountains  intercept  the 
westerly  winds,  usually  amounts  to  from  70  to  80  inches,  bat  on  the 
eastern  side  it  is  much  less  (see  p.  32). 

Geology. — The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  geolo^  of 
Scandinavia  is  the  fact  that  the  whole  peninsula,  N.  of  lat.  58"^,  ii 
ascertained  to  be  gradually  rising  at  the  rate  of  four  feet  in  a  oentnir; 
while  in  a  small  district  south  of  this  there  is  acorres^ndinff  mibA- 
ence.  Crystalline  schists  occupy  five-sixths  of  the  entire  tiumee^  and 
constitute  the  great  mountain-chain.  Granite  is  of  oompaiativelT : 
occurrence,  except  on  both  sides  of  the  West  Fiord,  the  western  v<*' 
Christiania  Fiord,  the  district  lying  bet  Lake  Wetter  tnd  the  J 
and  a  tract  in  the  basin  of  the  river  DaL    Silnriaa  ftmta  ^ 


SWEDEN    AND    NOEWAV.  311 

•Jttenaivc  areas— one  in  the  N,  of  Finmarken,  and  the  other  in  the 
Bentre  of  the  peniusula,  extending  from  the  parallel  of  Bergen  tn 
near  the  arctic  circle.  Uppsr  palLeozoic  and  trap  rocks  occur  ui  tha 
ujiper  hasin  of  the  Dal. 

UlnBiBls. — The  iron-minea  of  Sweden  are  the  most  famoua  in  the 
world,  ajid  yield  on  an  nrerage  70,000  tons  annually.  The  Swedish 
icon  imported  into  Grejit  Britain  is  mainly  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  BteeL  In  1367,  we  leceired  60,066  tons  of  bar-iron  and  iS56  tons 
of  unwronoht- steel  from  Sweden.  The  best  iron  is  found  in  the  lUn 
Upsala.  Copper  is  also  abundant,  the  mines  of  Falihm  alone  for- 
merly pelding  500  tons  annunlly,  but  the  ecpply  is  rapidly  declining. 
Silver  ie  foand  to  a  small  estett,  and  cobalt  is  worked  in  several 
places.  Other  products  are— coal,  of  an  inferior  qaality,  lime, 
granite,  and  porphyry.  The  mountains  of  Norway  are  rich  in  min- 
erals, liQt  from  the  difficulty  of  transport  and  the  scarcity  of  f^el, 
mining  industry  is  but  little  devolopai  There  are  23  mining  estab- 
lishments, but  they  are  confined  to  iron,  copper,  silver,  cobalt,  and 
chrome.  Gold,  lead,  alum,  and  graphite  also  occur,  but  in  small  qnan- 
titiea,  as  also  magnetic  iron  and  garnets  of  a  beantiful  green  colour. 
The  Bilver-mine  of  Kongaborg,  worked  since  162*,  was  formerly  re- 
garded as  the  richest  in  Europe. 

Botaiiy  and  Agriculture. — The  flora  of  Scandinavia  is  wholly  em- 
braced in  Schonw'Bj!r«<  and  «econiiphyto- geographic  regions,  or  the 
"  region  of  saxifrages  aud  mosses,  and  the  "  region  of  the  nmbel- 
lifene  and  cmcifene."  The  former,  also  callad  the  Alpine  Arclk 
Jlora,  includes  Finmarken  and  the  higher  elevations  of  the  mountain- 
range  ;  and  the  latter,  the  entire  remainder  of  the  peninsula.  Ac- 
cording to  Fries,  the  flowering-plants  of  Scandinavia  are  distribttted 
as  follows :  total  number  of  species  in  Lapland,  697 ;  in  Norirav, 
1200  ;  Sweden,  south  of  the  lakes,  1416 ;  Sweden,  north  of  the 
lakes,  1356.  Among  trees,  the  pins  tribe  is  the  most  important, 
forming,  in  the  snnth,  extensive  forcats.  Spruce  and  Scotch  pines 
are  largely  exported  to  England,  where,  owing  to  their  resmons 

aualities,  they  are  highly  prized.  The  fir  eitends  to  the  Polar  Circle, 
IB  pine  beyond  it,  while  the  birch  is  found  as  far  north  as  lat.  70°, 
mnd  at  an  (deration  of  loSO  feet.  A  fonrtli  part  of  the  entire  surface 
of  Sweden  is  covered  with  forests  ;  yet  the  yield  of  timber  is  small,  a 
great  part  of  it  being  required  for  ftiel,  and  for  charcoal  required  in 
working  the  minei.  The  principal  forest-trees  are  ]iine,  fir,  birch, 
oak,  ash,  beech,  lime,  elm,  alder,  and  willow.  Fruit-trees,  except 
the  cheny,  are  limited  to  the  south  of  Int.  60°. 

Among  careala,  barley  Is  the  princinal  crop  In  all  parts  of  the  peninmila. 
In  Norway  it  eitends  to  lat.  70°,  and  in  Sweden  to  89".  Other  kiuds  of 
grain  do  not  thrive  in  Norway,  exoapt  in  favoured  spots ;  but  oats,  rye, 
and  even  wlieat  are  cultivated  in  Sweden.  The  soil  la  not  generally  ver; 
fiertilg,  and  not  more  tlian  one-fifth  of  the  surface  of  tbe  entire  penmeuln 
ItDndercultlTaUoD.    In  Norway,  only  a  hundredth  part  of  the  surface  is 

lercultura,  and  the  quantity  of  com  nused  is  iomifBcieiit  for  home  cou- 

aption,  but  polatots  ore  eiteuaively  eoltirated.    Owing  to  recent  ipi- 
imnntts  in  husbsudry,  the  qnaotity  of  com  raised  in  Sweilen  f  uU; 


342  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

meets  the  wants  of  the  population.  The  horses  and  cattle  are  small,  and 
the  sheep  yield  an  inferior  kind  of  wool.  The  reindeer  is  the  (mly  domes- 
tic animal  north  of  lat.  64°,  where  Iceland  moaa.  which  is  its  customary 
food,  is  very  abundant  The  dog  is  also  employed  in  this  region  as  a 
beast  of  draught. 

Zoology. — The  principal  Mammals  are  the  brown  bear,  wol(  lynx, 
fot,  glutton,  lemming,  deer,  elk,  marten,  hare,  sable,  beaver,  and 
squirrel.  Birds,  including  the  eagle  and  falcon,  are  numerous,  espe- 
cially on  the  western  coasto,  were  sea-fowl  abound.  The  wild-goose, 
and  eider-duck  are  numerous,  as  also  the  grouse  and  capercailzie. 
Wild-ducks  abound  in  the  lakes  and  rivers,  and  the  swan  appears  in 
the  S.  in  winter.  The  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers,  swarm  with  the  greatest 
abundance  of  Fish,  and  fishing  forms  in  Norway  the  most  imnortant 
branch  of 'industry,  especially  the  cod,  herring,  salmon,  whale,  lob- 
ster, and  oyster  fisheries.  The  rich  abundance  of  trout  and  sa^on 
renders  Norway  the  best  angling  country  in  the  world.  The  h^rrinff 
has  wellnigh  forsaken  the  eastern  coast ;  but  another  species  of  fish 
resembling  it  -(the  stroming)  is  caught  in  great  numbers.  The  waters  of 
Scandinavia  embrace  three  of  Forbes's  Segions  of  Marine  Life — ^viz., 
the  Arctic  region  on  the  N.,  the  Boreal  on  the  W.,  and  the  Celtic  on 
the  S.  and  S.E.,  including  the  Skager  Rack,  Kattegat,  and  Baltic 

Ethnography. — The  people  are  all  of  the  Scandinavian  branch  of 
the  Teutonic  stock,  wiu  the  exception  of  the  Finns  and  Lapps,  who 
belong  to  the  Mongolian  race. 

Langiuige. — ^The  Swedes,  Norwegians,  and  Danes  originally  spoke  the 
same  language — viz.,  the  Icelandic,  old  Danish,  or  Norse ;  and  though 
the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  are  now  dialectically  different,  they  are  still 
very  closely  allied,  both  in  their  roots  and  inflections ;  while  the  Nor- 
wegian is  almost  identical  with  modem  Danish.  The  latter  is  the  ver- 
nacular language  of  the  peasantry  in  Norway,  and  the  Danish  Bible  is 
the  only  one  used  in  the  churches. 

lUligioJL — Scandinavia  is  the  most  Protestant  country  in  Europe.  A 
few  Finns  and  Lapps  still  remain  heathens,  but  almost  the  whole  Teutonic 
population  are  Protestants.  Lutheranism  is  the  State  rel^on,  both  in  Nor- 
way and  Sweden,  and  the  Established  Church  is  almost  universally  ad- 
hered to;  but  other  sects  are  tolerated  by  law,  except  Jews,  Jesuits,  and 
Mormons,  in  Norway.  Recently,  however,  much  mtolerance  has  been 
manifested  in  Sweden  towards  native  Protestants  who  refuse  to  attend  the 
Established  Church. 

EducaJtum. — In  both  countries  nearly  all  the  young  are  in  r^^tdar  at- 
tendance at  school,  and  scarcely^  a  peasant  can  be  found  in  the  peninsula 
who  cannot  read  and  write.  This  is  mainly  owing  to  a  law  which  prohibits 
marriage  to  all  who  have  not  been  admitted  to  the  communion,  and  which 
admits  to  the  communion  only  those  who  can  read.  There  are  three 
universities — viz.,  those  of  Christiania,  Upsala,  and  Lund,  besides  colleges 
and  high  schools  in  all  the  principal  towns. 

National  Character. — ^The  Norwegians  are  generally  tall  and  vigorous, 
and  distinguished  by  the  Ughtness  of  their  hair.  They  evince  a  strong 
predilection  for  a  seafaring  life,  and  make  excellent  sailors.  They  are 
extremely  tenacious  of  old  customs,  and  are  peculiarly  jealous  of  all  en- 
croachments on  the  part  of  Sweden.  In  both  countries,  intemperance  is 
the  prevailing  vice.     The  Swedes  are  characterised  by  a  tall,  robust 


V     lltB 


Utw&tiiM. — The  literatura  of  ScandinaTia  ia  adorned  by  many 
namca  of  more  thau  Europeaa  reputatioo,  especially  in  the  depart- 
meot  of  pliysicRl  science. 

Poktht;  Bterahjelm,  Dalin,  Creutz,  Gyllenbore.  RuneberE.  Biahnp 
Temor,  BBltiger,  Atterbom,  Franien,  Nicaiider,  KBllgren.  HisIobt  i 
Ge^er,   FryiEll,   SallD,  Lagerhriii^,  Strionholm,    Elieluitd,  Ahlquiat. 


I,  Polhein,  AlntrOmi 
I   architecture.    ~ 


latios,   CelBina,    Klingenstiema ;    m   architecture,    Teaain ;    In 

BBOgTBphy,  Forsell ;  and  in  ethnoBraphy,  ProfeMor  Nilsen.  Mobal 
SoiBHCE :  Grabbe,  Biberg.  Theology  :  Wingard,  Wallin,  Emanuel  Swed- 
enborg.  Fine  Abts;  In  sculpture,  Bj'strcm,  Gijthe;  in  palntins,  Falil- 
cr«ntz,  Hurberg.  MjacEiiASSona  ;  Cederborg,  Livijn,  Frederics  Bremer, 
Baroness  Enorring,  Enj^Btrcim,  Hopken,  Hermansoi],  and  Almquist 

Ooreminen't,  Ac.  —  Norway  ia  a  limited  liereditary  monarch;?, 
united  with  Sweden  since  1814,  each  country  retaicitig  its  own  laws 
and  legialative  asserabliea.  The  reigning  aorereign,  Charles  XV., 
reaidea  in  Sweden  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  is  bonnd  to  visit 
Norway  annnally.  In  the  absence  of  the  King,  Norway  is  governed 
bya  viceroy,  who  residea  at  Christiania,  The  Legislnlive  Assembly  of 
H«rway  is  called  the  Storthing,  a  body  which  liosseases  greater  powers 
than  even  the  Britiah  Parliament, — a  bill  after  being  passed  in  three 
sncceaaive  asaembliea  becoming  taw,  even  without  the  royal  assent. 
The  Swedish  National  Assemlilv  is  called  tbe  Diet,  which  consists  of 
four  Chambera,  and  ehares  tbe  legislatiTe  power  with  the  sovereign. 

Amy  and  Navy,-— The  armies  of  the  two  eountriea  are  aeparale,  but 
in  time  of  war  both  are  commanded  by  the  king.  In  IS73,  the  Swedish 
•imy  nnmbered  133,000  aoldiers,  and  the  Norwegian,  18,000.  In  1887, 
the  Su'cdiah  uavv  comprised  48  war-ieeeels,  carrying  462  guns,  besides 
125  ganboati ;  while  the  navy  of  Norway  amounted  to  156  yessela,  cairv- 
JDR  5000  guns  and  4000  men.  The  united  Hewntu,  in  ISdS,  amounted  to 
£3,098,000;  the  Sxpenditurt  to  £3,378,000;  and  the  Pi^lus  IMA  to 


tUeK 

lienmarli,  Portugal,  and  Germany.     Tlie  commerce  of  Sweden  witb 
Great  Britain  ia  twice  aa  great  as  with  aire  other  ci — ' —      '^" 


uiiodpal  articles  e:iported  from  the  peninauut  are  deals  and  timber, 
bar-tron  and  steel,  oats,  fisli,  ice,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine,  and  some 
copper ;  while  the  chief  articles  imported  are  woollen  mamtfactures, 
avenging  £120,000  per  annum,  wrought  and  nnwrought  iron,  salt, 
rain,  end  articles  of  colonial  produce.  Next  in  iniportanee  to  the 
imber  trade  are  the  fisherie*,  which  consist  mainly  of  cod  and  haniiig. 
The  Manvfactiirrt  of  Sweden  consist  ohiefly  of  articles  of  home  cou- 
k.«nmptiaiL  as  woollen,  cotton,  and  Imcn  cloth,  eugar,  tobacco,  and  paper. 
^Tanning  la  on  important  branch  of  industiy  :  distilling  and  brewing  are 


344  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

extensively  prosecuted,  and  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  to  some  esctent. 
There  are  lew  manufactures  in  Norway:  brandy  distilleries  and  saw- 
mills are  numerous;  next  to  these  are  forges  and  metal-foundries,  the 
produce  of  which  is  generally^  exported  in  a  raw  state.  Iron-wire  and 
nails  are  important  items  of  industry,  as  also  coarse  woollen,  linen,  and 
cotton  cloth  for  domestic  use,  glass,  paper,  oil,  gunpowder,  soap,  to- 
bacco, sugar-refining,  and  shipbuilding. 

Internal  Communication. —This  is  very  deficient,  especially  in 
Norway,  where  few  of  the  rivers  are  navigable  for  any  considerable 
distance.  The  Glommen,  the  largest  river  in  the  kingdom,  is  navi- 
gable for  only  14  miles  ;  but  regular  steam  communication  has  been 
established  between  the  towns  along  the  coast.  The  principal  canals 
are  the  Gotha  Canal,  which  connects  the  Kattegat  with  tne  Baltic, 
by  the  Gotha  river  and  Lakes  "Wener  and  Wetter,  avoiding  the  cele- 
brated Trolh&tta  Fall ;  the  Hielmar  or  Arboga  Canal,  uniting  Lakes 
Mselar  and  Hielmai* ;  and  the  Sodertelge  Canal,  joining  the  southern 
extremity  of  Lake  Mselar  with  the  Baltic.  In  1874,  there  were  2227 
miles  of  railway  open  in  the  peninsula,  of  which  1913  miles  belonged 
to  Sweden.  Railways  connect  Stockholm  with  Gothenburg,  J5nkdp- 
ing,  and  Fahlun ;  while  others  are  in  progress  in  Gothland,  which 
will  connect  it  with  Copenhagen  and  Stralsimd,  by  Malm5e  and 
Ystad.  In  Norway,  a  short  line  has  been  constructed  between  the 
capital  and  Lake  Miosen,  and  another  uniting  the  valley's  of  the 
Glonmien  and  Logen. 

Foreign  Possessions. — The  only  foreign  possession  belonging  to 
Sweden  is  the  small  island  of  St  Bartholomew  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  was  ceded  by  France  to  Sweden  in  1784,  has  an  area  of  16  sq..  m., 
and  a  population  of  2898. 

Historical  Sketch.— Sweden,  Norway,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Denmark  were  anciently  known  as  Scandinavia,  from  which  proceeded 
the  Normans  or  Northmen,  who  conquered  Normandy  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  9th  century,  and  England  in  1066.  Until  the  7th 
century,  Norway  was  governed  by  petty  rulers.  About  630,  Olaf,  of 
the  race  of  Odin,  was  expelled  from  Sweden,  and  established  a  colony 
in  Vermeland,  which  became  the  nucleus  of  a  monarchy  founded  by 
his  descendant,  Halfdan  III.,  in  824.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Sweden  were  the  Fins,  a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  Finland, 
their  present  territory,  on  the  appearance  of  the  Goths,  who  have 
ever  since  been  masters  of  Sweden.  The  Christian  faith  was  estab- 
lished in  Norway  about  A.D.  998,  and  in  Sweden  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Stockholm  was  founded  in  1260,  and  Cm-is- 
tiania  in  1624.  By  the  Union  of  Kalmar  (1397),  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark  were  united  under  Margaret.  Denmark  and  Norway 
separated  from  Sweden  in  1523,  when  Gustavus  Yasa  ascended  the 
throne  of  Sweden.  His  illustrious  descendant,  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
feU  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  in  1632.  In  1524  Sweden  embraced  the 
Keformed  religion.  Finland,  formerly  part  of  Sweden,  was  ceded  to 
Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Frederickshamm,  1809 ;  and  Norway  was 
united  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  1814. 


1.  FoBltion  and  Boundariea, — N.,  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  W., 
Ae  Ural  Mountains  and  Biver,  the  Caspian,  Black  Sea,  Medi- 
terranean, and  Bed  Sea ;  S.,  tlie  Indian  Ocean ;  E.,  tiie  Nortli 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Enrope  and  Asia  fona  in  reality  but  one  rontEDent,  which  extends  half- 
way ronnd  tha  globe.  Of  this  gigantic  continent  £nrope  forma  only  a 
great  peuinsala.  Asia  alone  is  by  ta,t  the  krgeet  and  most  populoiu  of 
tlie  fliK  great  diviaions  of  the  globe.  Its  form  approximates  to  tliat  of  a 
Bcalene  triangle,  the  longest  side  of  nhlcb  extends  from  East  CBr«  in 
Behrinij  Strait  to  Suez  in  Arabia,  and  the  shortest  from  Suez  to  Cam- 
bodiai  Tha  only  porta  of  Asia  prqjectjiie  beyond  thin  triangle  are,  on 
the  8.,  the  three  peninsulas  of  Malaya,  Hindustan,  and  Arabia ;  on  the 
N.W.,  the  peninsulas  of  Anatolia  and  the  two  smaller  ones  on  either  side 
of  the  Q.  01  Obi;  and  on  the  K,  the  projections  of  Kamtchatka,  Corea,  and 
Eastern  China.  Continental  Ania  extends  from  Iflt.  riC  (C.  Romania)  to 
77°  iV  N.  (C.  ChelyusHn),  and  from  Ion,  26°  S-  E.  (C.  Baba)  to  lefl"  W. 
(B.Cape).    Hence  it  lies  wholly  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  embraces 

■  77  d^,  of  lat.  and  16G  of  Ion,  The  exact  centre  of  the  cantinent  is 
m  KaraTDangnai,  a  small  take  in  Sonthem  Mongolia,  about  8°  W.  of  Pekin. 
W  2.  Ooast-LliM  and  Sxtiema  Points. ^Tbe  coast-line  is  variooaly 
F  eatimatedfrom  3n,000to35,000in.   Thefonnergiveal  m.  ofeoaatto 

■  evei^SSOm.  of  surface,  while  Europe  baa  1  m.  to  every  22Sni.  (p.  61). 
The  extreme  length  from  BehringStr.  to  Str,  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  is  6700 
m.,  and  the  extreme  breads  from  C.  Severo  to  C.  Romania  GIOD  m. 

3,  Mxea,  and  Foiralatlm The  area  o[  Asia  is  bnt  very  im- 
perfectly ascertained ;  but,  according  to  the  most  recent  estimates, 
it  amounts  to  36,838,181  sq,  ni.,  or  nearly  a  third  part  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  globe.  It  is  more  than  the  area  ol  Europe  and  Africa 
together,  or  even  than  North  and  South  America.  The  popola- 
tion  is  also  variously  estimattd,  tbere  being  uo  accurate  census  n! 
moat  Asiatic  countries  ;  but  the  sum  of  the  jKipulations  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  as  given  in  the  fallowing  table,  is  769,705,466,  or  about 
fottT-aevenths  of  the  popnlation  of  the  globe.  Vast  as  thia  population 
u,  Asia  Is  far  leas  densely  peopled  than  Enropv,  having  only  42  per- 
sona to  each  sq.  m.,  while  Europe  has  75,  The  most  densely  peopled 
regions  are  China  and  the  valley  qf  the  Qanges,  while  the  least  popu- 
lous are  the  marshy  flats  of  Siberia,  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Syria, 
Persia,  and  Central  Asia. 

4.  Political  DiTlslona.— The  actual  number  of  independent  states 
is  nncertain  and  ever  Snctuating,  and  several  of  the  countries  enu- 
merated in  the  following  table  contain  individually  a  number  of  small 
states  not  acknowledging  allegiance  to  any  other  power. 


FOLITICAL  QEOaRAPar. 


fli 


ISIiiSIIHIiliililllSI  I 


HH|i=|SI|JHI,iHS.i 


1ft 

rtllll!] 


I 


G.  Snrlace,  PlainB,  cuad  TaUe-Landa.— Nearly  tiie  wliolo  of  Silieria 
aud  Western  Turkestan  consiate  of  one  vast  continuoas  lo«land 
plain,  of  nearly  the  size  of  Europe,  and  only  partially  separated  from 
the  greB.t  European  plain  by  the  Ural  Monntaiiis.    Only  ita  southem 

SntioD  is  cnpable  of  cultivation.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  An^tic 
cean  it  forms  a  nuccessioD  of  desert  tracts  called  Tundrru,  which  iii 
■ummer  are  covered  with  mass,  and  interspersed  with  lakes  and 
marshes,  and  in  winter  ate  buried  under  a  solid  covering  of  ice— the 
anbaoU  being  coustantly  frozen.  The  eastern  half  is  less  uniformly 
level  than  the  western,  and  ia  more  generally  covered  with  forests. 
Indeed,  one  unbroken  forest  region,  unniediately  south  of  the  run- 
drai,  extends  ^in  Arkhangel,  in  Europeaii  Russia,  to  Eamtchatka 
•nd  Behring  Strait.  This  forest,  chieSy  of  pines,  is  about  4000  m. 
in  lineal  extent,  and  ia  the  largest  on  the  surface  of  the  elobe. 
Sonth-west  cf  the  wooded  region  is  that  of  the  Sleppet,  which  con- 
sist of  immense  barren  plains,  abounding  in  salt  lakes,  into  which 
many  of  the  rivers  of  Europe  and  Asia  discharge  their  contents. 
This  forms  one  of  the  most  depressed  portions  of  the  earth's  Burface, 
and  includes  the  Caspian,  the  surface  of  which  is  83  ft.  below  that 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  having  a  depth  in  the  south  of  nearly  3000 
ft.  Other  plains  ate  Meiopatamia,  or  the  lower  basin  of  the 
Euphrates  aud  Tigris ;  the  Th-ur,  or  valley  o(  the  Indus ;  Plain  of 
Eindattan,  or  valley  of  the  Ganges  ;  Inda-Chiaae  Plain,  in  Further 
India ;  and  the  CAmeie  Plain,  or  the  lower  basin  oE  the  Yang-tse- 
ELiang  and  Hoang-ho,  More  than  a  half  of  the  surface  of  Asia  ia 
occuped  with  an  immense  elevated  plateatl  or  table-land,  extending 
without  intermptiou  lor  about  5600  m.,  from  the  Mediterranean 
and  Bed  Sens  in  the  W.  to  the  coast  of  Corea  in  the  E.,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  2000  to  700  m.  It  ia  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing distinct  portions  :  Plateau  of  Asia  Minor,  3280  ft  high,  aud 
Elateau  of  Armenia,  7000  ft.,  bounded  by  Mount  Taiu-ua  and  the 
aucaaas ;  platejiu  of  Arabia  from  6000  to  8000  ft  high,  occupying 
the  whole  interior  of  that  peninsula ;  plateau  of  Iran,  3500  ft., 
■between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  plain  of  Turkestan  ;  platean  of 
Pamir,  15,000  ft,  N.  of  tlie  Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  and  contain- 
ing the  Sir-i-Kol,  the  most  elevated  lake  in  the  world  ;  platean  of 
Tibet,  from  10,000  to  14,000  ft.,  N.  of  the  Himalaya,  and  orieinat- 
ing  all  the  p'eat  rivers  of  Southern  Asia  ;  plateau  of  Gobi  or 
Shamo,  3000  ft.  high,  1200  m.  long,  and  from  500  to  70O  m.  broad, 
in  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Mongolia — it  consists  of  an  immense  rain- 
less desert  of  shifting  sand  containing  little  vegetatioQ  ;  plateaux 
of  Malwa,  Dakhan,  and  Maiaflr,  in  Hindustan,  from  2000  to  8000 
ft.  high,  and  separated  from  the  tabledands  of  High  Asia  by  the 
VBlleys  of  the  Indus  and  Gauges. 

6.  PenlnEnlas  fmd  latbmuses. — The  principal  peninsulas  are  the 
following  :  Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor,  bet.  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean  I  Arabia,  bet  &t  Bed  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf; 
Hindustan,  bet  the  Arabian  Sea  aud  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  Furtlier 
India,  or  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  bet.  the  Buv  of  Bengal  and  the 
1    China  Sea  ]  Malay  Peninsula,  a  southern  prolongation  of  Pnrtlier 


348  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

India  ;  Corea,  bet.  the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Japan  ;  Eamt- 
chatka,  bet  the  Seas  of  Okhotsk  and  Kamtchatka.  Nearly  all  the 
Asiatic  peninsulas  stretch  southward — the  chief  exception  being 
Asia  Minor.  The  Isthmus  of  Suez  connects  Asia  with  Africa  ;  and 
the  Isthmus  of  Kraw,  Siam  with  Malaya :  the  other  isthmuses  of 
Asia  have  no  distinctive  names. 

7.  Capes  and  Islands. — Baba,  W.  of  Asia  Minor;  Has-al-Had. 
S.  E.  of  Arabia ;  Coniorin,  S.  of  Hindustan ;  Dundra  Head,  S.  of 
Ceylon  ;  Negrais,  S.W.  of  Pegu ;  Romania,  S.  of  Malaya ;  Cam- 
bodia, S.  of  Anam  ;  King,  E.  of  Japan  ;  Patience,  E.  of  Island  Sag- 
halien ;  Lopatka,  S.  of  Kamtchatka ;  East  Cape,  the  most  eastern 
point  of  Siberia ;  Severo,  or  North-East  Cape,  N.  of  Siberia.  Islands. 
— Rhodes,  Samos,  Scio,  Mitylene  or  Lesbos,  in  the  iBgean  Sea ; 
Cyprus,  in  the  Levant ;  Socotra,  S.  of  Arabia  ;  Ceylon,  S.  of  Hin- 
dustan ;  Hainan,  S.  of  China ;  Formosa,  E.  of  China ;  Japan  Isles, 
E.  of  Mantchooria  ;  Saghalien,  a  semi-peninsula,  E.  of  Siberia ; 
Kurile  Islands,  bet.  Japan  and  Kamtchatka;  Aleutian  Isles,  bet 
Kamtchatka  and  Alaska ;  New  Siberia,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  For 
the  islands  of  Malaysia  (Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Philippine  Isles, 
&c.),  see  under  **  Oceania." 

8.  Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Straits. — Black  Sea,  N.  of  Asia  Minor ;  Sea  of 
Marmora,  bet.  Asiatic  and  European  Russia  ;  .£gean  Sea,  or  Archi- 
pelago, W.  of  Asia  Minor ;  Levant,  W.  of  Syria ;  Red  Sea,  Str.  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  G.  of  Aden,  bet.  Arabia  and  Africa ;  Arabian 
Sea,  bet.  Arabia  and  Hindustan;  Persian  Gulf,  Str.  of  Ormuz,  and 
G.  of  Oman,  bet.  Arabia  and  Persia ;  Gulfs  of  Kachh  and  Cambay, 
N.W.  of  Hindustan ;  G.  of  Manaar  and  Palk  Strait,  bet.  Hindustan 
and  Ceylon  ;  Bay  of  Bengal,  bet.  Hindustan  and  Further  India ;  G. 
of  Martaban,  bet.  Pegu  and  Tenasserim  ;  Str.  of  Malacca,  bet 
Malaya  and  Sumatra ;  G.  of  Siam,  S.  of  Siam  ;  China  Sea,  bet. 
China  and  the  Philippine  Isles ;  G.  of  Tonquin,  bet  Tonqnin  and 
the  island  Hainan ;  Formosa  Strait,  bet.  China  and  Formosa ;  Tellow 
Sea,  bet.  China  and  Corea ;  Str.  of  Corea,  bet.  Corea  and  Japan ; 
Sea  of  Japan,  bet.  Japan  and  Mantchooria ;  G.  of  Tartary,  bet  the 
mainland  and  Saghalien  ;  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  bet  Okhotsk  and  Sjunt- 
chatka;  Sea  of  Kamtchatka,  G.  of  Anadir,  and  Behring  Str.,  bet 
Siberia  and  Alaska ;  Gulfs  of  Obi  and  Kara,  N.W.  of  Siberia. 

9.  Mountain-Ssrstems. — The  Bolor  Tagh  Mountains,  in  the  centre 
of  Turkestan,  midway  between  Spain  and  Ejontchatka,  and  be- 
tween Novaia  Zemlia  and  Ceylon,  is  the  grand  centre  from  which  all 
the  great  mountain-ranges  of  Asia  and  Europe  diverge.  This  great 
primary  chain  stands  on  the  lofty  plateau  of  Tamir  (15,600  ft  £  be- 
tween the  sources  of  the  Amoo  and  the  Tarkand^  and  attelna  an 
elevation  uf  19,000  ft  The  following  are  the  principal  ehaiiu  that 
radiate  from  it  in  all  directions : — 

The  Western  System.— This  ^reat  range  fionns  the  nortiiflEn  boiindaiy 

of  the  table-lands  of  Western  Asia,  and  Is  then 


pean  Turkey,  till  it  reaches  the  Alps,  Oem 
ing  at  the  snores  of  the  Atlantic    Th» 


ASIA.  3J9 

m  Howldg  iota  tJie  luiliuu  Ocean  from  1L09«  tLst  diauliorgs  theui- 
wlvss  into  tbe  Block  Ssa,  Cupian,  and  Sea  of  Arai.  Its  piiucipat  mem- 
b«ra  an  the  following :  1.  The  Hinda  K^uh,  sepamtinK  the  Panjab  and 
Afghanistan  from  Turkestan,  anil  the  basin  of^the  Indus  from  that  of 
the  Amao;  maiimnm  elevation  abont  Sll,WDft.  2.  The  Parojiamitan 
Range,  in  the  N.  E.  of  Persia,  sepiirHtmg  Tnrlicatan  tram  the  plateau  of 
Iran  ;  highest  summit,  Koh-i-Baba,  16,(X)0  ft.  8.  The  ElbMn  Mange,  S. 
of  the  Caspian,  Mt.  Uemavend,  \%,iU  ft.,  and  Zagroi,  or  Monnlains  of 
Kurdistan,  12,0OQ  ft.,  separate  tbe  basins  of  tha  Euphnites  and  CoJjpian : 
height  of  anow-line  on  tha  Elbura,  11,1)00  ft.  4,  ifeinlaiu  of  Amixia, 
between  the  hasbiB  of  the  Caspian  and  Blacli  Sea :  highest  summit  ML 
Ararat,  17,112  ft.  6.  Taiims  and  AiiH-Taiirat,  enclosing  tba  table-lnnd 
of  Asia  Minor,  separate  the  basins  of  the  Euphrates  from  that  of  the  Block 
Sea;  highest  suminit  Mt.  Argish,  13,000  ft.  6.  The  l.dianim  Range 
(10,061  ft.),  proceeding  from  Mt.  Tanrue  southward  along  the  Syrian  coast 
to  ML  Herraon  in  the  north  of  Palestine.  9053  ft,  high,  and  thence  con- 
tinued tbrangh  Palestine  into  the  peninaulaof  Bhiai — Mt.  St  Katharine, 
"'^"^    ■■■     iinai,7359ft.    7.  J/t.  Cai«tuui,proce6dinginaT--"-  — ' — 


The  Soath-Eaatem  System. — This  syetem  e:cteDd9  from  tlie  southern 
eitremity  of  the  Bolor  Tagh  to  the  China  Sea,  and  forma  the  soutbocn 
wall  of  tbe  lofty  plaleau  of  High  Asia.  It  contnlns  the  loftiest  elevations 
on  the  earth's  enrfaca,  and  oonaista  mainly  of  the  following  chains  ;  1. 
The  Sitnalaya  ("  abode  of  snow")  between  Hindustan  and  Tibet,  and 
Bepirating  the  basin  of  the  Ganges  from  the  upper  basin  of  the  Brahma- 
putra. The  threa  loftiest  peaks  ore  Mt.  Everest  or  Oanrisankar,  29,002 
fL  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (the  culminating  point  of  Asia,  andprobahiy 
the  highest  eumniit  on  the  earth's  surface),  bet.  Nepal  and  Tibet,  Ion.  86" 
WyK^jKunchinjunga,  inSikhim,  27,81fift.;  and  Dhawalagiri,  in  Nepal, 
26,82S  ft.  Several  other  peaks  in  this  range  rise  to  an  elevation  of 
25,000  ft.,  and  not  fewer  than  a  hundred  attain  a  height  of  20,000  ft. 
The  chain  is  1500  m.  long,  and  from  100  to  350  m.  broad :  height  of 
anow-liuo  on  the  south  side,  1B,200  ft.— on  the  north  side,  17,400  ft.  ; 
highest  elevation  at  which  wheat  grows,  13,000  ft,  2.  Tbe  Karaiomm 
Mil,,  in  Tibet,  midway  bet.  the  Himalaya  and  Euan-Lun,  and  nearlyos 
lofty  as  the  former  :  highest  summit,  Dapaong  peak,  28,278  ft.  S.  The 
Mtt  D/Arathan.  bet,  the  Iranodi  and  Bay  of  Bengal.  5000  ft.  4.  Mts. 
of  Siain,  Cambodia,  and  Aoam,  in  Further  India :  highest  stunmit,  Tidi- 
bang-ea,  in  Molaya,  6681  ft. 

The  Eastern  Bystem,  extending  from  the  Bolor  Tagh  due  east  to  the 
Pocifio  Ocean,  and  consisting  of  two  main  sections:  1.  The  Kutn-lun 
Mountains,  separating  the  upper  husins  of  the  Indus  and  Brohmaputm 
Irom  that  of  the  Tarkand,  about  22,000  ft.  high.  2.  Tbe  Pe-ling, 
between  the  Yang-lae  and  Hoang-Ho,  Sovenil  counlerforta  set  out  fium 
tbePe-ling— vie,  tbe  Yun-ling,l2,000ft., between  Chiniand Tibet;  the 
I  Nan-ling,  8000  ft.,  between  the  basiDS  of  the  Yaug-tiie-Kiaiig  and  Canton 
■rtver  ;  the  Kihan-Sban,  In-Shan,  and  Ehin-gan  Mountains,  forming  tba 
tLE.  wall  of  tbe  desert  of  Shamo. 

,  Tlu  irmth-Eutem  GyBt«ai,  eitending  E.N.B.  tram  the  Bolor  T^li  to 
iriiw  Strait,  separalm  the  !^va«.i,.(ii,g  (hat  incline  to  tlte  Arctic  Ocean 
n  those  inelintoc  t  '  "    —"Vi^Kjea— 1.    WiJwi-.SAnn,  it 

Celestial  Mountai''  ~  boilns  of  the  Olii  and 

i«  Ynrknad ;  Ti  love  the  limit  of  per- 


350  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

eunial  snow.  2.  The  Altaian^  Sayantt,  and  YalUmoi  MounUuns^m  ibe 
S.  of  Siberia,  separating  the  basin  of  the  Amoor  from  those  of  the  Yenisei 
and  Lena ;  Mount  Katunsk,  in  the  Altai,  12,790  fL  8.  SUmovoi  and 
Aldan  Mountains,  in  Eastern  Siberia,  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Sea 
of  Okhotsk— Schiwelutch.  in  Kamtchatka,  10,548  ft ;  Kliutschew.  15.825 
ft. ;  these  and  many  other  summits  are  active  volcanoes.  The  limit  of 
perennial  snow  in  Kamtchatisa  is  at  an  elevation  of  4475  fL 

10.  VolcanoeB. — These  are  not  numerous,  except  in  Kamtchatka 
and  the  islands  which  line  the  eastern  coast,  especially  the  Japan, 
Aleutian,  and  Kurile  Isles  ;  Pecha  and  Ho-Chan,  in  the  Thian-Shan 
range,  are  the  most  remarkable  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  of  the 
proximity  of  volcanoes  to  the  sea.  Karthquakes  are  numerous  in  S. 
and  E.  Asia,  as  also  in  Asiatic  Turkey.     (See  under  "  Oceania. *0 

11.  Monntaln-PasBes. — These  are  very  numerons,  and  many  of 
them  highly  celebrated.  Those  across  the  Himalaya  sometimes 
exceed  by  half  a  mile  of  elevation  the  loftiest  summit  of  the  Alps : 
thus  the  Ihi-Gamin  Pass,  between  Gurwhal  and  Tibet,  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  20,459  ft,  and  is  the  highest  known  pass;  Mustakh  Pass, 
crossing  the  Karakorum  Mountains,  18,435  ft  ;  Parang  Pass, 
18,500  ft. ;  Kiobrang  Pass,  18,313  ft ;  Kiti  Pass,  from  Kumaon  to 
Tibet  (Ion.  80°),  is  16,814  ft  high.  The  Khyber  Pass,  leading  from 
Pesha\vur  to  Jelalabad  (3373  ft),  though  narrow  and  dangerous,  is 
the  only  route  from  Northern  India  to  Afghanistan.  The  Bolan 
Pass,  from  Dadur  to  Quettah,  5793  ft  high  and  59  m.  long,  is  the 
only  practicable  carriage  route  from  the  lower  Indus  to  the  table- 
laud  of  Biluchistan.  Bamian  Pass,  between  the  Hindu  Rush  and 
the  Paropamisan  Mountains  (8496  ft),  is  the  only  pass  practicable 
for  artillery  from  Afghanistan  into  Western  Turkestan.  Pass  of 
Keli-Shin,  in  the  Zagros  Mountains  (9600  ft),  leads  from  Persia  to 
Baghdad.  The  Pass  of  Golek  Boghaz  {dliclan  Gates),  across  the 
Taurus  range,  connects  Cilicia  with  Cappadocia,  and  was  the  route 
by  which  Alexander  the  Great  entered  Cilicia.  Pass  of  Beilan 
{Syria  Portce),  between  Mt  Amanus  and  the  Mediterranean,  con- 
nects Asia  Minor  with  Syria :  this  was  the  pass  through  which  Daiios 
fled,  after  his  defeat  by  Alexander  on  the  adjoining  plain  of  Ifisaa, 
B.a  833. 

12.  Biver-BaslnB  and  CapitalB. — The  river-systems  of  Asia  sur- 
pass in  number  those  of  any  other  continent,  though  none  of  them 
attains  the  dimensions  of  the  Amazon  or  Missouri.  This  is  owing  to 
the  different  disposition  of  the  mountain-chains^  whioh  in  America 
are  placed  on  one  side  of  the  continent^  whereas  the  prhieipal  chains 
and  table-lands  of  Asia  traverse  its  central  xegianSi  and  send  the 
rivers  in  five  different  directions,  corresponding  to  the  five  great 
basins  to  which  they  respectively  belonfl^— Tiz.,  the  Blusk  Sea  and 
Mediterranean,  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Fftdfio  Ooeaii|i  the  Antfo* 
Ocean,  and  the  basin  of  continental  streamsL  ^m^ 
shows  the  direct  lengths  and  .areas  of  the 
gether  with  the  capitals  of  the  different  statH  t*- 
of  states  contained  in  them.  When  the  nv 
from  that  of  its  capital,  the  former  is  addf 


1 

k 
1 

1 

.„•„ 

Bl 

0^ 

-"■"  — 

1.  Ainwit 

400    1      SG.IOD    ;  Svu  (Bnoin).                                 I 

SJS^r: :::::::: 

s. 
EnpTirsteB,. 

MO 

sao 

3BD 
1000 

m 

laiiniin 
SID 

un 

.. 
eliiud  to  li, 

S1!,I)0D 

vBiiiQO 

as 

asa.oDo 
aai.ooo 

U«tdleth 
Slfl.000 

(iT.auo 

MT.«1» 
MI.SSO 

Knromn,  Aim™,  ahoBter  (Kliut- 
Bs^dBd,  Voanl  (!nirkliib  Eur- 

(BBltiHto),  Leh  (laUkkhj,  BHt- 
Maibu^-. 

1-, 

^r'!*; 

•^W"},  

bBTX  Benarci,  All^aUa.  Bikb- 
Lim,      Bh*™u<dc     (Nei»a), 
L&Ksmn  (Opdli),  Bew^  Aou 
(N.W.    PmvlnuMX     BhnrtpUr, 
ItaUii,  B..PU-,  Jlanii.  Bhopii, 
GwiLioK,  miolpm,  Bmai.  Efr 

Miii  aolny  (BlnnaXPfcn,  Munlpnr, 
MulmolniTenBaBenin  Frovtatf) 

/•aoiiUOdBttn. 

{    (Ldwsr  Ckwhiu  Cluiu). 
CLDtuD,  Kwel-Un  (Kwui'-Be). 
Nauldn  (Elang-su),    Kgm-HlBg 
(Gin-bwBS),  Wop-elujia  (Bon. 

June   (Kwet-ubow),    ChluE-tr* 

(He-ctoenX  Vun-onn. 
Tii-Dtu  (6]i£n-t»ng).     Lac-uhow 

(Kiiii-Bn),So-gun(aim-Jw),  Tub- 

yii™  (StoD-bo). 
S,iinHle»sk(PtlmoMlt),  Sliieoy^^ 

Cl.(Miinicbooriii),  dhilktTniM- 

B. 
■oDgm  nd  H«-1 

oiSS^v.;:::;: 

'-«-i-r- 

hmw-B" 

352 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


RiTBK-BASIItl. 


Direct 
Length. 


Area  tn 

Qeognphical 

Bqaar« 

Miles. 


OAPITAIJ  op  StA-TM  and  PBOTIMCat. 


4.  Basiru  inclined  to  tJie  Arctic  Ocean. 


Indigirka. 

Lena, 

Yenisei,  .. 


Obi, 


500 

600 

1300 

1950 

1800 


107,200 

86,400 

594,400 

784,530 

924,800 


CSijni  Kolimsk,  in  Yakatsk. 

(Zachioerskf  in  Yakutsk. 

Yakutsk. 

Krasnolarsk  (Yeniseisk),  Irkutsk, 

Urga  (Mongolia). 
Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  Seniii>oIa1in8k. 


5.  Basin  of  Continental  Streams. 


Kur, 

Volga, 

Ural, 

Amoo  Dapia, 

Syr  Daria, 

larkand  or  Tarim, 

Helmund , 

HeriRood, 


520 

64.640 

900 

897,460 

550 

88,200 

880 

193,600 

720 

237.920 

880 

177,120 

420 

76,380 

480 

•  • 

Tiflis,  Erivan,  Shemakha. 

(See  p.  96.) 

Orenbu^. 

Khiva,  Enndnz. 

Turkestan,  Ehokand. 

SIashoab  (Eastern  Turkestan). 

Slandahar. 

Meshed  (Khorassan),  Herat 


_ 

13.  Lakes. — The  lakes  of  Asia  are  very  numerous,  especially  in 
A.sia  Minor,  Western  Turkestan,  and  the  ffreat  Central  Basin.  To 
Asia  belongs  the  greatest  lake  in  the  world  (the  Caspian),  and  the 
largest  fresh- water  lake  in  the  Old  World  (Lake  Baikal).  Beginning 
at  the  N.E.  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  following  the  order  of  the  river- 
basins  in  which  they  occur,  the  following  are  the  principal  lakes : — 

Kizil  Irmdk  Basin,  —  Tuz-Gul,  in  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor,  45 
m.  long,  16  m.  broad,  3000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  the 
saltest  lake  known,  and  has  no  outlet.  Jordan, — Sea  of  Cralilee ; 
Dead  Sea,  intensely  salt,  1312  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  lowest  lake  known.  Euphrates, — Lake  Van,  in  Turk- 
ish Armenia,  salt ;  no  visible  outlet.  Indus, — Munchur,  in  Sindh ; 
Wallur,  in  Kashmir;  Rhawan  and  Mansarowar,  at  the  source  of 
the  Satlej.  BrahmaptUra. — Tengri-nor  and  Paltee,  in  Tibet  Yang' 
tse. — Poyang  and  Tong-Ting,  in  China  Proper.  Hoamg'Ho, — 
Ko-ko-Nor,  N.W.  of  dnina  Proper.  Yenisei, — Baikal,  in  South 
Siberia,  the  largest  fresh-water  lake  in  the  Old  World;  area  14,000 
sq.  m.,  drained  by  the  Angara.  Ohi, — Zaisan,  in  Dzon^uria,  drained 
by  the  Irtish.  Basin  of  Continental  Streams, — The  Caspian,  area 
178,866  sq.  m.,  being  the  largest  lake  in  the  world,  83  ft  oelow  the 
level  of  the  sea  ;  Lake  Urumiah,  W.  of  the  Caspian,  very  salt ;  Sea 
of  Aral,  £.  of  the  Caspian,  area  27,000  sq.  m.,  and  117  ft  above  the 
Caspian,  receives  the  Amoo  from  Lake  Sir-i-Kol,  height  15,600  ft 
above  the  sea,  the  highest  lake  known  ;  Lake  Balkash,  far  £.  of  the 
Sea  of  Aral,  area  11,500  sq.  m.;  Lake  Issyk-Eul,  200  m.  S.  of  Lake 
Balkash  ;  Lob  Nor,  in  the  basin  of  the  Yarkand,  and  Tengri  Nor,  in 
Tibet ;  Zurrah  or  Hamun,  in  Afghanistan. 

14.  Climate.  —  Extending  from  the  immediate  Tidnity  of  Ilia 
equator  to  far  within  the  Arctic  circle,  Asia  exhibits  ersiy  Tariefj  of 


I 


rain,  espe- 
a  of  Bilu- 


cUmate,  from  the  inteDse  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  to  the  extreme  aiij 
long-CDntiDiiad  cold  of  the  circuci polar  regiuna.  Tliree  climatic 
KOQea,  however,  aj-e  easily  diatinguishablo.  The  most  northem  of 
these,  vhich  includes  tbs  great  Siherian  pl&in,  is  charactiriaeil  by 
extreme  cold  for  nine  mODtha  in  the  year,  theo  giring  place  to  a  brief 
period  of  excessive  heat.  The  mean  temperature  of  this  zona  extends 
from  the  freezing-point  of  water  to  below  zero.  The  coldest  portion 
of  this  dreary  region,  and,  so  far  as  yet  known,  of  the  whole  globe, 
is  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Lena,  where  Yakutsk,  for  example,  has  a 
meanannna!  temperature  ot  IS".!!;  summer  08°. 7,  and  winter  — 36° .7, 
or  304°  helow  zero ;  being  a  difference  of  D5°  between  mean  summer 
and  mean  winter.  For  the  month  of  January,  the  mean  temperature 
is— *6°.B,  while  that  of  July  ifl68°.8  Fab.  In  Northem  Siberia  tlie 
gromtd  is  perpetually  frozen  to  a  great  depth,  the  snperticial  stratum 
alone  thawing  in  summer.  The  rivers  are  not  clear  of  iue  till  June  ; 
but  as  the  icB  melts  in  their  upper  courses  earlier  than  in  the  lower, 
extensive  areas  are  for  a  season  under  water.  (See  under  "  Siberia,") 
The  Middle  Zone,  whith  embraces  the  high  table-lands  of  the  inte- 
rior, is  cold  and  dry,  and  subject  to  the  influence  of  piercing. winds 
from  the  north:  here  large  tracts  are  seldom  visited  by  ra' 
cially  the  great  desert  of  Gobi  or  Shamo,  a  large  portior 
chistan,  Persia,  Northem  Arabia,  and  Southern  Syria,  ii 
which  a  drop  of  rain  is  never  known  to  fall,  and  in  others  only  at 
long  intervals,  and  in  very  small  qnantiliea.  The  Southern  Zone, 
comprising  all  the  countries  sonth  of  the  table-lands,  is  characterised 
by  intense  snmmer  heat,  extreme  moisture,  and  no  teat  winter :  here 
the  rain  falls  with  extreme  violence  at  particnlar  seasons  of  the  year ; 
at  Calcutta  no  less  than  Hi  inches  fall  annually ;  and  at  Bombay,  IS 
inches  of  rain  have  been  known  to  fall  in  a  single  day. 

13.  Oeologf. — The  geology  of  Asia  has  hitherto  been  very  imper- 
fectly explored,  hut  the  facts  already  ascertained  warrant  the  follow- 
ing generalisations  :  Tebtiaby  aks  Allutial  Defoeith  cover  the 
Elains  of  Siberia  and  Western  Turkestan,  of  Hindustan,  Further 
udia,  aud  China,  tlie  Arabian  and  Syrian  deserts,  and  the  table, 
land  of  Persia.  Seoondaey  Strata  embrace  Jiumcrons  tracts  in 
Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and  Western  Syria,  the  nortU-westsrn  half  of 
Persia,  parts  of  Arabia  and  Bilnchjstan,  Tibet,  Central  China,  the 
eastern  part  of  Uontchooria,  and  several  tracts  in  the  basins  of  the 
Lena  aud  Obi  Pal*ozoio  and  Transitiom  Rocks  occupy  eiten- 
aive  tracts  lying  to  the  N.  of  lakes  Balkash  and  Baikal  respectively, 
the  Stanovoi  and  Aldan  Mountains,  portions  of  the  middle  basin  of 
'the  Yaniaei,  and  a  long  belt  lying  S.  of  Cape  Severo.  Nnmerous 
large  tracts  of  upper  pus30zoic  also  occur  in  Asia  Minor.  Cbthtal- 
LiNE  St&ata  prevail  in  the  mountain  regions  of  Ceiitrsl  Asia,  from 
Mount  Elburz  in  the  W.  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Yablonol 
Hoimtains  in  the  R,  and  from  the  Altai  to  the  Chinese  Sea ;  Siberia, 
E,  of  Ion,  185°;  many  tracts  in  Asia  Minor;  together  withthe  south. 


I   key.   Central  Hindustan,  the 


354  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

and  Eamtchatka,  aud  the  Aleutian,  Eurile,  Japan,  and  Formosa 

Isles. 

16.  BIlneralB. — Asia  has  in  all  ages  been  celebrated  for  the  nnm* 
ber  and  variety  of  its  mineral  productions.  Diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones  abound  in  India,  Birma,  the  Ural  and  Altai  Moun- 
tains ;  Coal,  in  Syria,  Birma,  Hindustan,  China,  and  Japan ;  SaU,  in 
Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Hindustan,  China,  Siberia,  and  Central  AiEda ; 
Fctroleumiy  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  ;  Bitumen,  in  the  Dead  Sea ; 
Nitre,  in  India;  Salphwr,  in  Ladakh;  Gold,  Iron,  Copper,  and 
Platinum,  in  the  Urals;  Qold,  Silver,  Iron,  Lead,  in  the  Altai; 
Mercury,  in  China,  Tibet,  and  Japan;  Tin,  in  the  Eastern  Penin- 
sula and  Japan ;  Volcanic  produ>cts,  in  the  Taurus  range  and  in 
Japan. 

17.  Botany. — ^The  vegetable  products  vary  exceedingly  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries,  according  to  latitude,  elevation,  and  other  climatic 
influences.  The  entire  continent  embraces  no  fewer  than  eight  of 
the  twenty-five  botanic  regions  into  which  Prof.  Schouw  divides  the 
vegetation  of  the  globe— viz.,  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  6th,  7th,  8th,  12th, 
and  13th  of  his  system.  (See  p.  64.)  The  characteristic  vegetation 
of  the  first  three  regions  is  given  at  length  under  "  Europe,  p.  81. 
The  sixth,  or  Japanese  region,  embraces  Japan,  Northern  China,  and 
the  eastern  part  of  Eastern  Turkestan.  Its  vegetation  occupies  a 
middle  position  between  the  floras  of  Europe  and  North  America, 
with  a  considerable  aflinitv  to  that  of  India,  as  shown  by  its  palms 
and  bananas.  The  seventn,  or  Indian  region,  which  embraces  Hin- 
dustan, Ceylon,  Further  India,  and  the  S.  of  Cluna,  and  which  is 
unrivalled  for  the  richness  of  its  vegetation,  will  be  described  under 
**  Hindustan ;"  as  also  the  eighth,  or  Emodic  region,  which  com- 
prises the  mountains  of  Northern  India,  between  the  elevations  of 
5000  and  12,000  ft.  The  twelfth  region,  or  Re^on  of  Balsam 
Trees,  comprising  the  S.W.  of  Arabia,  Persia,  Biluchistan,  and 
Sindh,  will  be  noticed  under  the  first  of  those  countries;  as  will 
also  the  thirteenth  region,  usually  known  as  the  Desert  Region, 
which  comprises  the  remainder  of  Arabia  and  the  great  Afiican 
desert. 

18.  Zoology. — The  Asiatic  continent  constitutes  the  secondof  the  six 
zoological  kingdoms  into  which  naturalists  have  divided  the  globe. 
(See  p.  57.)  It  is  divided  into  four  zoological  provinces — the 
Northern,  Central,  Southern,  and  Transition.  The  Northern  pro- 
vince, or  Arctic  Asia,  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Altai 
Mountains,  and  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  being  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  isothermal  curve  of  32°  Fah. ,  which  marks  the 
limit  of  the  permanent  frost  of  the  soil.  The  Central  province 
extends  from  the  Altai  to  the  Himalaya  and  Hindu  Eush  Mountains, 
and  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Japan.  The  Southern  province,  or 
Tropical  Asia,  comprises  all  the  remaining  countries  oi  Asia  lying 
east  of  the  table-land  of  Iran ;  whUe  the  Transition  province 
embraces  Western  Asia  south  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and 
the  Paropamisan  Mountains.     The  fauna  of  the  last-named  region 


3.15 


'  fs  peculiar,  suJ  furms  n  (!Qn[lI>I^ttng  linlc  littweeu  the  tliree  zoulosioiil 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  Asia,  end  Atrica.  Tbo  fanim  of  the  NortherE 
province  resembles  that  of  Northern  Europe  ;  while  in  the  Central 
and  Sonthern  provinces  are  found  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  Bengal 
tiger,  and  many  other  formidable  aniirals,  together  with  the  camel, 
auroch,  yak,  nmsk-deer,  argal,  and  Tibet  Roat.  It  ia  probable  that 
all  the  domestic  animals  of  Enropa,  with  the  eiception,  perhaps,  of 
the  sheep,  have  been  originally  derived  from  these  two  provinces. 
Asia  has  comparatiTely  a  less  variety  of  birds  and  reptiles  than  of 
qnadmpeds ;  but  the  cassowary,  bustard,  pheasant,  domestic  fowl, 
and  a  number  of  other  gallinaceous  birds,  sre  abundant ;  while, 
among  reptiles,  the  Indisn  python,  the  cobra  de  capella,  and  the 
crncodile,  or  gavial  of  the  Onnges,  are  formidable  in  the  extreme. 


I 


synopaia  of  tbe 
first  column  gives  the  name  o: 
number  of  species  presently  ki 
found  in  this  contioeDt ;  while 
the  number  of  species  fouud  i 
Asia,  respectively,      v,^ 


,  mtly  known.  ITio 
the  order  ;  tlie  second,  the  total 
3wn ;  the  third,  the  total  number 
the  remaining  three  colnmna  show 
1  Korthem,  Central,  and  Southern 


:E 

yl 

.... 

65 
20 

"e 

17 

9 
WW 

'32 
2 
4 

25 

Asiatic  llAMUiLs. 

Camivora(Fleah-ealing),  . 
Marsupiaha  (Pouched  Animals),        . 
Kodentia  (Gnawing  Animals),    . 
Edentata  tTootliless  Animals),  . 
Pachydermata  (Thick- akitined), 
Rummantis  (Ruminating), 
Celacea  {Ocoan-Uving),       . 

202 

123 
60* 
28 
39 
180 
75 

49 
276 
1 
135 
5 
17 
B7 
29 

36 
42 

ii 

24 

Total  number  of  Species, 

1579 

632 

113 

104 

238 

ASUTIO  BIHD8. 

Rwaces  {Birds  of  Prey),   . 
Somsores  (Climbers), 

Nlitatorsa  (Swimmers),      . 

59 
B5 

221 
65 

IOC 

2 
9 
S 
24 

39 

U 
7 

20 
g 

26 

2S 

41 

19S 
72 
50 
19 

Total,                       ... 

e22fl 

646 

83 

103 

IBD 

POLITICAL   OEOGHAPHV. 


0HDEE3. 

^ 

s 

t...           ] 

H. 

* 

* 

AfllAtlQ  Reptiles. 

Sauna  (Limrij), 

Ophidia  (Serpents), 

Battaohia  (Frogi), 

eg 

203 
265 
120 

126 

'1 

3 

4 
3 

as 

4S 

lOS 
6 

Total, 

S57 

237 

14 

U 

179 

19.  EUmognphy. — LeaTiaj;  i 
which  mora  properly  belongs  b 
tinent  is  peopled  by  two  groat  ra 
golian  antt  the  Caucasian, 


it  of  view  tJie  Malay  paninauU, 
Oceania,  the  entire  Asiatic  con- 
es of  the  homan  family— the  Hon- 


e  Caacasian.    Hon^l 


rsi^ea  of  n  ,      ., 

natural  barriers  that  separate  tliis  n.._  ._. ,^__ 

nations  thua  occupy  the  whole  of  Norttem.  Central,  ■nd  Esatem  Asia, 
together  nith  a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  the  inhabitants  of  which  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian  races.  For  their  phy- 
siological, inUUectual,  and  moral  characteriatics,  bob  above,  at  page  61. 
The  languages  spoken  by  the  Mongol  nations  all  belong  to  two  great 
classes — the  Monosyllabic  and  the  Finno-Tartarian.  The  former  ia  con- 
Rned  to  the  soatb-eastem  angle  of  the  Continent,  and  Is  spoken  In  China, 
Further  India,  Bbotan,  and-Tibet.  The  languages  compriBed  under  it, 
besides  being  monosyllabic,  are  wholly  destitute  of  inflectkui;  their 
alphabets  are  generally  eymbolic  or  ideographic  (not  phonetic) ;  they  am 
inartiiicial  in  their  straoture,  and  Terr  limited  in  lie  range  of  thoir  litera- 
ture. The  Finno- Tartarian  family  of  tonpes,  though  not  alt(«eUier 
Kculiar  to  Mongol  nations,  occupies  the  entire  remainder  of  the  Hongo- 
n  area — viz. ,  Northern  and  C^tral  Asia — and  eitende  westward  hito 
Northern  and  even  Central  Europe.  Its  principal  branahei  are  the  TniUah, 
Mongolian,  and  Tangnsian,  of  Central  Asia ;  the  Japuieee,  La-Chnan,  and 
Corean,  of  Eastern  Asia  ;  the  Georgian  and  other  languages  of  Che  ngun  of 
the  Caucasus  ;  the  Samoiede  and  Finnish,  of  the  north  part  of  boa  eon- 

i^ar  or  Hungarian,  of  OenttU  Ewop*.     AUQiesi 

r  less  inflectional  and  polyiyDabto,  poMBM  bboDatle 
■ipiuucus,  BIO  luuio  refined  than  the  monosyllaUc  RrouK  whOa  ooe  at 
them— the  Turkish—contains  a  highly  respectable  UtetMue.  Kodmi 
research  has  established  an  undoubted  aSnity  batwaan  tha  monoa^laUe 
and  Finuo-Tartarian  families.  The  religioiu  aqdntkmi  of  tha  Mtlra 
Mongol  family  have  always  been  obtuse  and  of  a  vary  ll *~      ""* 


tjie  Turaiilan  nathma  hvra  bacMn*  Ho- 
e  remainder  of  AjiM  —  QitSr  tarihuy  bdi^ 


I 

I 


Babylan  ihe  Great,  and  faundod  ai 


ASIA.  337 

bounded  liy  the  Blaclt  Sen,  Caapian,  the  Hindu  Kiisli,  and  Himalaya  on 
the  H. ;  b;  the  Red  Sea  and  ladinu  Ocean  □□  the  W.  and  8. ;  and  b^  tha 
Bay  of  Bengal  and  Brahmaputra  on  the  E.  The  Hindus,  Medo-ParsiaiiB, 
and  Syio-Arabiane,  form  the  three  Frimary  divisions  of  thia  race  In  Asia. 

The  Haldol  and  Medo-Periiaia  appear  to  have  been  origioalty  one 
psople,  to  have  spoken  the  same  lan^age,  and  to  have  occupied,  in  com- 
inon,  the  plateaa  of  Iran  ;  but  at  a  tune  anterior  to  the  dawn  of  hietory, 
tjie  Hindus  migrated  eastward  and  settled  in  the  plains  of  Hindustan, 
from  which  the;  eipeiled  the  aboriginal  inhabitanta,  who  were  probably 
of  HoDgolian  origin.  Their  language  was  the  Sousrrit — a  tongue  of  un- 
paralleled oopiousuesa  and  reflnemant ;  and  though  it  is  now  a  dead  Ian- 
KUB^e.  all  the  tongues  presently  spoken  in  Northern  India  are  immediately 
derived  from  it.  Brahminisra  and  Buddliisni — those  two  master  forms  of 
1a\xa  reliEion— originated  with  this  people,  and  continue  to  be  professed 
by  nearly  a  half  of  the  human  race. 

The  Medo-Pernaa  group  of  nations 
mrface  of  Asia,  embracing  Persia,  I 

greater  part  of  TnrkeBtan  and  Armenia,  i  ne  origin  oi  meae  nations  aa« 
never  been  accurately  ascertained.  Theirveryexutence  had  been  scarcely 
known  beyond  tha  elevated  plateau  which,  from  time  immemorial,  they 
appear  to  have  occupied,  when  all  at  once  they  advanced  from  obscurity 

._ :_.     c : —  fjgjn  jjjgjj.  jjiountainous  abodes,  they  captured 

e  which,  in  point  of  estent, 
exceeaea  even  iiisL  ui  j\o]uu.  ineir  pnysical  conformation,  which  is 
decidedly  of  the  European  typ^i  corroborates  the  testimony  afforded  by 
their  languages,  as  to  their  affinity  with  the  principal  nations  of  Europe. 
Their  languages  form  an  important  branch  of  tlie  great  Indf-European 
family,  and  embrace  the  Persuin,  Pushtu,  Biluchee,  Knulish,  Ossitiniau, 
and  Armeuian.  A  Semitic  language — the  Pehlvi— is  supposed  to  have 
been  predominant  at  a  very  remote  period  in  Persia,  though  it  originnte<l 
In  the  provinces  bordering  on  Assyria  ;  but  under  what  ciicumatajiceB  it 
became  the  general  language  of  Media  is  still  matter  of  conjectnre.  (See 
under  "  Persia. ")  A  yet  more  ancient  language  ia  the  Persepolitan.atrue 
Medo-Persian  idiom,  vestiges  of  which  are  preserved  in  arrow-headed  or 
cuneiform  obaraoterB  (like  those  of  Assyria)  on  the  monumental  inscrip- 
tions recently  diacotei«d  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Persian  cities.  The 
Zend  language,  now  eitinct,  was  another  Medo-Pereian  tongue,  and  a 
sister  dialect  of  the  Sanscrit.  It  seema  to  have  been  the  language  of 
Zoroaster,  and  ia  still  pnrtialtT  preserved  in  the  sacerdotal  books  of  the 
Guebres  or  Parsees.  The  earliest  religion  of  the  Medo-Peraian  nations 
was  fire-worship,  but  they  are  now,  with  few  exceptions,  followers  of 
Mohammed— the  Nestorians  and  wandering  Armenians  being  the  only 
nation  of  Ibis  stock  by  whom  Christianity  has  been  received. 

The  SurD-Aralrian  or  Stmitie  natious  are  chiefly  confined  to  this  con- 
tinent, and  especially  to  its  south-western  angle— viz.,  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
the  buin  of  the  EaphmteH  and  Tigris.    In  perfection  of  physical  confer- 

i_k: ^_i       !___.    _t__._.^^g(g    jg 

Bsof  the 
18  uniform.    The 

Syrians,  who  still  preserve  their  lineage  pore  and  uDnuDgled  among  the 
mounteini  of  KordistAn,  have  a  f^  complexion,  with  ^y  eyes,  red 
beard,  and  a  robust  frame.  The  wandering  Arab  of  the  Desert  is  thin 
and  tantcnlar  in  fonn,  with  deep-brown  skin  and  large  black  eyes ;  in 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan  he  has  a  dark  akin,  course  haiTj  and  flattened 
fiMtnroi,  Mmewhat  resembling  the  Kegro  typo.    IheJewieeasily  dinia- 


358  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

guished,  in  whatever  country  he  takes  up  his  abode,  by  his  long  oval  face, 
and  the  peculiar  cast  of  his  physio^omy,  though  his  hair  is  found  of  all 
shades,  from  jet-black  to  red.  The  Semitic  lan^^ges  are  remarkably 
few  in  number,  but,  as  a  compensation  for  this,  they  can  claim  the 
highest  antiquity,  and  ore  spread  over  an  immense  portion  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  Thev  extend,  without  interruption,  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Lake  Urumiah  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
Mount  Taurus  to  an  undefined  distance  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  where 
they  come  in  contact  with  the  Hamitic  or  African  family.  They  are 
hounded  on  the  east  and  north  by  the  Indo-European  or  Japhetic  family, 
and  at  one  point  (Asia  Minor)  come  in  contact  with  the  Turkish — a  Finno- 
Tartarian  tongue.  From  the  earliest  times  they  were  native  in  Palestine, 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and  Arabia — ^thus  extending 
from  the  Tigris  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  the  Armenian  Mount^ns 
to  the  south  coast  of  Aj*abia.  The  Phcenicians  sent  colonies  at  a  very  re- 
mote age  to  numerous  islands  and  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  thus 
carried  their  language  from  T>Te  and  Sidon  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules ; 
while  the  Arabians,  on  the  other  hand,  carried  their  language  across  the 
Red  Sea  into  Ethiopia. 

Table  of  Semitic  Languages. 

The  Hebrew  or  Phoenician  Branchy  including — 
Canaanitish  or  pure  Hebrew,  in  Canaan. 
Phoenician  and  Punic,  in  Phoenicia  and  Carthage. 
Samaritan,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Samaria,  forming  a  connecting  link 
between  the  Hebrew  and  Aramean  branches. 

The  Aramean  or  Syrian  Branchy  viz. — 

Clialdee  or  East  Aramean,  in  Mesopotamia. 
Syriac  or  West  Aramean,  in  Syria. 

Modem  Syriac,  a  corrupt  dialect  of  the  Syriac,  is  still  preserved 
among  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Mesopotamia. 

Th£  A  rabian  Branch — 

Koreish,  orginally  spoken  in  North  Arabia,  the  parent  of  Modem 

Arabic. 
Hamyaritic,  the  parent  of  the  Ekhkili,  the  ancient  dialect  of  South 

Arabia. 
Modem  Arabic,  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Northern  Africa. 
Ekhkili,  spoken  by  a  mountain  tribe  in  HacLnunaut. 
Gheez  or  Ethiopic,  derived  from  the  Hamyaritic,  was  anciently  spoken 

in  Ethiopia  (Abyssinia),  but  is  now  superseded  by  its  two  dialects, 

the  Tigr^  and  Amharic. 
The  ancient  Egyptian,  with  its  descendant,  the  f  Joptic,  were  also 

allied  grammatically  to  the  Semitic  group. 


ASIATIC    TURKEY. 

Boundaxies.— N.,  Transcaucasia,  the  Black  Sea,  and  Sea  of 
Maimora  ;  W.,  the  iEgean  Sea,  Levant,  IsdimiiB  of  Smei.  iu 
the  Red  Sea  ;  S.,  the  Mediterranean,  Arabia^  and  .tha.  I 


I 


Gulf ;  and  K,  Persia  and  Transcaucasia.     Lat.   12"  40' — 12° 
N.,  Ion.  aC-^S"  E. 

Aleppo,  one  of  the  principal  commercial  emporiuina  of  tlie  Ottaman 
Empire,  h  situated  almost  exactly  is  the  centre  of  tlii&  wide  area,  if  we 
omit  Hedjaz  and  Yemen.  It  is  iu  tlie  same  latitude  as  San  Francisco, 
North  Csjolina,  Gihraltar,  Algiers,  Malta,  Bhodea,  Mosul,  Teheran,  and 
Ktng-ki-tao  in  Corea ;  and  in  the  same  longitnde  as  Moscow,  Kertoh, 
"' Gondar,  and  the  mouth  of  the  river  Zambesi.   Its  Ejctreme  length, 

S70"m 

Ana  and  Popolatlon.— Tlie  area  is  estimated  at  671,9!>T  sq.  m., 
and  the  population  at  13,18'i,000.  Hence  Ottoman  Asia,  though 
fiTe  and  a  half  times  larger  than  the  British  Isles,  is  grestlj  exceeded 
hi  population  by  England  without  Walea. 

BniCUM. — That  of  Asia  Minor  is  almost  nholly  monntainons, 
baving  B  lii;!h  table-land  in  the  interior,  and  narrow  plains  along  the 
sea-ooast.  In  Armenia  the  surface  ia  a  snccesaion  of  high  mountain- 
Ohains  and  elevated  valleys.  In  Syria  the  weatem  part  ia  traversed 
bj  a  great  chain  of  mountains,  while  the  eaatera  is  an  immense 
d««rt  plain.  Mesopotamia  consists  partly  of  a  conticuatiou  of  the 
great  Syrian  Dasort,  and  partly  oC  rich  ollnvial  soil  once  profusely 
watered  by  canals,  but  now  unprodactive  through  inactivity  and 
mi^oTernment. 

Political  and  Natnral  DlTlalonB. — The  Ottoman  Empire  in  Asia 
comprl("'9  five  great  natnral  diviaiona — viz.,  1.  Turkish  Annenis,  in 
the  N.E.,  now  (since  137S)  separated  from  the  Boaaian  dominions 
by  the  Arna  or  Arnx,  and  a  line  stretching  N.N.W.  from  Narriman 
to  Ualrialos  on  the  Blai:li  Sea.  S.  Asia  Minor,  in  the  N.'VV.,  be- 
tween Turkish  Armenia  and  the  ^eean  Sea,  and  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Meditenanesn.  3.  Syria,  includiSK  Falestine,  in  the  S.W., 
skirting  the  whole  eastern  ahore  of  the  Mediterranean  from  Mount 
Amanus  to  Arabia  Petrcea,  and  extending  eastward  to  the  Euphmtes 
and  the  Syrian  Desert.  4.  Mesopotamia  (including  Irak  Aralii  and 
A!  Jezira),  and  Turkish  Kurdiatau,  in  the  S.E.,  between  Persia  and 
the  Syrian  Desert,  and  comprising  almost  the  entire  basin  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris.  S.  Arahistan  (including  Arabia  Fetrtea,  the 
Hedjai,  and  Yemen),  akirtiug  the  E.  coast  of  the  fied  Sea  from 
Syria  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  The  Political  Divisions,  which  are 
named  ptahaties,  vary  greatly  in  number  and  magnitude,  according 
to  the  Tarytng  power  of  thrir  reapeotive  governors. 

ITrebikohij.— TrabiiondOO,  Eizehad  (N.  coaal). 
PEsEBOiTM. — ErsniDm  65  il,  Erxiugan  15  (W.  Euphrates). 
"         ■    -    'i-fln   AnlishfL.  Van). 


360  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Asia  Minor. 

SiVAS  or  Room.— Sivas  25,  Kaisarieh  10  (Eizil  Innak),  Amasia 
20,  Tokat  35  n.,  Marsivan  30  n.  (Yeshil  Irmak),  Arab  Gir  80 
(Euphrates). 

Anatolia.— Smyrna  150  (G.  of  Smyrna),  Sinope  10  vnorih  coast), 
Kutaya  50  n.  (Sakaria),  Angora  15  (Mnrtadabad),  Eankari  18  n. 
(Kizil  Irmak),  Kastarauni  12  (Kara  Sn),  Tosia  16  (Devrek),  Scutari 
60  (Bosporus),  Brusa  60,  Muhalitch  11  n.  (Soa  of  Marmora),  Scala 
Nova  20  (west  coast),  Manissa  60  (Kodus),  Ak  Hissar  6  (Phrygius), 
Alia  Shehr  15  (Coganos),  Aidin  80,  Kara  Hissar  60  n.  (Mendereh). 

Adana. — ^Adana  20  (Sihoon),  Tarsus  7  (Cydnus). 
Karamania.— Konieh  50  n.  (Lake  Beg-Shehr),  Karaman  7  (west 
of  Lake  Ak  Gol). 
Marash. — Marash  18  (Jyhoon). 
Cyprus?— Lefkosia  12  (Pediseus). 

Syria,  including  Palkstinb. 

Aleppo. — Aleppo  70  (Koik),  Iskendemn  or  Scanderoon  (G.  of 
Scanderoon),  Antioch  or  Antaki  18  (Orontes),  Aintab  20  (60  miles 
N.  Aleppo). 

Tripoll — Tripoli  18,  Latakia  7  (coast). 

Acre. — Acre  or  Akka  10,  Beirout  100,  Saida  or  Sidon  6,  Sur  or 
Tyre  5,  Kisarieh  (coast),  Baalbec  2  (Leontes),  En-Nasirah  or 
Nazareth  3  n.  (Kishon),  Sebustieh  or  Samaria,  Nablons  or  Shechem 
8  (Arsuf). 

Gaza. — Gaza  or  Guzzeh  15,  Jaffa  or  Joppa  25  (coast). 

Damascus. — Damascus  or  Esh  Sham  120  (Burada),  Hamah  80, 
Hems  30  n.  (Orontes),  Palmyra  or  Tadmor  (in  an  oasis  in  the  Syrian 
Desert),  Jerusalem  25  (Kedron),  Hebron  or  El-Khalil  10  (Eshcol), 
Beit  Lahm  4  (Sorek),  Jericho  or  ErUia  n.  (Jordan). 

Mesopotamia  and  Turkish  Kurdistan. 

Baghdad.— Baghdad  100  (Tigris),  Bassorah  60,  (Shat-eI-Amb)» 
Shuk-el-Shuyuk    10,    Hillah    or   Babylon    10,    Hit    7,    Anah    9 

(Euphrates). 

DiYARBEKR. — Diyarbekr  14,  (Tigris),  Eerkiaiyili,  T^Vlrfih  8 
(Euphrates),  Harran  or  Haran,  Orfah  80  (Belikh). 

Turkish  Kurdistan. — Mosul  30  (Tigris),  Arbel  0  n.  (Gzwt  &]i). 

Arabistan. 

Arabia  Petrjsa.— Tor  (G.  of  Suez),  Akaba  (O.  of  AUm^  SmJMJtf 
Petra  (Wady  Mousa).  ,  "  '..  ■ 

Hedjaz.— Mecca  45  n.,  Yembo  7,  Jiddah  2S  (B«d  AmiV 

15  (interior). 

Yemen.— Sana  40,  Damar  25,  Taas  10  (Infttfi' 
*  Annexed  to  the  Brltiih  Ibnpln ! 


301 


DeMripUva  Notas.— Asiatic  Turkey  containa  four  towns  (S 
Damascus,  Beirout,  Baghdad)  above  10(1,000  inhatitantB ; 
tween  100,000  wid  60,000  (Trebiiond,  Manissa,  Erzroum,  Kutays, 
BruBs,  Scutari,  Kuja  HisBar,  Konieli,  Aleppo,  Baasorah) ;  and  twenty 
between  GO,  000  and  20,000. 

Armenia. — TreliiEoiid  is  au  important  fortified  sea-port,  and  tlie  n&tn- 
ral  entrepSt  of  tha  European  trade  with  Armenia,  Nortli  Persia,  and 
TranscBucasia  :  itwasberethat  Xenophon,  with  his  tan  thousaaii  Greeks, 
reached  tlie  coast,  on  tbeir  memorable  retreat  after  the  battle  of  Cunaza. 
Eraronm,  the  principal  city  of  Turkish  ijmenia,  has  eitensive  trade  with 
bU  the  adjacent  countries,  and  is  a  chief  halting-station  of  caravans  tia^ 
velliDg  from  Teheran  to  Mecca.  EaiB,  near  the  Knssian  IhiDtier,  taken 
tiy  the  Bnssiana  in  1B55,  after  a  gallant  defeacs  bj  the  Turks.  Van  is  « 
fortified  city  with  a  flourishing  trade,  and  po.'sesses  eorae  remarkable 
■Dtiqnities,  which  havB  been  attributed  to  Semiramis.  Betlis,  with 
msnufafturss  of  cotton  cloths  celebrated  for  their  bright  red  colour:  near 
it  the  army  of  Solyman  the  MagniQcent  was  defeated  by  the  Persians  in 
IQM. 

Abu.  MiKoa. — SItbj  haa  manufactures  of  coarse  woollen  and  other 
fabrics,  with  a  considerable  transit  trade.  Kaisnrieh,  near  Mt.  Arjish, 
lias  iron  mines,  and  is  the  commercial  entrepSt  for  a  lai^e  extent  of  coun- 
try. IcdcBt,  a  considerable  depQt  for  agricultural  produce,  has  manufao- 
tnres  of  silk  and  calicoj  and  s  copper  refinery.  Arab  Oir,  a  thriving  town 
on  t^e  route  between  Trebizond.  ^d  Aleppo.  Bmyrna,  the  capital  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  richest  cities  in  the  empire : 
it<  foreign  trade  la  very  eitensive,  eBpecially  with  great  Britain,  Anstria, 
France,  and  the  United  States ;  it  is  the  rendezvous  of  merchants  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  residence  of  consuls  from  moat  of  the 
Eurapean  States :  ita  imports  alons  are  valued  at  £4,000,000  annually :  it 
cdaima  to  be  tiie  birthplai^  of  Homer,  occupies  a  distingnlsbed  place  in 

the  early  history  of  Christianity,  was  the  scene  of  the  labours  ar^ 

tyrdom  of  Polycarp,  and  is  the  only  one  of  the  great  ancient  citiei. 

western  coast  of  the  peninsula  which  has  survived  to  this  day.*    Slnopa)  1 

long  famous  for  its  couuneree,  eontinnes  to  be  the  beet  p"""  "~  "- "" 

coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey;  here,  in  November  18S3,  th , 

emerging  from  Sevastopol,  attacked  and  deatrnved  a  Turkish  sonadroiir  9 
consisting  of  thirteen  ships,  lying  at  anchor  in  the  roadstead,  when  four 
thousand  Turks  were  cruelly  butobered.  Entaya,  a  populous  city,  sonaij 
times  regarded  as  the  oapitat  of  Anatolia,  has  uuraeroiis  mosqnei,  puhlf^^ 
baths,  and  khans,  and  a  Inrce  tniile  in  gonti"  hnir,  wc«Jl,  and  agricoltnJl 
-jtroduco.    Ar^nr?. ' •■■ ■■  'r-  "■■■  "■■-  -■•'■--  ' —  '^tijned  fromtl 

Kjs  usually  '  ■-■  T.he  seattf 

M  British  ' 
KdUdofDi'. 


362  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

is  an  important  commercial  city,  and  next  in  rank  to  Smyrna,  with  which 
it  is  now  connected  by  a  railway.  Adana  has  a  trade  in  wool,  cotton, 
com^  wine,  and  fniit.  Tarsus,  a  celebrated  city,  and  the  ancient  capital 
of  CUicia,  was  the  birthplace  of  St  Paul,  and  many  other  illustrious  men. 
Xonieh  (Iconium)  was  visited  by  St  Paul  in  his  missionary  travels :  in 
the  middle  ages  it  was  one  of  the  greatest  cities  in  Asia  Minor^  and  is  yet 
a  place  of  considerable  trade. 

Syria  and  Palestine. — Aleppo,  the  principal  city  in  North  Syria, 
rose  to  importance  on  the  destruction  of  ralmyra,  and  became  the  great 
emporium  of  trade  between  Europe  and  the  East.  It  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  its  silk  and  cotton  manufactures,  and  for  its  productive  gar- 
dens. Iskendenm  or  Scanderoon  has  the  best  harbour  on  the  Sjrrian 
coast.  Antioch  (Turk.  Antaki),  once  the  proud  capital  of  Syria,  and 
second  to  no  city  in  Asia,  was  one  of  the  earliest  strongholds  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith :  here  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  were  first  called  Christians, 
though  now  it  does  not  contain  a  single  Christian  church.  Tripoli  (anc. 
Tripolis),  at  the  foot  of  a  spur  of  Mount  Lebanon,  is  surroundea  by  lux- 
uriant gardens  and  remains  of  the  architecture  of  the  middle  ages :  the 
principal  exports  are  soap  and  sponges.  Acre,  Akka,  or  St  Jean  d'Acre, 
the  ancient  Ptolemais,  near  the  loot  of  Mount  Carmel,  is  a  place  of  great 
natural  strength,  and  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  key  of  Palestine : 
it  is  celebrated  for  the  memorable  sieges  it  has  sustained,  but  was  reduced 
to  a  heap  of  ruins  by  the  British  fleet  in  1840.  Belroiit  is  the  port  of 
Damascus  and  the  Lebanon,  and  has  more  commerciiJ  activity  than  any 
other  SjTian  port :  valuable  mines  of  coal  and  iron  have  been  found  in 
the  vicinity.  Saida  (anc.  Sidon),  probably  the  most  ancient,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  most  powerful,  city  of  Phoenicia,  till  eclipsed  by  its  colony 
Tyre:  it  was  long  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  glass,  a  substance  which 
it  is  said  was  first  invented  here.  Bur,  or  Tyre,  soon  eclipsed  its  parent 
Sidon,  and  became  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  famous  cities  of  toe  an- 
cient  world :  as  early  as  the  11th  century  before  the  advent  of  Christ  the 
Tyrians  had  become  famous  for  their  skill  in  various  manufactures  and 
arts :  it  was  successively  besieged  by  Shalmaneser  and  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  in  B.C.  322  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Alexander  l^e  Oreat :  the 
wars  of  the  Crusades  completed  its  ruin,  ana  its  site  is  now  oooupied  by 
a  miserable  village,  which  exports  a  little  tobacco,  cotton,  charcoal,  and 
fueL  The  downfall  and  permanent  desolation  of  Tyre  is  one  of  tho  most 
memorable  accomplishments  of  prophecy  which  the  aimals  of  the  worid 
exhibit.  Kisarien  (Csesarea),  memorable  in  the  early  history  of  Ohiii- 
tianity  as  the  place  where  the  Grentiles  were  first  received  into  the  Cfazii- 
tian  (5hurch.  En  Nasirah,  the  ancient  Nazareth,  where  the  paranti  of 
Jesus  resided,  and  where  He  lived  till  the  commencement  of  His  mfaditiy: 
it  is  a  small,  well-built  town,  containing  about  8(XM)  inhabitanta.  Sobiii- 
tieh,  the  ancient  Samaria,  founded  by  Omri,  king  of  lanel,  B.O.  9S4^  mw 
the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes  till  they  were  canied  away  bj  Bhalmaneeer, 
B.C.  721 :  it  is  now  a  mere  village  surrounded  by  gardens  «id  plantatioDB. 
Nablous,  the  ancient  Shechem  and  Neapolis,  the  capital  of  ine  Kingdom 
of  Israel  before  Samaria,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the  sWmftrftii  ironh^  till 
the  nation  embraced  Christianity :  the  inhabitmti  axe  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  cotton  fabrics.  Gan^  a  thriving  town  on  the 
S.  W.  coast,  with  manufactures  of  soap  and  cotton  fkbiios,  and  -  '  '  * 
entrepdt  for  the  caravans  passing  between  Egypt  and  8t*< 
of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines ;  the  scene  t^ 
famous  exploits,  and  of  his  death ;  and  near  it  FIUVti 
of  Ethiopia.    Jaffa  (anc.  Joppa)^  the  port  of  Jenual 


:  TL-KKEv.  3C3 

Eom,  fruits,  and  coral :  Jaffa  figures  in  the  history  of  ttie  Crusades,  and  nas 
the  scene  of  the  faithleaa  nmsEtacre  of  its  gnrrison  by  Napoleon  I.  ill  1799: 
it  is  also  celebrated  aa  the  place  where  Jonah  embHrked  for  Tarahish,  and 
where  Peter  Imd  his  deeplv  ti^ificant  vision,  DamBacna,  the  principal 
t  ity  in  Syria,  in  a  beantiim  plain  at  the  eastern  foot  of  Anti-Lebanon ;  il 
is  regaidsd  by  many  aa  the  loost  ancient  city  in  the  world,  and  it  is  cei'- 
tainly  one  of  the  earliest  that  attained  to  ooDBequence  :  at  ita  inmieusa 
liaznara  may  always  be  seen  the  rcpresontatives  of  all  dvilised  nations, 
nnd  above  200  merchants  are  here  permanently  settled :  fotalgn  trade  is 
now  ostried  on  hy  the  fine  new  macadamised  road  to  Beirout,  opened  in 
1303,  which  is  75  miles  in  length.  Hamah.the  Hamath  of  Scriptnre, 
i-ne  of  the  most  pleasant  towns  of  Syria,  cairj'ing  on  a  brisk  trada  with 
the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  and  having  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and 
woollen  atnfi^.  Eema,  or  Homs,  waa  celebrated  for  its  great  temple  of 
the  snn :  it  was  also  the  scsno  of  a  decisifa  battle  between  Anrelion  and 
the  famous  Qaeen  Zenobia,  a.d.  272.  Falmyrn,  the  Tadmor  of  ScriptniB, 
liuilt  by  King  Solomon  in  an  oasis  in  the  Syrian  Desert,  midway  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Mediterranean,  was  pre-eminently  a  city  of  mer- 
chants, who  eold  to  the  western  world  the  prodncts  of  India  and  Arabia  : 
a  few mnd  cottages  mark  the  spot  where  "the  city  of  palma"oQce  stood; 
bnt  the  siuTounding  ruins  are  the  admiration  of  all  travellers  through  the 
liesert;  the  most  remarkable  of  these  remains  consist  of  portions  of  a 
temple  of  the  sun,  which  had  390  Corinthian  columns  of  white  marble, 
60  of  whidi  are  etul  entire.  JeruaJem,  by  far  tlie  moet  ijiterestlng  and 
renowned  city  in  the  world,  having  been  the  site  of  the  most  imporiant 
events  recorded  in  the  annals  of  history  :  the  date  of  its  origin  is  wholly 
unknown,  bnt  it  eiisted  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  when  Melthizedek  was 
ila  sovereign :  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Israelitisb  empire  under  David 
and  Solomon,  when  it  became  the  pemianeot  centre  of  the  true  religion : 
after  the  division  of  the  empii«  under  Kehoboam  it  remained  Vtie  capital 
i>f  the  kingdom  of  Jndah  till  the  time  of  the  captivity,  b.o.  68S :  here 
the  Saviour  tanght,  here  He  wrought  miracles,  and  here  He  Buffered :  aflfli: 
leaving  been  the  scene  of  horrors  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  huuian 
race,  Jerusalem  was  abandoned  to  the  Romans,  who  levelled  It  to  tliB 
grouaiJ,  A.D.  70;  it  was  rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  i-D.  136;  captured  by  the 
PenlaDsin614;  by- the  Saracens,  under  Omar,  in  637;  by  the  Cmsadras 
iu  1099;  recaptured  bySaladin  in  1187;  and  has  ever  SLUce  ir  '"-"  " 
under  the  galling  yoke  of  the  Turks :  the  principal  buildings 
Mosque  of  Omar,  on  the  ilta  of  the  Temple  of  Jehovah,  and  the 
of  the  Holy  Sepnlchra,  which  is  erroneously  si^poaed  to  ntark  the  se 


It  where  the  ct 


ving  been  built  " 
inwn  of  venerable  m 
1  JamBalem  and  B 

-t  by  high  and  f 


364  POLITICAL    GEOGIUrUY. 

400  tons  can  come  up  to  the  city.  Hillah,  a  small  town  on  the  Euphrates^ 
60  miles  S.  of  Baghdad,  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon,  the  first 
theatre  of  empire,  and  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  famous  cities  of 
the  ancient  world.    Diyarbekr,  or  Diarbekr — ^here  are  some  copper-works 
and  manufactures  of  cotton  ana  silk.    Harran,  the  Haran  of  Scripture, 
where  Abraham  and  his  family  resided  for  a  time  on  their  journey  to- 
wards Canaan.    Orfiah,  the  famous  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  the  birthplace  of 
Abraham,  Nahor,  and  Lot.     Mosul,  a  considerable  town  with  a  brisk 
and  flourishing  trade,  but  chiefly  interesting  on  account  of  its  proximity 
to  the  ruins  of  ancient  Nineyeh,  recently  explored  with  such  brilliant 
results  by  M.  Botta  and  by  our  indefatigable  countryman,  Layaid :  their 
excavations  have  brought  to  light  the  sculptured  remains  of  several  im- 
mense palaces  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Nineveh,  most  of  which  are  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum.    Arbelor  Erbil,  the  ancient  Arbela,  where  Alex- 
ander the  Great  obtained  his  final  and  decisive  victory  over  Darius,  B.0. 331. 
Arabistan. — Tor  or  Tur,  a  small  town  on  the  caravan  route  from 
£g}'pt  to  Mecca,  where  the  water  is  better  than  at  any  otherplace  on  the 
Red  Sea.    A  few  miles  inland  is  Jebel-at-Tdr,  the  Mount  Horeb  of  the 
Old  Testament.    Akaba,  or  "the  descent,"  a  small  town,  built  for  tiie 
protection  of  the  pilgrim  caravans  from  Cairo  to  Mecca.    Near  it»  in  an- 
cient times,  stood  Ezion-Gteber,  famous  as  the  port  where  Solomon  and 
Jehoshaphat  built  fleets  to  carry  on  a  commerce  with  Ophir.    Half-way 
between  Akaba  and  the  Dead  Sea  are  the  famous  niins  of  Petra,  the  an- 
cient capital  of  Idumsea,  surrounded  by  almost  inaccessible  precipices. 
and  entered  by  a  single  narrow  gorge.    It  was  a  City  of  great  extent  ana 
magnificence,  and  commanded  a  large  share  of  the  traffic  of  the  East 
Some  fine  ruins  of  its  public  buildings  still  remain.    Mecca,  capital  of  the 
Hedjaz,  and  the  most  celebrated  city  of  Arabia  is  famous  as  having  been 
the  birthplace  of  the  arch-impostor  Mohammed  (a.d.  671),  and  the  cradle 
of  the  Mussulman  religion.   Here  stands  the  Beitulah  or  "  house  of  God," 
the  grand  centre  of  the  Mohammedan  world,  containing  the  Kaaba  or 
sanctuary,  an  oblong  massive  structure  of  rough  stone,  alleged  to  have 
been  built  by  Abraham,  and  the  object  of  their  deepest  veneration.    Mo- 
hammedans only  are  allowed  to  enter  Mecca,  and  all  persons  of  that  faith 
are  required  to  make  a  pilgrimage  hither  at  least  once  in  their  lives. 
Jiddah,  the  port  of  Mecca,  is  the  principal  commercial  entrepdt  <rf  W. 
Arabia.  Medina,  a  celebrated  city,  245  miles  N.  of  Mecca,  was  the  seat  of 
Mohammed's  empire :  hither  he  fled  from  Mecca  in  a.d.  622,  and  thatirear, 
termed  the  Hegira  or  "  Flight,"  has  ever  since  formed  the  great  eia  m  all 
parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world.    Medina  contains  the  Irophef  8  tomb. 
Sana  is  a  flourishing  town,  and  carries  on  a  ereat  trade  in  codSee  with 
Persia,  India,  and  Turkev.      Mocha,  a  fortified  seaport^  ehieflv  od»> 
brated  for  its  coflee,  the  finest  in  the  world :  about  10,000  tons  of  coffee 
are  exported  annually,  besides  considerable  quantities  of  dateiy  gamfli 
senna,  balm,  ivory,  and  gold-dust. 

Capes. — Injeh,  the  northmost  ^int ;  Baba,  the  westmoet  point ; 
Krio,  the  most  south-westerly  point ;  Anamori  the  most  aoatherly 

point  of  Asia  Minor. 

Islands.— Marmora,  in  the  Sea  of  Mannora;  Lesbos,  Soio^  Sunos, 
Nicaria,  Patmos,  Cos,  Bhodes— all  off  the  west  coast  of  Anatolia ; 
Cyprus,  in  the  Mediterranean,  south-east  of  Asia  Minor. 

Many  of  these  islands  are  highly  celebrated i.SflHaof  was  O"^ 
chief  centres  of  Ionian  civilisation^  literatms^  and  vt;  Vot:!^ 


ASIATIC   TURKEY,  8G5 

oeleTirated  oa  having  lieen  tlie  birthplace  of  Pjtliagtiraa.  Paliaot  will  lie 
aver  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  Apoatle  John's  banisiunsnt,  aiid  as 
the  place  where  the  voloine  of  inspiration  was  completed.  Rliodei,  one  of 
the  tsreest  islands  in  the  whole  Arcbipel^o,  in  well  watered  and  fertile, 
and  celehrated  fram  the  remotest  Bjitiqmt7  as  a  seat  of  commerce, 
Davigation,  literature,  and  tlie  arts  ;  but  now  reduced  to  a  state  of  abject 
poverty  bjr  the  devastations  of  war  and  the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  its 
Turkish  rulera  i  its  capital,  Bhodea,  with  a  pogmlatioa  of  la,000,  was  in 
tncient  times  famous  for  its  huge  brazen  statue  of  Apollo,  and  in  modem 
times  it  is  noted  as  one  of  the  lost  retreats  ot  the  kiughta  of  3t  John  of 
Jerusalem,  who  held  it  from  1310  to  1B22.  Cyprvt,  r  large  and  celebisl^ 
island  of  the  Mediterranean,  south  of  Cilicia,  area  4500  si^.  miles,  popula- 
tion 200,000,  of  whom  about  two-thlrda  are  Christiana,  and  ona-thlrd 
Mussulmans ;  the  surface,  in  many  parts  sterile  and  uninhabited,  is 
traversed  hom  east  to  west  by  two  mountain-ranges,  which  attain  their 
maximum  height  in  Mount  Santa  Croce  {Olympia).  8000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  :  capital  L^hnda.  near  the  centre,  with  16,000  inhabitants. 
Bess,  Btraita,  and  Onlft. — Blaclr  Eea,  N.  of  Asia  Minor;  Bosporus, 
Sea  of  Mannora,  and  the  Hellespont,  between  Enropeoo  and  Asiatic 
Turkey ;  Gulfs  of  Adramjti,  Smyrna,  Seals  Hova,  and  Cos,  W.  of 
Anatolia;  Gulfs  of  Maliri,  Adalia,  andScanderoon,  S.  of  Asia  Minor  j 
the  Levant,  W.  of  Syria  |  the  Persian  Gulf,  S.E.  of  Mesopotamia, 
Uoimtaln  System.— (See  under  "Asia,"  par.  9.) 
BlTBT  Bystem  and  Tow7«. — (See  after  "  Biluohiatan.'') 
lAkM. — Van,  in  the  S.  of  Armenia ;  Egerdir,  in  the  S.E.  of  Ana- 
tolia ;  Tiu-gul,  N.  of  Ronieh  1  Bahr-el-Merdj,  near  Damascus; 
Bahr-el-Hulfli  ( Wateri  of  Merom),  near  the  Bonroes  of  the  Jordan  ; 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  E.  of  Galilee;  Dead  Sea  {Ai^ltites),  S.&.  of 
Palestine. 

Most  of  these  lakes  are  salt,  and  have  no  ontlet.  Late  Van,  the  largest, 
has  an  area  of  1200  aq.  miles i  elevation  above  the  sea,  5W  feet;  ita 
waters  are  s^t ;  it  contains  ma^  islands,  and  the  only  llehery  in  it  is 
that  of  a  kind  of  sardines.    The  Loie  of  Tiberiiu,  or  Sea  of  GalUee,  is  tha 
most  interesthig;  sheet  of  water  in  the  world,  [h>ni  having  been  so  often 
navigated  by  the  Saviour  and  the  fishermen  ot  Galilee  whom  He  chose  to  ^ 
be  His  Apostles  :  here  He  walked  on  the  billowe,  and  here  He  stilled  th*  I 
winde  andUie  wavei  -  while  on  its  western  shore  stood  most  of  the  towns  d 
which  He  frequented  durinE  His  mhiirtry— as  Tiberias,  Bethaaida,  Chor*  9 
■  till,  and  CapeluBDm  :  the  lake  ia  traveraed  by  the  Jordan  iro:a  S.  to  B.:  '1 
—  ,ters  are  fresh,  and  teem  with  fish  ;  and  it  has  now  been  ascertained  I 
a  surface  is  053  feet  beldw  the  level  of  the  Mediteironean.    Th«  1 
_  Sia  or  L]^e  A^haltitaa— area  360  sq.  milee— ia  also  very  remuk>  I 
e  as  being  the  saltest  body  of  water  known,  with  the  eiception  oC-fl 
"  ' '    Asia  Minor  ;  and  as  occupjing  the  epot  where  once  stood  thk  9 
I  of  the  plain,  Sodom,  Gomorrhs,  Admoh,  and  Zelmim:  th^ 
_.._  _. .  BO  intensely  salt  that  no  living  creature  can  live  in  them,  fl(_^ 
Ebnoyont  tiiat  men  bathing  in  them  find  themselTes  floated  like  oorlc  ■! 


a  BDullnJakB  hare  previonilf . 


36G  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

GUxnate,  cold  and  humid  in  the  monntainons  regions,  but  wami 
and  delightful  in  the  plains  and  valleys.  In  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan, especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  heat  of  summer 
is  excessive,  as  also  in  the  southern  portion  of  Mesopotamia.  In 
Palestine  and  along  the  Syrian  coast  rain  falls  at  intervals  firom  the 
middle  of  September  to  the  end  of  ApriL  During  the  dry  season  the 
sky  is  uniformly  clear,  and  the  night-dews  heavy.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Jerusalem  is  62°. 6»  summer  73*. 8,  and  winter  49°. 6. 
The  peaks  of  Mount  Ararat  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  as  also 
the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Lebanon  range. 

llinerals. — All  the  useful  metals  are  found  in  the  mountain-ranges. 
In  Armenia,  copper,  lead,  and  alum  occur,  and  some  silver  mines  are 
wrought ;  rock-salt  is  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and  mineral 
waters  abound.  In  Asia  Minor,  copner,  silver,  lead,  alum,  nitre,  and 
rock-salt.  In  Syria,  iron,  coal,  and  limestone.  Palestine  is,  in  gene- 
ral, of  a  hard  contorted  limestone  formation,  abounding  in  immem$e 
cravems.  Oolitic  limestones  and  indurated  chalk  prevail  west  of  the 
Jordan.     Rock-salt  abounds  near  the  Dead  Sea. 

Botany.  —  The  whole  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  with  the  exception  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Kurdistan,  is  included  within  Schouw  s  third 
phyto-geographic  region,  otherwise  called  the  Mediterranean  Region, 
the  characteristic  vegetation  of  which  is  noticed  under  **  Europe," 
par.  17.  The  flora  of  Armenia  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  Tyrol 
and  Switzerland.  That  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  the  west  and  south 
of  Anatolia,  is  extremely  beautiful,  and  will  bear  comparison  with 
the  vegetation  of  Sicily  and  Spain.  This  is  the  most  celebrated 
region  in  the  world  for  the  production  of  opium.  In  1867  Smyrna 
alone  exported  4000  chests  of  opium.  In  Syria,  the  olive,  fig,  citron, 
orange,  pomegranate,  and  vine,  are  especially  luxuriant  in  the  lower 
grounds;  while  natural  groves  of  sycamore,  mulberry  trees,  ever- 
green oaks,  cypresses,  and  cedars,  clothe  the  uplands.  Palestine  was 
that  '*good  land  "  which  God  chose  for  His  people,  and  is  celebrated 
as  *'aland  of  wheat  and  barley,  of  vines  and  fig-trees  and  pome- 
granates, a  land  of  oil  and  honey."  Mesopotamia  is  celebrated  for 
its  dates,  which  form  an  important  article  of  subsistence ;  and  large 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,  rice,  and  maize,  with  tobacco,  hemp,  flax, 
and  cotton,  are  produced. 

Zoology. — The  native  zoology  of  Asiatic  Turkey  does  not  present 
any  remarkable  species  that  are  not  equally  found  in  the  a4jacent 
extremities  of  Africa  and  Asia.  It  forms,  together  with  Persia,  the 
Transition  Province  of  the  second  zoological  kingdom  of  modem 
naturalists.  (See  under  "Asia,"  par.  18.)  The  lion,  once  so  com- 
mon, has  wholly  disappeared  from  the  countries  W.  of  the  Enphrates. 
In  Mesopotamia  occur  the  striped  hyena,  lynx,  panther,  buffalo,  and 
wild  boar ;  while  jackals,  bears,  wolves,  and  wild  hogs  are  met  with 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  leopard  is  still  found  in  the  interior  of  Pales- 
tine ;  the  Syrian  bear  in  Lebanon ;  the  hedgehogs  hare,  mole,  wolf, 
in  numerous  localities.    The  domestic  aninuJa  comprise  the  camdv 


— Three  diBtinct  raeea  of  people  are  found  in  Asiatic 
Turkuy— viz.,  the  Turkish,  Semitic,  and  Caucasian.  The  TurkUh 
race  includES  tlie  Osmanlee,  wlio  form  S-lOtlia  of  the  population  of 
Asia  Minor ;  and  the  Turcomans,  who  ate  verynnmeroQa  m  Mesopo- 
tamia and  tie  north  ot  Syria.  Both  these  trilies  speak  the  Turkish 
language,  and  profess  the  Mobamaedaii  faith.  Tu  the  Semiiic  rsco 
helong  the  stationary  Arabs,  who  constitute  the  majority  in  Svria, 
Palestine,  Arahistan,  and  Mesopotamia ;  and  the  Betlouins,  or  'W'an- 
dering  Arabs,  of  the  Syrian  Desert :  these  speak  the  Arabic  languaj^, 
and  are  followers  of  Mohammed.  The  Druses,  Maronites,  and  Ue- 
tualis,  in  Lebanon  and  Cmle-Syria,  are  also  regarded  as  of  Semitic 

f*n,  together  with  the  iNestoriaus  in  the  highlands  of  Eurdistan 
UesopoCamia,  who  are  Christians,  and  speak  the  Medom  Sjrinc  ; 
and,  lastly,  the  Jews,  who,  to  the  number  of  175,000,  are  scattered 
over  Syria,  Palestine,  oud  other  provinces.   The  Caiaaman  race  com- 

Srshends  the  Greeks,  who  form  a  large  traction  of  the  population  ot 
yria,  Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  helonii;  to  the  Greek  Church  : 
the  Armenians,  who  constitnte  about  l-7th  of  the  population  of 
I  Armenia,  speak  the  Armenian  langnage  (which  is  radically  connected 
with  the  Persian),  and  profess  a  oorrnpt  form  of  Chriatianity  ;  the 
!  Kurds,  who  are  generally  Mohammsdaoa,  with  a,  lan^age  reaem- 
I  bline  Modem  Persian ;  and  the  Yezidees,  or  Devil-worshippers,  in  the 
'    ~  jrtn  of  Mesopotamia. 


A.RABIA. 

Bonndaiies. — N.,  Turkey  in  Asia  ;  W.,  Arabistan ;  S.  and 
"  &E.,  the  Gnlf  of  Aden  aiid  the  Arabian  Sea  ;  E.,  the  Gulf  of 
Oninn  and  the  Persian  GulL      Lat.  12°  41/— 33"  N. ;    Ion. 
3S°  30"— 50°  49'  E. 

Muscat  (cap.  of  the  dominions  of  the  Imam  of  Muscat),  oa  tlie  eastern 
ftnntioT,  forming  the  key  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  situated  on  tbe  Tropio 
of  Cancer,  which  divides  Arabia  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  is  in  the 
■atae  lat.  as  Assouan,  Bhopal,  Burdwan,  Canton,  and  Havana  in  Cuba. 

Area,  and  Population. — The  area,  including  Arahistan,  is  estimated 
at  1,210,743  eq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  8,000,000.  Arabia  has, 
therefore,  ten  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles,  bnt  only  oae-sixth 
of  their  population.  The  extreme  length  of  the  peninsula,  from  Suez 
to  Bas-al-nad,  is  1800  m. ;  and  the  extreme  breadth,  from  the  Strait 
of  Bab-el-Mandeb  to  Cape  Muasendom,  neai'ly  1200  ra. 

Snilftoe  and  Honntalna. — This  immense  peninsnla,  the  Jajret-el- 
Arab  of  the  natives,  and  ArahisUm  of  the  Turks  and  Persians,  con- 
tia»  for  the  most  part  of  a  huge  plateau,  which  attains  in  some 


368  POLITICAL   6E0GRAPHT. 

places  the  height  of  8000  ft.  A  great  mountain-chain,  prolonged 
from  the  Syrian  Lebanon,  extends  along  the  entire  W.  coast  to  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  ;  and  another,  nearly  at  right-angles  with  it, 
skirts  the  S.  coast  to  the  province  of  Oman  :  here  the  Jebel-Akhdar, 
the  culminating  point  of  this  chain,  attains  the  elevation  of  6010  ft. 
Between  these  ranges  and  the  western  and  southern  coasts  runs  a 
narrow  belt  of  arid  lowland,  called  the  TeJvama^  extremely  unpro- 
ductive ;  but  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  between  this  belt  and  the 
plateau,  are  highly  fertile  and  richly  cultivated.  The  whole  interior 
IS  desert  and  hopelessly  barren,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small 
oases.  There  are  no  rivers,  properly  so  called,  in  Arabia ;  but  springs 
partly  supply  the  deficiency,  and  impart  to  the  oases  around  tnem  a 
surprising  degree  of  fertility. 

Political  Divisions.— Ptolemy  divided  the  country  into  Arabia 
Petraea,  in  the  N.W. ;  Arabia  Felix,  in  the  W.  and  S. ;  and  Arabia 
Deserta,  embracing  all  the  remainder  ;  but  this  partition  is  unknown 
to  the  inhabitants,  who  recognise  only  the  following  divisions : — 

Hadramaut. — Makalla  5,  Sbahr  6,  Aden  20  (S.  coast). 

Oman.— Muscat  60,  Muttra  20,  Sohar  9  (G.  of  Oman). 

Lachsa.— Lachsa  15,  (Aftan),  El  Katif  6,  Grane  10  (Persian  Gulf), 
Manama  5  (I.  Bahrein). 

Wahabite  Emfibb. — Riyad,  Deraieh  15  n.  (Aftan),  Anegfth  (N.W. 
of  Deraieh). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Ifakalla,  the  so-called  cap.  of  Hadiamant, 
has  a  good  harbour,  and  affords  supplies  to  ships  on  their  wa^  to 
India.  Aden,  about  100  m.  E.  of  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  is  a 
valuable  possession  of  Great  Britain,  as  it  forms  the  chief  coaling 
station  on  the  steamboat  passage  to  India.  It  was  captured  by  the 
British  from  the  native  Sultan  in  1839,  and  contains  now  aboat 
20,000  inhabitants,  including  a  garrison  of  2000  Indian  troops.  It,  is 
situated  on  the  crater  of  a  volcano,  123  feet  above  the  sea,  and  its 
fortifications  are  reckoned  impregnable.  Muscat,  a  fortified  maritime 
city,  capital  of  the  dominions  of  the  Imam,  who  is  the  most  powerftil 
sovereign  in  Arabia.  It  is  the  grand  commercial  emporium  or  eastern 
Arabia,  and  has  a  population  of  about  50,000.  Xnttra,  an  important 
town  with  shipbuilding  docks.  Sohar  has  a  considerable  trade  in  fraits. 
Lachsa,  or  Fouf,  is  well  watered,  and  surrounded  by  plantatioiis  of  date 
trees.  Slyad,  or  Biad,  cap.  of  the  country  of  the  Wanabees,  or  Moham- 
medan reformers,  is  situated  in  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  interior 
(called  the  Nejd),  and  is  well  watered. 

Gapes,  Islands,  and  Gulfs. — See  under  "  Asia." 

Climate.— The  climate  of  Arabia  is  exceptionally  ho^  uid  at  tiie 
same  time  the  driest  in  the  world.  The  year  is  diyided  into  three 
seasons — summer,  spring,  and  winter.  The  mean  anniul  tempjoratore 
of  the  entire  peninsula  is  reckoned  at  80*  Fahr. ;  that  of  Jaaiuxy 
from  60**  to  70° ;  and  that  of  July  from  90"  to  96*.  The  TAamOt 
or  coast  region  skirting  the  Bed  Sea,  ia  celebnted  ••  finmiiiff  paxt  of 
the  hottest  region  of  ttie  earth's  enr&ce.  In  the  elevatv<l  «-• 
however,  the  temperature  is  more  modenta.     T*^ 


ABABLA.  3G9 

hlrlndecl  in  the  ereat  rainleRa  lone  ivliiii  eKteai-  fmci  tbe  Atlantic, 
throDgli  the  Snhsra.  aoid  Egypt,  to  the  Pacifii;  Oeenn,  yet  in  the 
elevated  interior  rain  falls  copiooEly  far  three  months  in  the  year. 
The  rivere  are  aeldom  jierennial :  they  floit  only  in  winter,  irhile  in 
EQDuner  their  hed£  foiTn  the  only  roDiie  across  l^e  conntiy.  During 
the  intense  snmnier-heat,  the  hot  wind  of  tbe  desert,  called  the 
■imoom  or  Bamiel,  bluKS  troia  the  interior  io  all  directiaiifi. 

nnarals. — These  are  little  knoim,  lint  DotDprise  the  onpt,  emFtald, 
blue  alabaster,  granite,  UmeEitone,  basalt  and  other  volcanic  prodoc- 
tioitB  1  iron  in  Yemen;  alvei  and  lead  in  Oman;  rock-salt  near 
Lobeia  and  in  Beveral  other  localities. 

BDtany.— Tbe  S.W.  angle  of  Amtia  compriaea  Schonw's  "  Eegiou 
of  Balaamic  TreeE."  Here  the  TSgetation  ia  tropical,  tbe  greater  part 
eonaistiiig  of  tiiiliRn  fonuH,     Tbare  ar^  loany  treea  yielding  gmns  and 

palm,  cocoa-nut,  fig,  apricot,  peach,  plnin,  apple,  quince,  Tiiie, 
coffee-tree,  tamariud,  sugar-cane,  ginger,  cotton,  and  indigc  The 
entire  remainder  of  the  countiy  belongs  to  the  same  aathor's  "  Desert 
Eegitm."  Here  the  flora  is  very  poor,  and  cnltivotion  is  confined  to 
tbe  oases,  where  the  date-tree  comes  to  perfection.  Dhnrra,  ivheat, 
aud  liBTley  are  the  principal  imttivated  plants,  together  witli  certain 
Indian  and  S.  Eurojiean  fruits, 

ZoOlOgT. — Wild  onitnals  are  few  in  number,  on  account  of  the 
scarcity  of  wood  and  water.  The  princijial  beasts  of  prey  ara 
the  panther,  ounce,  and  hyena.  Apes  are  numerouB  in  Temcn. 
The  irild  asB  of  the  desert  is  noted  for  its  size  and  strength.  The 
ibex  inhshits  the  rocicy  heights,  the  antelope  the  plains,  and  the 
jerboa  and  lizard  the  barren  Bands.  Among  domestic  animals  tbe 
camel  of  Oman  is  celebrated  for  its  beauty,  and  the  dromedary  is  R 
nseful  beast  of  burden.  Tbe  boCBe.  which  baa  been  carefully  bred 
for  BBTetal  tboosauJ  years,  forms  an  important  branch  of  traflic 

EUmography. — The  people  ot  Arabia  are  a  very  mixed  race,  being 
partiv  descended  from  Ham  and  partly  from  Shem,  the  sous  of  Noali. 
Sam's  eldest  son  was  Cash,  and  the  Cusfaites  appear  to  hare  been 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Southern  Arabia,  from  wbicb  they  sent  out 
calDoies  across  tbe  Bed  Sea,  and  peopled  Ethiopia  (Abyssinia).  The 
deacendants  of  Sbem  are  principiJly  the  Joktanitea  or  Kachtanites, 
who,  according  to  tbe  Arabian  geographers,  settled  in  Yemen  soon 
ifier  tbe  confusion  of  tongaes  ;  the  lahmaelites,  who  settled  E.  and 
tS. EL  of  Palestine;  the  ^diaaites  and  AmalekiteE,  who  in  Moses' 
.    time  occupied  the  peninmla  of  Sinai ;  the  Edomites  and  Nabatheans, 

Sled  Idaniea.  and  hud  Petra  for  tbiir  capital :  the  NahoritcE, 
t  in  the  "  land  of  Ux ;  "  tiie  Moabite^  and  Ammonites,  wbo 
,iied  the  territory  E.  and  K.E.  of  tliB  Dead  Sea.     These  and 
T  oUiws,  whose  prwasfi  looalitipa  wnnot  now  be  datermiued,  came 
-   Mof  apet  tobe  tioronriiljramnlganjated,  and  tobe  known 
„«,!  Ja.i-~«^,„  -'*-»b»— a  people  whose  pbyaieal  and 
iglf  Mod  decidedly  marked.    In 


370  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Xihysical  confonnation  the  Arab  ranks  so  Mgh,  that  by  many  he  is 
regarded  as  furnishing  the  prototype  or  model  form  of  the  hnman 
species.  The  Arabs  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  nomads  or 
Bedouins,  who  lead  a  wandering  life,  as  the  exigencies  of  their  flocks 
require ;  and  the  settled  Arabs,  or  dwellers  in  towns  who  are  engaged 
in  commerce  and  agriculture. 

Language, — The  Arabic  language,  so  remarkable  for  its  copiousness 
aud  beauty,  is  the  most  important  representative  of  the  great  Semitic 
family  of  tongues  (see  "Asia,"  par.  19).  Its  roots  are  in  general  iden- 
tical with  those  of  the  Hebrew  ;  and  its  inflections,  though  greatly  more 
varied  and  numerous,  bear  to  that  language  the  closest  affinity.  It  is 
the  vernacular  language  not  only  of  Arabia,  but  also  of  Syria,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Egypt,  Nubia,  Northern  Barbary,  part  of  Persia,  and  some  places 
on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts.  It  is  also  extensively  used  as 
the  language  of  religion  and  commerce  wherever  the  Mohammedan  faith 
prevails ;  and  in  it  is  written  the  Kortto,  the  sacred  book  of  the  whole 
Alohammedan  world. 

J{eligion.—E\eT  since  the  time  of  Mohammed,  Islamism  has  been  the 
only  religion  known  in  Arabia.  It  has  completely  extirpated  the  Saba- 
isni  and  Judaism  which  had  previously  been  the  prevailing  forms  of 
worship. 

Qovemment. — The  Hedjaz,  Yemen,  and  Arabia  Petrsea,  are  nomi- 
nally subject  to  Turkey,  and  the  province  of  Oman  to  the  Imam  of 
Muscat,  who  maintains  a  military  force  of  20,000  men  and  a  Itu'ge 
navy.  The  island  of  Kishra  and  the  adjoining  coast  have  been  ced^ 
by  Muscat  to  Persia.  The  rest  of  the  country  is  shared  among  an 
uncertain  number  of  petty  states.  The  government  of  the  Bedouins 
is  strictly  patriarchal  in  each  of  the  numerous  tribes,  the  chief  power 
in  each  tribe  being  vested  in  a  chief  or  ahdkh,  whose  oflice  is  here- 
ditaiy,  but  who  may  be  deposed  by  an  ambitious  kinsman  i^  by 
tyranny  or  incapacity,  he  should  become  unpopular. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce. — The  former  are  at  a  lower  ebb 
than  in  any  other  semi-civilised  country.  The  leading  object  of  in- 
dustry is  the  raising  of  camels,  horses,  goats,  sheep,  &c ;  but  the 
women  weave  hair  tent-covers  and  bags.  In  Oman  are  made  silk 
and  cotton  turbans,  sashes,  woollen  and  hair  cloaks,  canvass,  arms, 
earthen  jars,  and  gunpowder.  In  the  western  and  southern  pro- 
vinces, coarse  linens,  woollen  fabrics,  rude  matchlocks  and  other 
arms,  are  manufactured  chiefly  by  foreigners.  The  pearl  fishery  of 
the  island  Bahrein,  on  the  coast  of  Lachsa,  is  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  valuable  in  the  world,  employing  150()  vessels,  and 
yielding  annually  pearls  to  the  value  of  about  £150,000.  The  tran- 
sit trade  of  Arabia,  though  gi'eatly  inferior  to  what  it  was  in  ancient 
times,  is  still  considerable ;  and  large  quantities  of  merchandise  are 
brought  by  caravans  and  by  sea  from  the  surrounding  countries, 
partly  for  home  consumption,  and  partly  for  sale  to  the  numerous 
pilgiims  who  resort  annually  to  Mecca  and  Medina.  The  Kuria 
Muria  islands,  which  belong  to  Great  Britain,  contain  rich  deposits 
of  guano. 


» 


I 

I 


Boundaries. — N.,  ■WestKm  Turkeatan,  the  Caqiian.  Sen, 
aiitl  Transcaucaaia  ;  W,,  Asiatic  Turkey  ;  S.,  Persian  Gulf ;  E., 
Biluchiatan  and  Afghanistan.  Lat.  26*  27'— 40°  N.  ;  Ion.  44°— 
61°  E.  Ispahan,  the  former  capital,  near  the  centre  of  the  kiTig- 
dnm,  is  in  the  same  ktittide  be  the  Bermudas,  llailtira,  Tripoli, 
Acre,  AmritaLr,  and  Nankin. 

Area  and  Fapolattoo. — The  area  is  estimated  at  648,000  sq.  m., 
mid  the  population  at  5,000,000.  Persia  is  therefore  six  timea  the 
size  of  Oritat  Britain,  with  only  one-fourth  its  popnltitian.  The 
populatiQii  is  believed  to  be  stestlily  declining  in  nmnborB,  owing  to 
the  ravages  of  the  plague,  the  general  ahsenee  of  sanitary  laws,  and 
the  results  of  poljgamy. 

Surfiioe. — The  central  portion  is  an  elevated  plateau,  about  3000 
ft  high,  and  is  traversed  by  niountain- ranges  which  in  many  placi 


Demavend,  18,4fi4  ft.),  form  its  northern  frontier ;  while  the  aouth- 
irestcm  and  southern  arefoiTned  by  the  Zaf^a  Mts.,  and  a  chain  mn- 
ning  from  them  in  a  S.  B,  direction,  parallel  to  the  Tigris,  skirting 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  finally  subsiding  in  the  great  platean  of  the 
interior.  Many  fertile  tracts  exist  in  the  W.  portion  of  this  elevated 
region,  as  also  on  the  shores  of  tlie  Caspian;  but  nearly  all  Eastern 
PeraB  is  an  ineclainiable  salt  desert,  forming  a  part  of  that  rainless 
and  sterile  zone  which  extends  from  the  great  African  desert  to  the 
frontiers  of  the  Chinese  empire. 
PoUtieal  DivlBlons. — Persia  eompriaea  the  following  fourteen  pio- 

ABTHABin. — Astrabad  6  (Caspian). 

M.^KANOBJiiN.- Saree  5,  Balfrnsh  5,  Amol  35  n.  (Caspian). 

Ghilas.— Keaht  50  n.,  Lahyan  7  (Caspianl. 

AZERBIJSN.— Tabriz  200  (Aii),  Urumiah   25  c,  Maragah  20  n., 
Dilmin  15  n.  (L.  Urumiah),  JQioi  30  (Kotura,  a#.  Kur). 

Pebsiab   Edbdibtak. — Kermandshah  30,  Sinna  25  ((#.   Kiiil 
Ouian). 

I.uaiBTAH.- Konmiabad  5  (Koon,  ajjl.  Sbrkhah). 

KnuziBTAS.- Shuster  B  (Kunm),  DLjful  15  |DizfLd).  Shus  or  Suia 
(Kerkhah). 

Farbistan.- Shiraz  25  (Hocknabad),  Persepilis  (Bnndamir),  Fasa 
IB,  Darabjelll  20  (8.E.  Shiran),  Bushira  18  (Persian  Gulf). 

LaribTan. — IiaTl2  n.,  Nackiloo,  Gombroon  6,  Josk  (Persian  Gulf). 

KfHlaTASABDW.  MEKKAS.*—Bunpoor (interior),  Chouhar(S.E. 
'Const). 

Kermas.— Eermau  30  (E.  L.  Rakhtegau). 

Yhzd.— Yeid  BO  (140  miles  N.  Kerman). 

*  Fonnuly  bel(Hjglii]f  to  BiJaebldUiu 


372  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Khorassan. — Meshed  100  (Tejend),  Nishapur  8  (W.  of  Meshed), 
Kabooshan  15  (Attruck). 

Ieak-Ajemi.— Teheran  80  n.  (Kehveh),  Kasbin  40  n.  (Kizil- 
Ouzan),  Zenjan  15  (Zenjan),  Hamadan  40  n.  (Kara-su),  Ispahan  60 
(Zendanid),  Khonsur  12  (N.W.  Ispahan),  Kashan'SO,  Koom  8  (S.W. 
Teheran). 

Descriptive  Notes. — ^Astrabad,  though  admirably  situated  for  com- 
merce, has  very  little  trade ;  it  is  so  unhealthy  as  to  be  generally  calleil 
''the  city  of  the  plague."  Balfrush  contams  numerous  bazaars  and 
caravanserais,  and  has  a  lai*ge  general  trade.  Besht,  a  well-built  town, 
with  extensive  bazaars.  Tabriz,  surrounded  by  ma^iificent  ^Etrdens,  is 
the  entrepot  of  the  trade  between  Persia,  Russia,  India,  Constantinople, 
and  the  Black  Sea.  Ununiah  claims  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster. 
Maragah,  noted  for  the  cave-temples  in  its  vicinity,  and  for  its  white 
marble,  which,  when  cut  thin,  is  capable  of  being  employed  as  a  substi- 
tute for  window-glass.  Ehoi,  one  of  the  finest  towns  in  Persia;  here 
Shah  Ismael  totally  defeated  the  Turks  in  1514.  Kermandshah,  a  pros- 
perous town,  with  manufactures  of  carpets,  swords,  and  muskets.  Suma, 
8  romantic,  flourishing  town,  in  a  deep,  secluded  valley,  filled  with 
orchards.  Shuster  was  nearly  depopulated  by  the  plague  in  1832.  Shu 
(Susa),  probably  the  Shushan  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  is  said  to  contain 
the  bones  of  that  prophet :  here  Alexander  and  his  generals  celebrated 
their  nuptials  with  the  Persian  princesses,  b.c.  825:  in  the  extensive 
ruins  around  are  found  bricks  and  pottery  with  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
Shiraz,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Persia,  is  the  birthplace  of  the  ramous 
poets  Saadi  and  Hafiz.  Persepolis,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Persian 
empire  :  here  Alexander  the  Great  found  immense  riches  on  his  journey 
eastward,  b.o.  331,  and  at  the  end  of  a  revel  set  fire  to  the  palace  with 
his  own  hand  :  numerous  tombs,  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  are  found  in 
the  adjoining  mountains,  and  the  ruins  of  the  city  are  rich  with  inscrip- 
tions in  the  arrow-headed  character.  Murghab  (Pasai^gadse) ;  here 
Cyrus  the  Great  gained  his  decisive  victory  over  Astyages,  B.C.  559 :  the 
ruins  contain  numerous  ancient  remains,  among  which  is  the  tomb  of 
Cyrus.  Bushire,  more  properly  Abu-Shehr  ("father  of  cities"),  is  the 
principal  seaport  of  Persia  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  maintains  an  exten- 
sive trade  with  British  India.  Lar,  formerly  capital  of  an  Arabian 
kingdom,  has  manufactures  of  arms,  gunpowder,  and  cotton  fabrics,  and 
the  finest  bazaar  in  Persia.  Nackiloo,  a  small  town,  busily  engaged  in 
the  pearl-fishery.  Kerman,  carries  on  a  trade  in  wool,  which  is  cele- 
brated for  its  fineness.  Yezd,  a  fortified  city,  contains  spacious  bazaars, 
and  has  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods.  Meihedy  in  a 
fertile  plain,  enclosed  by  strong  walls,  maintains  an  active  trade  with 
Bokhara,  Herat,  and  other  places.  Here  is  a  magnificent  mausoleum  of 
Imam  Beza,  and  of  the  celebrated  Haronn-al-Raschid,  caliph  of  Baghdad, 
whose  reign  was  the  Augustan  era  of  the  Arabian  domimoiis.  He  mt 
contemporary  with  Charlemagne,  and  died  in  809.  Hlihapiir,  celebrated 
for  its  turquoises,  obtained  from  mines  in  the  vicinity.  TOuna,  aaper- 
seded  Ispahan  as  the  capital  of  Persia  in  1798.  It  conaists  of  spleiidid 
edifices  and  magnificent  gardens,  intermingled  with  wretched  mud-built 
huts.  In  summer  the  heat  is  so  intense  that  the  Shah,  and  all  who 
have  the  means,  desert  the  city,  and  encamp  on  the  pjain  of  Sultanla, 
about  150  miles  to  the  N.W.  of  it.  About  25  mflei.IL  of  Tehsran  an 
the  extensive  ruins  of  Bhag^,  the  capital  of  the  Ftarthiaa  kisgi^  andtiw 
most  important  city  in  Media^  the  contemponuy  of  Nineveh  and  Bobat- 


I 


ana,  anil  t1ie  birtbplace  of  Daroun-al-Raacliid.  Sasbla,  h  larga,  fortj- 
fled,  and  commercial  city,  90  miles  N.W.  of  TeLeran,  celebrated  for  ita 
gropes  and  pistachio  nuts.  Hnmadui,  the  ancient  Ecbataiis,  at  one  time 
tbs  capital  of  tba  Mediae  kingdom,  and  afterwards  (lie  snmmer  residence 
of  tbe  Persian  and  Parthian  kings.  It  is  tlie  Achmettia  of  tbe  Book  of 
Ezra,  and  contains  the  reputed  eepnlohre  of  Esther  and  Mordecai.  Ima- 
lian  (ABpadana),  one  of  the  most  important  cities  In  Persia,  of  which  it 
was  formerly  the  capital.  Under  Bliah  Abbas  the  Great,  who  died  in 
1627,  it  was  one  of  the  richoBt  and  moat  populona  cities  in  Asia ;  bnt 
dniiog  the  Afghan  invasion  In  the  eighteenth  centory  its  walls  were 
destroyed,  and  the  city  reduced  to  a  s^te  of  decay.  It  now  presentu  a 
jnelancholy  spectacle  of  deserted  halls,  mined  honsea,  and  neglected 
gardens.  It  has  nnmerous  nianafactures  of  woven  fabrics,  gold  and 
silver  wares,  fireanns,  sword-blades,  glass,  earthenware,  ic,  which  are 
Hported  to  India  and  most  ports  of  western  Asia.  Easliaii,  a  large 
town,  with  a  myal  palace  and  numerous  manufactures. 

Islands. — Karak,  N.W,  of  Bushire;  Kishm  or  Kishma,  and  Or- 
muz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 


Jishery  on  its  N.  coast.  Eu/tm  Is  the  largest  Is] 
ia  70  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  12  m.  ;  population  SOOO,  who 
■TO  chiefly  Araba.  Ormai  is  only  aharrenrock,  butimportantaa  having 
lieen  one  of  the  richest  commercial  einporia  in  the  East  when  in  the  pos- 
■essioii  of  tlie  Portuguese.  On  its  S.  coast  is  a  town  with  a  fort  and  a 
good  harbour.  This  was  once  a  large  and  splendid  city,  but  its  trade  is 
now  transferred  to  Gombroon. 

8eBS,  Bays,  and  BttBltB.— The  Cnttpian  Sea,  formiiig  a  part  of  the 
N.  frontier;  Persian  Gulf,  and  Gulf  of  Oman,  between  Peraia  and 
Arabia ;  Strait  of  Ormuz,  connecting  the  Persian  Gulf  witli  tbe  Gulf 
of  Ormuz. 

Konntalns. — For  the  Elbnrz  and  Zagros  ranges,  see  andec  "  Sur- 
face ;"  and  for  the  KiVKR  System,  under  "Biluchistan." 

Lakes. — Ummiali  in  Azerbijan  ;  Bakhtegan  aud  Maliluja  in  Far- 

I       Lake  Ummiab,  85  m.  long  and  26  m.  broad,  with  water  intensely  salt, 
I   and  incapable  of  support^g  any  of  the  higher  forms  aC  animal  life,  is 
fUraons  for  its  zoophytes. 

CUmate.— The  aliniate  of  Persia  presents  tho  greatest  extremes  of 
heat  and  oold.  In  the  interior  the  iummera  are  exceaaively  hot  and 
dry,  and  the  wintera  rigorously  cold,  Scarcely  any  rain  falls,  and 
trees  refuse  to  grow,  except  near  watercourses  fed  b;^  springs.  N,  of 
the  Elburz  Monntaina  the  climate  is  alinoat  tiopicsl  :  a  dry  and 
rainy  season  regularly  alternate  ;  and  vegetation  presents  a  luxuri- 
ance not  often  >eeD  in  much  lower  latitudes.  The  district  lying  be- 
tween the  table-laad  and  the  Persian  Golf  is  burnt  up  in  sumnier 
with  a  scorching  heat.  It  ia  called  the  JhAllMan,  and  ^rreatly  re- 
I  •emblea  tbe  TtJiama  of  Arabia.  The  scsrci^  of  water  is,  indeed, 
'le  greatest  disadvantage  un4er  which  Persia  lies, 

—Coppu  in  the  H.  provinces;  lend  in  Fnrsand  Kermaui 


374:  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

rock-salt,  coal,  iron,  naphtha,  in  many  places.  The  most  celebrated 
minerals  of  Persia  are  the  turquoise  or  calaite,  found  at  Nishapur, 
and  the  fine  white  marble  of  Maragah,  so  translucent  as  to  be  em- 
ployed  in  windows. 

Botany. — The  interior  is  chiefly  a  desert,  devoid  of  vegetation, 
except  in  the  oases,  where  the  date-tree  attains  unusual  luxuriance. 
The  principal  forests  are  confined  to  the  lowland  region  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Elburz  Mountains,  where  are  found  the  oak,  beech, 
elm,  walnut,  box,  cypress,  cedar,  &c.  Here  also  the  orange,  melon, 
l)omegranate,  cotton  plant,  mulberrv,  sugar-cane,  and  vine  come  to 
perfection.  The  grains  raised  are  nee,  barley,  and  wheat ;  and  the 
principal  other  products  are  tobacco,  opium,  assafcetida,  gum-am- 
moniac, and  other  drugs,  with  madder,  gall-nuts,  &c. 

Zoology. — Persia  belongs  zoologically  to  the  Tittnsition  Province  of 
continental  Asia,  a  province  which  forms  a  connecting  link  between 
the  three  zoological  kingdoms  of  the  Old  "World  (p.  67).  Among 
the  V  wild  animals  are  the  lion,  leopard,  bear,  panther,  wild-boar, 
tiger-cat,  lynx,  hyena,  wolf,  jackal,  porcupine,  and  the  booz  or 
mountain  goat.  Domestic  animals  include  most  of  the  species  com- 
mon in  Europe,  with  the  camel  and  argali  sheep.  The  horses  are 
very  superior,  and,  with  cattle  and  sheep,  compose  the  principal 
wealth  of  the  wandering  tribes. 

Etlmography. — The  population  is  very  mixed  :  that  of  the  towns 
and  settled  districts  is  a  race  descended  from  Persians,  Turks,  Tar- 
tars, Georgians,  Armenians,  Arabs,  and  all  the  other  nations  who 
have  at  different  periods  held  sway  in  the  country.  The  Parsees, 
who  appear  to  preserve  more  fully  than  the  rest  their  purity  of  de- 
scent from  the  ancient  Persians,  are  now  nearly  confined  to  the  city 
of  Yezd  and  some  towns  in  Kerman.  The  nomadic  tribes  consist  of 
Arabs  in  the  S.,  Turcomans,  Moguls,  Ezbeks  in  the  E.  and  N.E., 
and  Kurds  in  the  W.  The  settled  tribes,  who  may  be  regarded  as  in 
general  the  descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants,  are  csdled  Tajiks, 
and  probably  number  about  3,000,000;  while  the  wandering  popula- 
tion are  designated  Ilyats,  and  do  not  exceed  2,000,000. 

The  Langtuwes  are  as  numerous  as  the  races  by  whom  the  country  is 
peopled,  but  those  most  predominant  are  the  Persian  and  Turkish.  The 
latter  prevails  in  the  northern  and  western  provinces ;  but  even  here  tlie 
natives  are  also  acquainted  with  Persian,  which  is  invariably  the  verna- 
cular of  the  Tajiks  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  origin  of  the  Per- 
sian dates  from  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs  in  tne  seventh  century.  Prior 
to  that  period  various  idioms  prevailed  throughout  the  Persian  empire, 
of  which  the  principal  were  the  Pehlvi,  the  Farsi  or  Parsi,  and  the  Deri. 
The  Pehlvi  was  closely  allied  to  Chaldee,  and  was  the  dialect  of  Media  ; 
while  the  Parsi,  together  with  its  polished  court-dialect  the  Deri,  was  the 
language  of  Persia  proper.  But  the  primitive  type  of  the  whole  group 
is  undoubtedly  the  Zend,  a  language  closely  allied  to  the  Sanscrit.  The 
Persian  is  remarkable  for  its  softness  and  harmony,  which  admirably 
adapt  it  for  the  lighter  forms  of  poetry ;  and  it  ^ntains  numerous 
works  both  in  literature  and  science.  Of  the  numerous  poets  who  have 
adorned  the  language,  Fird(![sf,  Ansaii,  Anwa^,  and  especially  Saadl  and 


AFGHAKIS 


375 


HAGz,  nEitives  o!  Shiniz,  a 
partraent  of  hiatoiy  it 
aaj  age  or  peapla,  f 


I 


e  tlie  best  known  ia  Europeans.    In  the  ile- 
Bins  many  works  which  would  do  lioiiiiur  to 

__,       J..         ^  those  of  Mirkliond,  Tnharl,  Abn-Said-Abdullili, 

■od  Mohamiued  Ktisim  Femlit£.    The  works  on  etliics,  theology,  and 
jnriHpmdenca  are  very  numerous,  and  those  oa  grammar  are  of  a  supe- 

Jteliffion. — The  Tajiks  are  Mohanimedana  of  the  Sheah  sect,  wlio  reject 
the  Buthonty  of  the  ttrst  three  caliphs.  Tlie  Ilyata,  on  the  contrary,  are 
of  the  Sunuite  sect :  while  the  Farseea  or  Guebrea  are  Dre-worBhippera. 

The  Ooreniment  is  despotic  :  the  soTereign,  who  ia  called  the 
Shah,  is  Bsaisted  by  a  grand-viijer,  who  esercises  control  over  tlie 
military  aDd  foreign  departments  ;  and  by  a  lord  high  treasurer,  nho 
BuperinteDds  the  I'evenue  and  home  arrangements.  The  chiefs  of  the 
nomadic  tribes,  who  are  called  Sheiks,  are  nearly  independent.  The 
annual  Sevenut,  which  is  chiefly  derived  from  land  and  cupitatioii 
taxes,  custom  duties,  tribute  from  wandering  tribes,  &c,,  has  been 
estimated  at  about  £2,000,000  steriing.  The  Armed  Force,  which 
is  vet?  variable  in  amount,  has  been  recently  estimated  at  10&,000 
men,  many  o!  whom  bare  received  European  discipline. 

MatmftotnTBB  tuid  Commerce. —The  principal  manufactures  are 
silk  fslirics  of  all  kinds  (which,  since  1863,  have  greatly  fallen  off, 
owitig  to  disease  among  the  silkworms),  jewellery,  attar'^f  roses  ;  and 
in  the  pnnci[>al  cities,  shawls  of  goats'  hair,  carpets,  felta,  cotton 
cloths,  cutlery,  and  arms,  gloss,  ])ottery,  leather,  and  saddlery.  The 
commerce  of  Persia  is  extensive,  nohrithstanding  the  absence  of 
roads.  It  ia  cliieSy  carried  on  with  Russia  by  tiia  Caspian  ;  and 
with  British  India  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  chief  eiporta 
■TO  the  native  products  already  enumerated,  together  with  copper 
wares,  ssOron,  specie,  skins,  and  sabres.  Imports  comprise  indigo, 
calicoes,  sugar,  rhnharb,  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones,  tmm 
India,  and  a  variety  of  manufactured  goods  from  Europe.  The 
annual  value  of  exports  and  imports  toother  amounts  to  about 
£4,000,000,  The  principal  ports  are  Bashire  and  Gombroon  on  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  Enzeli,  Bnlfnish,  and  Astrabad,  no  the  Caspian. 
The  maritime  traffic  on  the  Caspian  is  entirely  in  tlie  hands  ol  the 
linssians,  while  that  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is  shared  in  by  the  English 
and  the  Sultan  of  Muscat. 


AFGHANISTAN. 

Sonndaries.  —  N.,  Weatem  Tnrkestan  ;  W.,  Persia;  S., 
Biluchifltan  ;  E.,  the  Ponjab,  from  which  it  is  separateci  br  the 
Bulinian  Mountains.  LaL  29°  60'— 34°  Sff  N. ;  Ion.  62° — 71°  E. 
Kandahar,  near  the  centre  of  the  Qountry,  is  nearly  in  the  eanie 
latitude  witli  Austin  the  capital  of  Texas,  Savannah,  Maiocco, 
Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  Lalitlr,  and  ShaDi>hae. 


376  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimated  at  258,500  sq.  m., 
and  the  population  at  4,000,000;  or  twice  the  area  of  the  British 
Isles,  with  less  than  one-seventh  of  their  population. 

Siirfoce. — Four-fifths  of  the  country  consist  of  rocks  and  moun- 
tains ;  the  S.W.  is  a  desert,  with  an  elevation  of  from  3000  to  5000 
ft.,  resembling  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  but  among  the  mountains  there 
are  many  fertile  valleys.  The  Suliman  Mountains,  on  the  eastern 
frontier,  separating  Afghanistan  from  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  attain 
in  Takht-i-Suliman  ("Solomon's  Throne")  an  altitude  of  11,801  ft. 
(see  under  "Asia,"  p.  349). 

Political  Divisions. — These  are  five  in  number — ^viz.,  Kabul, 
Balkh,  Herat,  Kandahar,  and  Seistan. 

Kabul.— Kabul  60,  Jelalabad  3  (Kabul,  affl.  Indus),  Charikar  5, 
Istalif  15  [affl,  Kabul),  Ghuznee  10  (Ghuznee),  Bamian  (in  the  Bam- 
ian  Pass). 

Balkh.— Balkh  2  (Adersieh),  Khulum  or  Tash-Kurghan  10  (Khu- 
lum,  affil,  Amu-Daria). 

Herat. — Herat  60  (Heri-rood),  Subzawur  5  (Haroot,  affl.  Lake 
Seistan). 

Kandahar. — Kandahar  100  (Urghandab,  affl.  Helmund). 

Seistan. — Now  mainly  belongs  to  Persia ;  no  towna 

Descriptive  Notes. — Kabul  or  Cabool  is  celebrated  above  all  other 
cities  for  its  excellent  fruits.  It  has  an  extensive  transit  trade  between 
Bussia,  China,  Turkestan,  and  India,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  treacher- 
ous outbreak  of  the  chiefs  in  1842,  when  3800  British  soldiers  and  12,000 
camp-followers  were  massacred.  Jelalabad,  famous  for  the  heroic  and 
successful  resistance  made  by  the  British  troops  under  Sir  R.  Sale  in 
1841-2.  Ghuznee,  a  famous  city,  surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall  flanked  with 
numerous  towers,  is  the  entrepdt  of  the  trade  between  Afghanistan  and 
the  Panjab.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  it  was  the  capital 
of  an  empire  reaching  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Tigris,  and  from  the  Jaxar- 
tes  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Bamian,  in  the  celebrated  pass  which  leads 
from  Afghanistan  to  Independent  Turkestan — the  only  known  pass  across 
the  Hindu  Kush  practicable  for  artillery.  Balkh,  capital  of  a  province 
of  same  name  (the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bactria),  now  forming  a  part  of 
Afghanistan.  It  was  anciently  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of  the 
East,  and  the  emporium  of  the  trade  between  India,  China,  and  Western 
Asia.  On  account  of  its  high  antiquity  it  is  styled  the  "  mother  of  cities.  ** 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  cover  20  m.  in  circumference.  Herat,  long 
the  capital  of  the  extensive  empire  ruled  by  the  descendants  of  Timur,  is 
still  a  post  of  great  military  and  commercial  importance.  It  is  the  centre 
of  a  great  trade  between  India,  China,  Tartary,  Afghanistan,  and  Persia, 
and  has  several  manufactures.  It  is  regarded  as  the  key  of  India  from 
the  west,  and  has  alternately  belonged  to  Persia  and  Kabul.  Kandahar, 
a  fortified  city,  and  the  winter  residence  of  the  Khan,  has  various  manu- 
factures, and  a  considerable  transit  trade  between  India  and  Persia  It 
is  very  ancient,  having  been  probably  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
It  was  taken  by  Tamerlane  in  1384,  by  Shah  Abbas  of  Persia  in  3-620,  and 
was  held  by  the  English  from  1839  to  1842. 

LaJses. — Seistan  or  Hamon  in  the  west,  and  Ab-istada  in  the  east 


AFGHAN' 1ST  AX. 


r.77 


I 


I 


Olimste.— Tlie  summer  heat  is  oveipoweriug  in  ths  valleys  sud 
lower  levels.  The  soona  of  winter  lie  long  uad  deep  iu  the  uiouii- 
tainims  parts,  and  the  cold  is  reiy  iotense.  This  was  the  mnin. 
cansfl  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Anglo-Indian  army  during  their  diaaa- 
trona  nitreat  in  January  1842.  Suarcolj'  any  rain  falls  in  the  ncMiirn 
pirt  of  the  country,  where  the  climata  gr™tly  rescmhles  that  of 

HIseralB, — Gold,  silver,  mercury,  iron,  lead,  plumhago,  copper, 
antimony,  coal,  sulphur,  naphtha,  niiim,  and  rock-salt. 

Botany. — Vast  regions  are  utterly  desert  and  timber  is  generally 
scitrce.  The  most  common  trees  are  pines  of  various  species,  extend- 
iog  on  the  inoantaiu-aides  to  an  elevation  of  10,000  ft.  The  cypress 
attains  a  gigantic  size,  and  the  oak  and  wild  olive  are  found  at  great 
heights.  The  vegetation  of  the  nplands  resembles,  in  general,  that 
oF  Lurope  :  and  that  of  the  lowlands  the  flom  aud  cultivated  plants 
o(  India,  as  rice,  cotton,  sugar-caue,  millet,  muiie,  and  turmeric. 

Zoology- — The  fauna  of  AfKlmiiistjiu  belongs  to  the  Transition 
pTorinca  of  modem  zoologistn  (p.  67).  The  wild  animals  are  neither 
numerous  nor  very  fomddable,  with  the  exception  of  volres  and  a 
small  species  of  lion  found  near  Kabul  Birda  comjirise  the  eauW 
hawk,  heron,  crane,  and  many  other  Europeaji  species.  The  prin- 
cipal reptiles  are  turtles  and  venomous  serponts.  The  Bactriaji  or 
two-hnmped  camel  and  dromedary  are  the  usual  beasts  of  burilfq, 
while  other  domestic  animals  conipriae  the  ass,  male,  goat,  dog.  and 
cat.  The  sheep  is  remarliable  for  the  size  of  its  tail,  consisting  of  a 
mass  of  pure  fat,  and  weighing  from  10  to  12  Ih. 

Ethnosraphy.  —  The  Afghans,  or  Pushtaneh,  as  they  clesiguata 
tliemselves,  are  a  warlike,  semi-barbarons  peovle,  and  probably  the 
aborigines  of  the  country.  They  are  descended  Ironi  an  snci<-ut: 
Aryan  race,  and  are  allied  to  the  Irauiaos  or  Persians.  The  I'uilitoo 
iangnage  forma  an  important  brani'h  of  the  Medo-Persie  group  of 
toiigacs,  which  is  itself  a  member  of  the  Indo-Enrnpean  fitniily. 
Many  of  its  roots  are  Peraian.  some  can  be  traced  to  the  Zend  auil 
Pehlvt,  while  others  are  from  an  unknown  source.  Grammatically 
it  more  resembles  the  Zend  than  the  Persian.  It  ia  a  harsh,  impul- 
ished  tongoe,  strongly  contrasting  with  the  soft  mnsical  language  of 
Persia.  The  Pnshtaneh  number  about  3,000,000,  and  are  ail  JIo- 
hammedana  of  the  Sonnite  sect.  The  other  principal  tribes  are  the 
HuzHi-ehs,  inhabiting  the  wild  highlands  of  the  north,  of  Tartar  or 
Mongolian  descent,  greatly  reseinhling  the  Cliinese  in  nppearnnce, 
and  generally  Mohammedans  of  the  sect  of  Ali ;  the  Tajiks  and 
Duranis  in  the  west,  Hindus  in  the  south,  and  Einiauks,  Uzbeks, 
and  Biluchees,  amounting  together  to  upwards  of  a  million, 
Oavemment. — The  gavemment  of  Afghanistan  was  formerly  a 
'  y,  the  crown  being  hereditary  in  a  branch  of  the  Durani 
e  of  the  four  principal  branches  into  vhich  tliS  Pushlnneh 
ed  ;  hut  the  country  is  now  divided  into  four  separate  au-i 


378  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

independent  principalities — viz.,  those  of  Kabul,  Kandahar,  Herat, 
and  Balkh.  Seistan  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  petty  chiefships, 
most  of  which  now  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Persia,  The  whole 
Afghan  force,  which  is  chieily  cavalry,  amounts  to  about  16,000  men, 
and  the  combined  revenue  to  about  half  a  million  sterling. 

Manufacture!  and  Commerce. — The  manufactures  are  unimport- 
ant, and  confined  chiefly  to  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  transit  trade  is  considerable,  and  carried  on  by 
means  of  camels  and  dromedaries,  formed  into  caravans,  as  the  roads 
are  not  adapted  to  wheeled  carriages.  The  principal  foreign  trade  is 
conducted  with  India,  Persia,  and  Turkestan.  The  chief  exports 
consist  of  horses  (which  are  reared  in  great  numbers  and  transported 
to  India),  furs,  shawls,  chintz,  indigo,  madder,  assafoetida,  tobacco, 
fruits,  and  Herat  carpets.  The  imports  are  numerous,  comprising 
coarse  cotton  cloths,  muslins,  silks,  brocades,  horses,  ^old,  silver, 
broadcloth,  cutlery,  and  slaves  from  Arabia  and  Abyssinia. 


BILUCHISTAN. 

Boundaries. — N.,  Afghanistan ;  W.,  Persia ;  S.,  the  Arabian 
Sea,  along  which  it  extends  for  600  m. ;  and  E.,  Sindh.  Lat., 
24°  50'— 30°  2(y  N. ;  Ion.,  62"  40'— 69°  18'  E.     Kelat,  the  cap. 

5 at.  28°  50'),  is  on  the  same  parallel  Math  the  mouth  of  the 
[ississippi,  the  Peak  of  TeneriSOfe,  Suez,  Bushire,  and  Delhi 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimated  at  110,000  sq.  m., 
the  population  at  1,000,000;  being  one-fourth  larger  than  the  British 
Isles,  with  only  one-fifteenth  of  their  population. 

Surfoce. — Nearly  the  whole  country  is  mountainous,  rugged,  and 
elevated,  except  in  the  N,  W.  and  along  the  coast ;  and  water  is  de- 
ficient, being  absorbed  by  the  deserts.  The  region  along  the  S.  coast 
is  termed  the  desert  of  Makran,  which  resembles  the  Tehama  of 
Arabia  and  the  Duhtistan  of  Persia.  The  Washutee  Mountains,  in 
the  centre,  attain  in  Takkatu,  one  of  their  summits,  an  elevation  of 
11,000  ft. ;  and  the  Hala  Mountains,  between  it  and  Sindh,  reach 
the  same  altitude. 

Political  Divlaions. — ^Biluchistan  now  consists  of  six  provinces — 
viz.,  Kachh-Gundava  in  the  N.E. ;  Sarawan,  W.  of  Kachh-Gundava; 
Kelat,  S.E.  of  Sarawan  ;  Jhalawan,  S.  of  Kelat ;  Los,  in  the  S.E.; 
and  Kedji  Makran,  in  the  S.W. 

Towns. — Kelat  12  n.,  Zehree  12  n.,  Gundava  20  n.  (OcpidaTa,  e^ 
Indus),  Dadur  3  (Naree),  Sonmeanee  2,  Bela  6  (Puralli),  Sftrawttl 

3  (Bale),  Kedje  10,  Punjgu  (Dasti). 


BiLUcniSTAN.  d<9 

DescriptiTO  Notes,— Kalit,  a,  Btrongl)--fortiliea  town  surrounded  bj- 
mountains,  and  well  supplieil  witli  vnteT,  ws«  tha  atronghold  of  Nadir 
Blmh.  In  1839,  and  again  in  1841,  it  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the 
Biitiali.  It  has  a  consider'aljle  transit  trade,  with  some  maaufactanis  of 
anus.  Dadur,  near  the  S.E.  entrance  of  the  celehrnted  Bolan  Pass— one 
of  Uie  cliief  roada  Cram  India  to  tlia  west— is  said  to  be  one  of  the  hottest 
places  known.  Bela,  the  capital  of  Ln3,  is  huilt  of  mud-houses.  Son- 
vuanea;  ueor  it  is  the  eelelirated  mud-voleano  of  Hioglaj.  Saiawaji, 
capital  of  province  of  itame  name,  a  emaL  town  aurrounded  by  a  mud- 
vall,  ia  a  harreii  district,  EutjB,  the  capital  of  Makran,  once  a  place  of 
considerable  importance,  ia  now  greatly  daoayed.  Bnnpw,  capital  of 
Kohiatan,  a  einoU  ill-built  town,  in  a  sterile  region,  and  defended  by  a 
I    fort,  belonga  iiow  to  Persia. 


Winter.  Snow  falla  from  Oiitobsr  to  the  end  of  Febiuary,  and  in 
some  places  remains  on  the  groaud  for  two  months,  in  the  plaiua 
•nil  vallejH  the  licat  in  summer  is  oppreaaive.  In  February  and 
March  a  good  deal  of  rain  falls  ;  and  fram  the  latter  month  to  Sep- 


tember is  the  dry  b< 


I 


le  mineral  irealth  of  tlie  country  ia  considerable,  !□- 
eluding  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  copper,  tin,  antitnany,  sulphur,  alum, 
ial-ammoniac,  and  many  kinds  of  mineral  salts  aud  saltpetre,  but  it 
is  not  torned  to  auy  practical  accoant. 

Botasr, — The  country  belongs,  botanioally,  to  Schouw's  "  Region 
of  Balsamic  Trees,"  in  which  tha  vegetation  is  of  a  trojiical  character, 
inolnding  trees  yielding  gums  and  balsamic  resins  (p.  SG).  The  oak, 
asb,  ftr,  and  other  trees  common  in  Europe,  are  unknown.  In  the 
low  and  watered  plains  of  tha  !N.  E.  are  grown  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  to- 
Imcco,  sugar-cane.  Rhubarb  and  the  assaftetida  plant  (the  latter  of 
which  ia  eaten  by  the  inhabitants)  abound  in  some  districts,  while  on 
tile  mountain -sides  the  tamarisk  and  babul  attain  the  size  of  large 

Zoolosy,— TI18  fauna  of  Biluchiatan  closely  resembles  that  of  Persia, 
lioth  being  embraced  in  the  Transition  Province  of  naturalists.  Wild 
animals  are  namerous,  especially  leopards,  wolveB,  hyenas,  jaciala, 
tiger-cats,  and  foxes;  but,  except  on  the  eastern  frontier,  lions  and 
tigers  are  rarely  seen.  There  arc  also  wild  dogs,  wild  asses,  ante- 
lopes, deer,  baics,  mongooses,  mountain -goats,  and  wild  hogs,  with 
various  kinds  of  monkeys.  Tlic  other  animals,  wild  and  domestic, 
are  for  the  most  part  the  samu  as  those  of  Afghanistan. 

Ettmograplir.— Two  raises  of  people  are  found  Id  Bilochistan— the 

liiUicheea  and  Brahua.     The  former,  inhabiting  the  westtm  part  of 

the  counCrj',  are  a  rudo,  nomadic,  pftstDral  people,  supposed  to  have 

sprung  from  tha  Seljukian  Turk*.     The;  are  Mohammedans  of  the 

Riiuuite  sect,  and  speak  D  Verv  turmpt  dialect  of  the  Persian,  termtid 

I   Biluoliee,  which  contains  no  Iittiniture,  save  a  jiortion  ol  the  Scrip- 

I  tiires  IranalsteJ  into  it  by  ihe  Scrampot-o  misaionariaa.     The  Bralms 

X  inhabit  chiefly  the  eununi  prol^hMii,  uii'l  are  moat  i 


380 


POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Jhalawan.  Like  the  Biluchees,  they  are  a  pastoral  people,  but  less 
addicted  to  rapine  and  predatory  violence  ;  they  speak  a  language  of 
Dravidian  structure,  allied  to  those  of  the  Dakhan,  but  hitherto  not 
reduced  to  writing.     They  are  Mohammedans  of  the  sect  of  Omar. 

Ooyeminent. — The  eastern  provinces  are  under  the  uncertain  au- 
thority of  the  Khan  of  Kelat ;  the  remainder  being  held  by  tribes 
who  acknowledge  no  subjection  except  to  their  own  chiefs.  His 
armed  force  amounts  to  8000  men,  and  his  revenue  to  £30,000.  A 
large  portion  of  the  S.  &  W.,  including  the  seaport  town  of  Choubar, 
belongs  now  to  Persia. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  Biluchistan  is  usually  conducted  by 
means  of  caravans,  and  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  Hindus. 
Sonmeanee  and  Choubar  are  the  only  seaports — the  latter  now  be- 
longing to  Muscat.  Agriculture  is  not  much  pursued,  but  the  Brahus 
rear  large  numbers  of  goats  and  black  cattle.  The  principal  exports 
are  butter  of  ghee,  hides,  wool,  drugs,  dried  fruit,  fish,  com,  and 
vegetable  oil ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  British  and  Indian  manu- 
factured goods,  rice,  spices,  dye-stuffs,  and  slaves  (for  Muscat). 

Table  of  Rivers  and  Towns. — The  following  table  contains  the 
river-system  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Biluchistan,  and 
shows  the  natural  position  of  all  the  towns  belonging  to  those  coun- 
tries contained  in  this  work,  commencing  at  the  S.E.  angle  of  the 
Black  Sea,  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  then  following  the 
coast : — 


Rivers.  Cities  and  Towns. 

N.Co.  TrebizondjRizah,  Trebizond. 
YesbQ  Irmak,...Ainasia,    Tukat,    Mar- 

sivan. 
Kizil  Irmak, ..  ..Eankari,  Kaisarieh,  n., 

SiVAS. 

Kara  Su,  I .. .. Kastamnni. 
Devrek,  I Tosia. 

N.  Co.  Anatolia,  Sinope,  Eregri. 

Sakaria, Kutaya. 

Murtadabad,    Angoiu. 

Bosporus, Scutari. 

Sea  of  Marmora,  Brusa,  Muhalitch,  n. 

W.  Co.  Anatolia,  Smyrna,  Scala  Nova. 

Kodus, ManisRa. 

Phrygius, AkHissar  (Tkyatira). 

Cogaraus,  I.. . .  Alia  Shehr. 

Mendereh, Aidin,  KarvHissar,  n. 

S.  Co.  Adana,.  ..Jltoya. 

Cydnus, Tarsus. 

Sihoon, Adana. 

Jyhoon, Marash. 

0.ofIskenderun,/«Arenderun,  BeHan. 

Asy  or  Orontes,  Antaki  LAntioeh),  Ha- 
niah.  Horns. 

Co.  of  Tripoli,  ..Latakia,  JebaU,  Tri- 
poli. 

Co.  of  Acre,  ....  Beirout,  Saida  (Sidon), 

Sur  (Tyre)y  Akka 
(Acre),  Kisarieh 
(Ccesarea). 


Rivers.  Cities  and  Totnis. 

Litany  or  Leon-  Tyre,  n.,  Baalbec. 

tes, 
Co.  of  Gaza,  . .  ..Jaffa  (Joppa),  Guzzeh 

(Gaza),  El  Arish. 
Jordan    (Dead    Eriha  (Jericho),  Tctba- 

Sea), ria  (Tiberias),  Pa- 

nea^  (Ccesarea  Phil- 
ippi),  n..  Hesbeiya. 

Kedron El  Khuds  [Jerusalem). 

Bnrada  or  Phar-  El  Sham  (DamofeiM), 
par,  8uk(Alnla). 

G.  of  Suez, Suez,  Tor. 

G.  of  Akalia, . . .  .Akaba  (EzionrOeber). 
E.Co.ofRedSea,F0ni&o,  Jiddah,  Mec- 
ca, n..  Mocha,  Tmub, 
n. 

G.  of  Aden, Aden. 

Co.    of    Hadra-MAKALLA,  Shahr, 
maut, 

G.  of  Oman, Muscat,   Mnttra,  So- 

har. 

Aftan, LAcnsA,  Deiaieb,  a. 

W.  Co.  of  Ter-El  Kat^,  QmD9. 
sian  Gulf, 

Euphrates, Baasomh,     Shnk-el- 

Shnynk,  HfUah  (l 

Koran,? Buuwis. 

l>ixfta,l«,..DiiftiL 


K<irl:liah,l....&7iuj, 

KaoD,  J KoBD 

I  ,    Clgris Bmid. 

I»y>l(ih^I...Sul9lmanu 


. ,  KiftitiytS. 


BtUk,! Itatiah.  B 

aijiir, ALntib,  Au 

KsroSu.QrW.Arab.Gir, 

'Bn!BaOulf.....Bu>ibln,Ni 

■■B.  niiictuatiui,'GhoubBr. 

Daslt, Kedje,  Pun 

FonlU SuDinunee 


INDIA,  OK  HINDUSTAN.* 

Of  the  three  great  peniaaulaa  in  which  Asia  temiinates  oa  the 
■outh,  India  forms  the  central  and  by  far  the  moet  important. 

Boimdaflea. — N.,  TiVet,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Himalay'a  Mountains;  W.,  Afglianistan',  Bilncliistan',  and  the 
Arabian  Sea;  S.,  the  Indian  Ocean;  £.,  Bay  of  Bengal'  and 
Birma.    Lat.  6°— 36"  N. ;  Iom.  66^°— aSJ  E. 

In  form  it  is  a  triangle,  Trhose  base  is  tiie  Himalayas,  tbe  loftiest 
moDatoibs  on  the  globe,  and  whcae  apsx  stretches  far  out  into  tlie  Indian 
Ocean.  Its  eoutliem  balf  lies  witliiu  Urn  torrid  mae :  Celcntta,  □□  tlia 
central  parallel,  and  only  uno  degree  Eonth  of  the  Tropio  of  Cancer,  b 
cearlv  in  tbe  same  latitude  as  C.  Blanco,  Mecca,  Moecat',  Baro'da,  Cau- 
totf,  Mazatlan',  and  Havan'a.  The  eonntiy  couaists  of  three  great  natu- 
ral divisions— vli.,  tbe  basiu  of  the  Gan'ges  In  the  north-eaati  the  basin 
of  the  In'dua  in  the  north-west;  and  tbe  Dali'han,  or  strictly  peninsular 
part,  fonniue  an  elevated  plateau  in  the  south. 

Arsa,  Popnlatian,  and  Political  Dlvlslona. — Including  Ceylon'  and 
the  British  possessions  in  Bir'nia,  tlie  area  is  eatiiuated  at  l,475,li>S 

S.  m.,  and  the  population  at  211,236,235  ;  or  twelve  times  the  ai-eu 
the  Biitish  Isles,  with  sovon  times  their  population.  The  valley 
of  the  Ganges  \a  the  most  densely  peopled  poition  (Oudh  474,  Beugid 
28*.  but  over  the  wholo  of  India  tlu-le  ai'i:  only  165  peisuns  tu  tli. 
gq.m. 

About  four-sevenths  of  this  Iniu!- ■ 
of  the  population,  arodiractly  sul;;  ■ 

are  about  liiS  small  native  slste?  .  '  ' 

protection.     Besides  these,  there  n:- 
Nepal'  and  Bhotan'.    The  foreibin    : 

extent;  those  of  the  Frundi  are  uii:  i. 

linger  in  a  few  spots,  the  aoontm    :  'i 

Danish  possessions  have  beconi«  <.  l 


rtlii>gr.iihyo( 


382  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

British  Possessions. — Britisli  India  now  consists  of  the  follow- 
ing eight  subdivisions — viz.,  1,  the  Presidency  of  Bengal',  embracing 
Bengal,  Oris'a,  Behar',  Assam',  and  Chittagong',  and  occupying  the 
lower  basins  of  the  Gan'ges  and  Brahmapfl'tra ;  2,  the  NorthAVest 
Provinces  and  Oudh,  including  Benft'res,  Allahabad',  Ag'ra,  Oudh, 
and  Rohilkhand',  all  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Ganges  ;  3,  the  Pan- 
jkh'f  with  Sirhind'  and  Delphi,  chiefly  in  the  upper  basin  of  the 
in'dus;  4,  Central  Provinces  and  Berar',  in  the  north  of  the  Dak'- 
han ;  5,  Bomba/  Presidency  or  Sindh,  British  Gujaraf ,  and  the 
KonTsan,  in  the  west  of  the  Dakhan  and  in  the  lower  basin  of  the 
Indus ;  6,  the  Presidency  of  Madras',  consisting  of  the  Sarkars', 
Karnat'ak,  Balaghaf,  and  Koimbatiir',  in  the  south  of  the  Dakhan  ; 
7,  the  Island  Ceylon',  south  of  the  Dakhan ;  8,  British  Bir'ma,  or 
the  South  -  Eastern  Provinces,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal'.     The  principal  towns  in  these  are  as  follows : — 

Bengal'  Presidency. — Calcut'ta  892,  Kal'na  60,  Plassey,  Murs- 
hidabad',  147  (Huglili),  Patna  159  (Ganges),  Bardhwan'  54  (DamMa), 
Pur'neah  60  (Co'sa),  Behar'  30  n.,  Gay'a  43  n.  (Fulgo),  Dac'ca  66  n. 
(Brdhmaplitra),  Chittagong'  12  (Bay  of  Bengal),  KataV  40,  PA'ri  30, 
SambhalpUr'  30  (Mahana'di). 

N.W.  Provinces  and  Oudh.— Ben§,'res  173,  Mirzaplir'  80,  Alla- 
habad' 105,  Kanhpiir'  60,  Farrukhabad'  132,  Haridwai-'  100  (Ganges), 
Faizabad'  100  (Ghag'ra),  GorakhpAi^  54  (Rap'ti),  LukhnoV  285 
(Gum'ti),  Ag'ra  143,  Maf  ra  65  (Jani'na),  Ban'da  33  (Cane),  Miraf  29 
(Ka'li  Na'di),  Shahjahanpiir'  63,  Pilibhif  27  (Gur'ra),  Bareilly  110, 
Rampiir'  100,  Almo'ra  10  n.  (Ramgun'ga). 

PanJaV,  Slrhlnd',  and  DelTiL— Ludhia'na  47,  Amba'la  22  (Sataej), 
Multan'  80  (Chenab'),  Lahur'  120,  Amritsdr'  115  (Ravi'),  Jalandai' 
40  (Bl'as),  Peshaw'ar  56  (Kab^'),  Del'hi  154  (Jam'na). 

Central  Provinces. — Sagar'  50  n.  (Cane),  Nagpur'  112  (Nag), 
Gur'rah  25,  JabalpAr'  30  (Nerbud'da). 

Bombair'  Presidency.— Haidarabad'  24  n.,  Kard'chi  22  n.,  TAaftha 
20,  ShikarpAr'  30  n.  (In'dus),  Bombay'  644  (I.  Bombay),  Ahmada- 
bad'  130  (Sabarma'ti),  Surat'  95  (Tap'ti),  Pii'na  80  (Mutamtt'la), 
Nas'ik  25  (Godav'ari). 

Madras'  Presidency.— Mangalftr'  12,  Kal'ikut  25,  Cochin'  30  (W. 
coast),  Tallangamba'di  25,  Tanjiir'  40,  Trichinapal'li  30  (Ka'veri), 
Arkaf  40,  Velftr'  52  (Pdlar),  Madras'  398  (E.  coast),  Nizampat'nam 
25  n.,  Machhlipafnam  28  (Krish'na),  Karnftl'  20  (Tungabhad'ro), 
Bal'lari  30  (Hin'deri),  Rajamahen'dri  20  (Godav'ari),  Vishakpafnam, 
Shikako'lam  50  (E.  coast). 

Ceylon'.— Colom'bo  70  (W.  coast),  Galle  3  (S.  coast),  Trin'comi^^ 

30  (E.  coast),  Kandy  (centre).  '    ' 

British  Birma  and  Straits  Settlements. — Arakhan'  8  (Koladain'), 
Rang(in'100,Prome  22  (IrawSl'di),  PegA'  6  (Pegn).  Mnlmein'  4&  tOL 
of  Martaban'),  George'town  40,  Malac'ca  12,  Singapftr'  $B  pt 
Malacca). 


INDIA,    OR    mSDL-STAN.  383 

)  States. — The  principal  (mtive  statpa  umier  nritiah 
protpttion,  HHd  in  the  order  of  tha  PitBidenoiss  in  which  Ihej  occur, 
are  the  following  : — 

Kbas'la  Statea.— Chir'ra  Pon'jt  (Sur'mn). 

Maalpur.— Manipflr'  (KonglDo,  affl.  Brahmapfl'tra). 

KusH-BBhar.— Beliar'  (Nilko'mar). 

SikUEQ'.— Sikhim  (Atri,  affl.  Gangea). 

sum  atatea.— Puti&la  20  (KosOla),  Jhind  20  (Chitang'),  Sirhind' 
20  (Sntaej). 

KaahmiT'.— Srinagar'  10  (JhelanO.  Gil'git,  Iskai'do,  I^h  *  (Indus). 

Bhawalpnr.— Bhawalpflr'  20  (Snrtej). 

aajpnf  Btfttes.— Jodhpilr'  80  n.,  paii  50  (Ln'ni),  Jojaalmir'  35, 
NaSUi''  *",  Bikanir'  flO  (Indian  Desert),  Bhnrtpfir'  100  n,  (Jam'na), 
Bun'dl,  Ko'ta  (Chamlwd),  Jajpar"  100  n.  (BH'nas). 

Gwlllor.— Gwnior  60  u.  (Sindh,  a^  Jam'na),  Ujjain'  130  (Sip'ra). 

K«ailL— Bhfij  20  n.  (O.  of  KacLh). 

Gi^JarM'.— Baro'da  100  (Mahi'),  Puttun'  30  (Siirraawut'ti). 

Mttl'ira.  BhopBl',  and  Inilur' Indili-  15,  Du'was  2.^  (Sip'ra),  Dhar 

30  (ChamTial),  Bhopnl'  (Befwa). 

KolHapuT— KDllinpCir'  n.  (Kriah'nn),  Snwant  WU'rii  10  n.  (Kon'- 
knn  coast). 

TraTanoote'.— Trivan'Jsram  IS,  Kolam  20  (Malabar'  coast). 

Ualsur.*— MaisHr'es,  Seringapatam'  12  (E&'veri),  Bengidbr'  U2o. 
(Pflimar'),  UmrawaUi,  Ellichpar  28  (Pnma). 

Haldaratiad.— Haidaraliad'  200,  SikonJ.irabad'  30  (Mil'si),  Ei'dar 
50  (llazija'ni),  Anrangabad'  flO  |Dudh'na),  Assay'a  (Purtia). 

B&Bdalkliaiid'.— Jhan'si  50,  Dati'ja  10  (Bet'wa). 

IsDEPEsnsNT  States. — Thaso  are  now  only  two  in  number,  bor- 
dering the  HimttlBja, 

Bhoten'.— TasiaQ'don  {GoiiS'da,  affl.  Brahmapfl'tra). 

Hap&l'.— Ehatman'du  50,  Patan'  21  (Biahcmil'ti). 

FoRBiGN  Possessions. — The  noo-Btitish  Europonn  possesBions  are 
now  reduced  to  tha  two  followiug  : — 

French — Pon'dicheri,  Karikal'lO  (Coroman'del  const),  Chsnd ran u- 
gar"  30  (HflgJi'Ii). 

Ponngoese,  — Pan^ini  20,  Oo'a  5  (Koiiltan  «hore), 

DeBBiipttve  Hotes.— The  cntfre  rniiiianln,  together  with  Ccjion 
and  Brittah  flirmii,  contains  two  ciIIb*  ((JiJi:uttn,  Bowbaj)  of  mum 
than  600,000  inhflbitmitB ;  four  brlwtmi  .'lOO/lOO  -ind  200,000  {Mail- 

na.  Jaypflr,  Liikhnow,  Hnidur:''-''* '■' i-i..."-rT  900,00(1  laid 

loO.OOOdlBnaica,  Delhi,  PhIi<.>.    >  i^lIii,!,  Fnmih- 

I    lubad,  AhmadiilMil,  Beo^Or.  <'  "<livitr,BaiudK, 

•  italiar,  Chsi.  Wtl  1 1' 


384  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHr. 

Bamptir,  Amritsar,  Hangdn,  Bhartpiir,  Bareilly)  ;  and  about  thirtr 
between  100,000  and  50,000. 

Bengal.— Calcutta,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hughli,  an  arm  of  the 
Ganges,  TOO  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the  cap.  of  British  India — ^Delhi  being 
the  Mohammedan  and  Benares  the  Hindu  capital  i  it  is  a  large  and 
mangificent  city,  containing  numerous  splendia  buildings,  and  a  million 
inhabitants.    In  the  European  part  of  tne  city  the  streets  are  wide  and 
the  houses  separated  by  gardens,  but  in  the  native  portion  the  houses  are 
mean,  and  the  streets  narrow  and  dirty  :  it  is  defended  by  Fort-William, 
the  largest  fortress  in  India,  containing  619  guns,  and  80,000  stand  of 
arms.    As  a  commercial  emporium,  Calcutta  is  uluiTalled  in  Asia — its 
annual  imports  amounting  to  two  millions  sterling,  and  its  exports  to 
more  than  five  millions.    Previous  to  1698,  when  the  East  India  Company 
removed  hither  their  factory  from  Hughli,  Calcutta  was  an  inconsiderable 
village,  surrounded  by  jungle ;  in  1756  the  factory  was  attacked  by  the 
natives,  and  146  Europeans  were  shut  up  in  the  famous  *'  black  hole,*'  of 
whom  123  were  suffocated  before  morning.     Kalna,  a  place  of  consider- 
able trade,  and  a  station  for  steamers  plying  between  Calcutta  and  the 
North-West  Provinces.    Flassev,  83  nules  N.  of  Calcutta,  is  memorable 
for  the  decisive  battle  fought  between  Clive  and  Suraj-u-Dowlah,  23d 
June  1757,  which  established  British  supremacy  in  India.     It  was  pre- 
cisely a  century  after  this  engagement  that  the  Bengal  native  array 
mutinied,  in  the  hope  of  casting  off  the  British  yoke,  the  idea  having 
become  general  among  the  natives  that  the  raj  of  the  Feringhees  was  des- 
tined to  last  for  only  100  years.    HursMdabad,  a  large,  populous,  but  ex- 
tremely unhealthy  city,  was  the  cap.  of  Bengal  till  superseded  by  Cal- 
cutta.   Patua,  an  immense  assemblage  of  mud-huts,  maintains  a  large 
trade  in  opium,  rice,  wheat,  indigo,  saltpetre,  and  sugar :  it  was  the  scene 
of  a  frightful  massacre  in  1763,  when  Meer  Cossim,  the  Nabob  of  Patna, 
murdered  in  cold  blood  200  Englishmen.    Bardhwan  has  coal  and  iron 
mines  in  its  vicinity.    Pnmeah  is  lai^gely  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of 
indigo.     Behar  produces  vast  quantities  of  opium,  sugar,  and  cotton. 
Gaya,  one  of  the  sacred  places  of  the  Hindus,  is  visited  annually  by  up- 
wards of  100,000  pilgims.    Dacca,  once  a  place  of  great  importance,  is 
now  rapidly  falling  into  ruins,  and  its  manufacture  of  muslin,  once  so 
celebrated,  is  now  scarcely  deserving  of  notice.    Chittagong,  formerly  a 
place  of  considerable  trade,  and  noted  for  its  shipbuilding,  has  of  late 
years  greatly  declined;   it  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  Nabob  of 
Bengal  in  1760.     Purl  or  Jagannath  (Juggernaut)  is  distinguished  over 
India  as  one  of  the  principal  strongholds  of  the  Hindu  superstition.    The 
famous  temple,  completed  in  a.d.  1198,  is  said  to  have  cost  half  a  million 
sterling.     Here  Ejisnna,  one  of  whose  titles  is  Jagannath  ("  Lord  of  the 
Universe  "),  is  the  principal  object  of  worship.    Sambhalpur  (Sumbul- 
pore)  is  celebrated  mr  its  diamonds,  principally  found  in  the  Mahanadi. 

N.W.  Provinces  and  Oudh. — Benares,  a  large  populous  city  on  the 
Ganges,  and  in  the  estimation  of  the  Hindus  the  most  sacred  place  in  the 
world  ;  it  is  a  crowded  seat  of  native  industry,  and  contains  many  wealthy 
native  bankers  and  dealers  in  diamonds,  for  which  it  has  long  been  famous. 
UtirztMja,  a  great  cotton  mart,  and  a  place  of  considerable  trade.  Alla- 
habad^ capital  of  a  province  of  same  name,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges 
and  Jamna,  is  one  of  the  sacred  cities  of  the  Hindus,  and  is  visited  an- 
nually by  about  200,000  pilgrims ;  it  is  the  grand  military  depot  of  tlie 
North-West  Provinces,  and  was  the  scene  of  barbarous  perfidy  during  the 
late  insurrection.    Eanhpur  (Cawnpore),  one  of  the  most  im]*K)rtant  com- 


,    OK   HINDUSTAN. 


3ft5 

1]?ercml  citici^  od  Uif  Gou^bh,  vill  te  long  TUflTDQrBl>]p  lu^  the  ncene  of  Koni 
tuiiib's  liruta]  BtrodtiDS,  SStli  June  imd  lutfa  Jnl}'  1G57.  7uniUis]»d. 
oiie  of  thr  prinoiiitt!  cororoereiBj  cities  of  Korthorn  luiJia,  eontniu!  boiuh 
cxT-suiEETe  hunlfinp  eslfililislinifaitB,  And  has  in  its  TJrnnJty  tbe  militar}''  caii- 
tucmeut  of  Futlehgiu'li :  lisre  Lord  Liike  ddentei]  tbe  troops  of  HQlciir  in 
l!W5.  HaiidWW,  a  gmat  commercial  aty  rm  the  GaugBS,  nrhare  it  isenea 
frsnt  the  mountucs :  bere  in  held  the  la^geBt  fair  in  India,  attended  au- 
jiimily  i)j  abont  350,000  tradara  and  pijgrinia.  F»ix»l)»d,  tbe  Inrmer 
cujotiil  at  Oudh,  is  a  po^luiu  town,  but  niudly  falling  into  decay. 
Goai^-mi  (Goruckpoor),  laken  by  tlie  Euglisb  in  1802,  contains  a  civil 
establiahiuEnt  and  a  grant  military  cautnninBDt.  Iinkbiunr,  cap.  of  tbe 
late  Idugdcui  of  Oudb,  ia  a  large  and  pcpulonc  dn,  containing  tome  noble 
buildings  ;  vben  attaclned  b}'  tbe  rebels  iQ  1S57,  iJie  Brttlsb  gairiaon,  ooni- 
manded  br  Sir  E.  Lawrence,  abut  thetnselveB  op  in  line  rendency,  wbii^li 
they  defended  irith  unparalleled  hBi-oiani  for  Si  dayE  gainst  60,000  of 
tbe  euBDiy,  wben  at  length  they  were  relieved  by  Sir  Colin  Oanyibell. 
Agra,  cap.  oj'  a  proTinm  of  aajne  ninnc,  and  formerly  of  tbe  Mogul 
Empire,  is  the  Beat  of  gCTenmienl  for  the  Korth-Weat  Procinces ;  it  was 

InKlai  lajmahal,  or  nuosolenm  of  Shnh  Jehan,  Hie  finest  eiistiiig  sped- 
men  of  MoliunmBdan  ajchitecturB ;  it  ia  built  li  white  marble,  inlMd  -nith 

ttrenty-two  years.  The  city  waj  seiied  by  the  mntinou*  si^oys  in  May 
1 857,  and  remained  in  their  posaeasion  till  the  Ootober  following,  *heii 
they  vere  totally  dtfcutad  by  Colonel  Gnathed.  Hattra,  a  aacred  cily, 
betiig  regarded  by  the  Hindus  ae  the  birthplaoe  of  their  pod  Kiishua, 
Kirat  or  Keemt,  the  btadquaners  of  the  Ben^  ertLllery,  ia  meiuoiablE 
na  the  aeene  of  the  outbreak  of  Oie  terrible  Indian  ^e[^ellion,  May  10,  ISf.". 
when  tbe  natiTe  troopE  shot  thtir  offictrE  and  maBsacred  sU  the  Europeank 
that  could  be  found.  Pillbhit.  celebrated  for  it«  rice,  is  the  mart  ol 
«  considerable  traffic.  EareHly,  cap.  of  Kobilkhand,  a  coneidemble 
jilace,  iritb  a  brisk  and  luctauve  i^onuDerce,  Is  tbe  aeat  of  one  of  the  rax 
circuit  courts  of  the  Preaidemy,  of  an  English  collem,  and  of  Persian  ami 
Hiudu  echoola.  SBmpar^ahLrge  town,  built  of  mud,  and  detiaely  peopled. 
AlmoTB,  cap.  of  Enniiion  -.  neat  it  wae  fought  the  battle  of  Sitlolee,  which 
decided  the  fate  of  the  war  between  tbe  ^tish  and  tbe  Ghurkas. 

PaSjab,  SIBBIHD.  U(D  DEXJii.— Ludluuia,  tbe  most  flourishing  commer- 
dol  city  in  the  C5B-Satlej  territory.  Ambala,  the  principal  town  m  BrituJi 
Bidund,  is  an  important  military  station,  Multan,  tbe  third  city  in  the 
Pmrjab  for  populalion  and  commeniul  prosperilT,  was  taken  bj'  the 
BtitiBh  in  ISie,  after  a  gallant  and  obEttuate  deleiii'e  uii  the  port  of  the 
•nemy.  lohnr,  cap.  of  the  Panjab,  is  a  large  and  splendid  city,  oon- 
taining  nnmeroos  mosqaes  and  Hindu  temples :  it  was  one  of  tbe  red- 
dimoee  of  tbe  Uogul  emperors,  and  is  Buironnded  for  many  mUes  by  ex- 
tensive Mohammedan  rums,  the  Telioe  of  its  former  gteatneM ;  it  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  British  in  1849,  after  the  final  defeat  of  tbe  Sikhh 
Amitaai.  the  aacnid  cap.  of  tbe  Panjab,  and  the  chief  Beat  of  the  Sikh 
it  wealthy  and  commercial  city  in  Northem  India  ;  it 

j'^nianufactnres  of  eoUroL,  iUkt,  line  abawls.  and  an  eiiensive  transit 
ili  Central  Asia.     Piahavu-,  near  the  Khybir  Pass,  is  the  frontifr 

. . i  Hindsxtan,  toward  Afghanistan ;   ainca  its  occspBlion  by  tbe 

filTtidi,  its  trade  baa  rapidly  increased.     Delhi,  capital  of^  a  provisoe  of 

—'  ' — "—  metropolis  of  the  Mohammedan  Empire  in  India, 

k  of  the  Janina,  and  is  defended  by  a  fori  anrl  i 
iroach  from  the  S.E.  if  verj'  striking,  Irom 


tiie  right  bank  ol 


386  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  innumerable  ruined  monuments  of  its  former  prosperity  and  grandeur : 
the  present  city  was  erected  by  Shah  Jehan  in  1631 ;  but  the  original 
Delhi,  which  extended  along  the  banks  of  the  Jamna  for  above  30  miles, 
was  of  very  Idgh,  though  unknown,  antiquity.  The  Mirat  mutineer! 
arrived  here  on  the  11th  May  1857,  and  were  immediately  joined  by  the 
three  native  regiments  stationed  in  the  fort ;  having  seized  the  arsenal, 
ammunition,  and  treasury,  they  cruelly  massacred  nearly  all  the  European 
community,  and  proclaimed  Mirza  Jewan  Bakht,  the  heir-apparent  of  the 
titular  emperor  of  Delhi,  and  the  lineal  successor  of  the  Great  Mogul,  as 
the  sovereign  of  India ;  the  city  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  rebels 
tiU  the  20th  September  following,  when  the  British  troops,  under  General 
Wilson,  after  a  furious  assault,  regained  possession  of  it,  captured  the 
king,  and  slaughtered  great  numbers  of  the  insurgents. 

Central  Provinces. — Sagar  (Saugor),  an  important  town  near  the  Cane, 
with  a  fort  and  a  military  cantonment.  Nagpnr  ("City  of  Serpents"), 
the  principal  town  in  the  Central  Provinces,  has  extensive  trade  and 
numerous  banking  establishments.  Jabalpur  has  a  military  cantonment 
and  a  school  of  industry. 

BoMBAT. — Haidarabad,  capital  of  Sindh,  and  4  miles  E.  of  the  Indus, 
is  a  fortified  city,  containing  a  bazaar  and  a  manufactory  of  arms ;  6  miles 
N.  of  it  is  the  village  Meeanee,  the  scene  of  a  memorable  victory  obtained 
by  the  Anglo-Indian  army,  imder  Sir  C.  Napier,  over  the  Biluchees,  in 
1843.  Karachi  or  Kurrachee,  the  principal  sea^rt  of  Sindh,  has  con- 
siderable trade.  Thattha,  the  ancient  cap.  of  Siadh,  is  now  much  de- 
cayed :  about  80,000  persons  died  of  the  pls^e  here  in  1689.  Shikarpnr, 
the  most  populous  and  commercial  city  in  Sindh,  has  a  great  transit  trade 
through  the  Bolan  Pass.  Bombay,  cap.  of  Presidency  of  same  name,  and 
one  of  the  most  populous  cities  in  India,  is  situated  on  a  small  island, 
which  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  an  artificial  causeway :  the  har- 
bour is  land-locked,  perfectly  secure  at  all  seasons,  and  embraces  an  area 
of  50  sq.  m. ;  its  facilities  for  commerce  and  shipbuilding  give  it  a  supe- 
riority over  every  other  city  in  India,  while  its  trade  is  second  only  to 
that  of  Calcutta,  its  exports  alone  being  valued  at  5^  millions  sterling. 
Ahmadabad,  a  large,  handsome  city,  was  captured  by  the  British  in  178^ 
and  is  now  the  headquarters  of  the  Bombay  army.  Snrat — here  was 
founded  the  fii-st  mercantile  establishment  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1612 ;  its  trade  is  now  greatly  declined.  Puna,  formerly  the  cap.  of  the 
Mahratta  Empire,  is  the  principal  military  cantonment  of  theDakhajK 
Vasik,  the  centre  of  Hinduism  in  the  Dakhan,  has  extensive  Buddhist 
cave- temples  in  its  vicinity. 

Madras  Presidency. — Mangalnr,  noted  for  the  treaty  of  x>eac6  con- 
cluded here  in  1784,  between  the  East  India  Company  and  Tippu  Sahib. 
Kaliknt,  the  first  place  in  India  touched  at  by  Vasco  de  Gama.  Cochin, 
one  of  the  principal  seaports  on  the  west  coast,  is  noted  for  shipbuilding. 
TanjuT,  celebrated  for  its  great  pagoda,  considei'ed  the  finest  of  the 
pyramidal  temples  of  India.  Tnchinapalli,  noted  for  its  hardware^ 
cutlery,  jewellery,  and  cheroots.  Arkat  (Arcot),  the  scene  of  a  memor- 
able engagement  between  Clive  and  Rajah  Sahib  in  1751.  Velnr  (Vellore)^ 
one  of  the  healthiest  military  stations  in  India,  is  noted  for  the  massacre 
of  the  Europeans  in  the  mutiny  of  1806.  Madras,  capital  of  the  Pi^- 
dency,  and  one  of  the  most  populous  cities  in  India :  it  poesesses  no 
harbour,  in  consequence  of  which  its  commerce  has  greatly  suffered ;  but 
a  pier  has  lately  been  erected  under  great  engineering  dLfficultiea.  It  is 
well  built  and  handsome,  and  contains  a  university,  catbednd,  and  serend 
literary  establishments.   Machhlepatnam  (Masultpatam),  aibrtified  ei^, 


r 


istiiA,  on  iHNiJUSTAs.  3S7 


being  noted  for  its  cliintz  manofacturea.     Shikftkolara  (Cbiuacole),  noted 
forite  muslin  mu^u/'actiires. 

Ckylon.— Colomljo,  the  cap.  and  principal  seaport  of  the  island,  ii 
strongly  fortified  :  it  waa  taken  from  the  Butch  in  1706,  and  is  now  ths 
entrepot  far  most  of  tlie  foreign  trade.  Oulle,  or  Point  de  Qiile,  an 
important  station  for  steam  packets,  hna  an  escellent  harhonr.  Trjn- 
eoiDSji,  a  fortified  town,  on  one  of  the  finest  liarbonts  in  the  world. 
Kandy,  the  former  capital  of  Ceylon. 

BuxisB  BlBHA,  &c.— Arakhui  ia  eitremely  unhealthy,  and  has  heen 
the  grave  of  many  a  British  soldier.  Bangnn,  the  principal  seaport  of 
PeKU.  Frome,  the  moat  popnions  city  in  Pegn,  was  talien  by  the  British 
in  lGfi2.  Muliaein,  the  principal  town  and  seaport  in  the  Teuaaseriin 
I  -provinces.  Qeargetown,  on  PiiloFenang  island,  ii  admirably  situated  as 
I  K  mercantile  station,  Bingapor  has  rapidJy  risen  to  Importujice  as  a 
great  commercial  entrep3t  for  tlie  goods  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

PEtOTECTED  STATES.— CMrra  Pu&Ji,  4200  ft  abOYB  the  sea,  ia  said  to  be 
the  rainiest  place  in  tlie  world,  there  being  no  less  than  616  inches  of  rain 
falling  from  Mny  to  October.  Behar  produces  the  best  opium  in  India. 
ffiJdUio,  capital  of  a  small  native  state  of  same  name  on  the  southern 
Aank  of  Kinchiniunga,  one  of  the  loftiest  of  the  Himalaya,  Patiala, 
Jhlnd,  and  Sirhmd,  are  the  respective  caps,  of  siuhU  native  states  of 
mme  names  in  the  Uis.fjatlej  territory.  Brinu^ar,  or  Eaalunil,  capital 
r  OfOholab  Shigh's  dominions,  has  been  long  noted  for  its  goi^BDOs  shawls 
[  tntnufactured  from  the  Gne  hair  of  the  Kashmir  goat,  Qllgit,  lakardo, 
I  and  Iieh  are  the  caps,  of  three  small  principalities  subject  to  the  Maha- 
ajah  of  Kashmir,  They  are  situated  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Indus,  at 
the  8. W.  foot  of  the  Karakomm  Mountains,  some  of  which  are  28,000  ft. 
b^h,  and  covered  with  glaciers.  The  people  are  Tariars,  and  profess  the 
ifibanmiedan  religion.  Ukardo  is  the  cap.  of  Baiti,  Btdtl^tan,  or  Little 
Tibft.  Leh  is  the  chief  town  of  Ladakh  or  Middle  Tibet ;  hen;  the  heat 
of  summer  is  perhaps  unparalleled]  the  thermometer  in  September, 
and  at  an  elevation  of  15,500  ft,,  reaehmg  158°  Fah.,  while  from 
DBeomber  to  February  it  ranges  from  10°  to  20°,  Bhawnlpnr 
has  flourishing  manufactures  of  silt.  Jodhpor,  cap.  of  Marwar,  the 
latest  state  in  Bajpatana,  is  noted  for  its  ImmeuHe  citadel  Pali,  a  ^eat 
anttepOt  foe  Malwa  opium,  on  its  way  to  Bomliay.  Bhartrinr  carries  «n 
an  eitensive  trade  m  salt,  derived  from  a  lake  in  ita  vicimty.  ilaypur, 
the  largest  and  most  elegant  city  in  all  India  tlist  has  been  erected  solely 
Irf  the  natives,  Gwalior,  cap.  of  the  poaaessioiiB  of  Sindhia's  family,  is 
a  large  tosni,  with  a  strong  citadel  situated  on  a  precipitous  rodi.  XFJiain, 
formerly  rap,  of  Qwalior,  is  one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities  of  the 
Hindus,  and  the  first  meridian  of  their  geographers,  Bhni  is  renowned 
for  its  manufactures  in  gold  nnd  silver.  Baroda,  cap.  of  the  Guicowar's 
doralniona,  i»  a  large  and  populous  city,  extensively  engi^ed  in  trade, 
IndoT,  capital  of  Uolcar'a  dominlouB,  containa  numerous  Brahminicnl 

' ' id  a  BriHsh  reaiiienny.    KoUiapnT,  the  saeue  of  a  rebellion  in 

'       "■■■  bforc      ~-   


a  British  force,    Tiivamderam  has  a 


palace  and  an  extensive  garrison.     Maiaor,  capita 

same  name,  is  a  large,  well-built  town,  with  a  tort  auu  iirn,isu  itaiuHHcj. 
Beringapatam  was  the  cap,  of  Maisur,  under  Tippu  Sahib,  who  was 
■tain  here  by  the  British  in  the  t^mous  si«B  of  17^.  Bengali"^,  a  large 
turtified  town,  ooutainiug  the  palace  of  Tippu  Sahih.  ffiddaiabad.  u 
L  largi-.  bfautiful,  and  populous  city,  capital  of  the  Nizam's  dominions ; 
' '  Oolconda,  formerly  famous  tor  diamonds  and  other  jewels.  Bidar, 
lor  its  BiaDQfaclure  of  bidan-wsra,  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper,  uidj 


388  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

for  the  bowls  of  tobacco-pipes.  Aamngabad,  once  tlie  favourite  residence 
of  Aunmgzebe,  the  last  Mogul  emperor :  near  it  Ellora,  noted  for  its 
remarkable  cave-temples,  which,  in  magnitude  and  execution,  surpass  all 
other  structures  of  the  kind  in  India. 

Independent  States. — Tasi8ndon,cap.of  Bhotan,  is  the  residence  of  the 
Deb  Rajah,  who  has  here  a  fortified  palace.  Khatmaudn,  cap.  of  Nepal, 
contains  many  Buddhist  temples. 

Foreign  Possessions. — ^Pondicheri,  cap.  of  the  French  possessions  in 
India,  is  a  very  handsome  maritime  town.  Chandranagar,  once  an 
elegant  and  opulent  city,  is  now  falling  into  decay.  Fanjim,  cap.  of 
the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India,  is  a  handsome,  well-buUt  town. 
Goa,  the  former  capital,  once  opulent  and  powerful,  is  now  falling  into 
decay. 

Capes  and  Peninsulas. — Peninsula  of  Kathi4'wad,  bet.  the  Kachh 
and  Camba/;  Kachh,  S.  of  Sindh ;  Diu  Head,  S.  of  Kathiawad ; 
C.  Comorin',  the  southernmost  point  of  Hindustan ;  Dundra  Head, 
S.  of  Ceylon ;  C.  Negrais',  S.  of  Pegu. 

Islands. — Ceylon,  S.  E.  of  the  Karnatak  ;  Manar  and  Ramesh- 
waram,  between  Ceylon  and  the  mainland  ;  Bombay,  Elephanta, 
and  Salsette,  on  the  Konkan  coast ;  Laccadives,  150  m.  W.  of  the 
Malabar  coast ;  Maldives,  200  m.  S.W.  of  Cape  Comorin;  Hattia, 
in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  ;  Ramri  and  Cheduba,  W.  of  Arakan ; 
Mergui  Archipelago,  W.  of  Tenasserira  ;  Prince  of  Wales  Island  or 
Pulo  Penang,  in  the  Str.  of  Malacca ;  Singapur,  S.  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  ;  Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands,  180  m.  S.  W.  of  Pegu. 

Ceylon f  about  60  m.  from  the  continent,  has  been  a  dependency  of 
Great  Britain  since  1815,  previous  to  which,  however,  the  English,  aiter 
various  encounters  with  the  Dutch  and  French,  had  obtained  possession 
of  the  stations  on  the  coast.  The  area  is  estimated  at  24,454  sq.  m., 
and  the  population  at  2,405,287  The  island  is  pear-shaped,  well  watered, 
and  highly  fertile :  it  is  mountainous  in  the  south,  where  Pedrotallagalla, 
its  highest  summit,  rises  to  the  height  of  8280  ft.  Adam's  Peak,  near 
the  centre,  7420  ft.  high,  is  famous  in  Buddhist  tradition ;  on  its  level 
summit  is  a  large  stone  bearing  an  impression  resembling  that  of  a 
colossal  human  foot,  believed  by  the  natives  to  have  been  made  by 
Buddha  when  he  ascended  to  heaven.  Ceylon  contains  a  greater  abun- 
dance of  precious  stones  than  any  other  country  in  the  world ;  and  iron, 
manganese,  ]plumbago,  nitre,  and  salt,  are  plentiful.  The  climate  is  very 
hot  and  moist,  and  the  vegetation  highly  luxuriant.  The  indigenous 
flora  of  Ceylon  approximates  more  closely  to  that  of  the  Malay  archipelago 
than  to  that  of  Southern  India.  The  most  valuable  trees  are  the  cinna- 
mon-tree, the  cocoa,  and  Palmyra  palm,  the  tallipot,  tamarind,  and 
bread-fruit  tree.  The  first  named  yields  three  valuable  commercial  pro- 
ducts —  cinnamon-bark,  cassia-buds,  and  oil  of  cinnamon,  an  essence 
obtained  by  distillation.  Rice,  cotton,  pepper,  tobacco,  cofifee,  sugar- 
cane, indigo,  and  various  other  vegetables  are  raised.  The  fauna 
resembles  that  of  the  Dakhan,  but  many  of  tiie  lai^er  animals  of  tin 
latter  are  here  unknown.  The  fauna  includes  upwards  of  600  species  cf 
fishes,  all  of  which  have  been  captured  at  Colombo,  being  the  laigett 
collection  of  species  known  to  exist  in  one  spot.  Little  is  Imown  of  tilt 
aboriginal  inhabitants,  but  "stupendous  monuments  of  a  remott  and 
almost  entirely  imknown  antiquity,  ruins  of  cities,  pagodas,  and 
digious  stone  embankments  for  irrigation,  proclaim  thttr  sutpSriMit^. 


r 


the  present  nutlves."     The  Ititter,  however,  are  inganious  wnrliara  in 

pearl-lfsheryon  the  N.W.  coaat,  formerly  the  most  valuable  in  the  world, 
after  being  ahandoned  has  been  resnuiw.  The  inhsbitanta  profess  the 
Biiddhigt  religion,  while  the  langnages  spoken  sra  the  Tamnl  imd  Cin- 
gBlese.  Manar  and  JtaniesAiearam  form  a  part  of  Adam's  Bridge  —  i 
ndj^e  of  saj^iibanks  tphlch  almost  completely  obstmctn  the  channel 
betweea  Ceylon  and  the  continent.  In  the  Hindu  mythology  it  figures 
an  the  route  by  which  tlie  demi-pod  Kara  invaded  Ceylon,  SlepAat-la, 
s  Email  island,  six  mites  S.E,  of  Bombay,  contains  a  celebrated,  cave- 
lemple,  in  the  face  of  a  hill,  sculptured  with  representations  of  thn 
jiersonagea  of  the  Hindu  mythology.  The  Laccadiva  consist  of  17  small 
islands  of  coral  formation,  belonging  to  Britain.  The  Maidiva,  also  of 
aoral  formation,  are  fertila  and  well  watered,  and  are  governed  by  a 
Sultan,  who  is  tributary  to  the  Britisb.  Nearly  all  the  other  islands 
enuroersted  above  belong  to  Great  Britain.  The  A  ndamaa.  and  yicohar 
groups  came  into  our  possession  very  recently.  Tlie  former  are  densely 
wooded  and  thinly  peopled — tie  inhabitants  being  in  the  lowest  stage  of 
civilisation — and  are  considered  well  adapted  for  a  convict  settlement. 
The  NioolmrB  belonged  to  the  Danes  till  1848,  when  they  finally  aban- 
doned them  ;  and  the  native  chiefs  have  spontaneously  hoisted  the 
British  Hag. 

Gulft  and  StraltB.— G.  of  Kaclih.  bet.  Kachh  and  Gujarat ;  Mn 
of  Kachh,  N.E,  of  Kachh;  G.  of  Carabay,  E.  of  the  Peninsula  of 
Knthiawad  ;  G.  of  Manor  and  Palk  Strait,  betweeu  the  Kamatak 
and  Ceylon  ;  G,  of  MatWban,  S.  of  Pegn. 

I      Honntalit  aysteroB, ^Northern  India  contains  the  Himalaya,  the 

I  loftiest  elevations  on  the  earth's  surface  (see  under  "Asia,"  par.  9|. 

■  The  mountains  of  Sonthem  India,  or  of  the  Dakhai],  consist  of  the 

'    following  rangea  ; — 

1.  The  ArariUli  Movntaini,  in  R^putana,  form  the  western  wall  of 
the  plateau  of  Malwa,  and  aeparale  the  basinn  of  the  Ganges  and  lower 
Indus;  Mount  Abu,  the  highest  summit,  attains  an  elevation  of  50UU 
ft.  2.  The  VinAsa  BitU,  in  Gwahor,  Indftr,  and  Bhopal,  260(1  ft, 
lOrm  the  3.  wall  of  the  plateau,  and  separate  the  Jamns  trom  the  Ner- 
lindda.  3.  The  Saii^«ra  llilii,  2500  ft.,  between  IndOr  and  Khan deah, 
Boparate  the  basins  of  the  Nerbndda  and  Tapti,  and  are  continued  to  the 
east  by  the  Maiadto  Hills,  4200  ft.  i.  The  ll'alem  O/iAUi,  extending 
for  about  1000  m.  along  the  Konkan  and  Malal'ar  coasts,  from  tlie 
valler  of  the  Tapti  to  Cape  Comorln,  form  the  water-parting  between  tlie 
Arabian  Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal— thus  cnnstitutiiig  the  W.  wall  of 
the  table-land  of  the  Dalthan  i  their  average  height  ia  about  4001}  ft. ;  bu  t 
Benassou,  the  highest  nnrnmit,  is  7000  ft.  They  present  an  abmpt  face 
to  the  west  and  a  gentle  slope  to  tho  east.  Vast  cinautities  of  moisture 
are  deposited  on  tliem  (see  "Climate  "),  and  in  tliem  ariginata  all  the 
laiger rivers  of  Sonthem  India.  5.  The  .Vilsirit,  8.  of  Molsflr,  connert 
the  Western  with  the  Eoateni  GhAts,  and  fonn  the  S.  wall  of  the  plateiiu 
of  Molsar;  highest  enmrntt,  Dndnbetta,  g7B0  ft.  At  their  SAV. 
extremity  ii  the  great  PalghaiPttit,  whicb  affords  e4iy  commnnication 
iKtween  the  Eamatak  and  Malabar  cooM.    S.  The  Eailtm  OWi,  on  the 

KEoromandel  roast,  eitead  trtna  the  NilgiriR  in  «  ?T.E.  direction  to  Bnii- 
vand  form  the  E,  margin  of  the  plateau  of  the  Dakhan:  highHst 
imil  abnut  360C  ft. ;  •veiac-''— i'"- ISOOrt. 


390  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Table  of  Bivers  and  Towns.— See  under  "Further  India." 

Lakes. — These  are  very  few,  considering  the  great  extent  of  the 
country,  and  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  basin  of  the  Indus ;  as  Mun- 
chuTf  in  Sindh  j  Wulur,  in  Kashmir ;  Rawan  and  Mansanywar,  at 
the  sources  of  the  Satlej  ;  Pulicat,  on  the  coast  of  the  Kamatak ; 
and  Chilka^  on  the  Orisa  coast.  Sambuhrt  in  Rajputana,  yields 
great  quantities  of  salt.  The  most  remarkable  inlets  of  the  sea  are 
the  Bdn  of  KacJihy  6000  sq.  m.,  which,  in  the  dry  season,  is  a  barren, 
sandy  desert,  interspersed  with  small  salt  lakes. 

Climate. — The  elevated  regions  of  Northern  India  enjoy  a  temper- 
ate climate,  varying  with  the  altitude.  Thus,  at  an  elevation  of 
7000  ft.,  it  resembles  fine  summer  weather  in  England,  while 
higher  up  the  Himalayas,  the  limit  of  perennial  snow  is  reached  at 
the  height  of  16,200  ft.  ;  but,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges,  Indus, 
and  other  low-lying  regions  farther  south,  the  heat  is  extreme,  and 
almost  intolerable  to  Europeans.  Here  the  year  is  divided  into 
three  seasons — the  hot,  the  rainy,  and  the  temperate. 

The  hot  season  commences  in  March  and  continues  till  the  beginning  of 
June.  The  sun  is  then  scorching,  the  ground  brown  and  parched,  dust 
flies  in  whirlwinds,  the  brooks  become  dry,  small  rivers  scarcely  keep  up 
a  stream,  and  the  largest  are  reduced  to  comparatively  narrow  channels . 
in  the  midst  of  vast  sandy  beds.  l%e  great  rainy  season  succeeds  the 
hot,  and  lasts,  with  occasional  intermissions,  till  October.  The  vapours 
borne  by  the  S.W.  monsoon  are  condensed  on  the  Western  Gh&ts,  and 
the  rain  falls  in  torrents  along  the  west  coast.  At  Bombay  16  inches  of 
rain  have  been  known  to  fall  in  a  single  day  :  and  at  Mahabuleshwar,  a 
sanatarium  on  the  Western  6h&ts,  near  Sattara,  the  fall  is  254  inches  in 
the  year,  of  which  242  fall  during  the  four  monsoon  months.  A  smaller 
monsoon  from  the  N.E.  succeeds  that  from  the  S.W.,  and  is  the  cause  of 
the  principal  rains  that  fall  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  peninsula.  Sindh, 
with  the  rest  of  the  lower  basin  of  the  Indus,  is  nearly  destitute  of  rain. 
The  valley  of  the  Ganges  resembles  Great  Britain  in  respect  to  the  quan- 
tity of  moisture  deposited— thus,  at  Calcutta,  64  inches  fall  annually ;  at 
Benares,  41 ;  Allahabad,  27 ;  Delhi,  20 ;  Mirat,  32.  Along  the  Brahmaputra 
the  fall  of  rain  is  prodigious  ;  in  some  places,  as  at  Silhet,  it  amounts  to 
209  inches,  and  at  Chimi  Pum'i,  among  the  Khasia  hills,  the  annual  fall 
is  ascertained  to  be  615  inches !  at  Najpur,  in  the  Dakhan,  the  fall  is  40 
inches ;  at  Sattara,  40  ;  Punah,  24  ;  Cape  Comorin,  28 ;  Madras,  55 ; 
Bombay,  75 ;  Katak,  50 ;  Arakan,  200.  The  temperate  season,  extends 
from  October  to  the  end  of  February.  Though  the  heat  is  stiU  very 
great,  slight  frosts  sometimes  occur  for  an  hour  or  two  about  stmrise. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  ranges  from  75°  to  90°  Fah.  On  the 
])lateau  of  the  Dakhan,  it  is  75° ;  Bombay,  81° ;  Madras,  83° ;  and  at 
Calcutta,  90°.    The  summer  heat  at  Leh  is  said  to  amount  to  158^ 

The  Geology  of  India  was  long  imagined  to  be  very  aninterestiiUL 
but  recent  investigations  have  proved  it  to  possess  considmQfe 
variety.  Granite  and  metamorphic  rocks  abound  in  the  Dakhaa 
and  other  parts  of  Southern  India,  in  Orisa,  Malwa,  and  the  Hiiniu 
laya  range.  Trap  covers  an  immense  area  in  Western  Indiai  beti" 
Goa  and  the  G.  of  Cambay,  and  stretching  from  the  AfMnt 
Nagp^r,  with  outliers  at  Hajroahal,  about  the  head  of  ih»  0 


;    HINDUSTAN, 


39! 


I 


dulta,  asJ  at  Eajamundri,  n^ar  the  apex  of  tliat  of  the  GoJav^ri.  Of 
sedimentary  rocks,  the  PaLeoxoic  are  limited  to  the  Himalayas  aiiit 
the  Pai^at) ;  but  Uesozolc  strata,  incladiog  ati  iureiior  kind  of  coal, 
occiir  ia  the  W.  of  Bangal,  Orisa,  Behar,  the  Nerbudda  torritory, 
Nagjiur,  and  Kaohh  ;  while  others  of  lower  Cretaceooa  age  are  fouad 
in  ffie  oeighbonrhood  of  I'ondifdieri  and  TrichinapaUi.  The  oldest 
Tertiary  strata  appear  to  be  a  Ijower  Eocene  deposit,  for  the  most 
part  fresb-water,  connected  with  the  trap  above  mentioned,  which  is 
thus  known  to  have  been  erupted  since  the  com  men  cement  of  t!iB 
Tertiary  epoch.  Middle  Eocene  beds,  in  eontinuation  of  the  nnnimu- 
Ittia  limestone  of  Southern  Europe,  £gn'''i  ^"'^  Arabia,  are  developed 
in  Sindh  on  the  W.,  and  tbe  Khasia  on  tlie  E,,  betveen  which  there 
■re  found,  in  the  SewUlilc  or  sab-Himalayan  rau^e,  Upper  Uioeene 
strata,  remarkable  for  the  number  aad  size  of  their  inimal  leiiiaios. 
Imiia,  unlike  more  northerly  countries,  ia  destitute  of  drift ;  but  its 
uirfacB  is  in  many  places  composed  of  a  red  irony  clay,  ofteo  har- 
dened into  stone,  called  Laterittt ;  whila  not  uufrequsntly  its  plains 
are  covered  with  a  rich  black  soil,  named  Kegnr,  favoumble  to  the 
cultivation  of  soil 

annwRla.— The  mineral  resources  of  India  are  of  the  most  varieil 
eliaracter.  Iron  and  copper  are  found  in  all  parts  of  tbe  peninsula  ; 
coal  in  niany  places,  as  Bengal  Proper,  the  valleys  of  the  Godaveri, 
and  Nerbtidda,  the  Tenasserim  provinces,  Orisa,  Silhit ;  ROld  aiiri 

Srecioua  atones  in  the  Fanjab,  Tenasserim,  and  the  Malabar  coast ; 
iamonds  in  Bandalkband,  Sambalpttr,  and  Viiapllr:  but  the  dia- 
mond-mines of  tlie  Fennair,  which  once  supplied  the  merchants  of 
Golcondo,  are  no  longer  wrought.  Salt  is  found  in  abundance  in  the 
Panjab  and  lisjpntana,  and  sidtpetre  in  several  places, 

aotaji7. — The  whole  of  Hindustan  south  of  tbe  Himalara.  to- 
gether with  Ceylon,  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  and  the  south  of  China, 
cmnstiCute  theseventh  phyto-geographic  region  of  Professor  Schouw; 
while  Ma  eighth  region  uompriaos  tlie  mountains  of  India  butwreii 
the  elevations  of  BDOD  and  12,000  feet 

Tlie  fiiat  mentioned,  which  is  also  called  the  fndian  lUgion,  or  It/'iion 
o/Sc^aipintie  and  Zingibiracea,  is  unrivalled  for  t^e  richness  of  its  vege- 
tation. Tropical  plants  are  abundant,  while  tbe  eTtrs-tropiual  disappear; 
Die  trees  are  never  deatitute  of  tiowara,  and  the  niunber  of  arboreseeoC 
verv  ntmierouE  ;  tbe  Haweia  are  lai£e  and  splendid,  and  there 
'  climbmg  and  parasllioal  plants.     Tlie  principal  trees  are  the 
I   teak  wtuch  IS  rerkoned  Buperiorto  oak  forsbiphuUding;  the  saul,  smo, 
in]  babul     the  coooa-nut.  every  portion  of  wiiidi  isreodered.  avuluMe 


392  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


wrhicli  918  are  monocotyledons,  and  6036  dicotyledons.    The  eiglUh,  or 
Emxxiic  Regiony  embraces  the  Himalayas  above  the  height  of  5000  ft., 


which 
JSmodic 

and  comprises  Kashmir,  Sirmur,  Gurwhal,  Kumaon,  Nepal,  Sikhira,  and 
Bhotim  :  here  the  mean  annual  temperature  ranges  from  66**  to  37*  Fah. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Region  or  Rhododendra,  as  these  form  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  its  vegetation.  Pines  abound,  including  the 
magnificent  deodar,  together  with  oaks  and  other  forest-trees  common  in 
Europe,  while  tropical  plants  either  wholly  disappear  or  are  very  rare. 
The  western  portion  of  this  region  differs  from  the  eastern  in  having  a 
damper  climate,  a  predominance  of  dicotyledonous  forests,  and  a  rarity 
of  coniferous  trees.  The  cultivated  plants  are  the  cereals  and  the  orchard- 
fruits  of  Europe,  mountain  rice,  and,  in  the  lower  regions,  a  few  tropical 
flants.  Wheat  is  raised  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  to  an  elevation  of 
0,000  ft.  On  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Ganges,  and  aU  around  the  sea- 
coast,  rice  constitutes  the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants ;  wheat  and 
maize  are  largely  consumed  in  tlie  North-Western  Provinces ;  wliUe  the 
peasantry  of  the  Dakhan  depend  for  subsistence  on  jowar,  bajra,  and  a 
small  poor  grain  called  '*  raggi."  One  of  the  principal  cultivated  plants  of 
India  is  opium,  which  is  chiefly  grown  in  Bengal,  parts  of  Bombay,  and 
Malwa.  Its  production  and  sale  form  a  Government  monopoly.  The 
total  value  of  the  opium  exported  from  British  India  in  1867  was  upwards 
of  £11,000,000.  Indigo  is  chiefly  produced  in  Bengal,  in  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges,  whence  about  £2,000,000  worth  is  annually  raised.  Tea  is  now 
largely  cultivated  in  Assam,  and  coffee  of  good  quality  on  the  NOgiris  ; 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  cinchona  plant  (Peruvian  bark)  is  succeeding 
admirably  on  the  high  grounds. 

Zoology. — The  fauna  of  Hindustan  is  exhibited  in  detail  under 
**  Asia,"  par.  18,  where  the  last  column  in  the  different  tables  shows 
the  number  of  species  in  each  order  known  to  exist  in  this  peninsula. 
The  forests  contain  a  variety  of  wild  animals,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  gayal,  yak  (the  latter  being 
found  only  on  the  Tibetan  frontier),  and  bear.  Tigers,  panthers,  leo- 
pards, wild-boars,  hyaenas,  wolves,  and  jackals,  pervade  both  forest 
and  jungle.  Lions  are  met  with  only  in  particular  localities,  espe- 
cially in  Rajputana  and  Gujarat.  Other  wild  animals  are  the  deer, 
antelope,  and  monkey.  The  Kashmir  goat,  noted  for  its  very  fine 
wool,  the  silk-worm,  and  the  lac  insect,  which  produces  the  sticlac 
of  commerce,  are  largely  reared.  Crocodiles,  serpents,  and  other 
reptiles,  are  very  numerous,  amounting  in  all  to  179  species.  There 
are  450  species  of  birds  of  evei7  variety  of  plumage.  Game  and  fish 
are  abundant  in  all  parts  of  India. 

Etlinograpliy. — About  six-sevenths  of  the  enormous  population  of 
India  are  Hindus  (an  Aryan  or  Japhetic  race) ;  the  rest  are  of  various 
races.  Among  these  are  reckoned  10,000,000  Arabs  and  Persians; 
150,000European8,  chiefly  British;  several  millions  of  Afghans,  chiefly 
located  in  the  North- West  Provinces,  and  professing  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  numerous  hill- tribes,  who 
are  now  regarded  as  remnants  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  India. 
Thev  are  of  black  complexion,  speak  languages  of  the  Turanian  class, 
butliave  no  literature,  and  almost  no  traditions.  They  are  known  by 
the  general  name  of  "  Coolies,"  and  comprise  the  Gonds  or  Khonds 


I 
I 


[KDiA,  on  HisDUST.AN.  39!l 

of  OrisB,  Ihe  BhilK  of  Mswar,  the  Warlis  and  Katodare  of  tlia 
Western  GliiLts,  thu  Cheiien'iirs  of  the  £asteni  Gh&ts.  anil  tbs  Yene- 
dys  of  tlie  Eamatak.  They  have  Bcarcely  any  religion,  have  in 
genenl  no  idea  of  a  fat\iTe  state,  and  belong  to  the  loweat  type  of 
civiliBttlion.  (See  under  "  Languancs,"  No.  3,  below.)  The  Hindus, 
though  generally  s]ioken  of  as  one  people,  really  consist  of  an  irn- 
menae  number  of  familiea  and  races,  diflcriiig-widely  from  each 
other  in  appearance,  language,  and  customa.  In  general  thay  a:  ' 
slender  build,  graceful,  agile  Egure,  Kith  a  com]]leJL"  '       ' 

a  dark  olive  to  a  light  transparent  brown.  The  laco  is 
forehead  moderately  large,  the  eyes  and  liair  black,  the 
mouth  generally  of  a  European  caat. 

langaiagM.— Upwards  of  thirty  distinc 
India.  These  nre  resolvable  into  three  n 
which  is  confined  to  the  Aryan  races,  wb 
.tered  India  about  3000  years  ago  (p.  86),  tl 


raiding  from 


.  languages  are  spoken  in 
,ain  divisions,  the  first  of 
I  are  believed  to  have  en- 
le  second  and  third  to  the 


t  THE   SASSCBIT,    the  AKCffiNT 
LUIOCAOB    OF    THE    BRAHMINS,     IN   WHICH  THEIR    SaCBED    BoOKS   ARE 

WHITTEN.— These  are  spoken  by  the  Hindus  proper  of  Northern  India, 
and  coroprlse  the  Btngalee,  Auamae,  and  Uriya,  or  Oriia,  in  the  Lower 
Provinces— the  lirat  of  which  is  spoken  by  about  30,000,000 ;  Biidi  or 
Bindwcft,  very  closely  allied  to  the  Sanscrit,  and  the  most  general  Ian 
pisge  of  the  Hindu  race,  in  Oudb  and  the  North-Wert  Provinces  ;  Hin- 
cjiutoflt  or  Urdu,  a  distinct  language  from  the  Hinduwee,  though  resem- 
bling it  in  idiom  and  construction.  It  can  claim  predonjinance  in  no 
Erticutar  locality,  but  is  spoken  by  the  Mussulmans  in  every  part  of 
dia,  and  especiallv  within  the  limits  of  tiie  Hinduwee  area,  ae  in 
Delhi.  Lukhnow,  Allahabad,  Patna,  and  Murabidabad,  It  isnow  adopted 
by  the  Indian  GovemmeTit  as  the  general  medium  of  communication 
with  the  natives,  is  the  language  of  official  documents  and  courts  of  jus- 
tice, and  by  far  the  most  lisetul  to  foreigners  visiting  India,  whether  in 
an  official  or  commercial  capacity.  Palpa,  Eianriiiit,  and  OvrvAaL  W. 
of  Nepal,  and  N.  of  the  Hinduwee,  to  which  they  ars  closely  allied. 
Gajarattii,  Kacklia,  Sindhre,  and  MnUait,  W.  of  the  flinduwee,  which 
they  greatly  referable.  .Silk  or  Panjabfi,  is  the  Isngu^a  of  the  Sikha  in 
the  Psnjsb,  and  derived  from  the  now  extinct  Praci-it,  formerly  the  ver- 
nacular language  of  this  region.  Dogara  or  Janbn,  in  the  hill  country 
N.  of  the  Panjab,  and  Haiim/rian  in  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  are  the 
most  northerly  of  the  Sansoritic  languages  in  India.  Nepattu,  in  Nepal, 
eihibita  the  phenomenon  of  a  Hindnwee  element  engrafted  on  a  language 
of  monosyllabic  strnctu™.  It  has  so  much  in  commoii,  however,  with 
the  Tibetan  of  Bhotan,  Ladakb,  and  Bultistan,  that  some  wrilera  reKard. 
it  as  a  corrupt  Tibetan  dialect.  The  Makraila,  between  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  Nagpur,  and  between  the  Tantl  and  the  Portuguese  district  of 
Gob,  besides  the  great  body  of  words  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  contains 
a  few  that  may  be  connected  with  the  non-Sanscritlc  langnages  of  the 
Dakhan.  In  addition  to  thcabovemay  be  mentioned  the  Cjt'aiit,  Mamur, 
JtcHTeUe,  Cdtypui'a,  Bitatiefr,  and  other  dialects  of  Kajpntanaand  Central 
Iiitlla-~^1  allied  to  the  Hinduwee,  and  spoken  by  upwards  of  12,000,001 
of  thfl  population.  2.  Lanouaoes  OF  the  Daehab.  *— These,  in  conimmi 
with  the  foregoing,  were  long  eonsidered  as  tbe  immediate  descendants  o{ 
Uie  Sawcrit ;  but  after  closer  investigation  they  are  now  generally  re- 
the  DnTldlul  [unQ]r  of  buira»^». 

't»  a 


394  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

garded  as  the  remnanta  of  an  Indo-Turanian  tongue,  which  at  a  very  re- 
mote period  prevailed  over  the  whole  peninsula — slight  traces  of  it  being 
still  discernible  in  the  purest  Sanscritic  dialects  of  the  north.  The  lan- 
guages of  the  Dakhan,  in  words  relating  to  common  worldly  affaire  and  in 
grammatical  structure,  are  essentially  oiflFerent  from  the  dialects  of  North- 
em  India.  It  would  therefore  appear  that  there  are  in  the  Dakhan  races 
who  were  driven  to  the  south  at  an  early  period  of  antiquity  by  the  Hindu 
invaders,  from  whom  they  received  their  religion,  laws,  and  civilisation. 
The  most  northerly  of  these  is  the  Telinga  or  Telvmiy  on  the  Coromandel 
coast,  nearly^  the  whole  of  Haidarabad,  part  of  Berar,  and  the  eastern 
part  of  Maistu:,  extending  northwards  to  the  river  Glanjam,  and  south- 
wards to  Pulicat.  It  is  the  softest  and  most  polished  of  the  languages  of 
Southern  India^  and  contains  the  greatest  portion  of  Sanscrit  words, 
which,  however,  form  no  part  of  its  basis.  Vanarese  or  Kaiiiata,  S.  of 
the  Mahratta  area,  extending  eastward  till  it  meets  the  Telinga  and 
Tamul  dialects,  and  southwards  to  the  Nilgiris.  It  greatly  resembles  the 
Telinga  and  Tamul,  and  is  spoken  by  upwards  of  7,000,000  of  people. 
Tulu  and  Malayalimt  on  the  Canara  and  Malabar  coasts,  between  the 
Western  Gh&ts  and  the  sea,  and  from  Goa  to  Cape  Comorin.  These  are 
closely  allied  to  each  other  and  to  the  Tamul,  of  which  indeed  they  may 
be  regarded  as  dialects.  Tamul,  the  language  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Dravira,  is  spoken  in  the  entire  S.E.  portion  of  the  peninsula,  from 
Pulicat  to  Cape  Comorin,  and  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Western 
GhAts.  It  also  prevails  in  the  north  part  of  Ceylon,  and  altogether  it  is 
the  language  of  7,000,000  people.  It  is  usually  considered  the  type,  or 
generic  form,  around  wliich  all  the  other  languages  of  Southern  India 
arrange  themselves,  as  it  possesses  fewer  afSnities  with  the  languages  of 
Sanscritic  origin  than  any  other  dialect  of  the  Dakhan.  The  Cingalese, 
in  Central  and  Southern  Ceylon,  considerably  resembles  the  Tamul  in 
construction  and  idiom  ;  but  Pali,  a  dead  language  closely  allied  to  the 
Sanscrit,  is  the  learned  and  religious  language  of  the  island.  3.  The 
Languages  op  the  barbabous  Tribes  op  the  Mountains.— These 
remain,  hitherto,  rude  and  unwritten ;  but  so  far  as  they  have  been  exa- 
mined they  more  resemble  the  second  than  the  first  group.  Several 
curious  instances  of  affinity  have  been  traced  between  some  of  them  and 
the  Turanian  of  Central  Asia ;  and  little  doubt  remains  that  the  wild 
tribes  speaking  them  belong  to  the  true  aborigines  of  the  country,  and 
are  quite  distinct  from  the  Hindus  of  Northern  India. 

Religion. — The  principal  forms  of  religious  belief  prevailing  in 
India  and  adjacent  territories  are  Brahminism,  Buddhism,  Jaiuism, 
Mohammedanism,  Nanukism,  Parseeism,  and  Christianity. 

1.  Brahminism  is  the  religion  of  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  population  of 
India  Proper,  and  thus  numbers  among  its  votaries  at  least  170,000,000 
of  people.  The  Brahmins  entered  India  from  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  Indus, 
about  B.O.  1100,  and  speedily  subdued  the  former  inhabitants,  whom  they 
compelled  to  embrace  the  religion  of  the  conquerors,  which  consists  of  a 
variety  of  the  most  degrading  superstitions  and  idolatrous  rites.  Though 
their  first  sacred  writings,  called  the  Vedas,  written  in  the  ancient  San- 
scrit, inculcate  the  existence  of  one  Supreme  Being,  yet,  in  subsequent 
books,  named  Puranas,  many  millions  of  subordinate  deities  are  recognised, 
who  administer  the  system  of  the  universe.  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Shiva, 
are  the  three  persons  of  the  Hindu  trinity,  and  the  principal  objects  of 
worship.  A  doctrine  somewhat  resembling  the  Incarnation  of  the  Saviour 
finds  a  place  in  the  Hindu  mythology — Vishnu,  the  second  pei-son  of 


their  trinity,  being  supposed  to  luive  freqnently  api^eared  on  earth,  i: 


is  form 


,  for  the 


true  reltnion,  pcatectiug 


pnipoaa  of  destroyiug  e 


a,  epreading  ths 


benehcea 


■ 
■ 

I 


reHftior.,  ^ ^  _._    , 

Another  leading  doctrine  of  the  Brahniine  is  the  IraTumiffralion  i^'iokU. 
After  death,  the  soul,  they  believe,  pas&ea  into  other  bodies,  either  of  men 
oT  inferior  auinmls,  according  to  tlie  purity  or  inipurity  of  the  previous 
life.  After  agca  have  pnased  in  thia  procesi  of  purilication,  it  ia  at  length 
absorbed  into  tlio  essence  of  the  Supreme  Beins,  and  eo  loses  its  identity. 
Brahminisni  ia  further  characteriaeil  by  muitiplied  forms  and  ceremonies, 
fatiguing  pilgrimages,  rigoroUB  faatii^,  acts  of  the  moat  revolting  un- 
deannesa,  and  the  wilful  ^aerifice  of  life.  But  tlie  system  of  coife  is  the 
jnain  pillar  of  thia  ancient  hut  monstrous  auparatitlnn.  Originally  there 
were  but  four  castes — the  £raA«uu,  or  priests,  theologiaua,  and  physi- 
cians; tlie  Kikalrj/as,  or  military  order;  the  Vaii/joi,  or  agriculturists, 
merchants,  and  herdsmen  ;  and  the  Sadras,  or  artisans,  labourers,  and 
servaut*.  In  the  couise  of  ages  these  four  ordere  have  become  greatly 
Intermingled,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  and  last,  possess  now 
little  piactical  influence.  The  evils  of  caste,  however,  still  remain  un- 
mitigated, aa  every  trade  and  occupation  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a 
separata  caste,  the  members  of  which  refuse  to  est,  drinli,  or  intermarry 
■with  those  of  any  other  caste.    Certain  cksaes  of  crime  are  puElshed  by 


lofca 


is  suddenly  plunged  into  hopek 
no  caste,  are  termed  Pariahs  li 
lu  the  N.,  and  a 
entire  population.    In  the 


ir  persons 


of 


<n  rights  of  hi 


he  S.,  Mahaura  in  the  W.,  and  Dhatra 
constituting,  it  is  said,  one-lifth  of  the 
towns  they  are  confined  to  separate  quarters 
degrading  occupations;  the;  '     "    ' 

',  and  a  Brahmin  is  contamin 
The  oriRb  of  caste  in  India. 

other  ancient  countries,  is  lost  in  the  darkness  of  the  j. _„... 

Bnhl^l  and  others  conjecture,  with  much  probability,  that  the  lower 
castes  are  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  reduced  by  their  Brahminlcal  con- 

rrom  to  their  present  condition  of  degradation.  2.  Bvddhiim,  at  one 
B  the  predominant  religion  of  the  country,  is  now  professed  only  In 
Kiotan,  Ceylon,  and  Arakhan.  Buddha,  i^  founder,  regarded  by  the 
Brahmina  aa  one  of  the  ineamations  of  Vislmii,  appeared  as  the  reformer 
of  Brahminlsm  about  S\M  B.C.  The  province  of  Behar  appears  to  have 
bMn  bis  native  place.  So  far  as  his  influence  extended,  he  abolished 
oaats,  reformed  the  creed,  and  changed  many  of  the  rallgions  observances 
of  Brahmiuism.  A  bloody  and  long-continued  war  arose  between  his 
foUowBTS  and  the  Brahmins ;  but  the  latter  ultimately  prevailed,  and  e: 

pelled  the  Buddhists  to  Ceylon,  Further  India,  and  other •--  -'— 

the  hc^ioning  of  the  siitb  century  of  our  era.  (See  c. 
3.  Jaintnn,  a  mixture  of  Brahminism  and  Buddhism,  has  n 
votaries  in  Central  and  Western  India.  It  did  not  assume  importance 
till  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  4.  Maiammedanism 
embraces  about  25,000,000  of  the  population,  principally  Afehans  and 
Arabs,  who  are  most  numerous  in  the  Paryab,  Knshmir,  the  North- West 
Provinces,  and  parts  of  the  Dakhan.  The  Arabic  language  is  here,  as 
everywhere  else,  the  depository  of  the  Mohammedan  faith.  The  Mobam- 
nedao  invasion  of  India  commenced  in  the  eleventh  and  was  completed 
la  the  Hfteenth  century,  hut  most  of  the  Mohammedans  now  in  that 
country  have  descended  from  a  Hindu  stoek.  5.  Xatutitm  or  Sitiitm, 
the  religion  of  the  Sikhs,  is  a  oompound  of  Brahminism  and  Mohanimed- 
■nlua,  and  is  professed  by  about  half  a  millioa  of  people.    Nanuk,  its 


Led  the 
d  if  he  should 
in  EgJTt  and 


396  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

founder,  a  native  of  the  Panjab,  was  born  in  1469.  6.  Parsetism.  or  Fiit- 
worship,  is  the  religion  of  the  refugees  from  the  relldous  persecutions  of 
Persia.  Though  small  in  number,  they  are  distinguished  for  their  pubhc 
munificence,  skill,  and  their  success  in  commerce.  Zoroaster,  the  founder, 
or  rather  the  reformer,  of  Parseeism,  was  bom  at  Urumiah,  in  Azerbijan, 
B.C.  589,  and  was  therefore  a  contemporary  of  Buddha.  7.  CJirigtianity 
was  introduced  into  India  in  the  third  century,  since  which  there  have 
been  Sjrrian  Christians  in  the  S.W.  of  the  country.  The  Portngua<i6 
established  missions  on  the  W.  coast  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the 
seventeenth  the  Reformed  religion  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch,  but 
with  little  success.  In  1793  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  sent  out  its 
first  agents  to  Bengal  (Carey  and  Thomas),  and,  soon  after,  several  other 
societies  followed  their  example.  In  1862  there  were  31  missionary  so- 
cieties, having  371  stations,  519  foreign  missionaries,  140  native  mission- 
aries, 1365  native  catechists,  1190  churches,  Avith  a  communion  roll  of 
81,249.  By  the  census  of  1872,  the  Christian  community  numbered 
nearly  900,000,  or  one  for  every  200  of  the  population,  and  even  of  these 
about  250,000  were  Europeans,  while  9-10th8  of  the  remainder  were 
Boman  Catholics.  Slowly  but  surelv  the  religion  of  Jesus  is  undermining 
the  hoary  idolatries  of  India.  The  harvest  truly  is  great,  but  the  labour- 
ers are  few. 

Science  and  Literature. — The  whole  circle  of  Hindu  knowledge  is 
divided  Into  eighteen  parts,  of  which  the  first  four  are  the  Vedas, 
These  are  regarded  as  an  immediate  revelation  from  heaven,  and  as 
containing  the  true  knowledge  of  God,  of  His  religion,  and  of  His 
worship.  Next  to  the  Vedas  rank  four  Upavedcbs,  which  comprise 
the  knowledge  of  medicine,  music,  and  other  arts.  After  these 
follow  six  VedangaSf  which  relate  to  pronunciation,  grammar,  pro- 
sody, religious  rites  and  ceremonies  ;  and  finally,  four  Upangas, 
which  treat  of  logic,  philosophy,  jurisprudence,  and  history. 

The  Vedas  are  undoubtedly  the  most  ancient  compositions  in  the 
whole  range  of  Sanscrit  literature.  Sir  W.  Jones  fixes  their  date  at  B.c. 
1500  ;  Colonel  Vans  Kennedy,  at  B.c.  1200;  while  the  learned  Bitter,  who 
has  investigated  the  subject  with  the  greatest  care,  believes  they  were 
either  collected  or  composed  from  B.C.  1400  to  B.C.  1000.  Their  high 
antiquity,  combined  with  the  obsolete  dialect  in  which  they  are  written, 
is  such  as  to  render  the  reading  of  them  difficult  even  to  the  Brahmins. 
A  complete  collection  of  the  Vedas,  obtained  by  Colonel  Polier,  from 
Jaypur,  is  now  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  in  eleven  large  folio 
volumes.  A  translation  of  these,  by  Professor  H.  H.  Wilson,  appeared 
in  1867.  From  the  analyses  that  have  been  given  of  their  contents,  the 
very  important  fact  appears  that  the  science  of  these  books  is  as  false  as 
their  theology — a  most  auspicious  fact,  certainly,  to  the  missionary  enter- 
prise in  India.  Inferior  to  the  Vedas  in  antiquity,  but  regarded  as 
equally  sacred,  are  the  famous  Institutes  of  Menu,  consisting  of  a  com- 
plete system  of  criminal  jurisprudence,  divided  into  twelve  books.  Sir  W. 
Jones  assigned  them  to  B.C.  880,  but  Ritter  is  of  opinion  that  the  different 
parts  belong  to  diflFerent  times.  These  laws— being  regarded  as  sacred  by 
upwards  of  a  hundred  millions  of  people,  whose  habits  of  life  have  been 
moulded  by  their  influence  for  so  many  generations — must  ever  form  an 
object  of  the  deepest  interest  to  the  philosopher  and  historian ;  and  it 
would  be  impossible  to  comprehend  the  literature  or  local  usages  of  India 
without  a  knowledge  of  their  contents.    Previous  to  the  compilation  ci 


INDIA,    OR    HINDUSTAN'.  3!i7 

I    tliia  legal  coda  thure  n-ore  coniitosEil  tiio  grand  epic  popins — ttie  MiMb- 

'    limt,  or  tlis  wars  of  Krlshii;!,  in  eighteen  caiitDS ;  anil  the  Hama^ana, 

I    which  narrates  the  banishment  and  wanderings  of  liaiiia,  a  prince  belong- 

I    ing  ta  the  dvuaaty  of  the  kings  of  Ayodhya.     The  next  mast  intportant 

[  diriaiou  of  tlie  Hinda  sacred  books  coueists  of  the  Pcranas.    These  are 

I    divided,  into  two  classes,  each  containing  eighteen  books.     They  consist 

I   of  poetieal  representations  of  Indian  mythology  and  fabnlous  history,  and 

I  liold  an  eminent  rank  in  the  religion  and  literature  of  the  Hindus.     TUey 

I   ngutate  their  ritual,  direct  their  faith,  and  supply,  in  popular  legendary 

I  tale?,  raaterials  foe  their  credulity.    Besides  theology  and  poetry,  the 

Banaurit  literature  embraces   philosophy,  jurisprudence,  matheniatict, 

liistory,  geography,  medicine,  fables,  tsles,  and  dramatic  compositions. 

Its  poetry  has  assumed  almost  all  the  forms  to  be  met  with  in  Europe, 

■nd  in  every  form  it  is  cliaracterised  by  consummate  beauty  and  eicet- 

lenoB.    The  most  celebrated  of  its  heroic  poets  is  Volmiki,  wlio  hsu  lieeu 

likened  to  Ilomor;  in  the  drania,  C£id£a  has  been  designated  as  the 

Indian  Shakespeare  j  while  Vy&a  has  beeu  compared  to  Uiltou. 

Ednoatlon.  — The  great  body  of  the  people  ai'e  sunk  in  the  deepest 

ignorance.     Even  among  the  Brahmins  superior  education  is  very 

partially  diffused,  most  of  tlicra  being  ignorant  of  their  own  sacred. 

^   and  professional  language.     Some  of  the  higher  classes  exhihit-an 

L   eisj  epistolary  style,  tliougli  most  of  them  can  only  read  nud  sign 

I  their  names.     The  few  who  advance  beyond  reading  and  ciiiherini; 

I   atudy  only  the  native  sacred  books,  and  hench  their  i-iews  arc  very 

limited  and  erroneous.     The  female  sex  is  everywhere  kept  in  a  state 

of  savage  ignorance,  as  also  the  pariahs  or  people  of  no  caste.     Tli<! 

Britiati  Government  devotes  laudable  attention  to  the  education  of 

the  natives,  having,  since  1854,  established  25,147  schools,  with  an 

nttendaoee  of  800,000  pupils.     Besides  these  tlivre  are  uuiversilics 

at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bomlia}-,  and  colleges  in  eleven  other  Inrne 

towns.   Humerous  schools  have  been  founded  hy  some  of  the  niissioii- 

I   mry  societies,  and  by  private  munificence.     The  Euglish  language  is 

I  taught  in  all  the  Government  schools,  as  well  as  most  other  branches 

P   of  a  sound  popular  eduration.     The  natives  of  all  classes,  at  least  in 

the  presidency  seats  and  a  few   of  the  larger  cities,  exhibit  tbe 

ritest  eagerness  to  avaQ  themselves  of  a  good  English  edncatiou 
their  children  ;  and  some  of  the  colleges  and  schoius  have  already 
Erodaced  acc^implished  scholars.  Unfortnnately,  however,  for  the 
ighest  success  of  the  Government  seminaries,  the  Bible  is  systemnti- 
uallv  excluded,  though  ready  access  is  accoitled  to  the  aacred  books 
of  the  natives. 

QoTBniment,  Army  and  Kavy,  ftc. — In  the  numerous  native  stales, 
whether  Indepoiident  or  Protected,  the  government  is  invariably  ti 
pure  despotism— the  people  being  everywhere  crushed  to  the  earth 
liy  their  rapacious  aud  un]irincipled  sovereigns.  Tbe  relation  of 
tfiesB  to  the  British  Government  is  indioated  above,  under  "Politiol 
Divisions."  Since  1 856,  the  government  of  British  India  is  vested 
in  a  Governor-General  and  Council,  wlio  reside  at  CalcDtta ;  and  a 
Sficretary  of  State  for  Indili,  with  a  Council  of  fifteen  members,  in 
London.  The  administration  was  previously  in  the  hands  of  a  body 
of  merchants,  called  tba  lilait  Iniiia  Compaiiy,  but  salijeut  to  the 


398  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

supervision  of  the  British  Parliament,  through  the  medium  of  the 
Board  of  Control,  whose  President  was  a  Cabinet  Minister.  The  East 
India  Company  was  incorporated  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1600  :  it 
had  a  capital  stock  of  £6,000,000,  shared  in  different  proportions 
among  3600  individuals.  The  Mogul  emperor  gave  them  permission 
to  establish  a  factory  at  Surat  in  1611 ;  their  nrst  establishment  at 
Madras  was  formed  in  1648 ;  and  Fort-William,  at  Calcutta,  was 
erected  in  1699.  From  that  time,  partly  by  treaty  and  partly  by 
conquest,  their  authority  had  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
peninsula.  But  the  expiry  of  their  charter  in  1858,  the  lamentable 
events  of  the  recent  formidable  insurrection,  and  other  causes,  have 
induced  the  British  Government  to  take  the  immediate  superintend- 
ence of  their  vast  possessions  in  India  into  their  own  hands.  The 
total  armed  force  in  India,  previous  to  the  rebellion  of  1857,  amount- 
ed to  729,385— viz.,  in  British  India,  289,457  (of  whom  86,608  were 
Europeans,  and  202,849  native  sepoys) ;  Protected  and  Independent 
states,  398,918  ;  contingent  troops,  commanded  by  British  oflScers, 
41,010.  Almost  the  whole  Bengal  native  army,  numbering  97,511 
men,  joined  in  the  mutiny  of  1857.  In  1870,  the  number  of  British 
soldiers  serving  in  India  was  62,693,  while  the  native  troops  in  the 
British  army  amounted  to  114,750  men. 

Commerce,  Manufactures,  ftc. — The  commerce  of  British  India  is 
extensive,    and  is  chiefly  carried  on  with   Britain,  China,  Japan, 
France,  and  Australasia.     The  principal  part  of  its  Exports,  which 
consists  of  opium,  raw  cotton,  cinchona  bark,  spices,  rice,  indigo  and 
other  dyes,  raw  silk,  tea,  jute,  salt,  saltpetre,  is  conveyed  to  the 
United  Kingdom.    The  total  value  of  the  exports  for  1873  amounted 
to  £56,525,000,   of  which  £30,000,000  value  came  to  the  United 
Kingdom;    China  and  Japan   took    about  £12,000,000;    France, 
£2,364,000  ;  Singapur  and  Malaya,  £2,000,000.    China  and  Japan 
are  its  principal  customers  for  opium  ;  France  and  Great  Britain  for 
indigo,  silk,  and  tea  ;  while  America  precedes  France  in  the  articles 
of  silk  and  saltpetre.     The  value  of  the  imports  into  India  for  the 
same  year  amounted  to  £35,817,000,  one-half  of  which  came  from 
the  United  Kingdom.     These  consisted  chiefly  of  cotton  goods  and 
yarn,  railway  materials,  machinery,  coal,  copper,  iron,  lead,  spelter, 
and  other  metals,  jewellery  and  other  precious  stones,  woollen  goods, 
silk  goods,  raw  silk,  spirits,  wines,  stationery,  and  salt.     The  opium 
grown  in  India  is  sent  to  China  in  exchange  for  tea  and  silk,  which 
are  then  sent  to  England,  and  thus  the  British  public  is  implicated 
m  this  scandalous  traffic  so  ruinous  to  the  teeming  millions  of  that 
vast  empire.    The  restrictions  which  formerly  hindered  the  commerce 
of  India  and  retarded  the  development  of  its  resources,  have  been 
gradually  removed,  and  the  country  now  enjoys  free  trade.    The  manu- 
factures mainly  consist  of  articles  for  home  consumption,  as  silks,  mus- 
1ms,  and  chintzes,  together  with  gold  and  silver  embroidery  in  Delhi 
and  the  Panjab ;  Kashmir  shawls  of  the  finest  texture  in  Kashmir ; 
and  jewellery,  toys,  and  ornaments  at  Benares  and  many  other  large 
towns.    The  Receipts  for  1870  amounted  to  £52,942, 480,  the  Expendi- 
ture  to  £53,568,076,  and  the  Public  Debt  (for  187.J)  to  £105,470,000. 


fuhtheb  1 


399 


I 

I 


Internal  Communloatlon. — The  infernal  commerOT  of  India  hns 
teen  vastly  developed  duting  the  last  few  j-eai's  by  the  constnictiaii 
of  Eeveral  great  lines  of  ra^vut^,  in  the  accomplishment  of  nhich 
the  greatest  engineering  dlffleulties  liBve  been  overcome.  One  line, 
the  East  Indian,  traverses  tlie  haaia  of  tbe  Ganges  from  Calcutta  to 
Delhi.  2.  The  Qi-eat  Indian  Peninsular,  Bhich,  starting  from  Bom- 
bay, joins  the  Klast  Indian  line  at  Jabalpur,  wbile  another  branch  of  it 
joins  the  Madras  line  at  Raichnr.  3.  The  Madras  line,  connecting 
Madras  with  Raichur,  and  Madras  with  Beypnr  on  tlie  Malabar 
coast  *.  The  Sindh,  Pan.iab,  and  Delhi  lines ;  the  first  connet^tiiig 
the  port  of  Karachi  with  Kotri  at  the  head  of  the  Indus  delta  ;  tJie 
second  connecting  Multan  with  Amiitiar;  and  the  third  joining 
Amritsar  and  Deliji,  and  so  connecting  the  basins  of  the  Indus  and 
Ganges.  The  total  nnmber  of  miles  open  in  ISli  was  5ST3,  and 
1850  more  were  either  projocttd  or  ■were  in  course  of  construction, 
Indian  canals  are  on  a  vast  scale,  hut  are  employed  more  for  irriga- 
tion than  for  tmCGs.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  Ganges  Canal  (one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  kind  in  the  world),  526  m.  in  length,  extending 
ftom  Uaridwar  on  the  Ganges,  proceeds  by  MiraC  to  Allighur,  with 
branches  to  KanhpQr  and  HamirpQr.  Other  great  canals  are  the 
jamna  Canal,  Doab  Canal,  Godavari  Canal,  Kriatna  Canal,  and 
Karari  Canal.  Telegraphic  communication  is  rapidly  on  the  in- 
ct«ue.  In  1873  there  were  lfi,700  m.  in  operation,  besides  1205 
in.  of  submarine  cable  between  >Suez  and  Aden,  and  1871  m.  from 
Aden  to  Bombay. 


FURTHER    INDIA. 

FoBTHEB  India,  also  called  the  South- Eastern  Peninsula 
and  the  Indo-Chinese  States,  consiBta  of  an  MBerablaBe  of  states 
Ijring  between  India  and  China,  and  forming  together  tte  eastern- 
most of  the  three  great  peninsulas  of  Asia. 

Bonndaries.— N.,  China  Proper  and  Tibet ;  W.,  India  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  S.  and  E.,  the  China  Sea.  Situated  be- 
tween lat.  1°  10'  and  27°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  91°  45'  and 
109°  9*  E.,  it  emiffacea  26°  of  latitude  and  17°  of  longitude. 
Bangkok,  the  cap.  of  Siam,  near  the  centre  of  the  peninsula, 
lies  on  the  same  parallel  as  San  Salvador,  Cape  Verd,  L.ike 
Tchad,  Mocha,  and  Madras. 

Are*  and  Pairaiatloii.— These  arc  rery  uncertain,  owing  te  our 
imiierfect  knowledge  of  the  coantry,  but  according  to  the  best 
anthoritiea,  tlie  area  is  about  889,105  sq.  m.,  and  the  population 
26,S3e,000.     The  statistics  of  the  diiferent  states  are  as  follows  :^ 


400 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


British  Possessions, 

Birma, 

Siam, 

Malaya, 

Anam  or  Cochin-China, 

Lower  Cochin -China  and  Cambodia,... 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 


93,664 
190,510 
309,000 

45,000 
220,000 

45,000 


Population. 


2.562,496 
4,000,000 
6,000,000 
200,000 
12,000,000 
1,500,000 


Thus  the  entire  population  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
British  Isles,  while  the  area  is  seven  times  greater.  The  British 
possessions,  equal  in  size  to  Great  Britain,  do  not  nearly  equal  Scot- 
land in  point  of  population.  The  independent  portion  of  Birma  is 
three  times  larger  than  England,  but  has  only  one-fifth  its  popula- 
tion. Siam^  with  ten  times  the  area,  has  not  double  the  population 
of  Scotland ;  while  Anam,  with  double  the  population  of  Ireland, 
has  nearly  seven  times  its  area. 

Surface  and  Mountains. — A  series  of  mountain -i*anges  running 
parallel  with  the  meridians,  and  enclosing  between  them  long  narrow 
river-basins,  form  the  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  country. 
Tlie  Irawadi  is  at  once  the  great  fertiliser  and  the  commercial  high- 
way of  Birma.  The  upper  courses  of  the  Sitang  and  the  Saluen 
also  flow  through  the  Birmese  empire,  but  very  little  is  known  re- 
garding them.  The  Meinam  is  to  Siam,  and  the  Me-Kong  or  Cam- 
bodia to  Anam,  what  the  Irawadi  is  to  Birma.  The  mountains  of 
Arakhan,  between  the  Irawadi  and  Bay  of  Bengal,  attain  an  eleva- 
tion of  5600  ft.,  while  Tidi-bang-sa  in  Malaya  rises  to  an  altitude 
of  6561  ft.. 

Political  Divisions.  —  The  principal  political  divisions  of  the 
Eastern  Peninsula  will  be  found  enumerated  in  the  preceding  table. 
But,  besides  these,  there  is  a  large  territory  of  unknown  dimensions 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  peninsula,  known  as  the  Laos  or  Shan 
states,  surrounded  by,  or  intermixed  with,  the  Birmese  or  Siamese 
dominions.  Many  of  the  tribes  are  tributary  to  these  two  kingdoms, 
but  east  of  101°  they  claim  to  be  independent,  and  live  a  pastoral 
and  nomadic  life.  The  narrow  poi-tion  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  as 
far  south  as  lat.  5",  is  subject  to  Siam,  while  the  territory  atill 
farther  south  is  divided  between  several  independent  chiefs — the 
principal  of  which  are  Perak,  Johore,  Pahang,  and  Salangore.  The 
Frencn,  in  1862,  established  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Me- 
Kong  or  Cambodia,  which  they  denominate  Lower  Cochin-China; 
while  in  1863  they  established  a  protectorate  over  the  formerly  inde- 
pendent kingdom  of  Cambodia.  The  towns  in  the  British  posses- 
sions have  been  enumerated  under  Hindustan ;  those  of  the  other 
states  are  as  follows : — 


:RTl<Eli    INDIA. 


4J1 
),  Blian.0 


—  Srandelay,  Moncholio  5,  Ava  30,  Aniai 
I    10  {Irawadi), 

SlAM.— Bangkuk  350,  Ayutiia  100  (MeiiiDm),  Tringanu  60  (Gulf 
of  Siam),  Cmitaburi  30,  Phunga  20  (Str.  of  Malauca). 

MiLAYA,  — Perak,  n.,  Sakngore,  tl.  (Str.  of  Malacca),  Joliore,  n., 
Pahang  (China  Sea). 

As/L3t  OB  Cochin-Chika.— Hne  100,  Fai-fo  IS  (China  Sea],  Eealio 
100  (Tonqnin). 

Lower  Cochis-Ciuka  and  Cambodia.— Saigou  ISO,  Udong  12 
(HH-KoEg). 

DascrlptlTe  Notes.  ^Oniittlnf;  ttie  British  possuasioiia,  there  are 
in  Furtbor  India,  so  lar  as  kuown  to  Europeans,  only  five  toivna  of 
above  100,000  iahabitaiits  (Bangkok,  Ajuthia,  Hufe,  Keaho,  Saigou), 
one  between  100,000  and  S0,000  (Tringanu),  and  four  between  60,000 
and  20,000  (Ara,  Aniarapura,  Cantaburi,  and  Phunga]. 

Uandelay,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irawadi,  is  the  preee^it  cap,  of 

the  BinpirB  of  Birma.     Ava,  Amarapnrft,  and  Jtonchobo  were  aucceasively 

the  seats  of  goverament  before  Maudelay.     The  first  two  were  reduced  to 

mius  by  an  earthquake  in  IS^JO.    Bhamo  is  a  prosperous  town,  and  the 

t    chief  seat  of  commerce  with  China,  eiportins  salt,  rice,  and  gBB^ee,  and 

I  Importhig  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  goods.    Bangkok,  cap.  of  Siani,  by 

I  far  the  largest  city  in  the  peninsula,  is — ■--■--'■- t^-''' -    >- 

and  ia  generally  styled  the  Venict    "  ' 

China.  Ajnthia,  tlie  former  cap.  of  Siam,  was  nearly  destroyed  hv  ttje 
Birniese  in  1767.  Cantaburi  is  a  fortiHed  seaport,  with  an  eiteushe 
eiport  trade,  and  roiiiea  of  precious  stonea  in  the  vicinity.  Perak,  cap. 
i>f  a  small  state  in  Malaya,  which  yields  tm,  rice,  and  ratans.  Balangore, 
Johore,  and  Palang  are  uii».  of  Biiiiilur  suiall  independent  states  in 
the  sonthmost  part  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  Hne,  a  popnious  city,  cap. 
of  the  eiiiplre  of  Anam,  is  unparalleled  in  the  East  for  the  strength  and 
magnitude  of  its  furtiflcations,  which  wore  ooiiatructed  by  Freuoh  en- 
gineers. Sesbo,  on  the  river  Tonqnhi,  is  the  cap.  ef  a  nrovinca  of  same 
name  whlob  ahounda  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron  ;  it  Is  mainly  noted 
for  Its  lacquered  ware,  considered  tie  finest  in  the  East.  Saigon,  cap.  of 
the  French  colony  of  Lower  Cocldn-China,  was  seized  from  the  AnauicKe 
In  1860  :  it  is  fortified  in  the  European  style,  and  has  a  naval  arsenal  and 
docks  admitting  the  largest  ships,  Udong,  cap,  of  Cambodia,  formerly 
heloDKlng  to  Siam,  and  aflern'orda  independent,  is  dow  Iriliutan-  to 
FrJKice. 
Capes,  IsUndB,  QnUa,  and  Btralti.— See  under  "Asia."  |i.  34S. 

mly  lake  of  iinportoiica  ia  Further  India  is  tin  Tnle- 


1,  is  principally  built  on  i 
)f  the  Cast.     Tlie  city  Is 


Sab,  or  "great  lake,"  in  Cambodia  4i 
Me-Kong.  During  tlie  rainy  apunn 
It  abounds  with  liaii,  and  its  shorci  i 
of  all  kinds. 

OUnuLta. — The  climate,  tlioa^*>  ^^  -' 
for  European  constitutions  *'■■ 
1  annual  tfunperatnre  ranges  I 


n,  and  in  the  basin  of  tlie 
attains  gif^tio  dimensioiiit. 
'e  frequented  by  aquatic  biida 


402  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

soon,  lasting  from  May  till  the  middle  of  September,  is  the  winy 
season  in  the  W.,  where  the  annual  fall  of  rain  is  from  150  to  200 
inches.  The  N.E.  monsoon,  lasting  from  October  to  April,  brings 
rain  to  the  E.  coast  The  climate  of  Malaya  is  tropical,  but  the 
solar  heat  is  tempered  by  sea-breezes.  Here  the  thermometer  ranges 
from  76"  to  93*. 

Minerals. — Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  antimony,  marble,  ser- 
pentine, sapphires  and  numerous  other  precious  stones  ;  coal,  nitre, 
sulphur,  and  petroleum  or  mineral  oil,  which  is  found  in  vast  quan- 
tities in  Birma.  The  wells  occupy  a  space  of  about  16  miles  square, 
and  yield  annually  about  80,000,000  lb.  of  asphalt  Being  cheaper 
than  any  other  kind  of  oil,  it  is  universally  used  in  Birma,  notwith- 
standing its  disagreeable  odour. 

Botany. — The  botany  of  Further  India  is  similar  to  that  of  Hin- 
dustan, both  being  comprised  in  Schouw's  "Seventh  Phyto-geo- 
graphic  Region."  (See  under  **  India.")  Forests  are  numerous,  and 
yield  much  valuable  timber,  among  which  are  teak-trees  (admirably 
adapted  for  shipbuilding),  trees  yielding  elastic  gums  (especially  the 
taban  or  gutta-percha  tree,  and  the  gamboge,  a  valuable  cathartic 
medicine),  together  with  many  woods  used  as  dyes  and  perfumes. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward  state,  but  rice,  cotton,  indigo, 
tobacco,  and  the  sugar-cane,  are  extensively  grown. 

Zoology. — Wild  animals  are  very  numerous,  including  the  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  tiger,  leopard,  buffalo,  bear,  hog,  civet-cat,  deer,  ante- 
lope, goat,  otter,  with  several  species  of  baboons  and  monkeys ;  the 
peacock,  parrot,  and  a  variety  of  other  birds  of  the  richest  plumage ; 
the  curlew,  plover,  and  aquatic  birds  of  all  kinds.  Alligators  infest 
the  large  rivers,  and  the  hooded  snake,  with  several  other  noxious 
reptiles,  the  land.  The  sea  abounds  with  an  inexhaustible  supply 
of  fish.     Mosquitoes  and  other  insects  exist  in  great  multitudes. 

Etlmograpliy. — With  the  exception  of  the  Malays,  who  possess 
the  coasts  of  the  peninsula  which  bears  their  name,  and  the  Moys  or 
negroes,  who  inhabit  the  mountains  of  Cochin-China  and  Cambodia, 
the  whole  of  this  extensive  region  is  inhabited  by  nations  of  Mon- 
golian origin.  In  physical  aspect  they  greatly  resemble  the  Chinese, 
though  in  certain  districts  they  present  a  near  affinity  to  the  Hin- 
dus, to  whom,  however,  they  are  greatly  inferior  in  civilisation. 
The  Birmese,  however,  resemble  the  Malays,  though  in  appearance 
and  language  they  approximate  more  closely  than  the  latter  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Hindustan.  With  the  exception  of  the  Malayan  (for 
which  see  under  "Oceania")  the  Languages  spoken  in  the  Indo- 
Chinese  states  are  all  of  the  monosyllabic  class  and  allied  to  the 
Chinese,  but  with  many  polysyllabic  terms  engrafted  from  Hindu 
and  other  sources.  The  tongues  most  widely  spoken  are  the  Bir- 
mese, Arakhanese,  Peguese,  Siamese,  Laos  or  Law,  Cambodian,  and 
Anamite.  The  Religion  of  the  entire  peninsula  is  13uddhism,  except 
in  Malaya,  where  Mohammedanism  prevails,  and  in  parts  of  Anam, 
where  the  higher  classes  are  disciples  of  Confucius.     The  most  ab- 


FrETHEE  n.TrA.  403 

JKt  anperstitioB  prernila  pvcrj-wLfire,  and  the  groHSest  iiiolntrics  ara 
prefirised.  The  introduetim)  of  ChriGtiftnitj  boB  made  great  changes 
snong  the  rude  liiU  tribes  of  Birmit,  and  the  jhhheb  of  Cnrcy  and 
Jodaou  will  be  hold  in  lasting  remembroDce  tlii'oaglioDt  the  Cliriatiait 
world.  Never  in  modem  times  bare  tbe  iniraiomuies  of  the  cross 
been  sobjected  to  snth  bitter  siiffeiines  imd  privstione  as  tbose  whirb 
thej  dtdared  in  propa^ting  tbe  faith  in  Birmo.  The  French  Jesuit 
DiismrinBiies  have  a  seminary  and  other  BchoolB  in  Siam ;  while  in 
Bai^kok,  American  ProtfStant  missionaries  piint  and  lirculats  tha 
Bible  in  Siamese  and  Chinese  langcages.  Eeading  and  writing  are 
more  generallj  diffused  in  Blima  than  among  an;  poodle  of  the 
East.  A  translation  of  tliE  entire  Bible  in  the  Bimiese  language  was 
eompleteJ  bj  Jndson  in  IBBl. 

Qorenmaut,  tec. — In  these  conntries  abBolntiaro  and  trranny 
havt  been  carried  to  the  higbesl  entreroe,  and  the  iiiost  servile  suV 
mis^on  is  exacted  by  the  monarchs  from  all  clasBes  of  tbeir  subjects. 
In  Birma  and  Siam  the  people  are  prohibited,  under  paiu  of  death, 
from  pronouncing  the  emperor's  name.  Tbe  laws  are  Ban^inary, 
md  the  punishments  awarded  are  marked  bv  the  greatest  craelty. 
"WitJi  the  exoeption  of  the  priests  and  public  funitionarieB,  every 
male  iDhahitant  is  ohligEd  to  devote  not  less  than  erery  third  year 
of  his  life  to  the  public  service,  either  as  a  soldier  or  as  a  labourer ; 
wMle  emigration  is  rsgarded  as  a  treasonable  offence,  and  equivalent 
to  a  theft  of  the  prince's  property.  The  Public  Kevenne  of  Binua, 
which  doea  not  probably  exceed  £25,000,  is  derived  from  a  tithe  at 
the  profils  oa  cultivation,  from  fisherieE,  minea,  and  petralenm  ttpIIe, 
and  from  a  poll-tai  levied  on  the  nnsettled  tribes.  In  1870  the  Int- 
port8ofSiiimttmDuntedto£l,lG7,6B7,  BndtheEipnrtstofl,S17,S22. 
There  is  no  etanding  army  in  Siam,  bat  every  mule  is  liable  to  serve 
Tor  K  portion  of  the  year,  and  nsmeroos  war-jun^  are  kept  up,  which 
■re  maimed  by  Chinese  and  other  foreigners.  Anam  has  a  standing 
srmy  of  about  50.000  men,  besides  the  royal  gusrd,  and  600  ele- 
phants. The  nary  consists  of  SOO  gun-boats,  IDO  galleys,  and  500 
smaller  vessels. 

Donimerce  and  Maanttctpres. — In  a  comTnercial  point  of  view, 
Biam  is  tbe  most  iiuportaut  Indo-Chinese  stale,  and  carries  on  an 
ertenaivB  intercourse  with  China,  Java,  and  SiuBopur,  There  are 
few  roads  in  the  country,  but  a  nsiTBable  caoal  connects  tha  Weinam 
and  Cambodia.  The  Intc  king,  who  died  in  1 S51,  was  an  enlighteneil 
iDonaTch,  who  trained  his  troops  in  the  European  manner,  made 
emals  and  roads,  built  ships,  introduced  steamers,  encoumged  arts 
at>d  commerce,  and  established  printing  from  types—  previously  nu- 
known  in  Siam.    Tbe  principal  mannfactnres  in  ^am  are  vases,  uru^ 

I    eold-beating,    iron -foon ding,    fine    cloth,   gla^-wares,   and   pottcrv. 

I  Mines  of  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  tin  are  abnndnnt  and  estensirely 
bt.  The  commercial  traiiBacti'>ns  of  the  BirmeEe  are  iodi- 
[]y  on  a  small  scale,  though  the  aggregate  is  considerable, 
pal  exports,  raw  cotton,  teat-wood,  catechu,  Btick-lac,  bees- 

,    wax,  slepluuitE'  teetli,  gold,  and  silver.     The  Binnese  are  celebrated 


404 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUY. 


for  bell-casting  and  gilding,  dyeing  silk  and  other  fabrics.  The 
chief  outlet  for  its  commerce  is  China.  The  people  of  the  Laos  sell 
ivory,  skins,  gold,  musk,  gums,  &c.,  to  the  Chinese  and  Siamese  in 
exchange  for  pottery,  glass,  &c.  This  country  also  furnishes  the 
enormous  trees  of  which  the  Chinese  make  masts  for  their  largest 
war-junks.  The  French  colony  exports  dried  fish,  cocoa-nut  oil, 
bufl'alo  hides  and  horns,  mats,  Arakhan  nuts,  cotton,  rice,  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  silk.  In  Anam  the  emperor  monopolises  all  the  foreign 
trade,  in  which  five  ships  are  employed — the  commerce  being  con- 
ducted for  the  most  part  with  Canton,  Batavia,  and  British  India. 

Table  of  Bivers  and  Towns. — The  following  table,  which  is  in 
continuation  of  that  given  under  Biluchistan,  embraces  all  the  most 
important  rivers  and  towns  of  Hindustan  and  Further  India.  The 
rivers  belong  to  three  great  basins — viz.,  those  of  the  Arabian  Sea, 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  China  Sea. 


Basins  inclined  to 

Rivers.  Towns.  \ 

Ibdus, Karachi,  n. ,  Thattha, 

Haidarabad,   Sbik- 
arpor,  Iskardo. 

Gnnrlava, Gundava,  n.,  Kelat. 

Naii, Dadur. 

Satlej,  I Bhawalpur,     Ludhi- 

ana,     Sirhind,    n. , 
Ambala. 
Clienab, ....  Multan. 
llavi,2..  ..Lahur,  Amritsar,  n. 
Jehlum, . .  Kashmir. 

Bias Jallundar,  n. 

Kabul Peshawar,    Jelalabad, 

Kabul,  Istalif,  n. 
Kamah,  ....Kandeisu,    n.,    Chit- 
tral. 


the  Arabian  Sea. 

Rivers.  Totons. 

Logur, Ghuznee^  n. 

G.  of  Cutch, Bhuj,  n. 

Luny, JooHPUR,     n.,      Pali. 

Ajmir. 
Suraswutty,  ..Puttun,  Palihmpur. 
G.  of  Canibay,  ..Gambay. 
Sabarmati, .. . .  Ahmadabad. 

Mahi, Baroda. 

Nerbudda, ....  Gurrah,         Jabalpur, 
Mondlah. 

Taptl, Surat. 

KonkanShoi-e,  ..Bombay,     Pakjim, 

Goa. 
Kanara  Coast,   .  Mangalur. 
Malabar  Coast,  ..Kalikut,  Cochin,  Tri- 

VANCERAM. 


Basirts  inclined  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 


Kaveri, Tranquebar,      Tanjur, 

Trichinapalli,   Serin- 
gapatam,  Mysur. 

Punnair, Bengalur. 

CoromandelCo.,.PoNDiCHERi,  Madras. 

Palar Arcot,  Vellur. 

Ki-ishna Nizainpatnaro,  n.,  Ma- 

chhlipatnam,  Kola- 
pur. 

Musi,  I Haidarabad,     Sikan- 

darabad. 
Tungabhadro, .  Kamul. 
Hinderi, ....  Ballari. 

Bimah,  I Punderpur. 

Muta-Mula, .  Puna. 

Godaveri, Rajamahendrie,  Nasik. 

Weingunga,  I . .  Seuni. 

Kanhau Kampti. 

Nag, Naopur. 

Mai^jera, Beder. 


Puma,  I Assaye. 

Dudhna, ....  Aurangabad. 

Nuglandi, Shikacolam. 

Mahanadi, Puri,     Katak,    Sam- 

BHALPUR. 

Ganges Calcutta,    Chandnia- 

far,  Kalna,  Plassy, 
loglipur,  Patna, 
Benares,  Mirza- 
pur,  Allahabad. 
Kanhpnr,  Farruck- 
habad,  Haridwar. 

Damuda, Bardhwan. 

Atri,  1 81KHIM. 

Cosa Purneah. 

Bishnmati,. . . .  Patan,  Khatm andu. 

Fulgo Behar,  Gaya. 

Sone, Suhagpm*. 

Murar, Siroujah. 

Gbagia,  I Oadli,  Faizabad. 


lUplI,  I  . 

Boiini  iiwliiKd  It  Bay 

Nilkomir,.. 
Godadfl..... 

.,iii=d). 
.8h»hjabappur,     lliib- 

jrfr^  "■■""" 

.Kd8h-Beh.ii, 

Botwa,... 

..Dntlys,    Jhausi,  Bho- 

Cbsmiwi, 

DB*It 

::DEwXDjJ«ln.  Iscuit 

■iBAHEiLLT,  MoraJBlia-l, 
Rampur,      AuMoni, 

Bosfni  iiui.'n«Ef 
aJodoiT,  Puluiig. 
..TringaBn,  Ligor.  Cia- 

Pira,! 

Kongbo... 
Sitang 

.T-rago. 

liamguue 

"SK-SiSr 

.  nrSliiTii,  .. 

ToonB-tchang-fou, 

Ksn-rung,  d.,  Chnnu- 

Ling.™.           Yu.B^ 
Kiang. 

THE    CHINESE    EMPIRE. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,   Siberia;    W.,   Siberia,   Turkestan,   and 
Kushimr;  B.,  Hindustan  and  Further  India;  E.,  tlie  Pacific 
(  Ocean.     It  extends  from  lat  18°  to  53°  28'  N.,  and  from  Ion. 
[  77-  to  136°  E. 

The  prorince  Kan-sii,  in  the  N.W.  of  Cliina  proper,  forma  ttie  centre 
.  of  tMa  gigantic  empire,  and  ia  In  the  samu  lat.  aa  the  aouth  of  Spaiii, 
Sicily,  Cypnis,  Kashmir,  Yeilo,  Calitomia,  and  N.  Carolina ;  wliile  Pekin, 
tliBcspital  of  the  empire,  is  on  the  esrae  parallel  ns  Madrid,  Naples,  Con- 
■WntinoplB,  Bokhara,  and  New  York.  The  total  area  ia  roughly  esti- 
mated at  4,117,000  eq.  m.,  and  the  popnlatioa  at  425,000,000.  It  em- 
braiea  fully  two-sevenths  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  or  one-twelfth  of  tlia 
land  aarface  of  tho  globe,  and  contains  two  men  out  of  every  five  of  tlia 
hmnaD  race  (see  p.  93).  It  emhraces  nearly  the  whole  of  the  grEat  easleni 
plateau  of  Asia;  is  aitnalfld  almost  wholly  within  the  north  temperate 
lane;  holds  the  seftboard  of  the  largest  ooenn  from  the  0.  of  Tonqitiri 
(lat.  20°)  to  Victoria  Bay  (lat.  41°  N. ) ;  and  is  traversed  hy  several  of  tlie 

'  — — " — ' '  "■ '.  atupandona  monntain-rangea  or    " 

__f_   -^  ■-- '---^len  obliged  to  C£_- „ 
and  its  tributary  t^e 


406  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHV. 

Argun,  together  %vith  a  large  tract  of  country  between  the  mouth  of  the 
Anioor  and  Victoria  Bay.  Still  more  recently  (1864),  the  vast  region 
formerly  known  as  Chinese  or  Eastern  Turkestan,  in  the  extreme  west  of 
the  empire,  has  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  China  and  become  independent. 
The  existing  chief  divisions,  therefore,  of  the  Chinese  Empire  are,  China 
Proper,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet. 


CHINA  PROPER. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Mongolia ;  W.,  Tibet  and  Birraa ;  S., 
Anani,  and  the  China  Sea ;  E.,  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Lat.  18" — 
42*  N. ;  Ion.  98** — 122"  E.  Shanghae,  on  the  central  parallel,  is 
nearly  in  the  same  latitude  with  Marocco,  Alexandria,  Jeru- 
salem, Lahur,  and  the  head  of  the  G.  of  California. 

Area  and  Population. — The  estimated  area  is  1,609,500  sq.  m., 
and  the  population  405,000,000,  or  293  per  sq.  m.  The  greatest 
length  is  1600  m.,  while  the  breadth  varies  from  900  to  1300  m.  It 
is  twelve  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles  ;  considerably  larger  than 
Hindustan,  it  contains  nearly  double  its  number  of  people,  or  one- 
third  of  the  whole  human  race.  Incredible  as  this  density  of  popula- 
tion may  appear,  it  does  not  much  exceed  that  of  the  British  Isles, 
and  is  greatly  less  than  that  of  Belgium,  though  it  is  more  than 
double  that  of  Hindustan. 

Surface  and  Mountains. — The  eastern  half  of  China  Proper,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  the  lower  basins  of  the  Pei-ho,  Hoang-ho,  Yang-tse, 
and  Canton  River,  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  great  alluvial  plain,  cele- 
brated for  its  fertility  and  the  unrivalled  density  of  its  population. 
This  plain,  varying  in  breadth  from  150  to  400  m.,  and  embracing 
an  area  of  about  210,000  sq.  ra.,  lies  E.  of  the  meridian  of  110*. 
The  western  half  is  highly  mountainous.  The  Yun-ling,  which 
separates  China  Proper  from  Tibet,  runs  from  N.  to  S.  between  the 
upper  courses  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tse,  and  attains  an  eleva- 
tion of  12,000  ft.  From  this  backbone  of  the  country  three  lateral 
ranges  proceed  eastward  to  near  the  coast — viz.,  the  Yu-ling,  S.  of 
the  Canton  River  ;  the  Nan-ling,  8000  ft.  high,  between  the  Canton 
River  and  the  Yang-tse  ;  and  the  Pe-ling,  between  the  Yang-tse  and 
Hoang-ho.  The  coasts  are  low,  and  in  some  parts  swampy,  except 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Canton  River  ana  the  Yang-tse,  where 
they  are  high  and  rocky. 

Political  DivlBlons. — China  Proper  is  divided  into  nineteen  pro* 
vinces,  each  of  which,  on  an  average,  is  considerably  lai^ger  than 
Oreat  Britain.  Formerly  the  number  of  provinces  was  eighteen,  but 
now  the  province  of  Leao-Tong,  north  of  the  Great  Wall,  u  induded, 
as  it  forms  an  appanage  of  the  royal  family.  Onl^  a  limited  number 
of  the  great  cities  of  China  is  given  in  the  followmg  lifts,  and  en 
j  these  ai-e  still  very  imperfectly  known  to  Enropeaiilb 


::  tiiiNEsK  EJiriiiE. 


Sbten  Easteks  0 


Provinces. 


I 


Quaag-timg.— Canton  1200,  Victoria  30.  Macno  52,  Cliow-king 
(Cboo),  Lieu-chow  {S.  coast),  Chow-choo  (Hao),  Sn-atow  (E,  coast), 
Kisn-cliow  100  (I.  Hainan). 

FD-Uen. — Foo-cliow  1000,  Yen-ping  (Min),  Amoy  250,  Cliang- 
chow  800  t.  (Fo-kien  Chan.),  Tai-wan  (I.  Formosa). 

OIie-Klaug, — Hang-chow  700  (Taicn-long),  Wan-chow  n.,  Tai-cliow 
n.,  Hing-po  200  ii.  (const). 

Eang-aiL— Nanking  500  (Yang-tse),  Shanghae  135  (Woo-snng), 
Soo-choo  1500  (Gt.  Canal),  Hwai-ngan  {Hoang-ho). 

Shan-tmiB.  _  TBi-nan  (Talsin),  Yen-chovf  n.,  Tong-cliang  (GL 
Canal),  Teng-chow  (G.  Pe-chi-li). 

OM-IL— Pekikg  or  PskiLi  1348  n.  (Pei-ho),  Tien-tsin  (Ea-ho). 

leao-tong  or  Chlng-Slng, — Moukden  (I-eao-ho),  King-cliow,  Tung- 
wLaog  n.  (Yellaw  Sea). 

Sis  Centhsl  Provikceh. 
Bhazt-BB. — Tai-jTien,  Pin-yang,  Fuen-chow  (Fupn-ho). 
Ho-nan.— Kai-foag  lOOO,  Quei-te  n.,  Hoai-King  (Hoanf^-ho). 
Mgan-llwL— Ngan-king,  Tai-pino,  Cliee-chow  (Yang-tse). 
Kiane-Bl.— Nan-chang  (Kan),  Kin-te-ching  1000  (Po). 
Boo-pe. — Wa-cliang,  Han-kow  (Yang-tae),  Siang-yang  (Han). 
Hoo-nan.— Chang-shu,  Heng-chow,  Yong-chow  n.  (Heng). 

Sis  "Westers  Provisoes. 

Quang-BL— Qiiei-ling  (Quei),  Sin-ohow  (Choo),  Cliin-ngan  (Kgo- 
yii). 

Ton-nan.— Ynn-nan  (Tien-clii),  Li-kimig  (Tang-tse),  Lin-ngan, 
Yaen-kiaug  (Tonquin),  Young-chang  (Ms-kong), 

Qntd-diow.  —  Quei-yang  n.,  Se-nau  (Oo),  Chin-yuen,  Piiig-voo 
(ITuen). 

Sa-oliUBii.— Ching-too,  Sino-choo  (Min),  Poo-kiang  (Kiu-lingl, 

Kfta-au. — Lan-chow  (Hoong-lio),  Koong-eliiiiig  IWei-lio). 

Bhen-BG. — Si-ngan  (Wei-ho),  Han-choug  (Han). 

SeacriptiTsirDtei.— MARmMEPnoviHCEarCiA ton,  also  called  Quang-. 
ekow.  at  Ibe  head  of  the  Bocot  Tigris,  nr  estoary  of  Uia  Canton  BJver,  is 
OBt  of  the  tive  cities  opea  to  foTsigaera,  and  the  priadjial  eiitrepOt  uf 
caiDiiiurce  in  tlie  empire :  lla  eipoits  unoant  to  lour  njiUion-i  sterliiiu 
annually,  and  ita  imports  to  two  andft  half  milliona.  Its  jiriipcipal  fX- 
L  porta  are  te^  ailk,  ineciouD  tnetala,  cassia,  aiigar.  Slid  iwrcelaii 


imported  i>  opinm,  from  HindnttMi — \.\\B  sale  i 


thougti  iUte*)'  li  Ixiltiy  ixirnlltltd.    lu  1S3S  t^  CUIuoh  GovErmunat 


lu.il. 


408  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

forcibly  obliged  the  English  at  Canton  to  deliver  up  20,283  chests  of 
opium,  which  having  been  destroyed,  and  compensation  refus^,  war  was 
declared  by  England.  In  1841  the  Chinese  were  totally  defeat^  at  Can- 
ton, and  the  city  was  seized  by  the  British,  but  ransomed  by  tiie  payment 
of  6,000,000  dollars.  In  1847,  in  consequence  of  fresh  insults  on  the  part 
of  the  Chinese  Government,  the  Bogue  forts  were  captured  by  the  British, 
and  a  new  convention  agreed  to :  subsequent  grievances  led  to  the  capture 
of  the  city  by  the  British  and  French  troops  in  December  1857,  when 
Yeh,  the  governor,  was  made  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  conveyed  to  Calcutta. 
Victoria,  on  Hong-Kong  Island,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Bocca  Tigris,  oppo- 
site Macao,  and  80  m.  S.E.  of  Canton,  became  a  British  possession  by 
virtue  of  a  treaty  with  the  Chinese  in  1 841 :  it  has  numerous  storehouses 
and  European  dwellings,  and  steam  communication  with  England.  Macao 
has  belonged  to  the  Portuguese  since  1586.  It  is  well  fortified ;  but  the 
harbour  does  not  admit  lai^e  ships,  and  there  is  no  communication  with 
the  interior  of  the  country :  here,  for  a  time,  resided  CamoenSjthe  Portu- 
guese poet,  and  here  he  is  said  to  have  composed  the  Lusiad.  nlen-chow, 
a  large  and  populous  city,  capital  of  the  Island  Hainan,  has  extensive 
trade  with  Macao,  Assam,  Siam,  and  Singapur.  Foo-chow,  a  very  popu- 
lous city,  and  one  of  the  five  opened  to  European  commerce  by  the  treaty 
of  Nanking.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  commerce  and  the  industry  of  its 
inhabitants :  large  quantities  of  cotton  goods  and  blue  cloth  are  here 
manufactured,  and  500  ovens  are  constantly  employed  in  the  production 
of  porcelain  ware.  The  black-tea  district  is  only  70  miles  distant,  and 
there  are  extensive  lead-mines  in  the  vicinity.  In  1868,  Foo-chow  ex- 
ported tea  to  the  amoimt  of  £4,000,000  sterling,  while  its  imports 
amounted  to  £1,700,000,  one-half  of  which  consisted  of  opium  from  India. 
Amoy  is  one  of  the  five  cities  open  to  foreigners,  and  has  great  trade, 
especially  with  Formosa  and  the  maritime  provinces  of  China :  manufac- 
tures of  porcelain,  gi*ass- cloths,  paper,  and  candy- sugar,  which,  together 
with  congou  tea,  form  the  principal  articles  of  export.  Amoy  was  the 
great  military  depot  of  the  province  when  taken  by  the  English  in  1841. 
Chang-chow,  a  very  large  and  populous  city,  36  m.  S.W.  of  Amoy ;  its 
seaport  is  the  great  centre  of  the  silk  manufacture  of  the  province. 
Hang-ohow,  at  the  southern  terminus  of  the  imperial  canal,  is  the  famous 
Kinsai  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  capital,  in  his  time,  of  Southern  China ;  it 
has  long  been  noted  for  its  silk  manufactures,  particularly  for  its  flowered 
taffetas  and  different  kinds  of  satin.  Ning-po,  one  of  the  five  cities  open 
to  European  trade,  and  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful cities  in  the  Celestial  Empire,  is  six  m.  in  circumference,  is  enclosed 
by  walls  20  ft.  high,  and  is  a  place  of  great  trade — the  exports  of  tea  alona 
bein^  valued  at  £1,500,00.  Nanking  ( "  Court  of  the  South  "),  capital  of 
provmce  Kiang-su,  and  at  one  time  of  the  entire  empire,  is  now  greatly 
declined,  though  still  one  of  the  greatest  seats  of  manufacture  in  China ; 
its  nankeen  cloths,  satins,  silks,  and  crape,  are  reckoned  superior  to  those 
made  anywhere  else,  and  it  is  the  centre  of  a  very  extensive  commerce ; 
it  is  the  residence  of  a  viceroy,  the  seat  of  a  great  military  depot,  and  the 
principal  seat  of  literature  in  the  empire :  here  was  signed  tne  treaty  of 
peace  between  England  and  China,  Aug.  29,  1842,  by  which  European 
merchants  and  a  British  consul  were  allowed  to  reside  at  the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-chow,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghae.  Shanghae,  the  far- 
thest north  of  the  five  ports  above  mentioned,  and  the  chief  commer^Jtl 
port  of  the  empire,  carries  on  a  direct  trade  with  Central  Asia,  has  a  larg« 
coasting  trade,  with  flourishing  manufactures  of  flower^  silks,  iron- ware, 
glass,  paper,  &c.    The  annual  exports  ai-e  tea,  to  the  amouut  of  74,000,000 


J   CHINESE  EMPIltE. 


Othar  eiporta  ara  camphor,  drugs,  c 

fanports  coneiat  mBinly  of  opinni  frc  ,  .,       , 

Dually.    It  was  taken  by  the  Britisli  in  1812,  when  171  pieces  of 


>,  woollens  aiirt  wornteas  il.OCy.OI 

-    -IB  best  porcelain.     T 

lued  at  £7,219,000  i 


lint  of  military 


iptured.     Boo-cliOO,  a  very 


near  Tai-lioo  lake  in  the  line  otUiB  Imperial  Canal,  and  in  the  richeatand 
most  populoua  district  of  the  country;  it  is  celebrated  for  the  splendour 
of  iU  buildings  and  the  excellence  of  ita  raanuTactnres,  including  Gilk 
goods,  said  to  be  superior  in  variety  and  richneas  to  those  of  any  other 
city  in  China :  its  trade  is  very  extensive,  and  tlie  signs  of  its  prosperity 
are  everywhere  visible.  Tsi-nan  is  venerated  as  the  residence  of  a  foimer 
dynasty  of  Chinese  sovereigns.  PeMng  ("Northern  CapiliU"),  the  me- 
tropolis of  China  since  the  thirteenth  century,  when  Kunlai  Khan  made 
it  his  residence  instead  of  Nanking,  the  former  capital,  is  situated  nn  a 
sandy  plain  100  miles  from  the  sea  and  SO  miles  S.  of  the  Great  WalL 
It  is  said  to  contain  1,648,010  souls,  and  is  therefore  by  far  the  most 
popolona  city  in  Asia,  though  less  than  half  the  sixe  of  London.  It 
oOQBiats  of  two  distinct  cities,  one  of  which  ia  inhabited  by  Chinese, 
and  is  the  seat  of  commeice  ;  BiUd  the  other  by  Tartars,  divided  into 
three  Bsparate  enclcaures,— the  tlrst  of  which  contains  the  garrison— 
the  seoODd,  the  residences  of  the  principal  dignitaries  of  the  empire-~aad 
the  third,  the  palaces  of  the  emperor  and  empress.  Peking  has  a  lai^ 
printii^  and  bookselling  trade,  with  mann&ctures  of  ^lass,  idols,  and 
,. ._  _.■..._.  i._.  ... _  j_,._,  .---^5  chieilydepend  for  their  subsistence  on 
jonrt.  The  description  of  the  city  given 
1271,  is  in  many  respects  applicable  at 
_.iB  present  day.  In  1B60  Peking  was  invested  by  the  allied  French  and 
Englbh,  since  which  time  ambsssoilors  from  boUi  nations  have  resided 
ILare.  Tien-tain,  the  port  of  Pekine,  is  noted  for  the  treaty  of 
I    . .■^.^, ,t,^^,_v      „___  =_,„-^  snnmberof  Fi 


by  Marco  1 


Polo,  who  vi 


m  the  Chinese  and  British. 


J  French  n 


1.  N.E 


„.     .  .  _i-      '^  "■*  residence  of 

tha  Hantchoo  sovereigns  before  they  conquered  Qiina. 

Cbstbal  pHoviNOffi.— Tai-yuen,  a  large  and  populous  city,  the  ooca- 
rionalresidBncaofthesoveroignsof  the  last  reigning  dynaaty,  has  nianu- 
factnres  of  fine  porcelain,  felt  carpets,  and  iron-ware.  Eai-nng  is  not«d 
as  the  principal  seat  of  the  Jews  in  China.  Here,  it  is  said,  no  fewer  than 
1,000,000  of  them  reside,  speaking  the  Hebrew  language  and  practising 
their  ancient  religious  rites.  San-ohang,  a  very  populous  city,  famous 
for  its  porcelain,  has  a  great  trade  in  silks,  furs,  and  idols.  ElD-te-cbinjri 
with  a  million  inhabitants,  contains  the  largest  porcelain  manufactory  in 
the  world:  five  hundred  furnaces  are  constantly  at  work,  but  no  foreigner 
has  ever  been  admitted  within  the  walla,  lest  the  secrets  of  the  process 
should  be  ravealed.  'Wo-ohajig,  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  diatritta  of  the 
empire,  ia  one  of  the  largest  ofthe  inland  towns,  and  carries  on  on  exten- 

West 

by  the  Quei-Biang,  ifl  saia  ^ ,_.. 

on  the  least  mountainous  part  of  the  table-land,  ia  a  considerable  plao  . 
>nd  carries  on  an  active  trade  with  the  Birman  empire.  Ewei-yaap,  a 
comparatively  amali  l^iwn,  with  mines  of  gold,  silver,  vermilion,  and  iron 
'd  the  vicinity.  COliiig'toO,  a  popnloos  city,  adorned  with  fine  edifices, 
ind  the  seat  of  an  exlenaive  trade,  was  at  one  time  an  Imperial  residence, 
bat  woi  rained  by  the  Tailara  in  1S4B.  Inil-Ghaw  curiea  on  a  brisk 
SO 


410  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

trade  with  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  table-land  to  the  N.  and  W.  of  it. 
Si-nean,  a  large  and  ^pulous  city,  which  is  often  compared  with  Peking 
itself;  it  was  at  one  time  the  meto>poli8  of  the  einpire,  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  has  manufactures  of  militsury  and 
agricultural  implements,  and  is  the  principal  military  depot  for  the  nor- 
thern provinces. 

iBlandB. — Hainan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  G.  of  Tonqnin ;  Macao,  Lan* 
tao,  and  Hong-Kong,  in  the  Bocca  Tigris,  or  estuaiy  of  the  Canton 
river ;  Formosa,  Amoy,  and  Hae-tan,  E.  of  province  Fo-kien ;  Chusan 
Archipelago,  N.  E.  of  province  Che-kiang ;  Tsung-ming,  in  the  estu- 
ary of  the  Yang-tse. 

Hainan,  with  an  area  of  14,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  about 
1,000,000,  is  remarkably  fertile  along  the  coasts,  while  in  the  interior  the 
mountains  rise  beyond  the  limit  of  perennial  snow.  It  produces  sandal- 
wood, ebony,  rosewood,  sugar,  wax,  pearls,  and  coral.  Macao  belongs 
to  Portugal  (p.  408).  Hong-Eon^,  though  small,  rocky,  and  barren,  is  a 
valuable  possession  of  Great  Britain,  on  account  of  its  political  and  defen- 
sive position.  Formosa  is  a  laige  island  E.  of  Central  China :  area,  15,000 
sq.  m. ;  population,  2,000,000.  It  is  traversed  in  the  direction  of  its 
greatest  length  by  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains,  some  of  which  attain 
the  height  of  10,000  feet.  Surface  generally  fertile,  producing  rice, 
camphor,  tobacco,  millet,  fruits,  dye-woods,  jute,  and  spices.  Coal- 
fields have  recently  been  (Uscovered.  The  Chnsan  Islands,  nearly  oppo- 
site Ningpo,  are  of  great  value  to  China,  as  facilitating  commerce  with 
Japan. 

Seas,  GnlfiB,  and  Straits. — See  under  *' Asia,"  p.  348. 

Lakes. — Tai-hoo  or  Great  Lake,  in  Kiangrsu,  drained  by  the  Woo- 
sung ;  Kao-you,  Po-yang,  and  Toon-ting,  in  the  lower  basin  of  the 
Yang-tse ;  Hong-tse  and  Kao-yung  in  Eiang-su. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  eulogised  as  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world  ;  but  it  is  much  colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer  than 
corresponding  latitudes  in  "Western  Europe.  Situated  on  the  K 
coast  of  Asia,  the  climate  rather  resembles  that  of  corresponding 
latitudes  of  the  American  continent  than  any  portion  of  Europe.  In 
the  southern  provinces  the  winters  are  intensely  dry  and  cold,  though 
snow  rarely  falls  at  Canton.  March  and  April  bring  fogs  and  a  mild 
temperature  ;  much  rain  falls  in  May ;  and  from  July  to  September 
there  is  intense  heat,  with  hurricanes,  typhoons,  and  thunderstorms. 
Mean  annual  temperature  at  Peking  64^8,  summer  81°,  winter  56°.  7. 

Minerals. — The  precious  metals  occur  in  small  quantities :  there 
are  rich  mines  of  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  quicksilver ;  and 
perhaps  the  only  metal  which  the  countiy  is  known  not  to  possess  is 
platina.  Among  other  mineral  substances  may  be  mentioned  salt, 
nitre,  alum,  and  gypsum.  Coal  exists  in  vast  abundance,  especially 
in  the  basin  of  the  Yang-tse,  which  is  one  vast  coal-field  ;  and,  more 
important  than  all,  inexhaustible  beds  of  kaolin  or  porcelain  earth 
of  the  finest  quality.  The  early  possession  of  this  substance,  and  the 
great  skill  of  the  inhabitants  in  working  it,  has  given  the  name  of 
China  to  the  beautiful  ware  which  so  long  monopolised  the  markets 
of  Europe.  Nephrite,  and  various  species  of  precious  stones,  espe- 
cially agates,  are  also  found. 


r 


THE   CHINESE    EMPIKE.  411 

Botany.— The  vegetation  of  the  aoutharn  provinces  reaemtiles  that 
,  of  Hindustan  and  FurtlieT  India,  and  belongs  to  Scliouw's  seventh 
"  Phyto-geographio  region  ;"  while  Northern  China,  together  with 
the  eastern  part  of  Hangolia  and  Jajian,  comprisea  the  sixth  region 
of  that  naturalist.  The  latter  occupies  a  middle  position  between 
"  le  TS^tation  of  Europe  and  that  of  North  America,  vfith  aconaidsr- 
)le  affiniC;  to  the  Indian  flora. 

The  most  cliarBctsiiatic  Bad  valuable  botanical  orodQct  is  the  tea-plant, 
which,  until  recently,  was  almost  peculiar  to  China,  it  is  cultivated 
"ianton  northwatii  to  Nanidng,  and  eitends  westwanl  over  the  greater 
if  the  baain  of  the  Yang-tse  ;  but  it  is  found  in  its  wild  state  as  far 
Peking,  and  as  far  S.  as  Bangkok  in  Siam.  The  soil  on  which  It 
growv  is  compared  of  disintegrated  granite  and  fomiginous  sandstone. 
Ttie  black  teas  are  mostly  prepared  in  Fo-kien,  and  the  green  in  Qan- 
hway,  but  lioth  are  derived  from  the  same  gpeciea  of  plant. — (See  under 
"Eiports.")  Among  the  cultivated  graius  lice  is  the  staple  product: 
and  among  the  trees  and  plants  most  common  in  the  fields  and  gardens 
are  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  hemp,  tobacco,  rhubarb,  inrl^o,  varaiah-tree, 
camphor-tree,  tallow-tree,  and  cinnamon.  Olives,  oranges,  pine-apples, 
tc,  are  abundant,  and  the  mulberry  ia  extensively  reared  for  the  silk- 
worm, on  insect  which  is  probably  indigenous  to  China.  Among  forest- 
trees  the  bamboo  is  the  most  highly  piised,  for  building  and  other 
domestic  pnrpases. 

Zoology. — Most  of  the  wild  animals  have  long  ago  been  extirpated, 
but  the  elephant,  tiger,  wild  cat,  rhinoceros,  and  tapir  still  occar  in 
the  sontli-westem  prorinces.  Among  birds  and  fishes  are  foand  many 
beantifnl  and  peculiar  forms,  while  a  few  harmless  reptiles  still  exist. 
The  most  noiiaua  insect  is  the  locust,  which  frequently  commita 
great  devastation.  The  domestic  animala  ate  few  in  number,  but 
comprise  the  horse,  ox,  sheen,  and  Bwice,  while  the  dog  is  uniformly 
of  one  variety^of  a  pale-jellow  colour,  and  ia  form  resembling  out 
spaniel 

EttanoETaphr. — The  people  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race,  and 
are  closely  allied,  both  in  appearance  and  language,  to  the  Turanian 
family  (p-  61).  At  a  very  early  period  the  natives  appear  to  have 
advanced  to  a  couaiderable  degree  of  civilisation,  and  to  the  practice 
of  the  arts  of  domestic  life,  especially  those  of  printing,  the  inven- 
tion of  the  mariner's  compass,  and  the  mannfacture  of  silk  and  por- 
oelain  ;  but  here  they  have  paused,  their  government  and  institu- 
tions arresting  the  further  progress  of  improvement. 

Lanpiage. — The  Cliinese  language  forms  the  principal  member  of  the 
great  monosyllable  family  of  tongues.  This  family  is  peculiar  to  the 
Mongol  race,  ia  couKned  to  the  S.E.  angle  of  Asia,  and  eomprisea  about 
fifty-three  piincipal  dialects,  eighteen  of  which  are  spoken  In  China — 
■very  province  having  a  dialect  pecnliar  to  itself— and  the  great  majority 
of  the  ramaiuder  being  rude  and  unwritten.  The  Chinese  language,  when 
written,  is  not  phonetic,  like  the  Indo-European  and  Semitic  tongues, 
bat  ideographic.  Each  written  character  reprsaents  a  thought,  an  idea, 
And  not  a  sound.  There  is  therefore  no  alphabet,  properly  so  called,  but 
*very  different  word  that  can  be  articulated  haa  a  distinct  character  to 
nprvsent  it.    The  great  national  lexicon,  published  in  the  seventeenth 


412  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

century  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Kanpf-he,  contains  30,000  distinct  cliaT- 
acters,  all  of  whicli,  however,  are  derived  from  214  fundamental  forms, 
which  constitute  the  foundation  of  their  meaning,  and  the  basis  of  arrange- 
ment in  the  lexicon.  Most  of  the  words  contained  in  this  great  woik' 
have  now  become  obsolete,  and  Morrison's  Chinese  Dictionary  contains 
only  12,674  words.  The  same  character  or  sign  retains  the  same  meaning 
all  over  China,  but  in  every  separate  province  the  pronunciation  given  to 
it  varies.  Thus,  a  Bible  printed  in  Chinese  can  be  read  and  understood 
by  every  educated  Chinaman  from  Peking  to  Canton,  provided  only  he  has 
the  volume  before  his  eyes ;  but  the  inhabitant  of  one  province  cannot 
understand  the  inhabitsmt  of  any  other  when  reading  audibly  in  his  pre- 
sence. A  still  more  extraordinary  characteristic  of  the  language  is,  that 
each  written  character  represents  a  number  of  widely-different  significa- 
tions, which  are  expressed  by  as  many  different  tones  of  voice  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker.  This  peculiarity  renders  it  very  difficult  for  Europeans 
to  acquire  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  language. 

Retigion. — Three  distinct  systems  of  religious  belief  prevail  in  China. 
1.  Fo,  or  Bvddhitmy  is  the  religion  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people  in 
China  Proper,  Mongolia,  Mantchooria,  and  Tibet,  the  last-named  country 
being  its  headquarters,  and  the  seat  of  its  most  sacred  lamas.  2.  The 
Taou  belief,  or  the  system  of  the  rationalists,  is  the  next  in  importance 
as  respects  the  number  of  its  votaries.  3.  Tu,  or  the  doctrine  of  Con- 
fucius, which  is  adopted  by  the  court  and  upper  classes.  China  is 
believed  to  have  been  colonised  about  b.  c.  2500.  Its  first  religious  belief, 
so  far  as  known,  was  a  system  of  devil-worship.  Confucius,  or  Eun^- 
fut-ze,  the  first  great  Chinese  reformfer,  flourished  about  B.C.  600.  His 
system  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  Laot-ze,  who  was  nearly 
ms  contemporary.  Buddhism  was  not  introduced  till  A.D.  60.  "All 
the  four  religions  are  now  established  in  China,  and  are  regarded  by  the 
Chinese  as  equally  true,  but  also  as  equally  false,  and  the  result  is  the 
utter  extinction  of  all  moral  obligation.  Their  cruelty,  lust,  lying, 
thieving,  and  knavery  can  be  exceeded  by  no  stetement  which  human 
language  can  embody."  —  ('Helicons  of  the  World,*  by  W.  Osbum. 
London :  Seeley,  Jackson,  &  Halhday.)  Mohammedans  are  also  nume- 
rous, especially  in  the  province  Shen-se,  and  Roman  Catholics  and  Jews 
form  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  population.  Protestant  missionaries 
have  been  settled  in  some  of  the  maritime  towns  for  the  last  fifty  years. 
Dr  Morrison  was  the  first  to  occupy  this  wide  field,  and  Dr  Milne  soon  fol- 
lowed, both  having  been  sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society.  Since 
then  the  number  has  gradually  increased,  and  nearly  all  the  Protestant 
missionary  societies  of  Britain,  Grermany,  and  America  have  now  their 
representetives  in  China,  the  total  number  of  missionaries  being  at  present 
from  eighty  to  a  hundred.  Besides  several  single  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, there  are  now  three  separate  translations  of  the  entire  Scriptures, 
the  first  of  which  was  executed  in  1822,  under  the  patronage  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  the  last  in  1854,  when  not  fewer  than 
1,000,000  copies  of  the  New  Testament  were  sent  out  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  and  circulated  gratuitously  far  and  wide. 

Education  ana  Literatvre, — The  Chinese  Government  liberally  en- 
courages elementary  knowledge,  making  that  the  only  channel  to  office, 
rank,  and  honour.  Accordingly,  the  taste  for  letters  is  almost  universally 
prevalent,  and  schools  abound  in  every  town  and  village  ;  but  little  usefiu 
information  is  communicated  beyond  the  familiar  arts  of  reading  and 
writing.  At  Peking  is  a  grand  national  university,  supported  by  the  stete^ 
but  nothing  is  taught  save  the  time-honoured  principles  of  the  ancient 


sages.    In  respecl 


'HE    CHIKESE    EMPIRE.  413 


nnniber,  importance,  and  anthaQtlcity  of  its 
iiKcary  monumenn,  \,amii.  undoubtedly  holds  a  high  rank  amang  Asiatia 
coontiiBS.  Its  classic  works,  named  King,  date  from  a  yery  remote 
epoch,  and  its  annaljt  are  the  most  complete  and  continuous  that  eiist  in 
any  Innguage,  save  the  Hebrew — ascending  aa  far  back  as  to  B.  c.  2304, 
Literaiy  history,  criticism,  Beographjr,  and  bicgraphy,  are  the  snbJBcta  of 
a  crowd  of  works,  remarkable  for  their  order  and  regularity.  But  every 
branch  of  science  is  >tBreatypod,  and  there  are  few  civilised  coontriea 
where  real  science  Is  at  a  lower  ebb.  Tlieic  knowledge  of  mathematica 
and  astronomy  1r  vary  limited,  and  they  have  made  but  little  proeresa  in 
tlie  Rne  arts.  Their  ecnlptare  is  only  remarkable  tor  its  nice  finian;  their 
architecture  is  deficient  in  ^jaudeui  aiid  elegance ;  the  only  objects  they 
can  paint  well  are  those  of  manimate  nature;  while,  in  drawing,  they  are 
whaliy  ignorant  of  perspeotive.  Yet  they  have  been  the  authors  of  what 
me  justly  oonsiderod  in  Europe  aa  three  of  the  moat  important  inventions 
of  modeni  times— the  art  of  printing,  the  onmposition  of  gunpowder,  and 
the  magnetio  compass.  Printing  from  wooden  blocks  was  practised  by 
the  Chinese  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  tenth  centmy  of  our  era. 
The  invention  of  gunpowder,  as  compounded  of  Eolphnr,  nitre,  and  wil- 
iow-charcoal,  is  carried  back  to  a  very  remote  data ;  but  its  particular 
application  to  firearms  seems  to  have  been  exclusively  European.  The 
attractive  power  of  the  loadstone  had  been  known  to  them  from  remote 
antiquity ;  but  its  property  of  communicating  ^larity  to  iron  is  for  the 
first  time  explicitly  noticed  In  a  Chinese  dictionary  tinished  a.d.  121, 
To  these  may  be  added  two  very  remarkable  manulactures,  of  whicb  the 
Chinese  were  unquestionably  the  first  inventors — those  of  sUk  and 
pomelaln,  in  the  Utter  of  which  they  have  never  been  surpassed. 

OoTerameat,  fto. — The  form  of  government  is  in  theory  an 
Bbsolute  despotism,  the  emperor  anitiug  in  his  own  person  the  attrl- 
'butaa  of  supreme  magistrate  and  sovereigD  pontiff.  The  emperor  is 
of  the  Mantchoo  dynasty,  and  the  great  offices  of  state  are  usoally 
held  bj  MantchoDS.  The  governors  of  provinces  are  called  vkeroyi, 
and  those  of  cities  mandarine.  The  authority  of  the  emperor,  even 
in  the  heart  of  China  Proper,  is  held  by  a  very  insecure  tenure. 
The  Meaon-tn  tribes  in  the  south-woat«m  provinres  have  repeatedly 
risen  in  rebellion  ;  and  secret  societies — the  principal  of  whicli  is 
called  the  Triad,  which  has  for  its  object  the  restoration  of  a  nativo 
dynasty — are  rapidly  extending  A  civil  war  of  the  moat  formidable 
description,  and  characterised  by  the  most  revolting  barbarities,  has 
for  many  years  been  raging  in  all  paits  of  the  country.  Tho  Finances 
of  the  empire  are  consequently  in  a  very  unsettled  state,  thongh,  if 
any  ureiiit  is  to  be  attached  to  official  statements,  the  Resenv* 
amounts  to  about  £SO,000,OOD  annuaUy.  The  Military  Fores 
probably  amounts  to  about  850,000  soldiers,  including  the  troops 
ttationed  in  the  tributary  provinces.  The  Navy  consists  of  two 
fleets  of  war-junks,  one  for  the  sea,  and  another  for  the  rivers,  each 
amounting  to  1000  vessels,  and  carrying  about  188,000  marines. 
Hitherto  tbe  army  and  navy  have  been  in  a  state  of  extreme  in- 
efficiency, and  utterly  powerless  when  opposed  to  European  forces  ; 
but  now  the  Chinese  no  longer  rely  on  their  time-hononred  weapons 
and  tactics,  but  are  providing  themselves  with  gnn-boats,  rifles,  and 
rifled  cannon,  and  are  being  trained  by  European  officora. 


414  POUTICAL    OEOORAPUY. 

Among  the  defences  of  the  country  mnst  also  be  reckoned  the  Great 
WaU,  constracted  in  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era,  as  a 
barrier  to  the  incursions  of  the  Tartars.  Commencing  at  a  fort  on  the 
Gulf  of  Pe-cbi-li,  it  extends  westward  along  the  northern  frontier,  oyer 
hill  and  dale,  for  1250  miles,  with  a  height  varying  from  15  'feet  on  the 
mountains  to  30  feet  on  the  plains.  It  is  a  rampart  of  earth,  brood 
enough  at  the  top  to  admit  of  several  horsemen  passing  each  other,  is 
faced  witii  brick  and  stone,  and  strengthened  at  regular  intervals  by  large 
square  towers,  with  gates  for  the  convenience  of  travellers.  But  it  is 
now  falling  into  decay,  the  gates  are  negligently  guarded,  and  smugglers 
pass  openly  through  its  crumbling  breaches. 

Manntleustnres  and  Commerce. — The  manufactures  are  of  the  most 
varied,  and  often  of  the  most  exquisite,  description.    Their  porcelain, 
silks,  nankeens,  embroidery,  and  lacquered  ware,  are  unrivalled  for 
their  excellence.     They  are  also  noted  for  their  skill  in  engraving, 
in  the  carving  of  ivory,  tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  horn,  and 
other  ornamental  articles,  in  the  manufacture  of  ink,  paper,  cal9inet- 
work,   and   bell-casting,   all  being   executed  without  the  aid  of 
machinery.    The  Exports  consist  mainly  of  tea,  of  which  130,000,000 
lb.  were  sent  to  Britain  alone  in  1873,  besides  which  they  sent  us 
silk  to  the  value  of  £4,800,000.     Other  exports  are  nankeen,  porce- 
lain, lacquered  ware,  and  articles  of  ivory.       The  total  value  of 
the  exports,  in  1873,   amounted  to  £25,000,000,  of  which  about 
£12,500,000  worth  was  sent  to  Great  Britain.     In  the  same  year 
the  total  imports  were  valued  at  £25,000,000,  seven-eighths  of  which 
were  from  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies.    The  chief  articles  were 
opium  to  the  value  of  about  £11,000,000,  and  edible  birds*  nests 
(so  highly  prized  in  Chinese  cookery),  both  of  which  come  from  India ; 
cotton  yam,  cotton  cloth,  linens,  woollens,  beer,  iron,  steel,  and 
glass,   from  Great  Britain ;    cattle  and  raw  silk  from  Turkestan ; 
furs,  sheep,  and  woollen  goods  from  Russia,  &c.     The  trade  with 
Russia  is  wholly  conducted  at  Eiakhta,  on  the  Mongolian  frontier, 
and  with  other  countries  at  the  five  seaports,  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo- 
choo,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghae,  opened  by  the  treaty  of  Nanting  in 
1842 ;  while  by  subsequent  treaties  British  subjects  may  trade  at 
Neu-Chwang,  Swatow,   Han-kow,   Chin-kiang,   Kew-kiang,   Teng- 
chow,  Tien-tsin,  "Wen-chow,  and  Woo-hoo  ;  as  also  six  other  "land- 
ing-places "  on  the  Yang-tse. 

Russia  is  the  only  country  that  has  managed  to  maintain  habitual 
relations  with  the  court  of  Peking.  She  has  ancient  treaties  under  which 
a  certain  number  of  Russians  are  allowed  to  live  in  the  capital,  and  to 
hold  intercourse  with  the  authorities  there ;  but  the  position  has  tdways 
been  an  ignominious  one,  they  have  never  been  allowed  to  hold  inter- 
course with  any  of  the  ministers  of  high  rank,  and  they  have  never 
exercised  any  real  influence.  Of  late,  however,  great  changes  have  taken 
place.  Russi^  who  has  no  unfettered  maritime  outlet  in  Europe  or 
Western  Asia,  has  found  the  means,  down  the  river  Amoor,  of  getting  an 
outlet  into  the  China  Sea  and  the  Pacific.  Recently  large  concessions 
have  been  made  to  Russia  in  the  unfettered  navigation  of  the  Amoor,  and 
in  the  cession  of  a  large  tract  of  territory  on  the  southern  side  of  that 
river.  The  internal  commerce  is  enormous ;  that  of  the  eastern  provinces 
is  conducted  chiefly  by  the  Grand  or  Imperial  Canal,  which  extends  from 
Hang-chow  to  the  £u-ho,  being  a  distance  of  700  m.,  with  a  width  of 


THE    CHINESE   EJIPIHE,  415 


200  !t.  Other  canala  and  rivers  cany  on  tie  communication  to  Canton, 
thns  nnltini  that  dty  with  Peking.  There  are  numerous  other  <»uials 
connecting  the  navigahle  rivers,  and  [irobablj  the  tonnage  belonging  to 
the  ChinsBB  is  little  short  of  the  combined  tonnage  of  all  other  nations. 
There  are,  as  vet,  no  milwaye  in  China,  nor  any  available  conimuaication 
between  it  and  BriBsh  India,  which,  in  its  Binnan  provinces,  is  only,  in 
Bome  placea,  250  m.  distant  from  die  western  frontier  of  Chma  Proper. 
Becenlly,  however,  various  schemes  have  been  advocated  for  opening  up 
railway  commnnieation  between  India  and  WeKt«m  China.  Chir  Indian 
(kiTemment  propose  one  route  f^m  Calcutta,  by  Dacca,  Silhit,  and 
Bhamo,  to  Tali-foQ  in  province  Yun-nan.  The  advocat««  of  this  route 
maintain  that  it  would  be  the  means  of  iatroducisg  the  opium  of  India, 
oa  a  large  scale,  into  Western  China,  so  as  to  check  the  yearly  increasing 
production  of  the  dmg  there,  aa  also  induce  Chinese  "cooUes"  to  resort 


I 


to  Kiang-tung  in  the  Laos  states,  and  thea  to  Kiang-hiing  on  the  river 
Me-kong,  about  1240  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  within  }0  m.  of  the  Chinese 
frontier  city  of  Esmok  in  province  Yun-nan,  This  province,  together 
with  that  of  Ss-chnen,  has  a  p^utation  of  about  40,000,000,  or  one-third 
more  thui  that  of  the  United  lOngdom. 


MONGOLIA 
(IscLUDiao  MANicHooniA  ass  Corea). 

Bonndaries. — N.,  Siberia,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part 
by  the  Amoor  and  itfl  tributary  the  Argun,  and  in  part  by  the 
Sayanak  and  Altaian  Mountaius ;  W.,  South-western  Siberia  and 
Kaahgarisi  or  Eastern  Turkestan  ;  S.,  Tibet  and  China  Proper  ; 
E.,  Sea  of  Japan  and  part  of  Siberia.  Lat,  30"— 53°  28'  N.  j 
Ion.  80°— 136*  E, 

Urga,  thn  cap.  of  Mongolia,  near  its  northern  frontier,  is  in  the  same 
latitude  as  ?ari.4,  Stuttgart,  Vienna,  £katerinoBlav,  and  the  14.  shores  of 
the  Caspian  and  Lake  Superior. 

Ana  and  FopnlaUon. — Including  Mantchooria  and  Corea,  but 
omitting  Eastern  Tarkestan,  the  area  ia  ninghly  estimated  at 
1,831,800  sq.  m.,  or  five-eightha  the  area  of  Europe.  The  population 
ii  very  nncertain,  but  it  does  not  probably  eicced  14,137,000,  or 
half  that  of  Great  Britain. 

Bnr&M. — This  vast  dependencT  ot  China,  separated  fiom  Tibet  by 
tha  Kueo-Lun  Hountaiua,  from  Kashgaria  or  Eaatem  Turkestan  by 
the  Tbian-Shnn  range,  and  from  Siberia  by  the  Altaian,  Sayansk, 
and  Yabtonoi  Mountains,  comprises  the  immen.'se  table-land  of  Central 
Asia — the  most  extensive  plateau  on  the  globe — and  is  occupied  in 
its  centre  and  west  by  tha  huge,  almost  rainless,  and  sandy  desert  of 
Gobi  or  Shamo,  1200  m.  long,  from  500  to  700  m.  wide,  and  3500  ft- 
in  elevation.  The  north  of  Mongolia  is  ricbly  wooded  ;  consider- 
able tracts  in  Mantchooria  and  Western  Mongolia  are  highly  fertile. 


416  POLITICAL   QEOGRAPHr. 

producing  com  of  all  kinds,  rice,  cotton,  and  fruits,  which,  with 
cattle  and  various  mineral  and  manufactured  products,  form  the  prin- 
cipal  exports.  The  remainder  is  peopled  by  pastoral  tribes,  whose 
camps,  like  moving  cities,  are  constantly  passing  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Divisions. — Mongolia  is  subdivided  into  the  following  geographic 
cal  sections,  which,  in  a  loose  sense,  may  be  regarded  as  provinces : — 

CoREA. — King-ki-tao  (Kiang-ho),  Ping-hai  (E.  coast). 

Mantohoooria. — Kirin-Ula  (Sungari),  Saghalien-ITla  or  Aignn 
(Amoor),  Tsi-tsi-har,  Mergen  (Nonni). 

Mongolia  Proper. — Urga  or  Kurin  7  n.  (Orkhon),  Mai-mai-tchin 
(Selenga),  Uliassuti  n.  (Djabekan),  Kobdo  n.  (L.  Ike  Aral). 

DzuNOARiA.— lU  or  Guldja  80  (Hi),  Tarbagati  (180  m.  N.  of  Hi), 
Barkol  (L.  Barkol). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Ein^-ki-tao,  the  residence  of  the  King  of  Corea, 
who  is  tnbutary  both  to  Chma  and  Japan.  Eirin-Ula,  cap.  of  S.  Mant- 
chooria,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Sungari,  a  large  affluent  of  the 
Amoor.  Saghalien,  a  populous  city  in  the  N.  of  Mantchooria,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Amoor,  and  near  the  Russian  frontier,  carries  on  a  great 
trade  in  furs.  Urga  or  Eurin,  an  important  town  in  Northern  Mongolia, 
near  the  border  of  Siberia,  and  on  the  great  caravan  route  from  Pekmg  to 
Kiakhta :  it  is  the  seat  of  the  deified  Lama  of  the  Mongols.  Hal-mAi- 
tchin,  a  very  flourishing  town  on  the  Mongolian  frontier,  opposite  Kiakhta 
in  Siberia.  All  the  Russian  exports  to  Peking  pass  througn  Mai-mai-tchin 
and  Urga.  lli,  a  large  town  in  the  extreme  W.  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
cap.  of  Dzungaria,  and  an  entrepdt  of  the  trade  of  Central  Asia. 

Islands,  Seas,  Gulfs,  and  Straits. — See  under  *'  Asia ''  (p.  348). 

Rivers  and  LaJces. — The  rivers  will  be  found  enumerated  after 
"Tibet"  (p.  421).  The  principal  lakes  are  Kesael-Baahi and ZaisaUt 
near  the  source  of  the  Irtish  ;  Ike  Aral,  N.  of  Kessel-Bashi,  receives 
the  rivers  Djabakan  and  Kobdo  ;  Ubsay  N.E.  of  Ike  Aral,  and  at  the 
foot  of  the  Altai  Mountains ;  Lopnor,  S.  of  the  Thian  Shan  Moun- 
tains. 

Climate. — In  so  wide  a  region  the  climate  must  be  highly  varied, 
but  few  data  exist  to  speak  of  it  with  precision.  It  is,  however, 
much  colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer  than  France  and  other 
countries  in  corresponding  latitudes  of  Western  Europe.  Scarcely 
any  rain  falls  in  the  great  desert,  and  the  few  oases  that  occur  afford 
but  a  scanty  vegetation.  The  climate  of  Mantchooria  presents  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  considerably  resembles  that  of  Can- 
ada. The  rivers  are  frozen  over  as  early  as  the  20th  November,  and 
are  not  navigable  till  the  middle  of  March.  In  Mongolia  Proper, 
and  especially  in  the  great  desert,  the  winter  winds  blow  furiously, 
while  the  temperatui-e,  as  early  as  October  and  November,  ranges 
from  24°  below  zero  Fah.  to  40  . 

Natural  Products. — Coal  prevails  extensively  in  all  parts  of  Mant- 
chooria, Corea,  and  the  province  Leao-Tong.  The  coal  is  of  excellent 
quality,  and  the  seams  are  of  great  thickness.  Gold  also  is  found  in 
tne  S.  of  Corea,  where  the  auriferous  district  extends  along  the  E. 
coast  for  a  space  of  40  m.  long  by  10  broad.     The  extensive  tract  of 


THE    CHINESE    EMPIRE. 


417 


I 


country  between  the  Great  Desert  and  the  Siberian  rrontier  is  mauii- 
tainous,  well  wooded,  fertila,  but  unpultivalsd.  The  loreats  consiat 
of  pines,  fir,  birch,  ash,  elm,  and  white  poplar  ;  aa  nilaa  red  currants, 
wild  peaches,  and  varieua  shmbs.  Mactchooria,  is  one  of  the  chief 
localities  whence  the  Chinese  obtain  the  wonder-working  yin-jen^ — 
a  apeoies  of  iyy,  the  root  of  which  is  used  as  a  stimulant — and  here 
rhubarb  is  extensively  cultivated.  The  cork-tree  and  the  aapen  are 
indigenous  on  both  banks  of  the  Amoor.  The  desert  is  sandy  and 
woodless ;  but,  for  a  few  weeks  in  spring,  after  the  short  rainy 
season,  it  is  covered  ivtth  a  luxuriant  herboae.  Among  n'ild  animsls 
may  be  mentioned  the  tiger,  wolf,  jackal,  lynx,  fox,  antelope,  argul, 
yak ;  with  wild  horses,  camels,  and  asses  in  the  desert ;  the  Bactriaii 
OT  two-humped  camel,  in  the  Tbtan  Shan  mouutaina  ;  and  boars, 
bears,  wolvea,  faares,  foxea,  aablea,  sijuirrels,  Ac ,  in  the  foreats  of 
northern  Mongolia, 

EUmoerapby. — This  country  has  been  for  ages  the  domain  of  ths 
Mongolian  race— one  of  the  great  subdivisions  of  the  humau  family  ; 
to  it  belonged  Attilo,  Genghis  Khan,  Knblai  Khan,  Timur  the  Tar- 
tar, and  those  other  niighW  warriors,  whose  rapid  cDnqnasta  are  com- 
pared by  Gibbon  to  the  primitive  convulsions  of  nature,  which  have 
^tated  and  altered  the  surface  of  the  globe.  They  are  allied  to  the 
'^rks  and  Chinese,  and  are  subdivided  into  numerons  tribes,  the 
princinal  of  which  are  the  Mongolians  Proper,  Kalmucks,  Khalkas, 
and  Mantchooa.  WbUe  Mantchouria  has  become  an  integi'al  part  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  China  itself  has  been  governed  by  a  dynasty  of 
Mantchoo  princes  since  1824. 

All  the  iatwHi^  spoken  in  Mongolia  belong  to  the  Turanian  or  Fin- 
no-Tartarian  family  (see  under  "Asia,"  art.  19,  and  at  p.  315).  The 
chief  of  them  are  the  Mantchoorian,  Mongolian,  and  Corean.  The  ele- 
mental principles  of  the  first  two  are  almost  identical  with  the  Tartar 
and  Finnish,  In  the  simplicity  of  their  structure  and  the  total  absence 
of  all  inflections,  properly  eo  called,  they  approaeh  nearer  than  any  other 
class  of  langu^cs  to  the  monosyllabic  type.  The  Corean  greatly  resembles 
the  Japanese,  but  many  Chinese  wonJs  enter  into  its  composition,  Corea 
having  received  its  lilaratnre  and  dvlliaation  from  China ;  hut  the  alphahet 
is  phonetic,  and  not  aymhollc,  like  the  Cliioese.   The  /hIigloK  o!  Buddha 

rvailfi  in  Montehooria  and  Mongolia;  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism 
Basteni  Tnrkestan  (which  does  not  now  form  a  part  of  the  Chinese 
Empire);  and  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  in  Corea. 

Indnatry  and  ComniBrcs.  — The  natives  of  Mongolia,  who  are  atrong, 
Btnrdy  Tartars,  live  a  noraadio  life,  pitching  their  tents  when  and 
where  they  please,  are  eiempt  from  tases,  and  subsist  principally  on 
their  Hocks  of  sheep,  and  by  selling  the  wool  to  the  Chinese  and 
Ruseiana.  Fermented  mare's  milk,  called  £'ou»ii»!,  is  their  favourite 
drink.  In  Mantchooria  and  Corea,  cotton  cloth  and  silk  are  manu- 
factured to  a  considerable  extent,  while  along  the  seaboard,  mining 
and  fishing  are  pursued.  Immense  caravans,  laden  with  tea,  silk, 
and  grain  from  China,  and  with  fura  and  fish  from  Siberia,  are  con- 
stantly crossing  through  the  country,  Kiakhta  being  the  great  mart 
of  exchange. 


418  POLITICAL   GEOORAPHT. 


TIBET. 

I 

Boundaries. — ^N.,  Mongolia  and  Eastern  Turkestan,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Kuen-lun  mountains  ;  W.,  Kash- 
mir ;  S.,  Nepal,  Sikhim,  and  Bhotan,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Himalaya  ;  E.,  the  Yung-ling  mountains,  separating  it 
from  China  Proper.  Lat.  27°  40'— 36^  IC  N. ;  Ion.  78^—104*  E. 
Lhasa,  the  cap.,  on  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  latitude 
with  Mogadore,  Cairo,  Bassorah,  Multan,  Shanghae,  and  New 
Orleans. 

Area  and  Fopulatlon. — ^Tne  area  is  conjectured  to  be  abcnt  675,700 
sq.  m.,  or  more  than  five  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles.  The 
population  is  probably  about  6,000,000,  or  nearly  twice  that  of  Scot- 
hmd. 

Sur&ce.— A  lofty  table-land,  from  15,000  to  16,000  ft.  in  eleva- 
tion, enclosed  and  traversed  by  stupendous  mountain-chains,  the 
loftiest  on  the  globe,  and  giving  origin  to  nearly  all  the  great  rivers 
of  Southern  Asia  —  as  the  Indus,  Satlej,  Brahmaputra,  Irawadi, 
Yang-tse,  and  Hoang-ho.  Among  these  chains  may  be  named  the 
Himalaya  in  the  S.,  the  Karakorum  in  the  N.W.,  the  Kuen-lun  in 
the  N.,  the  Yun-ling  in  the  E.,  and  the  Chor-Katshi  mountains, 
running  from  the  S.  W.  to  the  N.  Some  of  the  mountain-passes  are 
of  great  elevation,  as  the  Bo^ola  Pass  (19,220  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea),  between  the  Satlej  and  Indus ;  the  Gugti-la  Pass,  E.  of 
Gartok,  19,500  ft. ;  and  the  Mana  Pass,  between  Tibet  and  6m*whal, 
18,570  ft 

Dlyi8lon8.~The  country  is  still  very  imperfectly  known  to  Euro- 
peans, but  it  is  understood  to  comprise  two  divisions — Eastern  and 
Western  Tibet.  Baiti  or  Bultistan,  and  Ladakh,  formerly  belonging 
to  Tibet,  are  now  regarded  as  parts  of  Kashmir : — 

Eastern  Tibet.  —Lhasa  24  (Muran,  affl,  San-po),  Jiga-gungar  100, 
Shigatze  100  (San-po). 

Western  Tibet. — Teshu-Lombu  20  (San-po),  Tashigong,  Gortope 
(Indus),  Chaprung  (Satlej),  Bathang  (Kin-sha),  Tsiamdo  (Me-kong). 

Descriptive  Notes.— Lhasa,  the  cap.  of  Tibet,  and  the  sacred  cap.  of 
all  Buddnistic  countries,  is  a  fortified  commercial  town,  containing  a 
Chinese  garrison,  with  numerous  towers,  bazaars,  and  temples  ;  it  is  the 
residence  of  the  Grand  TaU  Lama,  the  pontifical  sovereign  of  Tibet,  who 
lives  in  a  vast  square  temple,  which,  with  its  precincts,  covers  many 
acres,  and  has  contiguous  to  it  four  celebrated  monasteries,  said  to  be  in- 
habited by  4000  recluses.  These  monasteries  are  greatly  resorted  to  by  the 
Chinese  and  Mongols,  as  schools  of  the  Buddhist  religion  and  philosophy : 
the  interior  of  the  temple  is  filled  with  idols,  treasure,  and  works  of  art ; 
and  there  is  perhaps  no  spot  on  the  globe  where  so  much  gold  is  accumu- 
lated for  superstitious  purposes.  Teshu-Lombu,  the  western  cap.,  con- 
tains the  palace  of  the  second  priest  or  Bogdo  Lama,  and  the  resiaence  of 
a  Chinese  functionary,  whose  duty  is  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  the 


!   CHINESE   EMPIRE.  419 

prieBts,  who  conrtitnte  the  great  bulk  ot  the  population.  Gortope,  or 
eordokh,  is  little  more  tlian  a  laige  camp,  situated  in  a  plaiu  covurcJ 
with  flocks  of  sheep,  goats,  and  yaks,  Wtioima  iu  eunimer  a  great  trading 


sheep,  goats,  and  ja 
in  Tibet  and  N.  Ind 


Lakm.— Eoko-Di 
8ng-Ho;  Tengri-nc 
Khavan  Rhadi   lfi,ui 
■ourc«  of  the  Satlej. 


I 


I 


ond  Tohnrin-nor,  near  the  aourf^ea  of  the  Ho- 
and  Palti,  in  the  basin  of  the  Brahmaputra  ; 
00  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  Mansecvwar,  at  the 
Searly  all  the  lakea  aie  brackish. 

OUmate. — The  climate  is  cxceEaiTel;  dry,  and  its  effect  on  regcta- 
tion  resemblca  that  of  the  dry  heat  of  the  Sahara.  The  trcea  wither; 
their  leaves  may  be  ground  to  powder  between  the  fingera;  planka 
and  heams  break,  and  the  inhabitants  cover  the  timbers  of  their 
houaea  with  wet  towels,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  the  destruc- 
tive effects  of  oiceasive  dryness.  The  timber  never  rota.  The  flesh 
of  sheep  exposed  to  the  open  air  beoomas  dry,  and  may  be  gronnd 
like  bread,  and  tlius  preserved  for  years.  This  fleah-bread  is  n  very 
common  food  in  Tibet  Goitre,  syphilis,  ophthalmia,  hydraphohia, 
and  smallpox,  are  among  the  moat  prevalent  diseases. 

The  limit  of  perennial  snow  la  higher  on  the  Tibetan  side  ot  the  Hima- 
laya than  on  the  Indias ;  the  former  varying  in  different  places  from 
16,000  to  17,400  ft  above  the  sea,  while  in  the  latter  it  descends  to 
16,300  ft.  Barley  comes  to  matnritv  from  14,000  to  15,000  ft.  above  the 
HB-level ;  wheat  eurceeds  well  as  hLgh  as  12,000  ft. ;  birch  to  above 
14,000  ft. ;  and  small  bushes  to  17,000  ft— being  nearly  1300  ft  higher 
than  the  limit  of  peremiial  snow  miderthe  equator. 

*"""■»'" — Tibet  is  extremely  rich  in  minerals,  especially  in  gold, 
which  is  found  in  lumps,  veins,  and  in  t)io  sands  of  tiie  rivers.  Gold, 
silver,  mercury,  native  cinnabar,  iron,  and  rock-salt,  are  obtained 
from  mines  ;  but  the  want  of  fuel  ia  an  insuperable  obatacla  to  their 
raccesaful  operation — coal  being  unknown,  and  there  being  little  or 
no  wood  in  the  country.  The  chief  gold-field  of  Tibet  ia  that  of 
ShokJalung  (lat.  33°  2i',  Ion,  81°  37'),  at  the  height  of  16,330  feet 
above  the  sea,  where  the  yield  of  gold  is  very  large.  The  gold- 
fields  generally  run  close  to  the  northern  water-parting  of  thp  Brah- 
maputra. Lapis-laznli,  tunjuoises,  borax,  and  nitre,  are  found  in 
great  abundance. 

Botany. — The  vegetation  is  extremely  scanty.      Forest-ti 


nre,  hnt  the  cedar  is  funnd  on  the 


ains,  and  several  orchnrd- 
udiug  stapes,  fij,'8,  i 
gisnates,  peaches,  apples,  apricots,  and  nuts.     Many  of  the  g 
comnioa  in  Europe  are  found  j  hut  very  little  wheat,  and  less  iice,  is 
cnltivaled.    Buckwheat  is  raised  succeHsfully,  but  grey  or  black  barley 

China  tea  stewed  with  butter,  barley  ci 

Soology- — Among  the  animals  may  be  mentioned  the  yak  or  grant- 
id  the  musk  deer  (both  of  which  appear  to  be  aborigiliQl 
intrj),  wild-oi,  buffalo,  goat,  antelope,  kiang  or  wild-aas, 


^B      ing  ox  ai 
^H     to  the  cui 


420  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

wild-  cat,  tif^er,  leopard,  lynx,  gyaki  or  royal  dog,  bear,  badger,  and 
the  argal  with  horns  of  100  lb.  weight  All  oar  domestic  animals 
are  known  in  Tibet ;  bat  the  one  most  used  as  a  beast  of  harden  is 
the  bhoral,  a  large  sheep  covered  with  long  hair.  Fish  are  abundant 
in  the  rivers,  but  are  prohibited  from  being  eaten  by  the  Bnddhist 
religion. 

Ethnography. — The  Tibetans  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race,  and, 
like  the  Mongols  Proper,  were  at  first  divided  into  many  independent 
tribes,  who  followed  a  nomadic  life.  The  great  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion continue  to  follow  their  flocks  from  place  to  place,  but  a  con- 
siderable fraction  of  them  reside  in  towns,  some  of  which  are  very 
large.  The  practice  of  polyandry  is  common — one  woman  becoming 
the  wife  of  all  the  brothers  in  a  family. 

Their  Language,  sometimes  called  Tibetan,  and  sometimes  Bhotanta — 
because  spoken  also  in  Bhotan — belongs  to  the  monosyllabic  family, 
though  not  a  few  polysyllables  exist  in  it.  It  bears  a  great  resemblance 
to  the  Chinese — some  of  its  roots,  and  nearly  all  the  derivatives,  being 
clearly  traceable  to  that  language.  The  alpluibet,  however,  is  phonetic, 
reads  from  left  to  right,  and  is  without  doubt  borrowed  from  the  Sanscrit. 
Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Tibet  about  ▲.D.  867,  became  the  domi- 
nant religion  in  905,  and  this  country  has  for  ages  been  the  home  and 
headquarters  of  the  Buddhist  faith.  Under  the  name  of  Lamaism  it  still 
exists  here  in  its  primitive  purity ;  while  the  Grand  Lama  or  Supreme 
Pontiff  is  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Buddha.  He  is  a  temi.>oral  as 
well  as  a  spiritual  sovereign ;  the  country  abounds  with  temples,  and 
80,000  lamas  or  priests  are  maintained  by  the  state.  The  numerous  rites 
and  ceremonies  are  said  to  bear  a  most  remarkable  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  Romish  Church. 

Commerce,  &c. — Tibet  was  conquered  by  Zenghis-Khan  in  A.D. 
1206,  and  ^dually  subdued  by  and  annexed  to  China  from  1255  to 
1720.  It  IS  now  ruled  by  viceroys  from  Peking,  in  conjunction  with 
the  ecclesiastical  heads  of  the  country.  Manufactures  of  woollens, 
sacking,  and  other  woven  fabrics,  are  pretty  general,  and  much  cloth 
is  sent  from  Lhasa  into  China,  The  traffic  through  Tibet  is  exten- 
sive, and  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  China  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Nepal,  Bhotan,  and  Eastern  Turkestan  on  the  other.  The  Indian 
Gk)vernment,  however,  have  recently  made  vigorous  efforts  to  open 
up  a  market  for  British  and  Indian  goods.  The  jealousy  of  the 
Chinese  Government  is  at  present  the  chief  barrier  to  commerce. 
The  principal  Exports  are  gold,  silver,  salt,  borax,  shawl  wool;  while 
the  Imports  chiefly  consist  of  tea,  brocades,  and  porcelain  from  China ; 
horses  and  camels  from  Eastern  Turkestan ;  dried  fruits,  shawls, 
gamboge,  and  timber  from  Kashmir ;  and  Indian  piece-goods,  sugar, 
tobacco,  indigo,  rice,  spices,  &c.,from  Bengal,  Bhotan,  and  Nepu. 

Table  of  Rivers  and  Towns.— The  following  Table  exhibits  the 
River-System  of  China  and  the  east  part  of  Mongolia.  All  the  basins 
incline  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  : — 


Co.  of Qii»ii«-tnnt!,lJ«ii-eiiiiw. 
"--  •^---         ..Violorli. M»OM, Cab- 
Tcn.    Oiow  -  king, 


IMan-JcniB, 


I. 
Bin 


Cbse-ohDv,   Satv- 


TURKESTAN. 


TcKKEBiAF,  or  the  countrv  of  tie  Turks,  coniprises  a  -very 
wide  eitent  (if  territory  in  Central  Asia,  reaching  from  the 
Caepian  on  the  weat,  to  the  frontiers  of  China  Proper  on  the 
cast,  and  from  the  Hindn-Eosh  and  Euen-Iun  mounlAins  on 
the  eotttli  to  the  47ih  degree  of  latitude  on  the  north.  It  thus 
DOm^iehends  three  main  divisionB  which  Bie  politically'  dietinct 
— TU.,  Eastern  Tnrkeatan  or  Kashgaria,  now  independent  of 
Oiina ;  second,  WeBlem  Turkestan,  formerly  known  as  Inde- 
pendent Tartaiy,  but  now  in  a  great  meaBure  under  the  in- 
nnenoe  of  Rnaaia ;  and  third,  Enssian  Turkestan,  now  fomiing 
a  part  of  Siheria.  The  entire  area  may  be  loonely  estimated  at 
1,000,000  eq.  ra.,  and  the  population  at  13,500,00(1.  Situated 
almost  in  the  centre  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  it  consists  of— 1. 
The  Bouihem  portion  of  the  ■vast  northern  plain,  a  large  part  of 
which  lies  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  known,  tliereJbre,  as 
tie  basin  of  continental  Btreams.  This  plain  contains  the  Caspian 
Sea  (83  ft.  below  the  lerel  of  the  Black  Sea),  the  Sea  of  Aral, 
Lioke  fialkaeh,  and  many  other  lakes  and  marshes.    The  rust  of 


422  POLITICAL   QEOGRAPIIY. 

this  plain  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  great  sandy  desert,  only  broken 
by  the  fertile  basins  of  the  Amoo  and  Sir  Dana ;  2.  The  other 
portion  of  Turkestan  forms  the  western  part  of  the  mighty 
plateau  of  High  Asia,  including  the  plateau  of  Pamir,  support- 
ing the  great  mountain-knot  known  as  the  Bolor  Tach,  separat- 
ing Eastern  from  Western  Turkestan,  and  forming  tne  nucleus 
from  which  ramify  many  of  the  loftiest  mountain-ranges  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  known  as  Tar- 
tars or  Turks,  are  of  the  Turanian  stock,  and  closely  allied  to 
the  Mongol  race,  one  of  the  main  subdivisions  of  the  human 
family.  They  are  known  in  antiquity  as  Scythians.  During  the 
decline  of  the  Boman  Empire  these  tribes  began  to  seek  more 
fertile  re^ons,  and  the  first  who  reached  the  frontier  of  Italy 
were  the  Huns  under  Attila,  "  the  scourge  of  God."  In  later 
times,  Zeughis  Khan,  Kublai  Khan,  and  Tamerlane,  reigned 
over  Turkestan,  and  overran  all  the  surrounding  coun&ies, 
including  China,  Persia,  and  India. 

EASTERN  TURKESTAN  OR   KASHGARIA 
(Formerly  Chinese  Tartary). 

Boundaries. — N.,  Dzungaria  and  Russian  Turkestan,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Thian  Shan  mountains  ;  W.,  the 
Bolor  Tagh,  separating  it  from  Western  Turkestan ;  S.,  the 
Kuen-lun  mountains,  which  separate  it  from  Tibet ;  and  E., 
China  Proper.  Lat.  36"  10'— 43^  34'  N.  Ion. ;  72°  30'— 94°  K 
Kash^ar,  the  cap.,  on  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  latitude 
as  Toledo  in  Spain,  Erzrum,  Bokhslra,  Peking,  San  Francisco, 
and  Baltimore. 

Area  and  FopulatloiL — The  area  is  supposed  to  amount  to  270,000 
sq.  ra.,  or  three  times  the  size  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  population 
to  about  3,000,000,  or  equal  to  that  of  Scotland. 

SurfiEUie. — In  shape  it  resembles  a  huge  bay  of  the  ocean,  with  its 
mouth  turned  to  the  east,  and  shut  in  on  its  other  three  sides  by 
gigantic  mountain-ranges.  Between  these  the  surface  forms  a  plateau 
of  from  4000  to  6000  ft.  in  elevation,  while  a  broad  desert,  thirty 
days'  journey  in  extent,  occupies  its  mouth,  and  separates  it  from 
China,  of  which  it  was  till  recently  a  possession.  The  most  arid  part 
of  this  desert  lies  E.  of  88°  Ion.  It  is  generally  known  as  the  Han- 
hai,  or  "Dry  Sea,"  and  forms  the  western  part  of  the  great  desert  of 
Gobi.  A  crescent-shaped  region,  lying  to  the  W.  of  the  Han-hai,  is 
watered  by  the  Yarkand  and  its  tributaries,  and  is  highly  fertile. 
The  Thian  Shan,  on  the  north,  attain  in  Tengri-Tagh  an  elevation 
of  21,000  ft.;  the  Kai-akorum  mountains,  in  Dapsang  Peak,  an 
elevation  of  28,278  ft.  Eleven  high  passes  have  to  be  crossed  in 
travelling  from  India  to  Turkestan  by  the  usual  trade  route,  and  of 


tliese  only  ti 
-      ■   hPas. 


TU  UK  EST  AN. 


9  lower  tLnn  the  s 


I 


[mmit  of  Mont  Blanc,  Tha 
Ksjihmir,  haa  the  atupendous 
eUvatiDii  of  IS, 436  ft. 

PoUticBl  DlTlBlimB.— For  tt  century  before  186*  this  country  vaa 
K  depandoncy  of  China,  bat  in  that  year  a  siieeessful  inanrreetioii 
was  mado  by  tlia  Mussulman  inhabitants  under  Yakoob  Beg,  ajid 
thia  portion  of  Turkestnn  is  now  entirely  independent. 

Towns.— Kaahgar  13  (Kashgar,  a#.  Yarkand),  Yorkand  120 
(Yarkand),  lltcbi  or  Khotau  40  (Khoton),  Khainil  (Desert),  Kutohfi, 
Akau  SO  {affls.  Yarkand),  TurEut  150  m.  W.  EhamU. 

DeseriptiYe  ITotea.— Kwligar,  the  political  cap.  of  tlie  country,  was  a 
city  of  great  importance  before  the  Christian  era.  Sitnsted  in  the  auglo 
formed  by  the  Thiau  Shan  and  Bolor  Tagh,  it  is  tlia  centre  of  all  the 
commeraial  routes  which  renderthis  countryso  important.  Ic  has  manu- 
factores  in  cotton  goods,  sad  articles  In  gold  and  jasper.  Yarkand,  the 
commercial  cap.  of  E.  Turkestan,  is  a  large  and  populous  city,  contain- 
ing 120,000  inhabiUnts,  60  colleges,  160  mosques,  and  12  caravauBeriea, 
wSicb  are  crowded  with  nierchanla  from  every  conntry  in  Asia.  Ehotan, 
B  large  city  celebrated  for  its  carpets,  leather,  aiik  fabrics,  paper,  and 
artless  ia  jasper.  Ehamil,  in  a  fertile  district  at  the  foot  of  the  Tliiau 
Shan  mountains,  is  the  centre  of  a  lai^B  Irads,  Aksn,  fonnerly  the 
lailitary  headqaarMrs  of  the  Chinese  viceroy,  is  a  large  city,  mndi  re- 
sorted to  by  caravans  from  all  parts  of  Asia. 

Riven  andLalcea. — Tha  otJy  great  river  of  tha  country  is  the  Yar- 
kand or  Tariiu,  which  rises  in  the  plateau  of  Pamir,  and  alter  a  course 
of  ISOO  m.  discharges  ita  waters  into  Lake  Lop-nor,  in  Ihe  western 
side  of  the  desert  of  Gobi.     It  haa  numeroits  afSuenta  (see  p.  423). 

Oltmate. — The  climate  of  thia  inland  region  is  whnt  is  termed  ex- 
eewttie,  the  cold  in  winter  and  the  heat  in  summer  being  usually  very 
Kreat ;  but  data  are  wanting  to  describe  it  with  accuracy.  In  the 
depth  of  winter,  at  the  source  of  the  Yarkand  river,  at  an  elevation 
of  lb,656  ft,,  the  temperature  at  eight  o'clock  iu  the  morning  (De- 
cember 1889)  was  18°  lielow  zero.  Very  little  rain  falls  in  any  part 
of  Eastern  Tarkestan,  as  the  clouds  laden  with  rain  are  almost  en- 
tirely deprived  of  their  moisture  in  crossing  the  diHerent  ranges  of 
the  Himalaya,  where,  ia  some  places,  the  annual  rain-fall  amounts 
to  300  inches. 

Hfttnral  Produoto. — The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  known 
to  embrace  gold,  found  in  the  Tbian-Shsn  tnonutsins,  where  also 
Mllplmr,  sal-ammoniac,  asbestos,  and  saltpetre  are  obtained.  Copper 
itid  iron  are  wrought  in  several  places  ;  jasper,  agatea,  and  other 
gems  are  abundant ;  and  espocially  jade-atone,  which  ia  much  piized 
as  an  article  of  commerce.    Biaiuouds  are  said  to  occur  in  the  motin- 


The  louthem  slopes  of  the  Thian  Shan  are  clothed  with  forests,  but 

wood  ia  ^most  nnknown  olsewheiB.     The  weatem  part  of  the  conntry  ia 

I  iilghly  culUvated,  prodnclug  wheat,  barley,  Indiau-ci —   ' .-^j.-. 


424  POUTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

being  buried  in  winter  on  account  of  the  frost.    On  the  mountain-sides 
roam  large  herds  of  shawl-goats,  sheep,  yaks,  cows,  camels,  and  horses. 

Etlmograpby. — The  inhabitants  are  a  mongrel  race,  consisting  of 
Tartars,  Persians,  and  an  admixture  of  Chinese.  They  nearly  all 
profess  the  Mohammedan  faith,  but  there  are  a  few  Christians  and 
Jews.  The  language  is  Turkish,  and  almost  identical  with  that 
spoken  in  Constaiitinople. 

Commerce  and  Industry. — Hitherto  the  commerce  of  Eastern 
Turkestan  has  been  principally  with  China,  from  whi^h  it  imported 
tea,  silver,  and  porcelain :  from  Siberia  it  receives  broad  •cloth, 
brocades,  and  bullion ;  from  Kashmir,  shawls,  whitp  piece-goods, 
and  leather  ;  from  Badakshan,  slaves  and  gems  ;  and  from  Western 
Turkestan,  carpets.  Our  Indian  Government  are  taking  vigorous 
steps  to  establish  trade  with  the  country,  and  Yakoob  Beg,  the  pre- 
sent ruler,  has  expressed  his  earnest  desire  to  co-operate.  As  the 
consumption  of  tea  is  enormous,  we  are  likely  to  obtain  here  an 
extensive  market  for  our  Assam  tea  and  other  Indian  products. 
Hitherto  the  tea  has  been  brought  down  from  the  interior  of  China 
to  Shanghae  and  Canton,  and  there  shipped  to  India.  From  Bom- 
bay it  went  to  Karachi,  and  from  thence  up  the  Indus  into  the 
Pan  jab,  and  by  the  Khyber  Pass  into  Kabul,  and  from  Kabul  to 
Kokand,  thence  S.  £.  to  Kashgar,  and  from  Kashgar  it  was  dissemi- 
nated through  Central  Asia.  But  by  the  new  land-routes  now  pro- 
posed our  Assam  tea  can  be  conveyed  through  Leh  in  Kashmir, 
through  the  Changchenmo  valley  to  Iltchi  (the  cap.  of  Khotan), 
to  Kashgar  and  Yarkand.  Thus,  instead  of  making  a  circuit  of  5000 
m.,  the  distance  will  not  exceed  750  m.  The  manufactures  of  the 
country  are  mostly  confined  to  silk  and  fine  woollen  goods. 


WESTERN  TURKESTAN. 

Boundaries. — ^N.,  Siberia ;  W.,  the  Caspian ;  S.,  Persia, 
Afghanistan,  and  the  Pan  jab ;  E.,  Kashmir  and  Eastern 
Turkestan  or  Kashgaria,  from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated, by  the  Bolor  Tagh  moimtains. 

Owing  to  the  recent  annexations  to  Russia  and  the  tottering  condition 
of  much  of  the  remainder,  the  lat.  and  Ion.  of  Western  Turkestan  re- 
mains for  the  present  undefined ;  but  we  may  regard  it  as  extending  from 
35°  to  44°  N.,  and  from  66**  to  74"  E.  Bokh&ra,  near  the  centre,  is  on  the 
same  parallel  as  Madrid,  Naples,  Constantinople,  Kashgar,  Peking,  and 
New  York. 

Area  and  Fopnlatlon. — Owing  to  the  daily  encroachments  of 
Russia,  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  area  or  population  of  these  feuda- 
tory states  ;  but  the  former  may  be  stated  (in  1875)  at  380,000  sq. 
m.,  and  the  latter  at  3,000,000. 

Surface.— The  surface  consists  for  the  most  part  of  an  immense 
plain,  which  from  all  sides  slopes  towards  the  Caspian  and  Sea  of 
Aral,  and  forms  a  continuation  of  the  great  Sibeiian  plain.    A  large 


I 


WESTERN    TURKESTAN.  425 

portion  of  this  plain,  includiug  tha  Caapinn,  is  couBideraWy  bonpath 
the  level  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  protatly  formed  t!ie  bed  of  tha 
ocean  in  a  remote  age.  The  S.E.  part  of  the  couctiy  conaiata  of  a. 
part  of  the  lofty  plateau  of  Pamir,  lfl,600  ft  high.  Here  are  nmnj 
well-va,tered  and  highly-fertile  valleys,  hat  in  geoeral  the  aooatry 
U  Bitramely  ettrile. 

Political  DlTlaloiiB. — Western  Tnrbeatiin  consists  of  a  nomber  of 
aemi-independent  states,  or  khanals,  bb  they  are  called,  the  princi* 
pal  of  which  arc  tlie  following; — 

KAriBlSTAN.— Cbittral  i  (Enmah,  ajl.  Eabfll},  Ehawak  (Punj- 
EheerJ,  Fav^ghan  (Tagu), 

Kosauz.— Kundflz  S  (Bimghec,  affi.  Atnoor),  Badakahan  (Badak- 

BoKHAa*.— Bokh.^ralSO  (KoWk),  Kur5hoBlO(Kurahee),  Carjooee 
6,  Tirmez  (Amoo),  Uratepoh  10  (Sagd). 

•Khokakb -KhokandlOO,  Marghilno,  a.,  Usch  (Syr  Daria). 

'Kbiva  or  RsARESH.— Eliiva   IS,   n.,   Urgenj   Z,    Kungrad  10 
(Anioo),  Marv  3  (MuhrghabJ. 
Mejuaxa. — Meimana  [q^.  Amoo). 

SmcriptiTB  KotM.—CMUral,  also  called  Eaahkaro,  ia  the  cMef  place 
of  commerce  in  Kallristan,  or  "  Isud  of  the  Kafirs  or  infldela,"  the  name 

g>en  to  this  region  by  their  Mohammedan  neighboura,  who  hold  them 
the  pvateat  abhorrencs.  The  inhabitanta  are  a.  remarkable  race, 
greatly  resembling  the  Caucasiau  in  their  features,  language,  and  man- 
ners ;  and  claim  to  be  brothers  of  the  Feringbi,  or  Eiiropeaus.  They  live 
Id  a  mde  and  primitive  atate,  but  exhibit  ^reat  skill  in  norklng  metals, 
and  in  other  arts,  and  have  for  ^ea  mamtainad  their  independence, 
though  their  amall  territory  has  been  repeatedly  overrun  by  the  Moham- 
medan nations  who  surround  them.  £haw^,  a  celebmted  lort  and 
raonntain-pass,  the  moat  easterly  and  the  best  known  across  the  Hindu- 
Knah.  By  It  Tamerlane  entered  Hindustan,  a.d.  1399.  Knndiu,  a 
wretched  place,  consisting  of  about  600  mnd  hovels.  fiRdakshan  or 
Fyiabad,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Amoo,  has  acquired  great  celebrity  for  its 
valuable  mines  of  ruby  and  lapis-la^^lL  It  was  once  Uie  cap.  o(  an  in- 
dependent sovereignty,  and  a  placa  of  great  importance;  but  in  1832 
great  part  of  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earth({uake,  and  scarcely  a  vestige 
of  it  now  remains.  The  inhobitauta  are  diatinsuiehed  for  their  hospi- 
tality, and  it  is  aaid  that  bread  haa  never  been  sold  in  the  country.  Bok- 
luTB  is  u  celebrated  city,  and  the  only  leally  populous  one  in  the  bliauat. 
It  baa  been  long  fanions  as  a  seat  of  Mohammedan  learning,  has  360 
mosques  and  as  many  colleges  and  schoola,  with  10,000  students.  It  is  a 
place  of  very  extensive  coronierca,  and  merchants  from  all  parts  of  Asia 
assemble  here.  Water  ia  acarce  in  anmmer,  and  of  ao  bad  a  quality  that 
it  gives  rise  to  the  terrible  disease  occttsionerl  by  the  gulnea-wunn,  which 
bnnows  in  the  flesh  of  the  human  body,  producing  intense  pain.  Kho- 
kaad  (anc.  Ferghana)  has  manufoctures  of  silk  and  cotton  tisauca,  and  an 
aetive  trade  in  cattle.  The  khanatisthe  country  of  the  celebrated  Sultan 
Baber,  the  founder  of  the  Mogul  empire  In  India,  d.D.  1&25.    " 


I  of  the  cap.  is  UaigkUa^  the  ancient  cap.,  containmg  some  rc 
buildinKB  aud  ramaina  oT ^antiquity.     Khiva,  a  miaerable-looklng^jila 


,  ._„ .,— J. , Ing  place, 

and  extremely  filthy,  is  the  greatest  alave-market  in  Turkp. 
1870-7,  Khotaud  being  callod 


426  POLITICAL   OEOQRAPUr. 

Stan.  Kerv,  formerly  one  of  the  four  imperial  cities  of  Ehorassan,  and  the 
cap.  of  the  Persian  sultans  of  the  Seljukian  dynasty,  is  now  in  mins. 

lalces. — See  under  *' Asia/'  par.  13. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  necessarily  very  diversified,  since  the 
elevation  ranges  from  that  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  83  ft  below  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  18,000  ft.  above  it.  That  of  Bokhara,  in 
the  south,  is,  however,  described  as  dry,  pleasant,  and  salubrious, 
but  very  cold  in  winter,  when  the  Amoo  or  Oxus  is  covered  with  so 
deep  a  coating  of  ice  that  travellers  can  easily  pass  over  it.  The 
sky  is  usually  very  clear,  and  of  a  bright  azure  colour.  Snow  lies 
about  three  months  in  the  year,  and  violent  tornadoes  frequently 
follow  the  summer  heats,  which  in  June  rise  to  upwards  of  100" 
during  the  day,  and  fall  to  60"  at  night  **  In  general,  the  seasons 
in  this  country  may  be  described  thus  :  spring,  sudden  and  fleeting ; 
summer^  dry  and  burning  ;  autumn,  rainy,  gloomy,  and  short ; 
winter,  long,  dry,  and  constantly  cold." 

Minerals. — Gold  in  the  sands  of  the  Oxus  ;  coal,  copper,  iron,  in 
Khokand,  where  also  rich  silver  mines  occur  in  the  mountains ;  salt- 
deposits  numerous  ;  sal-ammoniac  in  its  native  state  ;  and  mines  of 
rubies  and  lapis-lazulL 

Botany  and  Agriculture. — The  indigenous  plants  appear  to  be 
few  in  number ;  timber  is  exceedingly  scarce  ;  fruits  are  excellent 
and  abundant,  especially  in  Bokhara,  where  the  vine  is  successfully 
cultivated.  The  principal  cultivated  plants  are  rice,  wheat,  barley, 
millet,  maize,  tobacco,  hemp,  rhubarb.  Tillage  is  almost  confined 
to  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Mulberry-trees  are  extensively  reared  in 
the  S.,  and  silk,  together  with  cotton,  is  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance along  the  banks  of  the  Oxus. 

Zoology. — Among  the  mammiferous  animals  in  the  steppes,  the 
Rodentia,  especially  the  mouse,  are  the  most  numerous  ;  the  bufialo, 
wild  horse,  saiga  antelope,  yak,  rass  or  Pamir  sheep,  leopards, 
wolves,  foxes,  hares,  goats,  in  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Eunduz  ;  bats, 
tortoises,  and  lizards  in  the  deserts ;  scorpions  are  common,  and 
locusts  sometimes  infest  the  country ;  eagles  and  falcons  are  met 
with,  and  plovers,  wild-pigeon,  and  waterfowl  abound ;  but  there 
are  no  singing-birds,  and  game  of  all  kinds  is  scarce.  Fish  is  not 
abundant ;  those  taken  in  the  Oxus  are  similar  to  those  of  other 
Asiatic  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  an  enormous  species  of  dog-fish, 
called  Itikha,  which  has  no  scales,  and  which  sometimes  attains  the 
weight  of  600  lb.  The  species  found  in  the  Sea  of  Aral  are  the  same 
as  tliose  in  the  Caspian,  whose  fauna  is  peculiar,  but  mixed  with 
Black  Sea  species.     (See  pp.  294,  314.) 

Btlmograpby. — Turkestan  means  **  land  of  the  Turks,"  this  coun- 
try having  been  the  headquarters  of  the  Turkish  race  from  time  im- 
memorial. The  Turks  are  Mongols,  their  language  Turanian  (pp. 
86,  814,  422).  The  northern  and  south-western  parts  are  inhabited 
by  nomadic  tribes  (Kirghiz,  Turcomans,  Uzbecks).  Among  the 
settled  tribes  the  most  numerous  are  the  Tadjiks,  who  are  supposed 


WESTERN    TURKESTAN.  42T 

to  be  of  Persian  or  Araliinn  origin,  and  sneek  pure  Persian  ;  theic 
religioD  is  Moliummedaniam,  bera  divided,  ob  elsewhere,  into  two 
sects,  Sunnites  anil  Sliias  ;  but  the  Shiaa  are  compelled  to  hide  their 
belief,  ns  they  are  nowbere  tolerated,  and  are  treated  as  KaSis  or 
iiDbelievera,  and  sold  as  slaves.  Soofeeism  or  free-thinking  also 
jirevails  among  them.  The  Kafirs,  in  Kafiriatan,  are  Caucaaianfl, 
and  use  a,  Medo-Persian  tang^ue, 

Oonunerce. — The  commerce  of  the  country,  especially  of  Khira 
and  Bolthani,  is  considerable^ their  territories  being  favourably 
situated  in  regard  to  Bussia,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  India,  and  the 
Chinese  empire — and  is  conducted  by  means  of  caraTans.  BokhSra 
alone  employs  npwards  of  8000  camels  in  the  trade  ivitb  Kabnl, 
Herat,  and  Kashmir.  The  manufactures  are  few  and  unimportant, 
consisting  chieSy  of  silk  and  cotton  staSs,  carpets  and  shagreen, 
made  in  the  towns,  with  sabres,  knires,  and  other  weapons.  The 
principal  Exports  are  cotton-cloth,  vool,  fruits,  hides,  sheep-skins, 
dyes,  and  silk.  Imports  comprise  muslins,  brocades,  suoar,  shawls, 
white  cloth,  opium,  and  cutlery,  from  the  south ;  British  and  other 
European  manufactured  goods  through  Kussia  ;  porcelain,  tea,  musk, 
rhubarb,  from  China ;  and  wool  from  Tibet.  Trade  is  principally 
carried  on  by  means  of  barter.  The  slave  trallic  is  extensive,  the 
Chittra!  boys  and  girls  being  the  most  pri?ed,  owing  to  their  supe- 
rior beauty,  docility,  and  fidelity ;  while  the  Kafirs  are  most  unttact- 
able  and  reTsngeful. 

Qormunant. — The  various  governments  ore  despotic,  but  the 
khans  are  obliged  to  rule  in  accordance  with  the  priuciples  of  the 
Koran ;  they  are  also  inSuenced  by  the  priests  and  by  public 
opinion.  The  military  force  fluctuates  in  the  vatiaus  atat^ ;  in 
Bokhara  it  does  not  exceed  4000  men  of  all  arms,  one-third  of  whom 
only  are  fblly  armed.  Very  recently  Eussia  has  made  serious  en- 
cnuchmentfi  on  Western  Turkestan,  especially  on  the  klianats  of 
Khiva,  Bokh&ra,  and  Khokand,  which  have  now  in  a  large  measure 
loet  their  independence. 

Blrer  System  of  Oentra]  Asia,  or  Basin  of  Continental  Streams. — 
A  portion  of  this  immense  basin— viz,,  the  minor  basins  of  the  Ural, 
Volga,  Kuma,  Terek,  Kuba,  and  Kur,  all  lyiuffW.  of  the  Caspian, 
have  been  treated  of  under  "  European  Kossia  '  (p.  328).  The  fol- 
lowing table  embraces  the  N.  and  centre  of  Persia,  the  N.  andW.  of 
Afghanistan,  and  the  whole  of  Turkestan.  Many  of  the  rivers  flow 
into  lakes  which  bavB  no  outlet,  while  others  ore  lost  in  the  sands  of 
the  desert 


K,Co.  ofrereU.Baai 


.  Lihijin, 


.,  aotnis 


Ann  DariB  (L.  tTrgmj,  Kui 

Aral),  Khiva,  n.,  Kl 


UnhrghBba'»t).l'Bn 


428 


POLITICAL   QE0GBAPB7. 


Ehnlam,  { . 


Syr   Daria    (L. 
Aral), 


Hi  (L.  Balkash).. 
Eobdo  (L.   Ike 
Aral). 

Lake  Borkol 

Yarkand     (Lop 

Chayar,  I 

Khotan, 


Tovmt. 

Kholtun  or  Tash-Kor- 
ghan. 

Fort  Ardlikt  Otrar, 
TORKKSTAK,  n. ,  IHin' 
kat,  Tashkend,  Kho- 
jend, Kokand,  Mar- 
ghilan,  n.,  Usch. 

IlI  or  GULDJA. 

Kobdo. 

KJiamil,  n. 
Tarkand. 

Ghayar,  Konlchd. 
Iltchi  or  Khotan. 


Riven. 


Towni, 


Aksti,  I AksTL 

Kaahgar,  { . . . .  Kashoar. 
Helmnnd    (L.Du8hak. 
HamunX 

Tumak,  I Kelat  i  QhUjit, 

Urghendab, .  Kandahar. 

Haroot, Subzawur. 

Ghuznl  (L.  Abis-  GhuznL 
tada), 

Kurao, Xurgliab. 

Bocknabad      Shibaz. 
(lost), 
Zendarood  (lostXIspahan. 
Kara-su  Host), . .  Hamadan,  n. 
Kehveh (lost),  ..Teheran,  zl 


SIBERIA  AND  CENTRAL  ASIA. 

Boundaries.— N.,  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  W^  European  Russia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  Ural  River, 
and  the  Caspian ;  S.,  Western  Turkestan,  the  Thian  Shan  Moun- 
tains, and  Mongolia  ;  E.,  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Owing  to  Russia's  recent  aggressions  in  Western  Turkestan,  the  south- 
ern frontier  is  now  pushed  forward  beyond  Samarcand  to  lat.  89°,  while 
Cape  Severo,  in  the  extreme  north,  is  in  lat.  78**  12*.  The  Ion.  extends 
from  Novo  Patrovsk,  on  the  CJaspian  (Ion.  60°  16'  E.),  to  East  Cape,  in 
Behring  Strait  (ion,  169°  W.)  This  portion  of  the  empire  extends, 
therefore,  over  89°  of  lat.  and  nearly  141°  of  Ion.  While  its  southern 
boundary  is  on  the  same  parallel  as  Madrid,  Nap|les,  Constantinople, 
Bokhara,  Peking,  and  New  York,  its  northern  limit  is  in  the  same  lat.  as 
the  Parry  Islands  and  the  southern  point  of  Spitzbeigen. 

Area. — The  area  of  Siberia  and  Central  Asia  is  now  estimated  at 
6,444,940  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  (in  1878)  at  6,841,000,  or  one 
inhabitant  to  each  sq.  m.  One  half  larger  than  the  Chinese  em- 
pire, it  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  whole  continent  of  Europe ; 
while  the  population  does  not  much  exceed  that  of  Ireland. 

SnrflEUse. — The  entire  west  and  north  consists  of  a  vast  lowland 
plain,  gently  sloping  towards  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Sea  of  Aral, 
and  embracing  immense  desert  iteppes,  full  of  salt  marshes,  and  des- 
titute of  timber.  The  principal  steppes  are  the  Kiighiz  steppe,  ex- 
tending from  the  Caspian  to  Lake  Balkash ;  the  steppe  of  Ishim, 
along  the  head-waters  of  the  Tobol  and  Irtish  ;  and  the  steppe  of 
Barabinska,  farther  to  the  N.E.,  between  the  Irtish  and  Obi. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  this  immense  region,  the  rivers  in  winter 
How  underneath  a  thick  coating  of  ice.  Owing  to  their  slight  fall 
they  readily  overflow  their  banks,  and  inundate  extensive  portions 
of  their  basins.  The  Arctic  Ocean  being  almost  constantly  ice- 
bound, the  rivers  that  And  their  way  to  it  are  almost  useless  us 


SUIEHIA    ASD   CESTEAL   ASIA.  429 

'  ehinneU  of  cominerca.  East  of  I.alte  BalJiiiali,  the  counhy  becomas 
inorB  mountainoua  and  varied,  and  the  sonthern  frontier  ja  consider- 
ably within  the  limits  of  the  p1at«aa  of  High  Asia.  The  Thian  Shaa 
raouotains  form  the  boundary  between  Bossia  and  Eastern  Torke- 
stan,  and  it  ia  understood  that  there  is  no  intention  of  extending  the 
empire  farther  south  in  this  direction.  Still  farther  east,  the  bonn- 
darj  is  formed  by  the  Altaian  and  Saynnsk  monntaina,  and  the 
river  Amoor,  the  basin  of  which  is  highly  fertile,  aa  is  also  the  basin 
of  the  Syr  Dorio,  in  Tnrkeston.  ]n  other  parta,  though  the  soil  ia 
fertile  in  many  places,  the  extreme  severitj  of  the  climate  will  ever 
prereut  suocosafol  cultivation.     (Sea  nndor  "Asia,"  p.  847.) 

FoUttcalDtTtslonB.— The  Russian  government  has  divided  Siberia 
into  two  main  sectiona — viz.,  Western  and  Eastern  Siberia,  tha 
respective  capitals  of  which  are  Tobolsk  and  Irkntsk.  These  are 
DOW  subdivided  into  five  govemmenta  and  six  territories.  The  gov- 
ernment of  Turkestan,  recently  seized  from  the  khana  of  Western 
Turkestan,  embraces  the  two  provinces  of  Syr  Daria  [eap.  Turkestan) 
and  Semirichenak  (cap.  VernoS).  This  new  government  embraces 
143,000  aq.  m.  along  the  hanks  of  the  Syr  Dario,  with  a  pap.  of  about 

11,000,000. 
Westers  Sibekia. 
Tobolsk.— Tobolsk  18,  Omsk  19  (Irtish),  Tiumen  12  n.   (Tnra), 
Snrgan  (Tobol),  Petropaulovaki  B  (Irfiim). 
"  TOMBK.— Tomsk  21  (Tom),  Barnaul  11,  Eijisk  i  (Obi). 
■■  EiBosiz  Teb. — Novo  Alexandrovsk  (Caspian). 
'-  Semifolatinsk  Tsr. — Semipolatinsk  7  (Irtish). 
TFRKKBTilf.— Turkestan  10,  n.,  Otmr,  Toehkend   SO,  n.,  Khff- 
jend  GO  n.  (Sjr  Daria),  Samarcand  25  (Kohik),  Fort  Arslsk  (Sea  of 
Aral),  VemoS,  n.  (lU), 

Eabtbrk  Siberia. 

YttNlSEiaK.— Erasnoiarsk  10,  Yeniseisk  8  (Yenisei). 

iBKirrsK. — Irkatak  28  (Angara),  Eirensk  2  (Lena). 

Yakutsk  Ter. — Yakutsk  a,  Olokminak  (Lena),  Yeluisk  (Velni}. 

TRABa-EAiKii,  Teb.  "Chita  (Ingoda),  Nertchinsk  S  (Shilka), 
Udinsk  3,  Setenginsk  3,  Kiakhta  S,  n.  (Solenga). 

Amoobbkata  Tsr.— Blagoveschensk  (Atnoor). 

Pbihorsk  Tbe.  —  Hikolaievek  n.  (Amoor),  Okhotsk  [Sea  of 
Okhotsk),  Petropaulovaki  1  (K  coast  of  Eamtchatka). 

DMCTiptlve  Hates.— Tobolsk,  the  cap,  of  Western  Siberia  and  the  chief 


far,  given  in  eiehange  for  tha  manufactured  goods  of  Europe  and  China), 
contuna  a  monument  to  Yermak,  the  founder  of  Russian  influence  in 
Bibeiia.  Omsk  maintains  a  considerable  trade  with  the  wandering 
Klrgblj  !n  tnra,  brandy,  and  tobacco.  Ttmnen,  an  entrepot  for  the  com- 
merce between  Russia  and  Central  Asia,  contains  npwarda  of  100  factories 
(or  the  mannfactore  of  Russia  Inather  and  woollen  fabrics.    T<iliuk  Bud 


430  POUnCAL   GEOGRAPHT. 

Barnaul  derive  their  importance  from  their  proximity  to  the  mining  dis- 
trict of  the  Altai.  Semipolatinak  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade  with 
the  adjacent  part  of  the  Chinese  empire.  Otrar  is  noted  as  theplaee 
where  the  celebrated  Tamerlane  died  (a.d.  1405)  when  on  his  vnj  to  con- 
ouer  China.  Tashkend,  by  far  the  most  populous  town  in  Siberia,  forms 
the  key  of  the  valley  of  the  Syr  Dana.  Knoijend,  a  large  town  actively 
engag^  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics,  carries  on  an  extensive 
trmle  with  Bokhara.  Samarcand,  at  one  time  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
Asiatic  cities,  and  the  capital  of  one  of  the  largest  empires  that  ever 
existed— viz.,  that  of  Tamerlane,  whose  tomb  is  enclosed  within  its  walls. 
It  is  the  Holy  City  of  the  Mohammedans  of  Central  Asia.  Fort  Aralsk : 
here  the  Russians  maintain  a  small  fleet  of  war  vessels,  and  a  number  of 
flat-bottomed  boats  for  ascending  the  almost  unnavigable  Syr  Daria. 
Krasnoiarsk  contains  a  flne  collection  of  Siberian  antiquities ;  is  import- 
ant  as  lying  on  the  route  from  Tobolsk  to  Irkutsk.  Innitsk,  a  consider- 
able town  on  the  Angara,  and  the  most  populous  place  in  Eastern  Siberia, 
is  the  great  emporium  (next  to  Kiakhta)  of  the  Kussian  commerce  with 
China.  It  maintains  telegraphic  communication  with  St  Petersburg,  and 
is  the  see  of  an  archbishop  whose  authority  extends  over  120°  of  lon^- 
tude !  Yakutsk,  the  main  de^dt  for  the  fur  trade  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
carries  on  a  traffic  in  ivory  obtcuned  from  the  walrus  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  from  the  fossil  remains  of  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros  found  em- 
bedded in  the  frozen  soil  of  the  northern  shores.  Nertchinsk,  a  cele- 
brated mining  town  in  the  Yablonoi  Moimtains.  Kiakhta,  the  grand 
mart  of  exclumge  between  Russia  and  China,  and  the  residence  of  numer- 
ous merchants.  Okhotsk,  the  principal  station  of  the  Russo- American  fur 
company.  Petropaulovski,  the  headquarters  of  the  Russian  fleet  of  the 
Pacific,  was  successfully  bombarded  by  the  Anglo-French  fleet  in  1854. 

Gapes,  Islands,  Seas,  Bays,  Onlft,  and  Lakes. — See  under  "Asia." 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Eastern  and  Northern  Siberia  is  intensely 
cold  during  winter,  which  lasts  nine  months,  but  very  warm  during 
the  brief  summer.    The  lower  basin  of  the  Lena  is  the  coldest  known 


difference  of  94°  of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter.  Here 
mercury  remains  frozen  from  two  to  three  months  in  the  year ;  breath- 
ing becomes  difficult,  and  the  reindeer  hides  himself  in  the  depths  of 
the  forest  and  stands  motionless.  The  heat  of  the  summer  penetrates 
the  soil  only  to  a  depth  of  about  8  ft.,  beneath  which  it  remains  per- 
manently frozen.  Erman  found,  by  sinking  a  well,  that  the  frozen 
stratum  extended  to  the  depth  of  400  ft  at  Yakutsk,  but  in  other 
places  it  is  much  less.  The  rivers  are  covered  for  many  months  with 
a  thick  coating  of  ice ;  and  the  country  being  almost  a  dead  level, 
and  the  upper  courses  of  the  rivers  melting  earlier  in  summer  than 
the  lower,  much  of  their  lower  basins  becomes  inundated.  The 
climate  of  Russian  Turkestan,  though  exceedingly  variable,  is  not 
nearly  so  extreme.  The  Syr  Daria  is  covered  witn  ice  for  only  five 
months  in  the  year— viz.,  from  November  to  March;  while  in  May, 
June,  and  also  in  September,  it  is  flooded  by  the  melting  of  the 
snows  on  the  Thian  Shan  mountains.  At  Fort  Perovski,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Syr  Daria,  the  summer  is  dry  and  sultry,  rain  falling  only 


BltlEIilA    ASD    CEKTRiL   ASIA.  431 

;e  during  the  whole  anratner,  and  the  terapemture  reach- 
ing 40°  Iteaumur  or  122°  Fah. ;  in  winter  at  the  enmit  place  bhow  lies 
on  the  ground  three  months  in  the  yem. 

Wiuntla; — Siberia  yields  to  no  coantry  in  the  'world  for  tho  richei 
and  irariety  of  its  mineral  prodnctioiia.  Coal  ftlone  is  deficient, 
though  recently  it  has  bee d  discovered  in  the  moQutains  near  Khojend, 
in  Roesisn  Tarliestan. 

There  are  three  eitensivo  mining  districts— viz.,  1.  Those  of  the  Urals, 
on  the  E.  declivity  ot  which  they  occupy  an  area  of  about  40  m,  wide, 
and  yield  great  qiiantitiea  of  iron,  gold,  and  copper,  with  some  silver  aad 
platumm.  2.  Tbe  mining  distriet  of  Bamanl  in  Tomak,  yielding  aarifer- 
oBS  silver  and  copper,  but  less  lead.  The  mines  here  lie  mostly  in  the 
Altai  Monntaina,  which  aia  alao  rich  in  cornelian,  onyi,  topaz,  amethyst, 
diamonds,  and  other  gems.    3.  The  district  of  Nerti^binsk,  rich  in  ailver, 

Ejld,  oopper,  lead,  quidtsUver,  tin,  dnc,  and  iron.  Here  are  also  cele- 
isted  mines  of  emerald  and  topaz,  found  generally  in  connection  with 
Hn.  ThB  total  prodace  of  gold  from  Sihena  in  186Swas  estimated  at 
£3,000,000  stg.  The  other  principal  minerals  are  salt,  fonnd  in  natural 
erystala  on  the  bonks  of  some  lakes  ;  jaaper  and  porphyry  of  great  beauty, 
in  the  Altu  Moontaius ;  lapia-lazuli,  near  Lake  Baikal :  diamonds,  found 
occasionally  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Urals ;  and  malacMte,  containing 
fopper  and  mica,  ia  the  form  of  larga  plates,  eitensively  used  as  a  sub- 
stitate  for  window-glass. 

Botany. — Enormous  forests  of  ooniferoua  and  other  trees  extend 
from  the  Altai  Mountain.i  to  the  Polar  Circle  ;  a  few  bushea,  willows, 
and  Baline  plants  form  the  principal  vegetation  of  the  steppes  in  the 
W. ;  while  in  the  dreary  region  of  the  lunclras,  N.  of  the  Arctic 
Circle,  are  fonnd  only  the  dwarf  willow,  mosses,  and  lichens.  (See 
Btider  "Asia,"  p.  347.) 

Hie  principal  cultivated  pUnta  are  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  which  rarely 
ripen  tieyoud  the  lat.  of  SO'.  Wheat  is  grown  in  some  places  in  the 
basins  of  the  Irtish,  Yenisei,  and  Syr  Daria,  and  buckwheat  and  millet 
in  VBiiona  localities.  Flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  turnips,  pease,  beans,  pota- 
toes, cabbage,  onions,  radishes,  mnstard,  and  even  cucumbera  and  pump- 
kins, are  raised  in  considerable  quantities.  The  cotton  plant  is  also  sul- 
fated in  Russian  Turkestan  as  far  north  as  Vemci,  hut  fruit-trees  do 
not  succeed  anywhere  except  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Amoor. 

ZonlOEy. — Siberia  ia  also  very  rich  in  ita  wild  animals,  especially 
the  far-bearing  species,  aa  the  aable,  ermine,  marmot,  marten,  beaver, 
•^nirrel,  and  lax,  the  skina  of  which  form  an  important  article  of 
oiinmeice.  Other  wild  animals  are  the  white  and  black  bear,  the 
reindeer,  ellc,  wolf,  and  glutton,  the  striped  tiger,  wild  boar,  saijak 
or  Scvttmn  antelope,  and  wild  horae,  in  Kussian  Turkestan ;  here 
also  the  comtnon  eagle,  gcr-fslcon,  and  other  birds  of  prey  are  found, 
while  miliious  of  gallinaceous  and  aquatic  birds  frequent  the  wooda 
and  laheH.  Among  reptiles  may  be  mentioned  scorpiniis,  tarantulEB, 
and  phalanp.  During  the  summer,  swarms  of  locusts,  gadflies, 
gnats,  and  thrips  infest  the  region  of  the  Syr  Daria.  The  rivera 
swarm  with  fish,  while  the  Caspian  abounds  in  sturgeons,  salmon, 
sterlets,  and  seals. 

AboQt  ooe-hatf  of  the  papulation  of  Siberia  con- 


432  POLITICAL .  GEOGRAPHY. 

aists  of  exiles  and  convicts  from  European  Eussia,  who,  to  tihe  nam* 
ber  of  about  10,000  annually,  are  sent  hither  either  to  work  in  the 
mines  or  to  colonise  the  country.     The  remainder  are  Turanians. 

The  Samoiedes  in  North  Siberia,  between  the  Ural  Mountfuns  and  the 
Lena,  are  in  all  probability  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Northern  Asia. 
From  an  extensive  list  of  Samoiede  words,  collected  by  Pallas  and  EJap- 
roth,  it  appears  that  their  language  more  closely  approximates  to  toe 
Finnish  than  to  any  other  known  tongue.  They  are  an  extremely  ignor- 
ant and  degraded  race ;  their  religion  is  Shamanism,  one  of  the  grossest 
forms  of  idolatry,  and  they  depend  for  their  precarious  subsistence  on 
hunting  and  fishing.  The  Yukagirs,  Koriaks,  Tchukchees,  and  Kamt- 
chadales  occupy  the  remainder  of  Northern  Siberia,  from  the  Lena  to  the 
Pacific.  They  lead  a  wandering  life,  and  subsist  by  fishing  and  the  chase, 
though  many  of  them  possess  large  flocks  of  reindeer.  In  winter  they 
live  in  huts  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  with  only  a  single  aperture  for 
the  admission  of  light  and  air ;  wmle  their  summer  residences  consist  of 
rude  huts  formed  of  the  trunks  of  trees,  with  a  covering  of  bark.  Bud- 
dhism and  Paganism  are  the  prevalent  forms  of  belief,  though  a  few  pro- 
fess a  corrupted  form  of  Christianity.  South  of  these,  and  occupying  the 
immense  region  of  South-eastern  Siberia,  between  the  Upper  Yenisei  and 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  are  found  the  Tunguzes,  who  are  closely  allied  in 
origin  to  the  Mantchoos.  Their  language  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  the  Mantchoos,  having  a  considerable  admixture  of  Mongolian  terms, 
and  being  extremely  rude  and  barbarous.  The  Tunguzes  are  fire-worship- 
pers, but  a  few  of  them  have  been  baptised.  South-western  Siberia,  be- 
tween the  Yenisei  and  the  Ural  Mountains,  is  mainly  occupied  by  the 
Ostiaks  and  Wogulians,  two  nations  of  Turkish  origin,  professing  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  speaking  dialects  closely  allied  to  each  other,  and 
belonging  to  the  Furnish  family  of  tongues.  The  Buriats,  a  Mongolian 
tribe,  dwell  chiefly  on  both  sides  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  are  the  most  numer- 
ous of  all  the  Siberian  tribes.  They  are  said  to  number  about  150,000 
individuals;  their  dialect  is  closely  allied  to  the  Calmuck,  and  is  the 
same  as  that  spoken  by  the  Khalka  tribes  in  Eastern  Mongolia.  A  tribe 
of  Calmuck  Tartars  peoples  the  Altai  Mountains,  immediately  to  the  W. 
of  the  Buriats.  The  province  Turkestan,  and  the  steppes  around  the  Sea 
of  Aral,  are  peopled  by  hordes  of  wandering  Kirghiz,  a  Tartar  race,  who 
speak  the  Turkish  language  and  profess  the  Mohammedan  religion. 

HairafActnres  and  Commerce The  manufactures  of  Siberia  are 

nnimportant,  except  iu  the  large  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Syr 
Dana,  where  the  silk- worm  is  reared  and  silk  and  cotton  cloths  are 
woven.  The  mining  districts  of  the  Ural,  Altai,  and  Yablonoi  give 
emplojrment  to  a  large  fraction  of  the  community.  Tobolsk  has 
tanneries  and  some  mannfactures  of  soap,  and  at  Irkutsk  is  an  im* 
perial  factory  of  woollens  for  the  clothing  of  the  troops.  The  com- 
merce is  of  considerable  extent,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  exportation 
of  the  produce  of  the  mines,  together  with  furs,  skins,  cattle,  fish, 
mammoth  bones,  morse  teeth,  and  caviare,  in  exchange  for  which 
tea,  silk,  porcelain,  paper,  and  rhubarb  are  imported  from  China. 
China  is  Kussia*s  best  customer,  while  Siberia  is  the  most  important 
link  in  the  through  traffic.  Immense  caravans  constantly  travel 
from  Moscow  to  China,  the  ordinary  route  being  the  Volga  and 
Kama  to  Perm,  thence  by  the  Jura  and  Irtish  to  Omak^  than 


TraaBcancasla-— Sac  tinder  "Hiisaia,"  p.  322, 

RlTBT-ByBtem  of  Siberia — The  following  table,  in  contimaHtion 
thst  given  nndiT  Wejitem  Turkestan,  embraces  the  rivara  and  to\i 
of  Northeru  Asia,  from  the  Amoor  to  tiie  Obj  : — 


Bea     or    Oh.  OUioMk. 

HoMk, 
M,  Cn,  or  Kaui  t-  PBtrDMnlovskL 

Laiu, Jiganik,  T*HnTSK, 


SelFnga,  [  SplengiiiBl!, 


Oikhi 


iKTOitll,  Bijislt. 
:aBOLEK,    Omsk,    Baml- 

Tobr>l.  ! .  .Totulsk.  KJirgan. 

TaKhii]"Nljnl  Tsgr]sk  (fn  Pennl 
litilm.  I  PclroiiBulovskl. 
Tom, lOHsiL 


JAPAN. 


Bonndaxles.— N.,  Strait  of  La  Perouae,  si 
the  island  Saahalien  ;  W^  the  Sea  of  Japan  and  Strait  of  Corea, 
sepajating  it  from  Mantctooria  and  Corea ;  S,  and  E.,  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Inclnding  the  Majica-sima  islands,  or  Lesaer  Loa-Choo  gronp,  in  tliB 
ertrems  Boulli.  and  tlie  Kurile  arcliipelago  in  the  nortli,  tbe  latitude  ei- 
tonda  from  24''  W  to  51°  30'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  129°  to  165°  Sff  E.  The 
empire  inclndes  the  toi^  islands  NipboD,  Einslu,  Sikakf,  and  Yezo,  to- 
mtlier  with  tbe  great  and  lesser  Loo-Choo  groups,  the  whole  of  the 
Knrile  ialanris  (owed  by  Buaaia  to  Japan,  in  1875,  in  eichanga  for  the 
sontbem  half  of  Saghalian),  and  a  vast  numbin-  of  Bnudler  islands.  Tba 
vhole  of  the  pemii«ula  of  Corea,  however,  is  now  subject  to  Cliiim. 
Tedo,  the  cap. ,  near  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat.  as  Gibraltar, 
HaltH,  C^roB,  Teheran,  Kashmir,  Tsi-naD,  with  Monterey  and  Caps 
Hatttnas  m  the  United  States  of  America. 

Area  tmd  Population. — Tbe  area,  embnu'.iiig  the  fore-mentioned 
aeetiona,  is  believed  to  amonnt  to  157,000  sq.  m.,  or  thrice  the  size 
□f  England  without  Wales  ;  while  the  population  is  estimated  at 
E3,UOO,000,  or  nearly  tbe  aame  as  tliat  of  the  British  lales, 

Snrlhcs. — The  empire  consists  of  an  elongated  archipelago  subdivided 
into  a  series  of  minor  Rroupi,  Japan  Proper  being  in  the  centre.  This 
_.  ..sversed  tlmiugliout  its  greatest  length  hy  a  chain  of 
of  considerable  etevatian,  some  of  whicb  attam  the  snow 
limit,  and  many  are  adJTe  volcanoes,  aa  Fnal-Yamn,  In  the  island  Niphon, 
14,177  ft.  high.  ITio  remainder  of  the  eurfoce,  though  bold,  is  not 
raggftdi  Bad  the  mnjority  of  the  hilla  are  ooltiTated  to  "" "■ 


4 


434  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

mendons  earthquakes  are  comnion,  but  Europeans  are  very  imperfectly 

acquainted  with  the  interior. 

Political  DlTiaionB. — The  Japanese  empire  is  now  divided  into  5 
general  governments,  which  are  subdivided  into  75  districts,  each 
governed  by  a  Prefect.  The  principal  islands  with  their  largest 
towns  are  as  follows : — 

NiPHON. — ^Yedo  or  Jeddo  780,  Orogawa  20,  Yokohama  62,  Eana- 
sowa  60,  Simoda  80,  Osaka  530,  Miako  or  Kioto  567  n.,  Kobi  (S. 
coast),  Nee-e-gata  32  (N.  coast). 

SiKOK. — Tosa,  Awa  (E.  coast). 

Kiusiu. — Nagasaki  80,  Saga(W.  coast),  Kagosima  200  (S.  coast). 

Yezo. — Hakodati  20,  Matsmai  50,  Endermo  (S.  coast). 

Loo-Choo Sheudi,  Napa-Eiang  (Great  Loo-Choo  1.) 

Descriptive  Notes. — ^Yedo,  Jeddo,  or  Tokio,  cap.  of  the  empire,  and  the 
residence  of  the  emperor  or  Mikado,  is  said  to  have  an  area  equal  to  London, 
though  containing  only  one-fifth  its  population.     One  of  uie  streets  is  10 
m.  long,  and  as  closely  crowded  with  houses  as  between  Hyde  Park  Comer 
and  Mile  End.    The  citadel  occupies  an  inclosure  of  8  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence.   The  houses  are  mostly  bmlt  of  wood,  and  the  city  suffers  fre- 
quently from  destructive  fires.    Orogawa,  the  port  of  Yedo,  and  a  place 
of  considerable  importance,  from  the  complete  command  it  has  over  the 
trade  of  the  capital,  of  which  it  forms  the  kev.    Here  Commodore  Peny 
had  his  first  interview  with  the  Japanese  officials  in  1853,  and  here  his 
squadron  lay  at  anchor  during  his  negotiations  for  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  United  States.    Hiako,  a  lar^e  and  populous  city,  and  the 
seat  of  various  manufacturing  and  educational  esUiblishments,  was,  until 
1868,  the  ecclesiastical  cap.   of  l^e  empire  and  the  residence  of  the 
Tycoon,  to  whom  the  secular  emperor  was  nominally  subject.   It  abounds 
in  temples,  palaces,  and  exquisitely-laid-out  gardens,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  paradise  of  Japan.   Tokohama,  the  station  of  the  British  fleet.  Osaki 
is  an  active  manufacturing  town,  and  also  a  place  of  great  commerce. 
Tosa  and  Ava,  populous  cities  on  the  east  coast  of  Sikokf,  have  never 
been  visited  by  Europeans.    Kagasaki,  the  principal  seaport  and  com- 
mercial emporium  of  Japan,  on  tiie  W.  coast  of  the  island  Kiusiu,  has, 
for  the  last  two  centuries,  been  the  only  place  at  which  foreigners  were 
allowed  to  trade.    Saga,  a  large  and  populous  city,  possesses  consider- 
able trade.    Hatsnmai,  a  laige,  fortineo,  and  commercial  city,  with  a 
commodious  and  well  -  sheltered  harbour,  contains  numerous  temples, 
theatres,  and  various  other  edifices,  which  are  usually  painted  white. 
Hakodadi,  one  of  the  towns  at  which  the  ships  of  the  United  States, 
England,  France,  and  Russia  are  allowed  to  trade.    Shendi,  the  cap., 
and  Napa  the  principal  port,  of  the  Loo-Choo  group,  which  forms  a  sort 
of  outnidst  to  Japan,  thoi^h  owning  a  qualified  subordination  to  China. 
The  inhabitants  are  described  as  far  advanced  in  civilisation,  and  as  bear- 
ing the  closest  resemblance  to  the  Japanese  in  language,  customs,  laws, 
dress,  virtues,  and  vices. 

Capes,  iBlands,  Seas,  and  Straits. ->See  under  <*  Asia." 

Climate— Much  milder  than  the  corresponding  latitude  on  the 
neighbouring  continent,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  sorronnding 
ocean ;  but  the  W.  side  is  considerably  colder  than  the  £.,  on  ac- 
count of  its  proximity  to  Asia.    In  the  S.  the  thennometer  xsQgei 


,   of  Ben 


JAPAN.  435 

,  between  29*  and  104°  Fah.;  but  in  the  N.  the  cold  ia  so  intensa  in 
winter  as  to  compel  tho  haif-ssTage  Aiuoa  to  take  refuge  in  caverns. 
Bain  ia  very  freqnent,  ajid  the  country  is  often  visited  by  typhoons 
and  fearful  earthquakes,  while  yolcanic  erapCiona  of  the  moat  furmid- 
Hble  character  are  by  no  means  rare. 
Oflolosy. — Little  ia  known  of  the  geological  formation  of  the  conn- 
'  try,  aave  that  it  abounds  with  volcanoes,  which  form  its  most  char- 
nct«riBtic  feature.  One  of  theae,  a  huge  cone,  four  times  tbe  bulk 
n  Hevis,  is  said  to  have  been  formed  in  the  third  century  of 
era.  The  imiptioa  of  another  destroyed  twenty  Tillages  about 
ut^  years  ago;  while  a  third  sank  beneath  the  sea,  bat  continues 
:mit  boiliiic  water.  The  volcanoes  greatly  aSect  the  tides :  in 
le  parts  of  ^pan  there  is  only  one  tide  in  Uie  twenty-fonr  hours, 
'"  "n  other  parts  there  are  three. 
Mliiarals  are  very  numerous  and  abandant,  comprising  gold,  silver, 
lead,  tin,  copper,  diamonds  and  other  gems;  amber,  sulphur,  nitre, 
salt,  lime,  marble,  and  plastic  clay,  in  various  parts.  Whole  moun- 
tains of  porcelain  earth  are  met  with,  and  thermal  and  mineral 
springs  frequently  occur.  The  precious  metals  are  very  abundant, 
but  iron  is  scarce.  Coal  ia  very  plentiful,  and  is  largely  exported  to 
China,  where  it  supplies  a  large  section  of  the  inbabitaots  with  win- 
ter fuel.  The  mode  of  mining  ia  very  rude,  and  peiforraed  by  women 
•nd  children  in  a  state  of  nudity.  Some  of  the  richest  coal-mines 
belong  to  fiussians. 

BotBii7, — Japan  embraces  the  principal  pnrtion  of  Schonw's  sixth 
Phyto- geographic  region,  soinetiraes  called  the  Japanctt  Region, 
Its  flora  is  very  varied,  and  appears  to  occupy  a  middle  place  be- 
tween that  of  Europe  and  of  Korth  America.  It  has  a  considerable 
affinity  to  the  flora  of  India,  and  is  more  tropical  than  European.  In 
the  south  are  found  palms,  bananas,  bamboos,  bignontaa,  myrtles, 
and  cypressea;  iu  the  north,  oaks,  jiines,  firs,  the  maple  and  Iran- 
wood  tree ;  while  the  varnish  and  camphor  treea  are  said  to  bo  in- 
digenous. Some  of  the  timber  is  highly  prized  for  ahipbuilding. 
The  principal  cultivated  plants  are  tea,  cotton,  rice,  sugar-mne, 
tobacco,  ginger,  pepper,  hemp,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  aay,  melons, 
pumpkicH,  cucumbers,  and  fruits  of  every  kind.  Rice  yields  two 
haivesta  annually,  and  constitutes,  with  fish,  the  chief  food  of  the 
people.  The  vegetable-wai  tree,  the  silk  and  paper  mnlherty,  and 
the  cotton-tree,  are  held  in  high  esteem.  Radishes  are  sometimes 
found,  by  a  peculiar  mode  of  cultivation,  as  large  as  the  body  of  n 
man ;  while  other  plants  are  dwarfed  to  an  almost  incredibly  small 
sue.  Agriculture,  on  which  the  Japanese  bestow  great  care,  and 
which  they  thoroughly  understand,  forms  the  chief  occnpation  of  the 
people.  In  fact,  nothing  can  ei^ceed  tbeir  agricultural  mdustiy. 
R»logy.— The  Zoology  of  Japan  ia  still  imperfectly  known  to 
^Europeans ;  but  among  the  wild  animals  are  monkeys,  boars,  boura, 
Vfenaa,  foxes,  weaaela,  deer,  hares,  rats,  and  mice.  The  fox  is  wor- 
£ipped  aa  a  divinity  by  the  most  intelligent  men  in  the  cauotry 


436  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Birds  are  found  in  great  variety,  and  include  the  falcon,  pheasant, 
teal,  stork,  pigeon,  wild-goose,  duck,  quail,  curlew,  plover,  snipe, 
raven,  pelican,  crane,  and  neron.  Reptiles,  especially  snakes,  lizaia% 
and  tortoises,  are  numerous  ;  and  the  seas  abound  with  fish,  which 
are  taken  in  sreat  quantities.  Corals,  pearls,  and  ambergris  are  also 
obtained.  The  domestic  animals  are  few ;  elephants,  camels,  asses, 
mules,  and  sheep,  are  unknown ;  the  horse  is  used  only  for  the 
saddle,  buffaloes  and  oxen  being  the  animals  employed  for  draught 
and  burden  ;  but  it  is  contrary  to  the  Buddhist  religion  to  use  their 
flesh  as  meat. 

Ethnograpliy. — ^The  Japanese  are  probably  of  the  Mongolian  race, 
with  some  admixture  of  Malay  blood ;  but  it  remains  very  uncertain 
from  what  country  they  migrated,  as  they  have  been  located  in  their 
present  insular  home  from  time  immemorial.  They  do  not  resemble 
the  Chinese  in  physical  structure,  language,  or  ancient  religion. 

Dr  Macgowan,  who  has  paid  great  attention  to  the  ethnology  of  Japan, 
regards  the  people  as  a  mixture  of  the  Caucasian,  Kamtcnatkan,  and 
several  other  races.  They  are  small  in  stature,  the  average  height  of 
the  men  being  five  feet  four  inches.  The  eyes  are  black,  hair  coarse, 
complexion  sallow,  hands  and  feet  very  small.  After  marriage  the 
women  blacken  their  teeth  and  pluck  out  their  eyebrows.  The  Japanese, 
Loo-Chooan,  and  Corean  Lanauaget  are  very  closely  allied  to  each  oth^ : 
they  are  phonetic,  polysyllabic,  and,  to  some  extent,  inflexional,  and 
thus  differ  widely  from  the  Chinese ;  yet,  on  the  whole,  they  have  so 
many  affinities  with  the  Turanian  or  Fumo-Tartarian  family  of  languages, 
that  they  must,  at  least  provisionally,  be  classed  under  that  stock.  The 
Japanese  has  several  terms  in  common  with  the  Mongolian  and  Finnish ; 
very  many  Chinese  words,  greatly  modified  in  pronunciation,  have  been 
Introduced,  partly  by  Chinese  colonists,  but  more  especially  by  "the  in- 
fluence of  Chinese  literature,  on  which  all  the  learning  of  Japan  is  based. 
The  Japanese  have  a  written  literature,  some  science,  and  a  taste  for 
music.  Their  ancient  Religion  was  the  Sinto  or  Sin-sin  ^"  doctrine  of 
spirits  "),  so  called  because  consisting  chiefly  in  the  adoration  of  numer- 
ous spirits  supposed  to  preside  over  all  things,  whether  in  the  visible  or 
invisible  world.  But  in  the  sixth  century  Buddhism  was  introduced, 
and  now  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  conform  to  it,  while  a  few  have 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  Confucius. 

Oovemineiit. — ^From  time  immemorial  Japan  had  groaned  nnder 
a  feudal  despotism  of  the  severest  type.  Besides  two  emperors  (a 
temporal  and  a  spiritual)  there  were  hundreds  of  nobles,  named 
Daimios,  each  of  whom  maintained  a  standing  army,  and  had  abso- 
lute power  within  his  own  territory.  But  intercourse  with  foreigners 
has  entirely  altered  the  political  and  social  condition  of  the  country. 
There  is  now  only  one  emperor,  and  all  classes  in  the  community 
pay  him  willing  homage.  In  1868  the  Daimios  magnanimously 
agreed  to  demit  their  vast  authority,  and  to  subject  themselves  and 
their  dependants  to  the  Mikado.  In  1872  the  Revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  £10,375,000 ;  the  Expenditure  to  £9,707,000 ;  and  the 
Public  Debt  at  £23,000,000. 


AFRICA.  437 

ComineTce.  fee. — Japan  had,  lilce  China,  kept  itself  aloof  for  ageg 
from  other  nationa :  aome  trade  was  allowed  with  Chinese  merchants, 
who  broosht  broadcloth  and  other  atuffs  to  Nagasalti,  in  return  for 
coal,  sea-sluga,  copper,  and  lacqnered  wairea ;  and  the  Dutch  were 
jwrmittfid  to  send  two  ahipa  annually  to  the  same  port  with  wai, 
oumphor,  spicee,  ivorj,  lead,  iron  bars,  qniclisilver,  glagB  wares,  &.c,, 
for  whicb  they  received  in  return,  copper,  silk,  pitch,  and  Japanese 
monnfaetures. 

In  18S4  a  general  convention  uf  peaoe  and  amity  was  signed  between 
Japan  and  the  United  States,  by  wtich  the  porta  of  Nagasaki,  Simoda,  and 
Hakodadi  were  opened  to  the  ships  of  the  latter  for  trade  and  protection, 
and  consuls  from  the  United  States  were  allowed  to  reside  in  Japan,  In 
the  following  year  BimUar  privileges  were  accorded  to  England,  France, 
and  Russia.  Tlieao  privileges  were  still  further  ejtended  in  186a— Lord 
Elgin,  the  British  Ambaaaador,  having  entered  Yedda,  and  obtained  from 
the  emperor  a  libera!  treaty  of  commerce,  which  secures  the  advantagea 
of  an  unfettered  commerce  to  all  nations  at  the  following  porta— viz., 
Yedo,  Yokobama,  Hiogo,  Oeacs,  Nagasaki,  Niigata,  and  Hakodati. 
Foreigners,  however,  may  now  withont  molestation  travel  through  all 
parts  of  the  country.  Altogetber,  the  change  which  bus  taken  place  in 
tbe  condition  of  Japan  and  in  the  sentiments  of  ita  people  is  wbolly 
without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  nationa.  Japanese  of  bigi  rank, 
and  is  great  numbers,  have  been  despatched  by  the  government  to  study 
the  advanoed  cit-iljsatioc  of  Europe  and  America.  On  returning  home 
tbeir  recommendations  have  been  given  effect  tn  with  a  marvellous  readi- 
ness. Already  about  halt  a  million  Japanese  youths  are  being  taught 
the  history,  arta,  and  acience  of  the  West,  while  a  number  of  the  sons  of 
the  nobility  are  attending  the  schools  and  universities  of  this  country, 
Eailwaya,  telegraphs,  postal  communication,  minta,  lightbonsea,  Jto., 
have  been  introduced.  In  abort,  Japan  haa  taken  a  ^-eat  leap,  anil 
^rly  cleared  five  centuries  at  a  bound ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  foretell 
what  further  progress  she  may  make  ere  the  present  oentnry  haa  nm  its 
coniSB.  It  would  aeem,  however,  that  she  la  destined  to  become  to 
Xaatem  Asia  what  the  lilritish  aiohipelogo  (which  she  so  much  resembles 
in  relative  position,  size,  population,  and  climate)  ia  to  Western  Europe, 
The  religion  of  Christ  eeema  now  to  be  all  that  is  wanting  to  enable  bee 
•-  •  " favourably  the  gigantic  empire  which  lies  in  hei  vicini^. 


L  AFRICA. 

1,  Bonndaiies. — N.,  the  Mediterranean  ;  W.,  the  Atlantic  ; 
8.,  the  Southern  Ocean  j  E.,  tJie  Indian  Ocean,  Red  Sea,  and 
iBthmus  of  Suez,  which  unites  it  to  Asia. 

Airic*  eitenda  from  lat,  37°  2ft'  N,  (Baa-alKmn)  to  84°  60'  S.  (Cape 

AEQlbaal :  and  from  Ion.  17°  33'  W.  (Cape  Verd)  to  61°  2?  E.  (Cape 

r   Ouardafui);  and  thua  embraces  72°  of  lat.  and  69°  of  Ion.    Its  exai't 

^  centre,  1°  le-  N.  of  the  equator,  and  7°  E.  of  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  is  in 


438  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  same  lat  as  Quito,  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  the  centre  of  the 
islands  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  in  the  same  Ion.  as  Stockholm,  Bradau, 
Vienna,  Cape  Spartivento,  Lake  Tchad,  and  Cape  l^wn.  Its  N.  extrem- 
ity is  on  the  same  })arallel  as  San  Francisco,  C»pe  C*harles,  Hie  Azores, 
Cape  St  Vincent,  Athens,  Lake  Ummiah,  Astrabad,  and  Yarkand ;  and 
its  S.,  as  Monte  Video  in  Uruguay,  and  Adelaide  in  South  Australia. 
Africa  is  the  only  continent  which  has  a  large  extent  of  land  on  either 
side  of  the  equator.  Its  great  mass  lies  within  the  tropics,  and  conse- 
quently it  is  the  hottest  of  all  the  continents,  and  may  rightly  be  desig- 
nated the  tropical  continent.  It  is  not  merely  its  geographical  position 
that  imparts  to  it  this  distinction ;  for  it  is  separate  nom  the  two  other 
continents  of  the  Old  World  by  comparatively  narrow  inland  seas,  while 
its  plateaux  and  mountain-ranges  are  of  very  moderate  elevation.  It  is, 
in  fact,  a  vast  peninsula  of  Asia-Europe,  as  south  America  is  of  the  nor- 
thern continent. 

2.  Form  and  Dimensloiu. — In  form  it  resembles  a  pear,  with  a 
large  indentation  on  the  western  side,  and  a  corresponding  projection 
on  the  eastern.  The  extreme  length  from  N.  to  S.,  which  is  nearly 
equalled  by  the  extreme  breadth,  falls  little  short  of  5000  m.  The 
coast-line  is  estimated  at  16,000  m.,  or  1.  m  of  coast  to  every  710  m. 
of  surface ;  while  Europe  has  1  in  225  m.,  America  1  in  490,  and 
Asia  1  in  550.  This  single  fact  goes  far  to  explain  the  past  history 
of  Africa :  shutting  herself  up  from  the  sea  on  all  sides,  she  has  ever 
remained  isolated  &om  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  little  influenced  by 
those  social  or  political  revolutions  that  have  so  powerfully  pro- 
moted civilisation  in  the  other  continents  of  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

8.  Area  and  Population. — Great  uncertainty  still  attaches  to  the 
area  of  Africa,  but  it  is  usually  estimated  at  11,556,800  sq.  m.,  being 
about  three  times  the  area  of  Europe  with  its  islands,  or  two-thirds 
that  of  Asia.  It  is  thus  the  second  largest  of  the  six  great  divisions 
of  the  globe,  and  decidedly  larger  than  either  of  the  other  sonthem 
continents.  No  precise  datA  can  yet  be  given  for  the  popolation ; 
but  according  to  tne  latest  estimates  it  amounts  to  about  200,000,000, 
or  somewhat  more  than  one-seventh  of  the  human  race.  Next  to 
Europe  and  Asia,  it  is  the  most  densely  peopled  continent,  having 
164  persons  to  each  sq.  m.,  while  Asia  has  42,  and  Europe  7^ 
Formerly  the  population  of  Africa  was  estimated  at  from  60,000,000 
to  80,000,000 ;  but  recent  travellers,  who  have  penetrated  &r  into 
the  interior,  have  found  many  places  much  more  densely  peopled 
than  they  had  been  understood  to  be. 

4.  Political  Divisions. — As  much  of  the  continent  xemains  un- 
explored, and  as  the  political  relations  of  many  of  tiie  barbaioa 
nations  lying  south  of  the  Sahara  are  continnaJlj  flnotoatiiiff^  the 
actual  number  of  independent  states  cannot  be  spaoiAed  witn  any 
degree  of  accuracy.  The  annexed  table,  howerer,  nabnom  all  tiie 
really  important  divisions,  though  not  a  few  of  tiia  dflrigMttiaiia 
employed  are  rather  geographical  than  politioaL 


r  ^1.  iSi  ."Ill's 


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111 


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440  POLITICAL   OEOGRAPHY. 

5.  SurfiBUse  and  Moantalns. — The  surface  of  Africa,  as  a  whole, 
consists  of  an  immense,  moderately-elevated  plateau.  If  we  draw  a 
line  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  the  region  lying 
north  of  the  line  forms  an  immense  oval,  having  its  greatest  exten- 
sion from  east  to  west ;  while  that  to  the  south  of  the  line  forms 
a  triangle,  with  its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south.  This 
triangle  is  in  general  of  twice  the  e&vation  of  the  oval,  while  in  each 
the  mountain-ranges  pursue  the  direction  of  the  greatest  length, 
along  the  outer  margin,  with  the  lower  grounds  forming  the  interior. 
The  general  elevation  of  the  northern  plateau  is  about  2000  ft.,  and 
of  the  southern  from  4000  to  5000  ft.  A  narrow,  elongated  plain 
occupies  the  N.,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Mount  Atlas,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea.  S.  of  Mount  Atlas  is  the  Sahara,  or 
Great  Desert,  an  immense  sandy  waste,  but  presenting  great  diver- 
sity in  its  physical  configuration,  some  parts  being  low  and  flat, 
while  in  others  it  consists  of  table-lands  and  hills.  The  region  of 
Nigritia,of  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  Sahara,  consists  of  an  immense 
plateau  of  from  1000  to  3000  ft  in  elevation.  The  basin  of  Lake 
Tchad,  however,  is  less  than  1000  ft.  high ;  but  the  region  between 
the  lake  and  the  Chadda  rises  in  Mount  Mindif  to  6000  ft.  S.  of 
Nigritia  the  Kong  Mountains,  from  2000  to  3000  ft.,  form  an  im- 
mense wall,  separating  Soudan  from  Guinea.  Near  the  sources  of 
the  Chadda,  Mount  Alantika  rises  to  the  height  of  9000  ft  Pro- 
ceeding eastward,  we  arrive  at  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  one  of 
wliich,  Ras  Detschen,  is  15,986  ft  high,  and  Abba  Jarrat  15,020  ft 
Proceeding  to  the  peninsular  part  of  the  continent,  we  find  an  im- 
mense mountain-range  skirtin<y  the  eastern  side,  from  C.  Guardafoi 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tlie  range  attains  its  maximum  eleva- 
tion in  the  volcanic  peaks  of  Kilimandjaro,  20,065  (the  highest 
mountain  in  Africa,  so  far  as  yet  known),  and  Kenia,  18,000  ft 
Towards  the  apex  of  the  triangle  are  the  Drakensberg  mountains  in 
Natal,  10,357  ft,  and  the  Compass  Berg,  in  Cape  Colony,  8500  ft. 
On  the  western  margin  of  the  triangle  are  the  Omatako  Berg,  in  the 
Damara  Country,  8739  ft. ;  the  Camaroons  Mountains,  near  the  Bight 
of  Biafra,  reaching,  in  Albert  Volcano,  a  height  of  13,000  ft.  Far  to 
the  east  of  these  are  the  Blue  Mountains,  skirting  the  W.  side  of 
Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  and,  according  to  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  saw 
them  in  1865,  supposed  to  be  7000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  lake,  or 
9500  ft.  above  the  sea.  There  are  no  extensive  low-lying  plains  in 
Africa,  such  as  occur  in  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  basin  of  Lake  Tcnad,  830  ft  above  the  sea-level ;  the 
oases  and  some  waterless  depressions  of  the  Great  Desert ;  the  basin 
of  Lake  Tanganyika,  which  has  an  elevation  above  ilie  sea  of  2710 
ft.  ;  and  certain  parts  of  the  coast,  especially  the  deltas  of  the  Nile^ 
Senegal,  Gambia,  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Quorra  or  Niger. 

6.  Isthmus  and  Gapes. — Isthmus  of.Snez,  nniting  AMca  with 
Asia,  72  m.  broad,  and  now  traversed  Iry  a  canal ;  Gapen  DaaD  m*' 
Ras-al-Krun,  N.  of  Tunis ;  Spartel,  iJ.  of  IfazooGT  *- 
Nun,  W.  of  Marocco  ;  Bojador  and  Blanco^  W.  of  th' 


I 


AFKICA.  441 

*ild  Eoxo,  \V.  of  SeneEjambiii ;  Pnlmas,  Three  Poiiita,  rmd  Fonnosiu 
B.  of  Upper  Guinea  ;  Lopoi!  and  Negro,  W.  of  Lower  Guinea  ;  Good 
Hop«  Bud  Agulliui,  a.  of  Cape  Colony ;  Corrieutes,  8.  K  of  Sofaln  ; 
De%adD,  N.  E.  of  Hozambique ;  Uuardafai,  tlie  tnoat  E.  2>oint  of 
Afriea;  St  Mary  and  Amber,  the  S.  and  N,  Bitretnities  of  Mada. 

7.  IilaodB. — The  islands  are  chieSy  arraneed  in  f^nps  nr  trnia!! 
-krchipelitgaeB.  In  the  Medittmmean,  Jerbah  and  Earkenah,  E.  of 
Tnnis.  In  the  North  Atlantic,  Azores,  Uadnra,  Canary,  and  Cape 
Terd  Islands.  In  the  O.  of  Ovinia,  Fernando  Po,  Prince's  Island, 
8t  Thomas,  and  Annabon.  In  the  Soalh  AHantie,  Ascension  and  St 
Helena.  In  the  Indian  Ocean,  Madagascar,  Hauritius  Gronp  or  Mas- 
carene  Islands,  Comoro,  Zanzibar,  Aniirantes,  Seychelles,  and  Socolra. 

The  Azores,  Madeira,  and  CanaiT  Iilei  have  been  described  at  p.  1S3. 
The  Cape  Yard  Islandi,  sitnated  320  m.  west  of  Cape  Vard,  form  an 
■rchipBlago  of  ten  prhicipal  and  several  smaller  islands— all  of  which 
belong  to  Portugal ;  area,  16S0  sq,  m. ;  pop.,  85,400.  The  ten  largBat 
islands  ar^  Sant*  Antonio  Santo  Vicente,  Santa  LanA,  Santn  Nicolao, 
Sal,  Boavisla,  Maio,  Sant'  lago,  Foeo.  and  Brsva.  Thej  are  all  of  vol- 
canic oii^n,  and  Fogn,  which  is  9157  ft.  in  elevation,  still  emits  mnch 
HtDOke,  The  soil  is  modeistely  fertile ;  tbe  absence  of  trees  -and  the 
scarcity  of  water  caune  frequent  and  severe  distress.  Theclimalfl  is  very 
hot,  but  it  la  Iflmpered  by  tbe  aea-breeiBs,  The  chief  products  are  maize, 
rice,  orcbal,  French  beans,  coifee,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  fnilts.  Turtles 
are  nnmerouB  on  tbe  coasts,  where  om^ter  is  also  abundant-  Fernando 
Po,  Prlnce'i  Island,  8t  l^omaa.and  Annabmi,  aUlntbeBigbt  ofBiafra. 
are  niotintainous,  beautiful,  and  fertile,  yielding  rice,  sugar,  and  tropical 
tmita.  Fernando  Po  and  Annabon  belong  lo  Spain,  the  other  two  to 
Portngal.  Santa  Isabel,  in  Fernando  Po,  baa  nti  elevation  of  10,700  ft, 
JdCeiuiOn  Islitiid  and  St  Helena,  both  belongine  to  Britain,  are  situated 
far  mit  in  the  Atlantic,  the  former  abont  SOO  m.  S.S.E.  of  C.  Falmas,  and 
the  latter  nearly  1200  in.  E.3.E.  of  C  Lopez.  Ascension  is  retained  iw  a 
station  at  which  ships  may  touch  for  stores,  on  their  pass^e  to  and  from 
Chpe  Town  and  the  East  Iniliea ;  area,  S5  sq.  m. ;  pop.,  400 ;  capital, 
Georgetown.  St  Helena  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  oonaists  of  rajjyod 
nioontains  interspeiscd  tdth  numerous  tsrlnes,  In  one  of  which  atandn 
Jamestown,  tbe  capital ;  area,  48  sq.  m. ;  pop.,  7000— about  one-half  of 
whom  ore  whites.  Only  one-liftb  of  tbe  surface  is  fertile,  yielding  the 
pndnets  both  of  EurD]>Gan  and  tropical  countries.  The  diniat«  is  mild 
and  Tery  healthy.  It  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  Holland 
*-  "iTZ.  St  Helena  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  place  of  eiUe  of  Napoleon 
laparte,  from  1816  to  his  decease  in  1S21.     His  remains  were  ex- 

.-.--.--      -  „         ,  a,  from,  which  it  is  separated  1  ly 

unel  of  MoxamUlquu,  240  m.  wide.     It  extends  from  lat.  12*  SI' 

■^1,  and  from  Ion.  43°  20"  to  60°  31' E.     The  area  is  estimatedat 

,  m.,  or  more  than  totir  times  tlia  ske  of  England  witlinut 

4  thB  ptqi,  at  »boul  i^OOO.OOO.     It  is  divided  fiito  unmemufi 

-  -"  -'  whiah  nre  triuutary  to  one  sovereign,  wliose  capital, 

-'ed  on  ft  lolly  plateau,  near  the  centre  ot  the  isl.ind. 

,000  fidiabitanta.     Tnmatave,  the  vhief  eommetdal 

"'     oaut,  K.Fi  of  the  cap.    Other  towiu  aie  Fort 


442  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Daupbin,  Maiianibatoo,  Mananzari,  Andevoranto,  Port  Louis,  and  Port 
Lnke,  all  on  the  east  side  of  the  island.    A  chain  of  mountains  traverses 
tlie  island  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length  :  the  highest  summit, 
Ankaratra,  near  the  cap. ,  attains  an  altitude  of  about  11,000  ft.     Minerals 
are  abundant,  especially  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  coal.    The 
iron  is  mined  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  the  coal  is  employed  in  smelt- 
ing it.    The  climate  is  hot  and  extremely  unhealthy  to  Europeans,  espe- 
ci^y  along  the  E.  coast.    The  soil  is  very  fertile,  with  rich  pasturage,  and 
niagiiilicent  forests  which  contain  a  great  variety  of  beautiful  and  useful 
trees.    Wild  animals  are  few  in  number,  consisting  chiefly  of  lemurs  (a 
species  of  ape  peculiar  to  this  island  and  the  Comoro  group  in  its  vicinity), 
the  ounce,  wild-dog,  wild-cat,  and  fox.     Birds  and  crocodiles  are  very 
numerous ;  and  locusts — which  enter  the  island  from  the  south-west — 
visit  it  periodically,  and  cause  much  damage  to  the  vegetation.    Domestic 
animals  comprise  the  bison,  sheep,  swine,  dog,  and  cat.    Silk-worms  are 
reared,  and  honey  and  wax  are  obtained  in  great  abundance  in  the  woods. 
The  chief  vegetable  productions  consist  of  medicinal  plants,  pepper,  cot- 
ton, indigo,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  rice,  and  manioc.    The  principal  articles 
of  export  are  the  native  products  now  enumerated,  while  the  imports 
consist  of  linen,  ribbons,  glass,  and  Spanish  piastres.     The  inhabitants 
consist  of  two  distinct  nations — viz.,  the  Oazumbe,  who  were  the  abor- 
igines ;  and  the  Hooar,  who  appear  to  have  arrived  about  800  years  ago. 
Both  nations,  however,  belong  to  the  Malay  race,  and  speak  the  Mala- 
gasy, which  forms  a  member  of  the  Malay- Polynesian  family.    In  re- 
gard to  simplicity  and  phonetic  structure,  this  family  excels  all  others 
m  the  worli     For  example,  most  of  them  have  but  ten  consonants, 
while  none  of  them  allows  a  syllable  to  close  with  a  consonant,  or  to  be- 
gin with  more  than  one.     Christianity  was  introduced  here  in  1818. 
The  missionaries  at  first  met  with  great  success  under  the  patronage  of 
King  Radama ;   but,  in  1828,  he  was  succeeded  b^  Queen  Ranavola, 
who  cruelly  massacred  vast    numbers  of  the  Christians.      After  her 
death,  in  1861,  the  progress  of  the  gospel  in  the  island  has  been  almost 
unprecedented.     The  Mauritius  Group,  discovered  in  1545,  consists 
of  three  islands,  Bourbon,  Mauritius,  and  Rodriguez.    The  first-named, 
also  called  He  de  la  Reunion,  400  m.  E.  of  Madagascar,  has  been  a 
French  colony  since  1642 :   ai'ea,  824  sq.  m. ;   pop.,  in  1861,  ezdn- 
sive  of  its  dependencies  (Nossi  B^,  Mayotta,  and  the  small  isUnd  St 
Marie,  near  Madagascar),  183,361.    The  cap.,  St  Denis,  lies  on  the  north 
side  of  the  island.    Piton  de  la  Foumaise,  an  active  volcano,  is  7218  ft. 
high.    The  climate  has  recently  undergone  a  great  change  for  the  worse. 
The  annual  fall  of  rain  is,  on  an  average,  128  m.,  and  the  mean  tempera- 
ture, 77°  Fah.    Terrific  hurricanes  are  common,  and  cause  neat  destmo- 
tion.    Tlie  soil  is  fertile  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast,  proaudiig  sugar, 
coffee,  cloves,  maize,  rice,  and  tobacco,  which,  together  with  dy^-wooda 
and  saltpetre,  form  the  principal  exports.    Mauritliia,  alyo  called  Iflto  of 
France,  situated  115  m.  N.E.  of  Bourbon,  was  discovered  by  fhe  Porta- . 
guese  in  1505,  and  received  its  name  from  the  Datoh,  who  wen  the  fini 
settlers,  in  honour  of  Prince  Maurice.     It  was  oooapiad  by  the  Vnatk 
from  1713  to  1810,  when  it  came  into  the  poeseadon  of  Britain. 


700  sq.  m. ;  pop.,  313,462.     It  is  mountainoiiBy  tMeUy 
well  watered.    The  climate  is  healthy ;  the  ""'^—  '        "  '*'" 
Louis,  the  cap.,  is  78' ;  but  being  sitnatMl  * 
Indian  Ocean,  it  is  subject  to  deetmcti 


fertile,  producing  coffee,  indi^,  cott* 
ducu  however,  is  sugar,  wYixqu  \i 


AFRICA,  443 

eglect  of  eyerytliine  elno.  In  1800  the  exports  of  sugar  amounted  to 
248,000,000  lb.,  while  the  imports  frnn  Great  Britain  were  rained  at 
£583,000.  aodri^nei,  situated  300  dl  K  of  Mmritiua,  of  which  it  ii  a 
dependency.  Comoro  Isles,  s  grou|i  of  Tolcanic  iatHniia,  at  the  northern 
entrance  of  tho  MoaaTnbiqno  Channel  They  contain  80,000  inhabitants, 
who  speak  the  Arahic  language,  and  prnfsSE  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
They  are  Eovemed  hy  native  sultans  ;  but  Mayotta,  one  ot  their  number, 
was  ceded  to  France  in  1S46.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  monntainmis, 
and  fertile  in  tropical  jiroductions.  Tlieir  chief  eiports  are  BUBai,  coffee, 
cocoa-nut  oil,  and  tortoise-ahelL  Zanribftr  and  fembo,  off  the  coast  of 
Zangnebar,  are  fertile,  densely  peopled,  and  tribntai^  to  the  Bultait  of 
Muscat.  Shnnganny,  in  the  former  island,  is  the  residence  of  the  vassal 
Sultan.  Zanzibar  produces  doves,  cocoa-nuts,  manioc  augur-cans,  coSie, 
tobacco,  pamegrauaUiE,  and  tlie  castor-oil  plant  It  is  also  the  chief  market 
in  the  world  for  the  supply  of  ivory  and  gum-copal.  Amirantea  and  Sey- 
chelles, two  groups  of  iaianda  in  the  Indian  Oi:ean,nnder  the  jurisdiction  of 
Great  Biitalu.  They  are  of  gtsultic  formation,  are  surrounded  with 
nnmeroua  roi-ks,  and  contain  BOOO  inhnhitanta.  The  Amirantes  Mrs  desti- 
tute of  water,  but  are  visited  by  the  inhabitauts  of  Mauritius  for  the  land- 
turtles  with  which  they  abound.  Tlio  Seychelles  are  elevated  on  a  coral 
bank;  their  most  remarkable  product  is  the  com  dt  mtr.  The  chief 
town.  Port  Victoria,  contains  a  garrison.  Soootra,  100  m.  E,  of  Cape 
Guardafui,  ia  a  dependeneyof  Muscat.  The  area  is  estimated  at  lOOO 
sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  at  5000,  who  are  mostly  Bedouins.  It  has  besn  long 
famous  for  its  aloes,  dragon's  blood  and  other  gums,  tamarinds,  tobacco, 
dat«s,  millet,  and  ghee. 

8.  SafiB,  Bayt,  OnlfE,  and  Stntlta.— Mediterranean  Sea,  between 
-Africa  and  Europe  i  G.  of  Sidra  (SyHit  ili^or),  bet.  Barca  and 
Tripoli  ;  G.  of  CaW  {Syria  Minor],  E.  of  Tunis  ;  Str.  of  Gibraltar 
{FrctJim  NcjiMleiim),  bet.  Marocco  and  Spain  ;  G.  of  Gniues,  bet. 
Upper  and  Lower  Guinea  ;  Bights  aC  Benin  and  Biaira,  on  either 
eide  of  the  delta  of  the  Niger ;  Table  Bay,  S.W.  of  Cape  Colony ; 
Mnzambique  Channel,  bet.  Mozambique  and  Madaf^car;  G,  of 
Aden,  Str.  of  Babelmandeb,  Bed  Sea,  and  G.  of  Suez,  bet.  Africa 
and  Arabia. 

!>.  Uonntolns  and  Table-Landfl.— 
fate,"  and  under  tile  countries  in 
situated.) 

10.  RiTerB.— As  much  ot  the  interior  of  Africa  remains  unexplored, 
nnd  as  well-defined  water-partings  are  rare,  no  table  of  river-busina, 
similar  to  those  given  under  "Europe"  nnd  "Aain,"  can  be^vun.   I 
Ther  may,  however,  be  arraDged  into  four  systenu,  eoireapnding  ta  I 
tbafbBTffr^IualHtOwhi.'b  ihey  belong— viz.,  the  Mediterranean 4 
■ '    1   ■  linlian  Ocean,  and  the  J 


444  POLITICAL   GEOOKAPUY. 

nnitea  with  a  large  affluent  from  the  W.  named  6ahr-el-0hazal ;  then 
proceeding  northward,  it  meets  on  the  right  the  Giraffe  and  Sobat,  and 
then  the  Blue  Nile  or  Bahr-el-Azrek,  at  Khartum,  in  Nubia.  Its  only 
other  tributary  is  the  Atbara  or  Tacazze,  from  Abyssinia,  which  joins  it 
on  the  right.  The  total  direct  course  of  the  Nile  is  estimated  at  4000  m., 
and  the  area  of  its  basin  at  520,000  geographical  sq.  m.  2.  Atlantio 
Basin. — The  Seneg^,  from  Bambarra,  1000  m.  long,  pursues  a  N.W. 
course,  and  falls  into  uie  Atlantic  in  the  N.  of  Senegambia.  The  Chunbia. 
from  the  Tengui  Mountains,  flows  W.N.W.  for  1000  m.,  and  faUs  into 
the  Atlantic  at  Bathurst.  The  "SAo  Grande,  from  Foottyallon,  flows  W. 
to  the  Atlantic ;  length,  400  m.  The  Quorra,  Joliba,  or  Niger,  from  the 
Kong  Mountains,  flows  N.K  to  Timbuctu,  and  then  S.K  to  the  Bight  of 
Benin  ;  total  course,  about  2000  m.  The  Congo,  by  far  the  largest  riyei 
in  W.  Africa,  is  known  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Lualaba,  which  re- 
oeives  the  Lukuga  from  L.  Tanganyika*  The  Orange  between  the 
country  of  the  Hottentots  and  Cape  Colony,  flows  W.  to  the  Atlantic, 
after  a  course  of  nearly  1000  m.  3.  Basin  of  Indian  Ocean. — ^The 
Zambesi,  an  immense  river  of  Eastern  Africa,  explored  by  LiAingstone  in 
1S56,  rises  in  Lake  Dilolo.  It  first  receives  the  name  of  Leeba  for  about 
200  m.,  when  it  is  joined  on  the  left  by  the  Leambye  from  N.E.  Aiiout 
800  m.  farther  on  it  receives  the  Chobe  from  the  S.W. ;  about  40  m.  £1 
of  the  confluence  of  the  Chobe,  Dr  Livingstone  discovered  the  Victoria 
Falls,  where  the  river,  now  about  half  a  mile  wide,  rushes  over  a  preci- 
pice 100  ft.  deep.  About  800  m.  below  the  Falls,  the  Zambesi  receives 
the  Kafue,  on  tne  left  bank ;  and,  about  140  m.  farther  down,  it  is  joined 
by  the  Loangwa,  flowing  from  the  N.  Flowing  K  and  S.E.  for  about 
800  m.  more,  it  receives  the  Sliir^,  from  the  great  Lake  Nyassa,  lately 
discovered,  and  finally  reaches  the  ocean,  after  a  total  course  of  about 
2400  m.  In  common  with  the  other  large  rivers  of  Africa — as  the  Nile, 
the  Zaire,  and  the  Niger — the  Zambesi  is  characterised  by  periodic  in- 
undations. 4.  Basin  of  Lake  Tchad. — The  Teon,  from  near  Jacoba, 
flows  N.E.  300  m.,  and  the  Shary,  from  Dar  KuUa,  flows  N.W.  360  m. 
into  Lake  Tchad. 

11.  Lakes. — Many  of  the  lakes  of  this  continent  are  of  great  mag- 
nitude,  some  of  them  rivalling  the  largest  lakes  of  N.  America  and 
Asia.  They  are  generally  fresh,  and  for  the  most  part  drained  by 
rivers  belonging  to  the  great  oceanic  basins.  The  following  are  the 
principal : — 

Nile  Basin.— -The  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Albert  Nyanza,  on  the  equator, 
drained  by  the  White  Nile.  The  former  has  an  area  of  30,000  sq.  m. 
(being  about  the  size  of  Scotland),  and  an  elevation  of  8740  ft  above  tiie 
sea.  It  discharges  its  waters  into  Albert  Nyanza,  lying  to  the  W.  of  it, 
2720  ft.  high,  and  nearly  its  equal  in  size.  Victoria  Nyanza,  whidi  pro- 
bably forms  the  source  of  the  Nile,  or  at  least  the  mam  reservoir  whioh 
feeds  it,  was  discovered  by  Captains  Speke  and  Burton  in  1869 ;  and  the 
Aibert  Nyanza  by  Baker  in  1864.  South-west  of  Victoria  Nyanza  is  Lake 
Tanganyika,  about  18,000  sq.  m.  in  extent,  or  about  the  same  size  as  Lake 
BaikaL  Its  elevation  above  sea-level  is  stated  at  2710  ft.  Its  diainun* 
a  question  so  long  disputed,  is  now  all  but  settled.  In  Hay  18/4^ 
Lieutenant  Cameron,  while  carefully  exploring  its  western  ahoraa,  fioiuia 
a  lai^e  river,  named  the  Lukuga,  issuing  out  of  the  lake  near  laL  0^. 
The  natives  informed  him  that  it  pursues  a  S.W.  oouzm  till  itmeeta  tiis 
famous  Lualaba  (of  Livingstone),  which  is  ksown  to  flow  fai  a  N-"- 
direction,  through  innumerable  lakes,  the  highest  of  whieh  jA  BaOC^ 

*  This  mighty  river,  the  chief  explorers  of  which  are  Uvh 
Stanlsy,  "  must  now  be  regan\eA  aa  l\\fc  U\Vtd  larfput  rir 


AFBlOi.  4*9 

which  receives  the  Cliambcri.  Tlie  only  other  importnnt  Inke  in  this 
bisin  la  Lake  Taua  or  Dembea  in  AbjBBiLla,  8120  ft.  above  the  sea,  and 
iintiiiiig  the  head-watets  of  tlis  Babr-Bl-azieli  or  Blue  Mile. 

ZiJtHEsa  Basis. — The  only  large  lake  known  in  this  basin  ia  Nyassaor 
fjyanja,  W,  of  Mozambique,  and  abont  350  m.  inland.  It  is  250  m.  long, 
by  about  GO  m.  bruad  ;  is  about  1575  St  in  elevation,  a  fact  which  renders 
it  just  possible  that  Lake  Tan^njika  dischai^ea  its  contents  into  this 
lake.  It  ia  drained  by  the  river  Sliir^  into  the  Zambesi.  The  small  lake 
Kbirwn,  SDOO  ft.  high,  lies  to  the  8.E.  of  it,  but  baa  no  known  ontJst. 
About  900  m.  S.W.  of  Lake  Nya&ia  is  the  much  aniBller  lalce  Kgami,  2385 
ft.  above  tlie  sea.  Its  drainage  is  yet  uncertain,  but  it  probably  send* 
its  waters  to  some  affluent  of  the  Zaml>es&  Lake  Dilolo  (Ist.  IV  15'  S. ) 
is  T^atdeil  by  LivingsCone  as  the  ao\u^e  of  both  the  Zanibesd  and  Congo. 
So  far  as  known,  there  are  no  lakes  of  any  Importance  in  the  basins  of 
the  other  lai^  rivers  of  Africa. 

CONTiaiiBIAL  BiSiN,— Near  the  centre  of  the  continent,  in  the  north 
of  Soudan,  Is  Lake  Tchad,  a  large  shallow  fresh-water  lagoon  of  variable 
titent,  having  no  outlet,  but  receiving  the  rivers  Sliary  uom  the  S,  and 
Yeon  from  the  W.  Its  elevation  is  B30  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  it  contains 
many  Islands.  About  200  m.  east  of  Lake  Tchad  is  the  much  smaller 
Lake  Fittri,  which  receives  the  Batha,  but  has  no  ontlet.  In  the  low 
ground  south  of  Mt.  Atla£  are  numerous  salt-water  marsbBS,  named 
Setiai,  the  chief  of  which  are  Faroon,  in  Tnnis ;  Melrir  and  Shergui,  In 
Algeria;  Rarbi  and  TigrI,  in  Marocco;  and  Gnrara,  in  the  S.  of  the 
Sahara  (Inn.  1°  W.)  In  the  S.E.  of  Abyssinia  la  the  small  salt  laksAssal, 
chiefly  remarkable  for  being  760  ft.  bdow  the  level  of  the  Eed  Sea. 

12.  Climate. — Africa  is  distiugnished  tram  all  the  other  great 
ilivisiona  of  the  globe  by  its  high  temperature  and  general  deficiency 
of  rain.  These  charactsristios  mainly  depend  on  its  position  ajid 
configumtioD. 

Situated  for  the  most  part  within  the  tropics,  with  the  equator  passing 
through  iW  centre,  it  is  more  exposed  to  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  than 
any  other  continent ;  while  the  absence  of  deep  inlets  of  the  ocei 
the  prevalenoe  of  lofty  mountain  .ranges  along  the  coasts,  prevei  .   ...„ 
cool  sea-breezes  from  penetrating  into  the  interior.     Accordingly,  tha   1 
intertropical  portion,  more  espei:ially  Seuegamhia  and  other  p^is  of  J 
the  western  coast,  have  been  found  more  unhealthy  to  Europeans  thaq  1 
any  other  region  of  the  globe  :  here  the  moat  deadly  fevers  prevail,  aiu] 
the  strotLgeat  constitutions  are  not  proof  against  the  pestilential  inJBit'-. 
encea  otthe  mojat  and  heated  atmoBpliere,    On  the  other  hand,  Bouthemfl 
Africa  Is  more  favonrable  for  the  recovery  or  peraons  afflic1;ed  with  puHJ 
inonary  complaints  than  any  nther  region  of  the  earth's  aurfaoe.   Anothet  ,J 


i?EXt 


446  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

prominent  feature  of  the  climate  of  tropical  Africa  is  the  diyision  of  the 
year  into  the  dry  and  rainy  seasons,  wnich  in  most  places  succeed  one 
another  with  undeviating  regularity.  Within  the  tropics,  the  rains  fol- 
low tlie  course  of  the  sun— the  rainy  season  occurring  within  either  half 
of  the  torrid  zone  as  that  luminary  approaches  the  zenith.  On  the  N.  side 
of  the  equator  the  tropical  rains  extend  noilh  wards  to  the  border  of  the 
Sahara,  but  in  Nubia  they  reach  as  far  N.  as  the  18th  parallel.  Beyond 
the  tropics,  the  rain  falls  in  either  hemisphere  at  the  period  when  the 
sun  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  equator — that  is,  in  the  winter  of  those 
latitudes.  The  winds  which  bring  the  heaviest  rains  in  tropical  Africa 
are  called  monsooTu,  and  come  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  They  continue 
from  April  to  October ;  but,  from  Mozambique  to  the  equator,  the  rainy 
season  is  during  April,  June,  and  July.  The  climate  of  North  Africa  is 
greatly  affected  by  the  position  of  the  Atlas  range  of  mountains.  Be- 
tween this  range  and  tne  Mediterranean  the  country  is  well  watered; 
but  between  Mount  Atlas  and  the  northern  limit  of  the  tropical  rains, 
scarcely  any  rain  falls  during  the  year.  In  Upper  Egypt  also  no  rain 
falls  for  several  years  in  succession.  The  same  phenomenon  also  occurs 
in  South-Westem  Africa,  between  Lake  Ngami  and  the  Orange  River— 
a  region  now  known  as  the  Desert  of  Kalahari.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  the  greater  part  of  intertropical  Africa  is  79'  Fah. ;  but  in 
Eastern  Nigritia  and  Abyssinia,  or  the  region  extending  from  Lake  Tchad 
to  the  Red  Sea,  it  is  as  high  as  88%  while  at  Mourzouk,  in  Fezzan,  the 
summer  heat  reaches  130°  Fah.  in  the  shade  (see  table  of  temperature, 
p.  35). 

13.  Geology. — The  geology  of  Africa  remains  as  yet  in  an  ex- 
tremely imperfect  state ;  but,  so  far  as  kno\vn,  Crystalline  and 
Igneous  Rocks  prevail  over  the  whole  southern  half  of  the  continent, 
as  also  in  Nortli-Eastem  Africa,  between  the  Nile  and  Red  Sea. 
Primary  and  Transition  Bocks  occupy  an  extensive  tract  in  South- 
Westem  Africa,  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Namaqua  country,  together  with  two  smaller  areas  in 
Senegambia  and  Dahomey.  Secondary  Hocks  form  the  prevailing 
strata  over  the  entire  region  north  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Atlas, 
extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  Nile,  and  occur  also  in  extensive 
patches  in  Fezzan,  Eordofan,  Eanem,  Bambarra,  Sierra  Leone,  and 
the  Gold  Coast.  Tertiary  and  Alluvial  strata  cover,  so  far  as  known, 
the  remainder  of  this  continent,  especially  the  Sahara,  Soudan,  and 
two  long  narrow  belts,  one  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  from  the 
south  of  Tunis  to  tiie  eastern  frontier  of  "Efcyjit,  and  the  other  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Zaire  to  GafM  Town.^  Vm- 
canic  Bocks  are  known  to  occur  in  East  Africa,  between  Yifitorift 
Nyanza  and  the  coast,  as  also  in  the  region  of  the  OamerooDB  Moon* 
tains,  near  the  Bight  of  Biafra. 

14.  BUneralB. — ^Africa  appears  to  be  more  defident  in  minerali 
than  any  other  continent,  and  very  few  mines  axe  wrooght 

Gold  is  obtained  in  considerable  qnantitj  In  eartidn  puti  of  Bener 
gambia  and  Upper  Guinea,  in  Nigritia^  MoamMmws  aod  AlqrulBiA; 
silver  is  rare,  but  is  found  in  Marooeo  and  Atqrwil*  ^  mntnwr  fi 
Atlas  range,  hi  Nigritia,  East  Afric^  Cnw  Gplopv  ^ 
Zambesi ;  lead  and  antbuony  in  Moont  AIJ*> 
especially  in  Algeria,  AbywbUay  Nigiitli^  ■ 


At'KICA.  417 

found  in  nifiuy  Incalities,  and  forms  tlie  moat  vnlimlile  miiieml  proii^ct 

of  the  niuuutaiiia  of  Borbary  j  and  abundniice  of  ealine  dspoBits,  as  the 
nitrates  of  potash  and  of  aoda,  meets  tin  traveller  in  South  Africa,  in  tlie 
form  of  a  thick  incnutation  on  tlie  aurfate  of  small  lakes.  Coal  is  fonnd 
in  Madagascar,  Muzauiliique,  and  at  Zumbo  on  the  banks  of  the  Zain- 
beafi.  Very  recently  a  tract  ct  country  nearly  as  large  aa  England,  situ- 
atad  between  the  Orange  River  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  Bepublic, 
has  been  found  to  poesesi  valuable  diamond-niinea. 

15.  Batany. — The  botany  of  BoTthBrn  Africa  ia  similar  to  that  of 
the  Bonth  of  Europe,  atiil  has  been  already  treated  a(  (p.  82). 

The  remainder  of  the  continent  is  embraced  within  Sahouw's  I3th, 
Htli,  ajld  aSd  Phyto-gac^rapLic  Regions  (p.  B4).  The  first  of  these  is 
tlM  iJaai  Region,  and  embraces  the  Sahara^  characterised  by  an  sx- 
toemely  scanty  flora,  consisting  of  a  few  pnekly  alirubs  and  grasses, 
exeept  in  the  oases  where  the  date-tree,  com,  and  soiiie  vegetables  are 
cultivated.  Tho  Hth  region  ia  that  of  Trooicai  Afiica,  or  Adansun'i 
Reglan.  It  eiteuds  from  the  fifteenth  degr^  ot  north  latitude  to  the 
Trmiia  of  Capricorn,  and  from  the  Atlantic  tu  the  east  aide  of  Madagascar 
— tnaa  embracing  the  whole  region  visited  by  periodical  laina.  Of  this 
Immense  region  the  interior  is  little  known  ;  and  the  remainder,  though 
possessing  a  luxuriant  and  gorgeous  flora,  is  neither  rich  in  species  nor  in 
peculiar  fonca.  In  general,  however.  It  is  characterised  by  the  presence 
ot  tJjB  baobab,  the  largest  known  tree  :  the  Z-c^uminoje,  Rvbiacea,  and 
Cyptraea  are  sIeso  very  prevalent.  The  eastem  part,  including  Madagas- 
ear,  has  a,  peculiar  flora,  diatinguiahed  by  the  genera  Daiiaii,  Ambom, 
Dcmiem,  aud  others.  Abyssinia  ia  the  native  region  of  the  coffee-shrub. 
In  Gnmea  are  fonnd  the  butter-tree,  the  gum-tree,  the  Airican  leak,  the 
caoutchouc,  cabbage,  mahogany,  and  mangrove  trees,  the  acacia,  cactus, 
and  cassia.   In  the  biuiu  of  the  Zambesi  the  principal  vegetable  products 


K 

^*     If 


a  wheat,  manioc,  yams,  millet,  ha.  The  23d  region,  or  that  of  SouUi- 
Aft-ica,  between  the  Tropin  of  Capricorn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
I ■ "3,itJQn  when  we  come  to  treat  of  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and 


MAKMALiA.—Of  the  ITIH  speeiea  of  known  inammala,  about  446, 

eiderably  niore  than  one-fonrth  of  the  wltole,  are  fannd  in  this  con 

and  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  no  fewer  than  3S9  species  are  i 

t  Ip.  58).    Ill  this  reapeat  it  is  disUniraished  from  all  the  otl 

«]   kingdoms,  yviC      ■  -.-.-.        .  ^     .,     . 


option  of  Central  and  South  America, 

■  1  a  still  higher.     Of  its  63  species  of 

■v  other  continent— vit,  the  Barliary 

I  liar.      Monkeys,  baboons,  and  apes 

:.<'iit  where  palm-trees  are  numerous; 

• '  "lis  Older  is  the  gorilla  of  the  western 

hnTnanform  Uian  even  the  oraiig- 

Modagascar  are  fomid  Ilie 

ajB  or  Chtiivmyi.     The  Cor- 


448  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

nivora  comprise  174  species,  of  which  151  are  peculiar.  They  are  in 
general  highly  ferocious  and  formidable  to  man.  At  the  head  of  these 
stands  the  lion,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties — ^the  Barbary,  Sene^, 
and  Cape  lions.  The  tiger  does  not  occur  in  Africa,  nor  have  any  bears 
been  found,  while  the  wolf  and  jackal  are  nearly  confined  to  the  region 
north  of  the  Sahara.  Leopards,  panthers,  and  hyenas,  are  numerous 
over  the  whole  continent,  as  also  tne  civet,  which  is  prized  for  its  per- 
fume. The  ichneumon  is  widely  distributed,  and  one  species  frequents 
tlie  valley  of  the  Nile,  where  it  is  found  useful  in  destroying  the  e^gs  of 
the  crocodile  and  other  reptiles.  The  Marsupialta  are  the  only  order  of 
mammals  which  have  no  representation  in  Africa.  The  Rodeniia  are  104 
in  number,  of  which  no  fewer  than  94  are  peculiar,  comprising  various 
species  of  Jerboas,  rabbits,  hares,  squirrels,  rats,  and  mice.  The  Edentata 
comprise  o  species,  all  of  which  are  peculiar.  The  18  Pachydeiftwia  are, 
with  one  exception,  all  peculiar.  First  in  rank  amongst  these  stands  the 
elephant,  which  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  continent  south  of  the  Great 
Desert.  It  attains  to  a  great  size,  and  is  of  a  different  species  from  the 
Asiatic  elephant  Its  flesh  is  held  in  much  esteem,  while  the  tusks 
constitute  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  export  The  rhinoceros,  which 
is  hunted  for  its  hide  and  horns,  frequents  the  same  haunts  as  the  ele- 
phant The  hippopotamus,  an  animal  peculiar  to  Africa,  where  it  exists 
m  two  species,  frequents  all  the  larger  rivers,  especially  the  Zambesi,  the 
Zaire,  the  Niger,  tne  Senegal,  the  Grambia,  and  the  upper  course  or  the 
Nile.  Its  teeth  consist  of  the  finest  ivory,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  is 
hunted  by  the  Cape  colonists.  The  engallo,  or  wild-boar,  differs  from 
the  European  species ;  while  the  zebra,  quagga,  and  dow,  which  abound 
in  the  centre  and  south,  are  all  peculiar  to  this  continent.  The  Rumiti' 
antt  are  greatly  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  of 
equal  extent — there  being  no  fewer  than  65  species,  nearly  all  of  which 
are  peculiar;  and  the  researches  of  Livingstone,  Barth,  and  others, 
have  added  greatly  to  the  number.  The  antelopes  alone  are  said  to 
amount  to  34  species.  The  cameleopard,  or  giraffe,  is  peculiar  to  this 
continent,  and  extends  from  the  Orange  River  to  the  Sahara.  Buffaloes 
abound  in  Southern  and  Central  Africa,  several  species  being  found  in 
the  basin  of  the  Zambesi.  The  one-humped  camel  traverses  the  dreary 
desert  regions,  while  sheep,  goats,  and  deer  are  numerous  in  the  centre 
and  south.  Of  the  16  cetaceous  mammaU,  7  are  proper  to  the  seas  and 
coasts  of  this  continent — the  most  remarkable  of  them  being  a  species  of 
whale,  called  lamantin,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  of  tiie  fabn* 
lous  mermaid. 

Birds. — The  birds  of  Africa  are  far  less  numerous  than  the  mammals, 
there  being  only  164  species  north  of  the  Sahara,  211  in  tropical,  and 
229  in  Southern  Africa.  Among  the  most  remarkable  species  an  the 
ostrich — the  geographical  distribution  of  which  is  nearly  cceztensivB  with 
this  continent,  though  corresponding  species  are  found  in  Australia, 
South  America,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Its  featfaen  fonn  a  U^^blf  • 
valued  article  of  traffic,  the  plumes  being  in  mnoh  remMrt  in  Eoro^  m 
ladies'  head-dresses.  Its  flesh,  when  young,  is  palataMi.  aod  iti  ^ggp  tea 
considered  a  delicacy.  The  vulture,  owl,  raloon,  and  eupa  an  muOBg  tti 
birds  of  prey ;  the  Ouinea-fowl  among  the  gaUinMaow  UriafUha  Ml 
and  flammgo  among  the  waders ;  the  songstsia  an  tt  **  ■■""ilJli  •  ••*'*' 
the  climbers  include  numerous  varieties  of  pan«^  '  "  "^ 

fishers.    The  now  extinct  dodo,  at  one  time  fr 
ritius,  Bourbon,  and  Rodriguez,  was  ejtUlptt 
seventeenth  century. 


I 


AFRICA.  449 

EEiTILES  Qf  every  ocdirr  nre  to  be  fouud  in  this  continent.  Tlio  lanJ- 
[ortoiaes  are  chielly  coiiliiieiL  tn  it ;  and  though  the  eerpenta  ace  few  in 
number,  the  apeciaa  that  Biist  aeem  very  widely  spread.  The  hu?e 
python  is  foUDil  in  the  awampa  and  nioraaaea  of  the  west.  Of  the  SD3 
ipeciea  of  knom  saurlans,  2i  are  found  in  Baibary,  aad.  2S  in  Egypt, 
Jiubia,  and  Abyssinia.  Thsse  isclnde  crocodiles,  geckos,  iguanas,  muni- 
ton,  true  lizaiils,  and  skinka.  The  true  crocodiles  ore  peculiar  to  this 
continent,  aa  are  the  gavials  to  Asia,  and  the  alligators  or  caymans  to 
America.  The  commou  crocodile,  the  largest  of  hring  reptiles,  though 
Eo  loiter  found  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  abounds  in  all  the  larger  rivers. 

iHTKBTBBBATi.  —Africa  ia  peculiarly  rich  in  maecta.  Of  these  the 
locusts  are  the  moat  rBmarkable,  having  been  from  time  immemorial  the 
scourge  of  this  eontinoot.  Hanily  leaa  formidsiblB  are  the  termites  or 
white  ants,  which  awarm  in  countless  myriada  in  tropical  Africa.  In  the 
basin  of  the  Zambeafi,  and  many  other  localities  in  the  S.  and  E.,  Uiere 
is  a  venomous  fly,  called  the  tsetse,  whoaa  bite  ia  fatal  to  nearly  all  do- 
mestic animals,  eapecially  the  ox,  horae,  and  dog. 

17.  EtJiinograpliy. — The  people  of  Africa,  so  fur  as  known,  belong  to 
three  Rreat  races— tbe  Caacasian,  the  Nej^ra  or  Ethiopic,  and  an  in- 
termediate race,  sometimea  called  tha  Nilotic;  but,  perbapa,  three- 
fourtba  of  the  whole  belong  to  the  Negro  race,  for  the  cbaracteristica 
of  which  see  under  "  Sondan,"  p.  475. 

The  whole  of  Northem  Africa  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Soudan, 
and  6:[tandinB  fi^to  the  valley  of  the  Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  ia  peopled  by 
nations  belonging  to  the  Svra-Aisbian  branch  of  the  great  Caucasian 
famiiy  (p.  61,  469).  The  na'tione  belonging  to  this  branch  in  Africa  ars 
the  Berbers,  who  receive  different  names  in  different  localities.  They  call 
themselves  ArnuiisK,  but  in  Marocco  they  receive  the  name  Of  S/iuU, 
and  in  Tunis  and  Algeria  Kabyli  ("taourtttineera").  Tliey  hare  diatin- 
gniahed  themselves  in  their  stni^le  tor  independence  against  the  French, 
who  call  them  Zoutcti.  They  appear  to  have  been  the  earliBat  white  inhabit- 
ants of  Northern  Africa,  but  have  been  driven  from  their  original  settle- 
ments by  the  Arabs  who,  In  the  seventh  century,  enteredthe  country  under 
the  standard  of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  who  now  poasesa  tiio  valley 
of  the  Nile  and  most  of  the  Mediterranean  coast.  These  are  now  ititer- 
iDiii|led  with  Moors,  Turks,  French,  and  Jrws,  Central  Africa,  extend- 
ing from  the  Sahara  to  the  Zambesi,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Blue 
Hue,  is  occupied  by  the  Negro  race,  to  which  the  vast  majority  of  the 
popnlatiou  of  this  continent  belongs.  Q'hey  are  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  disUnct  nations,  and  constitute  many  powerful  states,  the 

K'ncipal  of  which  will  be  nnticed  under  SenBgambi^  Guinea,  and  Sondan. 
uthera  A&lca  embnicea  two  leading  races— the  Hottentots  and  Kaflira. 
Tha  former  are  conttned  to  tha  S.W.  angle  of  the  continent,  extending 
from  Cape  Ne^  to  Cape  Agulhoa,  and  penetrating  into  tha  interior  to 
the  desert  of  Kalahari.    They  ore  a  nomo'iic  people,  never  cultivating 
nor  rearing  any  domeatic  animal,  and  deriving  their  aubsistenoe 
<U  and  beana  and  the  flesh  of  game.     Tliey  form,  indeed,  one  of 
.   jd^radod  seotioua  of  the  human  race,  and  are  proverbial  for  their 
fprpiitr.      The  gr?at  KaiBi  "itinn  occupies  tha  entire  remainder  of 
"■■  ''  nf  the  Hottentots,  and  extending,  in 

-tern  Bids  of  the  continent  tliey 
e  Nrsjp,  anrl  on  the  eastern 
(;.i;iii  find   Somali  country 


450  POLITICAL   GEOORAPUT. 

They  greatly  differ  from  the  Hottentots  in  physical  appearance,  language, 
manners,  and  modes  of  subsistence.  They  are  described  as  a  fine,  athletic 
race,  frequently  as  handsome  as  Europeans:  they  are  an  agricultural 
people,  tUliug  the  ^und,  and  engaged  m  pastoral  pursuits.  The  north* 
east  comer  of  Africa,  between  the  Nile  and  Red  Sea,  and  from  Upper 
Egypt  to  the  equator,  is  occupied  by  what  Dr  Krapf  calls  the  "  Nilotic 
class  of  nations,  who  form  an  mtermediate  link  between  the  Sjrro- Arabian 
and  Negro  stocks.  This  class  includes  the  Somali,  Galla,  and  Afer  or 
Danakil,  pastoral  tribes,  situated  to  the  E.,  S.,  and  W.  of  Abyssinia; 
the  Agows,  of  Western  Abyssinia;  and  the  Nubians,  of  Nubia  and 
Dongola. 

Langvaaes. — ^The  Arabic — a  Semitic  tongue — is  the  only  language  pre- 
sently spoken  in  Egypt.  It  is  also  common  in  Nubia  and  many  other 
places.  The  Mongrebin,  a  dialect  of  the  Arabic,  is  spoken  by  the  Moors 
and  Arabs  of  the  Barbary  States^  while  the  Berber  language  forms  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  Semitic  and  African  families.  The  languages 
spoken  by  the  Negro  races  belong  to  the  Nigro-Hamitic  group  of  Dr 
Krapf,  for  which  see  under  "Soudan"  and  "Guinea." 

Religion. — Mohammedanism  is  almost  the  sole  religion  of  Northern 
Africa,  with  the  exception  of  Abyssinia,  where  a  corrupt  form  of  Chris- 
tianity prevails,  and  Algeria,  where  the  French  have  introduced  Roman 
Catholicism.  In  the  whole  of  Central  Africa  paganism  of  various  forms 
prevails,  of  which  reptile-worship  is  the  principal  characteristic.  The 
crocodile  and  the  snake  are  the  gods  of  many  of  these  nations — a  circum- 
stance which  seems  to  connect  tneir  worship  with  that  of  ancient  Egypt. 
Nowhere  do  lust  and  blood  reign  so  arbitrarily  as  in  this  region.  It  was 
this  that  rendered  the  hateful  slave  trade  so  common.  Yet  this  race  has 
many  amiable  characteristics,  and  not  a  few  of  them  have  embraced 
Christianity.  The  Kaffirs  and  Hottentots  are  singularly  devoid  of  the 
religious  feeling.  The  former  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  but  they  have  no  form  of  worship.  They  practise  circumcision, 
and  sacrifice  animals  to  propitiate  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  In  Cape 
Colony,  Natal,  and  other  parts  of  South  Africa,  Christianity  of  the  Pro- 
testant form  everywhere  prevails. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  EMPIRE. 

As  the  result  of  numerous  conquests  during  the.  last  few 
years,  the  boundaries  of  the  Khedive's  empire  have  been  greatly 
extended  in  almost  all  directions.  At  present  they  may  be 
stated  as  follows : — 

Boundaries. — N.,  the  Mediterranean ;  W.,  Tripoli,  the 
Sahara,  and  Bagirmi  (in  Soudan) ;  S.,  the  ISTiam  Niam  country. 
Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  the  Equator,  and  Abyssinia ;  E.,  Gulf  of 
Aden,  the  Red  Sea,  and  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

Thus,  besides  Egypt  Proper,  it  now  embraces  Nubii^  Kordoliui,  Baxi 
and  Unyoro  (all  in  the  v^ley  of  the  Nile),  together  with  DnfOar,  Dm 


TSE 


EUFIRE. 


451 


I 


I 


Pertit,  ana  Wmiai  in  Nigritia,  and  tlie  entire  western  coast  of  tlie  Red 
Sea  and  Gulf  of  Aden,  aa  fur  south  as  Zeyln.  In  lat.  it  eitends  from  the 
equator  to -the  par.  of  Sl°  35',  and  in  Ion.  from  IS°  to  44°  E.  Eliarttiin, 
tLe  cap.  of  Nubia,  situated  nearl;  in  tite  exact  centre,  is  in  the  want 
latitnde  as  Ooa,  Bangoon,  GuateiTiala,  Cape  Verd,  and  nearly  on  tlie  same 
meridian  as  tlie  Great  Pyramid  of  Jcezeh, 

Area  and  Fopulatlan. — No  approncli  to  accuracy  can  be  made  S3 
yet  in  regard  to  eitlier  the  area  or  population.  Five  years  ago  the 
ifomier  was  understood  to  amonnt  to  880,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  liitter 
to  7,405,000  persons  ;  but  since  the  recent  acquisitions  of  territor.r, 
both  of  these  results  must  fall  far  short  of  tlie  truth,  and  na  may 
uot  be  very  wide  of  tht  mark  if  we  give  the  area  as  900,008  sq.  miles, 
and  the  pD]mlation  as  10,000,000  ;  or  seren  times  the  area  of  the 
British  Isles,  with  ane-tbird  their  population.  This  atlons  only 
eleven  pelBDHa  to  the  sq.  m.  But  Egypt,  the  princiiml  part  of  the 
empire,  reaUy  consists  of  the  Delta  and  the  very  narrow  valley  of  the 
Kile,  while  all  the  other  tenitories  of  the  empire  are  the  abodes  of  a 
half-ciriliacd  and  degraded  population. 

?aIlIloal  DlrtBlons. — Egypt  Propor,  the  principal  section  of  this 
wide  territory,  extends  from  the  Meditennneen  to  the  first  cataract 
of  the  Nile,  and  is  sulidivided  into  three  provinces — Lower,  Middle, 
and  Upper  Egypt.  Jfahiahe^na  where  Egypt  enda,  and  conaists  of 
Lower  Nuhia  and  SennfLr.  Kordofan  lies  S.W.  of  Nubia;  while 
Darf^r  and  Wadai,  formerly  portions  of  Soudan,  lie  still  further 
west,  but  still  in  the  Nile  basin.  The  last  section  of  the  Khedive's 
dominions  is  Samara,  on  the  Ked  Sea,  recently  wrested  from  Abys- 

LowER  EOYPT. — Cairo  350,  Alexandria  212,  Rosetta  15,  Tanta  30, 
Bauiietta  37  (Kile),  Port  Sold  7,  Ismailia  20,  Suez  15  (Suez  Canal). 

Middle  anh  Uppbb  Egypt.— Jeezeh,  Metrahenny,  Madinet-el- 
Fainm  So.,  Beni-Sonef  6,  Siout  25,  Girgeb  7,  Eoneh.-S,  Ruitta  of 
Thebes,  Esneh  4,  Aamuan  (Nile),  Koaseir  2  (Bed  Sea),  El-Khargeh  6 
(W.  Desert). 

Nubia  and  Sahaba.  —  Der  3,  Ipsambul,  Khartfini  50,  New 
Dongola  6,  Berber  9,  JferSe,  Sbendi  10  (Nile),  Sennilr  9  (Blue  Nile). 
iBmsIlin  or  Oondokoro  (White  NEe),  Suakin  8,  Mosaowoh  8  (Kcd 
Sea),  Zeyh  (G,  of  Adeu). 

Kordofan,  Daufdr,  and  Wadai.— El-Obeid  20  (Oasis),  Kobliefi, 
Warra  50  (see.  p.  474). 

Deaoriptivfl  Hotee.  — Cairo  (El  Kahireh  of  the  Turks),  the  cap.  of 
IWpt  and  the  largest  city  ie  Africa,  was  founded  by  the  Saracens  a.d. 
eee.   The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  houses  are  bullt  of  sun-dried  Unuks, 


obqaes^BL^ 


^s  give  the  city  ai 


ling  ap- 


ander  the  Great,  who  founded  it  B.o.  332.    At  oi 

*  '     "  "t  And  theapi-nnd  city  nfilie  Roman  empire,  it  is  still  a 
•incp  •         .-•  ■■-        ffi  by  far  the  most  popnlon 


452  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Egypt.  It  is  an  important  station  on  the  overland  route  to  India,  being 
connected  by  rail  with  Suez.  Here  was  executetl  the  Septuagint  transla- 
tion  of  the  Old  Testament  (about  B.C.  284),  and  here  was  collected  the 
most  famous  library  of  the  ancient  world,  which  was  partly  destroyed  bv 
accident  during  the  war  with  Julius  Csesar,  and  the  remainder  by  Calipii 
Omar  in  a.d.  640;  and  here  in  1801  the  French  were  defeated  by  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby,  who  was  moi-tally  woimded  in  the  engagement. 
Alexandria  is  the  birthplace  of  Euclid,  the  celebrated  mathematician, 
B.C.  300,  of  Apollos,  the  eloquent  Jewish  Christian,  and  of  many  other 
eminent  men.  Bosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Nile : 
near  it,  in  1799,  was  discovered  the  famous  Rosetta  stone,  with  a  celebrated 
trilingual  inscription  (dated  B.C.  196),  which  has  formed  the  key  to  the 
deciphering  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and  which  is  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum.  Tanta,  on  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  and 
on  the  line  of  railway  between  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  is  noted  for  its 
great  religious  f^Us.  Damietta,  the  third  principal  port  of  Egypt,  was 
long  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  leather  and  dimity.  Port  Said,  a 
flourishing  seaport  town  at  the  northern  entrance  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Ismailia,  near  the  centre  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  principal  place  along 
its  line,  is  rapidly  rising  into  importance.  Suez,  at  the  southern  termini 
of  the  canal  and  railway,  though  always  an  important  place  from  its 
position  on  the  higliroad  between  Europe  and  the  East,  is  doubtless 
destined  to  become  greater  still.  Jeezeh,  a  small  town  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Nile,  nearly  opposite  Cairo,  and  celebrated  for  its  proximity  to  the 
principal  pyramids  of  Egypt ;  *  here  was  fought  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Pjrramids  in  1798,  in  which  Napoleon  defeated  the  Mamelukes,  tfet- 
rahenny,  a  village  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Mempliis.  Hedinet- 
el-FayoTim  (Arsmo^)  is  noted  for  its  distilleries  of  rose  water.  Siont 
(Lycopolis),  the  cap.  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  largest  town  south  of 
Cairo.  Assouan  (Syend),  a  little  below  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile,  was 
a  place  of  prime  importance  in  the  geography  and  astronomy  of  the 
ancients,  as  it  lay  under  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  was  therefore  chosen 
as  the  place  through  which  they  drew  their  chief  parallel  of  latitude.  At 
the  summer  solstice  the  sun  was  vertical  here  at  noon.  El-Kaxgeh,  cap. 
of  the  gi*eat  oasis,  is  a  station  for  caravans  between  Egypt,  Darftir,  and 
Central  Africa.  Derr,  cap.  of  Lower  Nubia,  is  an  assemblage  of  mud- 
built  huts,  8un*ounded  by  palm-groves,  which  produce  dates  of  a  superior 
quality.  Ipsambul,  a  place  remarkable  for  containing  two  of  the  most 
perfect  specimens  oi  Egyptian  rock-cut  temples,  containing  statues  and 
sculptures  erected  by  Rameses  the  Great.  Shartmn,  cap.  of  Senn&r,  is 
the  residence  of  the  Egyptian  governor,  and  formerly  the  great  depot  of 
slaves  sent  from  Soudan  and  Abyssinia  into  Egypt.  Kew  Dongofa  has 
an  indigo  factory  belonging  to  the  pacha  of  Egypt ;  it  is  a  military  depot, 
and  a  place  of  considerable  trade.  Berber,  the  rendezvous  of  the  skve 
merchants  from  Sennkr  and  Khartum.  Meroe,  a  dilapidated  town  situ- 
ated among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  same  name,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Nile,  where  are  still  seen  numerous  pyramids  more  or  less  in  a 
state  of  decay,  but  of  the  greatest  antic|uarian  importance,  as  setting  at 
rest  the  (Question  whether  the  ancient  civilisation  of  Ethiopia  proceeded 
up  the  Nile  from  Lower  Egypt,  or  down  the  river  from  Ethiopia.  "  Here," 
says  Lepsius,  "  I  was  fully  convinced  that  I  had  before  me,  in  this  the 

*  For  a  minute  account  of  the  principal  scientific  discoveries  made  by  Pro- 
fessor 0.  P.  Smyth  and  others  from  a  careful  study  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  see  an 
elaborate  paper  by  W.  Petrie,  Esq.,  in  the  author's  '  Facta  and  Dates/  p.  ISi^ 
136.    E'.linburgh:  W.  Blackwood  Jk  Sons.    Second  edition,  1870 


r 


I 


THE   ECTPTIAK    EMPIBE.  453 

id  spot  of  ancient  Ethiojiia,  nothing  liut  tlie  niina  of  com- 

Earatircly  recent  art.  The  r^presentationa  ajid  mBcriptions  leave  nnt  the 
■aat  dnubt  on  the  snhject ;  and  it  will  ho  for  over  in  Tain  tn  attempt  the 
(Rpport  of  the  mach-Ioved  ides  of  an  ancient  MeroB,  glorions  and  famous, 
ttia  inhabitants  of  which  were  the  predecessora  and  teachern  of  the  Egyp- 
tians in  civilisatinn,  hy  referring  to  its  raoniimental  remains,  which  are  in 
no  cose  earlier  than  the  first  centory  before  Christ."  Sbendl,  a  caravan 
■Cation,  bas  a  nemi-weehly  niarket  for  lire  stock,  wheat,  cottnn  clotli, 
ftolt,  and  aenna.  Sennfti,  the  former  cap,  of  the  province  of  same  name, 
has  manufactures  of  arms,  hats,  leather,  sandals,  iron-ware,  and  jewel- 
lery. SnaMn,  the  only  harbour  in  Nubia,  Ib  the  place  of  embarkation 
for  pilgrims  bound  for  Mecca.  El-Obeid  consist!  of  geveral  villages  clns- 
tered  together  in  aa  oasis,  and  exports  gold,  silrei',  ivory,  hiden,  gum- 

Snrbce  and  llIoiuitalii8.^Tbo  western  balf  of  Egypt,  from  the 
Hediterraiieau  to  tlie  border  of  Nubia,  ia  known  as  the  Lybiau 
Desert,  which  is  the  eastern  section  of  the  Sabara,  and  partakes  of 
most  of  its  cliaracteristica.  The  Lybinn  Desert  is  now  known  to  be 
from  100  to  leo  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterraiiean  ;  so  that, 
were  a  canal  cut  from  the  G.  of  Sidra  to  tliia  depresaion,  an  inland 
oea,  probably  equal  in  extent  to  the  Cospioi],  would  be  formed.  A 
lonf;  range  of  low  limestone  hills,  called  the  Lybian  Mountains,  mns 
north  and  south  between  this  depression  and  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
which,  with  the  Delta  end  a  few  oases,  forms  the  only  cultivable 
portions  of  the  whole  country.  A  similar  range  of  granitic  hills  mns 
along  the  right  or  eoati'm  side  of  the  Nile,  and  called  the  Arabian 
Slountains,  which  are  in  reality  a  continufltion  of  the  lofty  moun- 
tiiins  of  Abyssinia.  The  highest  summit  of  the  eastern  range  is 
Jebel.Lehumnh,  BOOO  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  Jebel  Gharib,  60O0  ft. 
Nubia  consists  in  genernl  of  a  frightfully  arid  wilderness,  which  the 
Nils  cuts  in  two,  fnrmln;;  the  desert  of  Bayudeh  in  the  west,  and 
I    that  of  Koniko  in  the  east. 

BlTer-^yatenu^Tlie  only  river  in  Egypt  rnd  Nubia  is  the  Nile, 
with  its  two  great  affluents,  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  (Blue  Nile)  and 
Atbara  or  Tocaxze,  both  of  which  come  from  Abyssinia  and  enter  the 
Nile  oil  its  right  bank,  in  Upper  Nubia.  The  Nile  is  the  largest 
river  of  Eastern  Africa,  liaving  un  extreme  length  of  about  4100 
ni.,  and  draining  an  area  of  about  750,000  English  square  miles. 
In  the  lost  IIGO  m.  of  its  course  it  does  not  receive  a  single  afflu- 
eut,  owing  to  the  sandy  and  raiulesa  character  of  its  basin.  The 
qnestion  of  the  true  source  of  the  Nile  has  been  the  grand  problem 
ofgeogmphcrs  forages,  and  is  not  yet  absolutely  set  at  rest.  Much, 
howerer.lias  been  recently  effected  to  dear  up  its  mystery  (p.  4JJ. 

eoi). 

Near  Cairo  the  ri 

the  fertile  region  ca  ,  _ ^  .,     

ongolar  and  like  the  fourth  letter  of  the  Greek  alphahet.     In  a 
times  there  were  seven  such  anns  or  mouths,  but  at  present  thEn?  air 
tmly  two— the  Roselta  and  the  Damletla  moutlis.    It  wan  lone  supiiosed 
Uint  till  inunditioui  of  the  Nile  were  <jauied  by  the  melting  orthe  snous 


454  POUTICAL   GEOGRAFUY. 

in  the  Abyssinian  mountains ;  the  real  cause,  however,  is  now  ascertained 
to  be  the  periodic  rains  which  fall  in  the  tropical  regions  of  this  continent 
between  tJoly  and  September.  The  waters  of  the  Nile  begin  to  rise  at 
Cairo  in  June,  attain  their  maximum  height  in  September,  and,  after 
remaining  stationary  for  a  few  days,  begin  to  subside  gradually  till  the 
end  of  November.  In  Upper  Egypt,  where  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  very 
narrow,  the  maximum  rise  of  the  water  is  about  30  ft. ;  at  Cairo,  about 
24  ft. ;  but,  in  the  north  of  the  Delta,  only  about  5  fL  The  amount  of 
the  rise  is  a  matter  of  extreme  solicitude  to  the  inhabitants,  for  should 
it  exceed  its  customary  limits  by  even  a  few  feet,  the  houses  are  swept 
away,  the  cattle  drowned,  and  incalculable  iigury  effected ;  while  should 
it  come  short  of  its  average  height,  a  famine  is  the  inevitable  consequence. 
On  the  retiring  of  the  waters,  the  ground  is  covered  with  a  rich  aeposit 
of  mud,  which  is  partly  composed  of  vegetable  matter,  and  which  imparts 
an  unparalleled  fertility  to  the  soil.  Much  of  the  subsiding  water  is 
retained  in  artificial  canals,  which,  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  are 
spread  like  a  network  over  the  Delta  and  the  narrow  valley  above. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Egypt  is  extremely  dry,  the  whole  coun- 
try being  situated  in  the  great  rainless  zone  of  the  Old  World,  which 
ertends  from  the  western  border  of  the  Sahara  to  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  desert  of  Shamo.  It  is  this  fact  that  mainly  accounts  for  the 
wonderful  state  of  preservation  of  the  numerous  ancient  monuments 
with  which  the  valley  of  the  Nile  abounds,  some  of  them  being  up- 
wards of  4000  years  old.  Showers  of  rain  fall,  indeed,  occasionally 
at  Cairo,  and  more  frequently  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  Delta,  be 
tween  November  and  March.  In  Lower  Nubia  rain  is  seldom  seen, 
while  in  SenuJlr  it  falls  only  once  in  two  or  three  years,  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  great  periodic  rains  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Nile. 
The  heat  of  summer  is  oppressive,  especially  in  Nubia,  owing  to  the 
confined  position  of  the  inhabited  portion  and  the  lowness  of  the  sur- 
face. At  Cairo  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  72'. 2,  winter  68®.  5, 
summer  85M.  In  Nubia  the  temperature  rises  from  90'  in  January 
to  120'  in  April.  During  the  spring  equinox  the  country  is  visited 
by  a  pestilential  hot  wind  called  the  Khamsim  ;  and  on  the  subsiding 
of  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  fatel  fevers,  ophthalmia,  and  dysentery  pre- 
vail over  the  whole  land  ;  but  the  plague  is  unknown  south  of  the 
second  cataract. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — The  geology  of  the  country  is  very  imper- 
fectly known.  Granitic  rocks  prevail  in  Egypt,  in  the  hills  E.  of  the 
Nile,  and  calcareous  strata  "W".  of  the  river.  Each  of  these  has  been 
extensively  used  in  the  construction  of  the  pyramids.  In  Nubia, 
granite,  quartz,  sandstone,  greenstone,  and  felspar  occur  in  the  west- 
em  ridges.  The  metals  do  not  occur  in  Egypt,  but  muriate,  car- 
bonate, and  sulphate  of  soda  are  j»roduced  in  large  quantities  in  the 
Natron  lakes,  on  the  skirts  of  the  Libyan  Desert ;  while  salt,  marble, 
limestone,  and  the  red  granite  called  "Syene  marble,"  abound. 
Emeralds  are  found  in  the  mountains  which  line  the  Red  Sea,  but 
the  mines  are  now  abandoned. 

Botany  and  Agriculture. — The  northern  half  of  EgOTt  belonM  to 
Schouw's  3d  or  '<  Mediterranean  Region ;"  Sonthem  jEgypt  and  tht 


THE   EGYPTIAN    EMPIRE.  455 

nurtli  of  Nuijia  to  hia  13th  or  "Desert  Region  ;"  while  S.  of  tha 
16th  parallel.  Nubia  and  Kordofan  belong  to  his  14th  region,  or 
"  Region  of  Tropical  Africd,"  ThroQghoat  the  whole  valley  of  the 
Nile  tha  flora  is  verr  limited  as  regiirds  the  number  of  epeciea,  hut 
those  that  exist  are  of  snrpaasing  beauty,  la  E^jit  ai^culture  has  in 
■U  Kgea  been  carried  to  ita  highest  perfectian,  Uie  whole  i^ricultuml 
aysCem,  however,  being  regnlated  by  the  periodic  imtndationa  of  tha 
river.  In  this  sense  "  Egypt  is  truly  the  gift  of  the  Nile." 
'Hie  date-palm  of  Upper  Egypt  eitends  N.  as  far  as  Thebes,     Among 

filanta  peculVr  to  tSe  country  are  the  papyrus  of  the  Nile  (from  the  cel- 
ular  tissue  of  which  a  kind  of  paper  was  ancientty  made),  the  liiyphus, 
and  lotua  (plants  of  the  buckthorn  familyl.  There  are  no  forests,  but 
sycamores  and  palms  are  thinly  difltributal.  The  fniit-treea  are  of  tro- 
pical orders;  those  of  Europe  do  not  flourish.  The  vine,  which  was 
Sitsnsivety  cultivated  in  ancient  times,  but  eirtirpated  by  tha  Hnasul- 
mans,  was  reintroduced  by  Mehomet  Ah,  who  also  introduced  the  mul- 
I  berry-tree.  The  principal  cultivated  plants  are  cctton,  lint,  hemp,  indiga, 
I  migBJ,  lohaoco,  and  opium ;  tha  cereals  comprise  wheat,  millet^  maiao, 
'  rice,  and  duirah — the  last  mentioned  forming,  with  beans,  the  main  food 
of  the  people.  Onions,  melons,  and  cucnmbers  are  also  eitensivcly  raised 
In  Nubia,  the  baobab,  the  largest  and  one  of  the  mostnseful  of  all  trees, 
palms  of  many  species,  the  ebony-tree,  and  acacia,  the  mimosa  abonnd, 
while  the  cultivated  plants  are  duirah,  barley,  cottfln,  indigo,  tobacco, 
senna,  coflee,  datas,  and  the  sugar-cane.  Agriculture  employs  most  of 
the  population  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  The  valley  of  the  Nile  ia 
^0  narrow  as  to  allow  very  little  space  for  cultivation,  but  immense  I'er- 
tjle  plains  occur  at  the  confluence  of  that  river  with  its  aiSneDts  :  here 
BrUhcial  irrigation  is  practised  as  in  Egypt. 

Zavibtgr- — The  principal  wild  animals  in  Egypt  are  the  crocodile, 
iobneumon,  jerboa,  and  fox;  the  wolf,  hyena,  and  jacknl  occasionally 
visit  the  vnJiej  of  the  Nile,  but  the  hippopotamus  has  long  ago  re- 
tited  to  Upper  Nubia,  and  never  visits  the  waters  of  Egypt  exwpt 
when  forcibly  borne  down  by  the  flood.  Reptiles  are  numerous, 
eepecially  crocodiles  and  frogs ;  while  iDsectfl  embrace  the  locust  and 
mosqalto,  the  tmncipal  scourges  of  tha  country.  Domestic  animals 
I  iSre  the  same  an  In  Europe,  with  the  addition  of  the  camel  and 
I  dromedaiT.  Poultry  are  reared  in  vast  numbers,  the  egga  being 
ifttched  by  the  heat  of  ovens,  and  not  by  the  ordinary  process  of 
incubation ;  but  the  poultry  thus  reared  are  destitute  of  the  instincts 
which  relate  to  the  care  of  offspring,  and  hence  the  artificial  method 
mOBt  be  persistud  in.  In  Nubia  are  found  apes,  baboons,  elephants, 
rhinoceroses,  hyenas,  gazelles,  giraffes,  wolves,  foxes,  and  wild-dogs, 
irhioh  are  the  principal  mammaliiL  Birds  comprise  the  vulture, 
lilttrich,  bustard,  shrike,  thrush,  parrot,  heron,  quail,  and  Guinea- 
fowl.     The  crocodile  is  the  principal  rcpcOs. 

Stlmogiaiilir. — From  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  we  infer  that 

it  was  first  oolonised  by  the  second  son  of  Hum,  who  gave  hia 

name,  Miimini,  to  hia  adopted  country.     The  land  of  Canaan 

donhtle&a  peopled  about  the  same  time  by  Ham's  fourth  son, 

I,    The  eldest  son.  Cash,  with  his  descendants,  settled  in 


^^:!]ltrid 


456  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Babylonia,  Ass}Tia,  and  at  a  much  later  date  in  Ethiopia,  as  the 
existing  monuments  at  Meroe  and  other  places  attest  (see  above, 
note  on  Meroe,  p.  452) ;  while  Phut  and  his  descendants  settled  in 
North  Africa,  W.  of  the  Nile,  where  they  were  early  snbdned  by  the 
Mizraites.  These  varions  migrations  appear  to  have  taken  place,  for 
the  most  part,  immediately  after  the  confusion  of  tongues,  an  event 
which  occurred  about  B.C.  2552.  On,  or  Heliopolis,  the  first  city  in 
Egypt  built  by  the  colonists,  is  believed  by  Egyptologists  to  have 
been  erected  B.c.  2481.  Babylon  was  founded  by  Nimrod,  son  of 
Cnsh,  B.C.  2534;  and  Hebron,  the  first  city  in  Palestine,  B.C.  2478. 
The  first  king  mentioned  in  history  as  having  reigned  over  the  conn- 
try  is  Menes,  whom  the  learned  W.  Osbnm  shows  to  have  lived 
about  B.C.  2429.  a  date  corresponding  with  that  of  Yao,  the  Chinese 
Emperor,  and  the  Median  (or  first  human)  dynasty  of  Berosiis,  with 
whom  the  historical  periods  of  China  and  Chaldsea  respectively  com- 
mence (*  Facts  and  Dates,'  2d  edit  p.  136).  The  name  KKenL,  by 
which  Egypt  is  denoted  on  its  monuments,  is  the  same  as  the 
Hebrew  Cham  or  Ham.  Egypt  was  the  chief  primeval  seat  of  the 
race  of  Ham,  and  hence  its  designation  as  the  "  Land  of  Ham"  (Ps. 
cv.  23).  But  another  branch  of  the  family — viz.,  that  of  the  Cushites 
or  Ethiopians,  rivalled  it  in  power  and  celebrity  ;  for  while  one  sec- 
tion of  the  Cushites,  under  Nimrod,  settled  in  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates,  another  section  migrated  at  a  later  period  to  Abyssinia 
and  Nubia. 

The  modem  Eo^yptians  are  mainly  of  Arab  descent,  but  with  an  admix- 
ture of  the  old  JEgyptian  or  Coptic  stock,  who  are  generally  Christians. 
The  "fellahs,"  or  cultivators  of  the  soil,  who  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 

Population,  are  undoubtedly  of  Arab  descent,  professing  the  Mohamme- 
an  religion.  Besides  these  there  are  many  Turks,  Bedouins,  and  Euro- 
peans. The  inhabitants  of  Nubia  are  named  Nubians  and  Kenoos.  Thej 
are  of  Bedouin  extraction,  but  considerably  mixed  with  the  Coptic  or 
aboriginal  inhabitants.  Though  generally  of  a  dark  swarthy  complexion, 
they  have  neither  the  negro  features  nor  dark  woolly  hair ;  and  many  of 
them  have  the  peculiar  style  of  countenance  which  is  often  seen  in  the 
sculptures  of  the  Egyptian  temples.  In  those  sculptures  we  can  see  a 
transition  from  the  regular  features  and  straight  noses  of  the  time  of 
Abraham,  to  the  flat  nose  and  thick  lips  of  the  age  of  "  the  king  who 
knew  not  Joseph ; "  and  ultimately  of  the  protruding  chin  of  the  modem 
negro. 

Langtuige  and  Reltgion.^The  ancient  Egjrptian  was  closely  allied  in 
grammatical  structure  to  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  but  ^ossarially  it 
seems  to  have  formed  a  connecting  link  between  the  Semitic,  Indo-Euro- 
pean, and  African  families.  It  has  been  extinct  for  ages,  and  no  literary 
remains  exist  to  show  its  true  character,  except  some  ancient  inscriptions, 
which,  till  recently,  remained  utterly  unintelligible  to  scholars.  The 
Rosetta  stone,  containing  a  trilingual  inscription,  one  of  which  is  in 
Greek,  has  proved  of  great  service  in  revealing  the  contents  of  the  inscrh^- 
tions ;  and  additional  information  may  yet  be  obtained  from  a  oarenl 
inspection  of  the  dialects  into  which  it  was  ultimately  divided,  and  Ia 
which  very  ancient  translations  of  the  Scriptures  have  been  fanded  dowB* 
These  dialects  are  the  Coptic,  now  a  dead  language,  but  at 


TBX  BGT^TUK  EUFIEZ. 


ncular  tonpue  of  all  Egypt ;  tlie  Saki 
a.    Tbe  Arabic  is  the  mtl;  language  T 


'c,  ancieiLtly  spcl^en  in  S^d  or 
IB  piTvaliuit  in  a  jicirtiaii  of  tbe 
""" '  ""  in  Egypt,  while 


leAraliicls  the  mtly  language  preieiitl)'  Hjioke: 
QEiiidan  IE  the  raligiou  profomed  by  tli*  great  be    .  ^     _ 

ni-Ti.  to  tliiK,  ■  cormpt  rorm  of  ChritiIJsJU1:>'  termed  tbe  Cnptic. 
ta  and  Kordofuu  Ide  inbabiisnti  are  cliieHy  nBcroea.  T)*v  are  tlie 
Fenmujtfl of  h  onee poverfal  ii?F:m  nBticm  who camr  (iown  the  Vlnite  Nile 
and  Bubdaed  the  ^llbialJs  in  1504.  Tlie  pBHtOTs!  tribes*  of  the  aoateni 
desert,  aiid  tlitwe  dwelling  bIoue  the  BbnreE  of  the  Ked  Sas,  are  of  Airij 
orieiiL  The  latter  £poak  the  tihaaz  lan^afe,  a  dialect  of  tlie  Arabic ; 
d^ve  their  aubaiiaence  from  fiehing :  and  ap;>eai  to  he  the  BBme  people 
ae  the  aucieiit  Tnglodyta  or  dwellen  in  i:sveE.  The  Arabic  is  the 
oonunDU  laogange,  and  Ilie  HoliaimnedBii  the  Bole  rsligion,  of  Nubia. 
Kordofan  is  peojiled  by  three  taoes— the  Kuhaa  or  negroeB,  the  origmal 
inhabitant  ;  the  Dongulani  who  at  diflerent  times  invaded  the  country  ; 
and  tiibiis  of  Bedotiiii  ArabB,  froiu  AriLhia.  Severn!  o!  the  tribee  an 
MiAainniediina,  bat  othEra  are  Btill  pagans.     (See  under  "Africa.") 

QOTemmB&t.  Army  ajid  Kavy,  ftc — Tbe  Govi'iiiment  is  a  heredi- 
tary vicercyalty  under  Ismail  Pasha,  a  graudaDn  of  tbe  famDUa 
Udiemet  Alj  ^^gypt  being  natniually  an  appanage  of  the  Porte, 
theidceroj.  or  *'khed]v^"  as  he  is  Dow  calledt  canDot  condnct  liiplo- 
e  eicept  throngh  the  Sultan  of  TVtey.  Tbe  ad- 
f  tie  cooiitry  is  iinder  a  Miniflter  of  Stale  appointed 
bj  tbe  khedirf,  bat  the  GovemnieDt  is  practically  despotic 

Tbe  arnty,  which  Is  ivsed  hy  conioriptipii,  DonQated  in  1B7S  of  12,000 
infantrv.  ioOO  cavalry,  IfiOO  artillery,  besides  a  regiment  cJ  negroes  in 
Nigritia ;  while  the  tieet  cousiBted  of  7  Hhips  of  the  line.  6  frigates,  and 
SS  other  war.iesseli.  In  1S73  the  rBTenae  amonnted  to  £9,»1],UU0;  the 
Bipenditn»to£8,B16,000;  and  the  public  deht  to£56,(IU0,00D. 

OaaunBTDe  UUI  MitTiiiftctnrea. — Egypt  has  recently  become  again 
what  it  was  in  ancient  times— the  lii^road  of  commerce  betweea 
the  Eaat  and  Wtst.  Thia  reeolt  has  been  mainly  effected  hy  the 
ceniitnictioii  of  a  tailvaj  between  Alexandria,  Cuiro,  and  Snex,  210 
III.  in  length,  sjid  still  more  by  the  constmction  of  the 
Oanal  (completed  by  M.  de  I^ssepH,  a  French  e  J 
18SB).  cnmi»niiig  the  Mt^ternuiean  with  the  Sed  Sea.  Berniming 
at  Port  fiaid  ahoul  50  m.  K  of  the  Damiettn  mouth  of  the  Nile,  it 
BtRtulies  almoBt  due  south  by  Ismallia  to  Suez,  a  distance  of  lOO  m. 
The  Cnnal  has  a  uniform  depth  of  £6  ft. ,  tv[[Uireil  ten  Tears  for  in 
OKOcntiou,  and  com  neai-ly  £l!t,0O0,000.  In  16(5  one-half  the  total 
numlier  of  sharca  of  the  Canal  Company  were  purchased  from  tlie 
Ehedive  by  the  Britinb  Govenunent  for  £4.000,000  sterling.  The 
CDsmiercial  inteTcourae  of  Esypt  with  the  United  EingJom  is  now 
-  vei]' great,  in  eouHeqneuce  of  these  iniproved  modes  of  transit,  nearly 
**  oar  trade  to  and  fmiu  India  now  passing  tbrongh  Ej.'ypt.  ]i 
8,  tlu  total  Dumber  of  Bhips  which  passed  tiiroogh  the  Canal  waa 
I,CKn7in{;2,0S5,000  tons,  of  which  SIO  ahins,  with  a  tonnage  of 
AOBO  belonged  to  the  tToitAd  EjDgdum.     The  expart«  of  £^>C 

" Itries  jn  the  ssjne  year  amounted  to  £18,752,000,  and  the 

£10,682,000.    The  intercourse  with  Central  Africa  in  rety 
'     u>4  i>  CRCTied  vn  l^  means  of  caravans,  which  bring. 


B  great  S 
in  Kovem 


458  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPUT. 

in  exchange  for  European  and  Egyptian  pFoducts,  ivory,  gold  dust, 
skins,  wool,  grain,  ostrich  feathers,  metals,  and  (till  recently)  slaves. 
There  being  no  coal  nor  iron  found  in  the  country,  the  manufactures 
are  inconsiderable,  and  are  confined  chiefly  to  pottery,  cotton  and 
woollen  cloths  made  by  the  natives,  carpets,  fire-arms,  and  military 
accoutrements. 

Historical  Sketch.— Unless  we  except  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  this  country  is  the  earliest  seat  of  ci\ilisation  in  the  world. 
Unlike  all  other  lands,  we  find  in  Egypt  many  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
in  their  utmost  perfection  upwards  of  lOOO  years  ago — a  fact  which  con- 
clusively shows  that  the  earliest  condition  of  the  human  race  was  not 
that  of  barbarism.  For  nineteen  centuries  Egypt  was  governed  by  native 
kings.  Menes,  its  earliest  king,  began  his  feign  about  B.C.  2429,  and 
the  line  of  the  Pharaohs  ended  in  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Cam- 
byses,  B.C.  525.  It  was  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great,  RC.  832,  after 
whose  death  it  was  governed  by  tiie  Ptolemies  till  B.C.  30,  when  it  was 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province  by  Augustus.  The  Saracens  invaded  it 
in  A.D.  638,  and  the  Turks  in  1163.  The  government  of  the  Mamelukes 
was  established  in  1250,  but  they  were  subjected  to  the  Turks  in  1517. 
It  was  overrun  by  Napoleon  in  1798,  who  was  dispossessed  by  the  British 
in  1801,  when  the  Turkish  government  was  restored. 


ABYSSINIA. 

Boundaries.— -N.E.,  the  Red  Sea ;  N.W.,  Nubia ;  S.W.,  Kaffa 
and  the  country  of  the  Gallas  ;  S.E.,  the  Som&li  country.  Lat. 
70  S(y—16°  N. ;  Ion.  34^  4(/— 40°  30'  E.  Gondar,  the  cap.  of 
Amhara,  near  the  centre  of  the  country,  is  on  the  same  parallel 
as  Bathurst  in  Senegambia,  Lake  Tchad,  Aden,  Madras,  Bang- 
kok, Leon  in  Nicaragua,  and  Barbadoes. 

Area  and  Population. — Since  the  coast  region  became  subject  to 
Egypt,  the  area  is  restricted  to  about  158,400  sq.  m.,  and  the  popu- 
lation to  3,000,000,  being  five  times  the  size  of  Scotland,  with  about 
an  equal  population. 

Political  DiYlBions. — Tlie  political  condition  of  Abyssinia  is  of  an 
uncertain  character,  in  many  respects  resembling  that  of  Europe  in 
feudal  times — each  chief  exercising  authority  over  as  wide  a  district 
as  possible.  Notwithstanding  the  great  accessions  made  to  <mr 
knowledge  of  the  country  during  the  last  few  years,  tiie  conntnr  !■ 
still  very  imperfectly  known  to  Europeans.  The  following  distmct 
states,  however,  are  known  to  exist : — Tigr^  in  the  N.,  in  the  npper 
basin  of  the  Atbam  or  Tacazze  ;  Amhara  or  Gondar,  in  the  eeo&t, 
around  Lake  Tana  or  Dembea;  Shoa,  in  the  S.E.;  and  Samai«| 
including  the  Afar  country,  now  subject  to  Egypt,  in  the  N.K. 

TioR^.— Antalo  8  n.  (Atbara),  Axura  4  n.,  Adowa  10  QUxAi^ 


I 


ABYSSINIA.  459 

AMH4BA.— GojidarSn.,  Knarata,  Ziig6(LTnna),  HHgilala (Basil elo). 
Sroa.— Ankfthar  16,  Aiigolnlla  3  n.  (Djinimrv,  nffl.  Blue  Nile). 
Sau&ba.*— Masaowa  12,  Arkiko  Amphilk  (Bed  Sea); 
Deacriptive  Sates, — Antalo,  a.  mean  -nretclied.  place,  consisting  of 
kl)OUt  iGOO  liiLta,  but  possessing  some  trade  and  a.  manufactory  of 
Bpesrs.  Anun,  the  ancieut  cap.  of  tlie  kingdom  of  AbyseiiuB,  now 
gmtl;  decayed,  contains  a  Clinatian  church,  in  wiiich  are  kept  the 
uioous  'Chronicles  of  Axum,' a  copy  of  which  waa  hrought  to  Europe 
by  Bruce,  the  Abyssinian  traveller.  Adaw»,  the  chief  entrepot  of  trade 
on  the  great  caiaTSn-routs  between  Mvjsowali  and  Uondai.  uondai,  cap. 
of  Anihara,  the  central  Btiite  of  Ahyasinia,  was  formerly  very  extensive, 
*nt  has  now  greatly  declined.  KliigdaJt,  a  hill  fort,  on  tlia  plalflau  of 
Silanta,  9050  ft.  above  the  sea,  stormed  and  totally  destroyeil  by  a  Brit- 
«Ai  force  under  Sir  Robert  Napier,  April  13, 1S68,  when  King  Theodoro 
'Was  slain  and  the  British  captives  rescued.  Ankobar,  cap.  of  Sboa,  at 
'Sn  elevation  of  8200  ft.,  is  considered  the  healthiest  and  most  agreeablH 
Jplaoe  in  Abyasinia.  MaMOwah,  the  largest  town  in  Samara,  and  the 
ndiic![Hil  seaport  town  in  the  whole  countty  :  it  belongs  to  Egypt,  and  is 
the  lenideiice  of  an  Egyptian  governor. 

Mounlains. — The  greater  part  ot  Abyssinia  fonns  a 
lofty  table-land,  vairing  from  8000  to  10,000  ft.  in  elevation,  inclin- 
ing gently  tovarda  the  west,  as  indicated  by  the  general  direction  of 
tha  rlrera,  with  a  mors  precipitona  descent  ton^irdi  the  east,  and 
with  abmpt,  almost  peipendicnlar,  declivities  towards  the  north 
and  south,  as  tlie  great  floodG  from  the  rnoiintaina  during  the*rBiny 
season  pour  down  towards  the  Taoaize  and  Blue  Nile,  carrying  with 
them  all  the  earth  and  loose  materials  which  go  to  Ibnn  the  delta  of 
Lower  E(rypL  It  is  traversed  in  varions  directions  by  mountain- 
muges,  tiie  higher  elevations  of  which  freqnently  rise  above  the 

I   limit  of  pereuniHl  enow,  which  has  here  an  elevation  of  14,000  ft.: 

|.Sas  Detschen,  at  the  source  of  the  Atbara,  15,98e  ft.;  Abba  Jarrat, 

B  Between  the  Atbara  and  the  Onenqua,  ]S,020  ft 

r*  0UinBit8.^EitremEly  varions— intensely  hot  in  the  valleys  and 
on  the  coast  of  the  Ked  Sea  ;  conl  and  bracing  on  the  table-lands  ; 
severe  cold  on  the  niounlainB.  The  periodic  rains  commencB  in 
June  and  continue  till  September,  dunng  which  tliey  are  so  violent 
_ii  __..  ..___ ±j..        n,i ^  temperatnra 

Oeology  and  Ulnarala. —Abyssinia  pi'esents  the  most  varied  and 
complex  geological  aspect  imaginable.  Sandstane,  lying  upon  schia- 
toQa  rock,  forms  the  principal  strata,  but  contorted  and  dianipted  in 
eitenaive  localities  by  basaltic  rooks,  which  form  the  elevated  peaks 
I  of  the  grent  chain  of  mountains.  The  great  Tnnu  lake  in  the  centre 
'  the  coon  try  is  compaied  by  recent  travellei's  to  a  huge  crater, 
le  ahorea,  the  iaUnda,  and  the  (urrtmnding  muuntains  are  all  vol- 
toic,  buialt  being  the  prominent  featura.  Extinct  volcanoes,  hot 
Hn^  and  repcailaiiaa  of  ■  •'■\'\ut  in  mnny  plntea,     Other 


'.able  , 


tiony. 


460  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  principal  salt  deposit  occurs  in  the  Afar  country,  between  the 
eastern  side  of  the  plateau  and  the  Red  Sea,  in  a  depressed  plain 
about  200  ft.  below  tne  sea-level 

Botany.  —  The  vegetation  of  this  country  belongs  in  part  to 
Schouw's  12th  and  in  part  to  his  14th  Phyto-geogi*aphic  Regions. 
The  whole  land — whether  valleys,  plains,  or  plateaux — is  watered  by 
countless  streams.  The  soil,  consisting  of  the  detritus  of  volcanic 
rocks,  is  so  rich,  of  such  fertility,  and  enjoying  such  climatic  ad- 
vantages, that  usually  three  harvests  are  reaped  in  the  year.  The 
temperate  flora  extends  over  a  zone  from  9000  to  6000  ft.,  the  sub- 
tropical  from  6000  to  SOOO,  and  the  dry  tropical  coast  vegetation 
from  3000  ft.  to  the  sea-level.  The  forests  are  magnificent,  and 
contain  sycamores  of  great  size,  cedars,  and  beautiful  specimens  of 
the  acacia.  The  high  plateaux  yield  luxuriant  pasturage.  The 
coffee-plant  is  indigenous,  and,  with  cotton,  grows  wild  in  the 
mountains.  The  soil  of  the  lower  grounds  is  extremely  fertile,  and 
furnishes,  without  cultivation,  many  of  the  finest  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  the  torrid  zone.  Fruits  are  abundant,  including  the  date, 
orange,  lemon,  pomegranate,  and  banana.  Other  cultivated  plants 
are  ieff  (Poa  abyssinica),  from  which  is  made  the  usual  bread  of  the 
people :  the  wheat  and  barley  are  excellent,  and  are  found  here  in 
numerous  varieties :  the  sugar-cane  is  cultivated,  but  is  only  chewed, 
as  the  ai-t  of  extracting  the  sugar  is  unknown.  The  vine  is  reared 
in  some  parts,  the  finest  grapes  being  met  with  to  the  east  of  Lake 
Tana ;  myrrh,  senna,  and  other  medicinal  plants  are  plentiful. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  are  numerous,  and  comprise  the  lion, 
panther,  leopard,  wolf,  striped  hyena,  two-horned  rhinoceros,  ele- 
])hant,  hippopotamus,  booted  lynx,  cameleopard,  zebra,  quagga, 
boar,  buffalo,  antelope,  gazelle,  and  monkey.  Birds  of  all  kinds 
abound,  including  the  ostrich,  eagle,  vulture,  parrot,  partridge, 
quail,  and  numerous  species  of  water-fowL  Crocodiles  and  serpents 
are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  of  great  size.  Bees  are  much  cared 
for,  and  some  of  the  provinces  pay  a  large  proportion  of  their  tribute 
in  honey.  The  ravages  of  the  locust  are  terrible,  and  an  insect 
called  the  saltsalyay  a  little  larger  than  a  bee,  is  extremely  noxious. 
Mules,  camels,  and  asses  are  the  usual  beasts  of  burden,  the  horses 
being  generally  reserved  for  war  and  the  chase. 

Etlmography. — The  people  are  principally  of  Semitic  origin,  and 
are  probably  a  colony  from  Southern  Arabia.  They  comprise  some 
of  the  tribes  called  Ethiopians  by  the  ancients,  who,  though  of  a 
dark  colour,  were  conspicuous  for  the  beauty  of  their  type.  There 
are  in  reality  three  table-lands,  rising  one  above  another,  in  lines 
nearly  parallel  with  the  coast.  The  tribes  inhabiting  these  various 
plateaux,  though  of  the  same  origin,  vary  in  complexion — those  of 
the  coast  are  black,  with  long  crisped  hair ;  those  of  the  higher 
table-lands  are  of  a  copper  or  brown  olive  colour,  with  regular  and  ' 
well-formed  features.  The  modem  Abyssinians  are  a  veiyinotlef 
group  of  different  races,  consisting  of  descendants  from  the  primi^** 
Ethiopic  stock ;  of  many  Jews  settled  for  ages  in  the  ooontix 


r 


61 


forming  distinct  colomea  uni]«r  tito  name  Fcluslia  ("tlie  ExUos") ; 
of  H  large  population  of  Arabis  origin ;  of  Galliu,  wlio  have  been 
introduced  from  the  south,  extremely  borbatoiw;  aud  of  true  ncgroea 
iu  a  state  of  slavery. 

Langvaga, — The  Ethlopio  or  Glieei  (p,  36S)  was  BUcienHy  the  only 
vemaculHr  dialect  of  Abysainia,  bat  the  Amharic  and  Ticr^,  its  two 
nodem  dialects,  are  now  the  only  languages  known  is  the  country, 
exc«pt  the  Arabic,  which  is  apokeu  on  the  sea-coaot,  and  the  Oalla, 
Trhicb  is  not  of  Semitic  origin,  on  the  sontbem  frontier  jp.  353). 

JCdigimt.—ThB  religion  of  Abyssinia  is  for  the  most  part  a  verj  cor- 
rupt form  of  ChriBtianity.  The  Christian  religion  vras  BBtablisbed  here 
in  the  fonrth  century,  Imt  it  has  long  been  shorn  of  its  charaoterlatiQ 
features.    Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  dispensed  after  the  manner 

of  the  Greek  Chnrcli.    Mohammedams '    -    

lation  of  Samara,  and  Judaism  among 
ia  tlie  country.  The  "Felashaa"  though  Jews  in  religion  and  habit 
are  a  native  trii>^  and  not  of  Hebrew  origin.  Tbey  form  colonies  in 
various  looalitiBs.  "Abyssinia  is  perhaps  the  only  country  in  which 
Christianity  and  Mobammedanism  are  in  contact  where  the  professors  of 
Islam  ore  the  more  energetic  and  trustwortby,  holding  the  of&ces  ivhich 
require  fidelity,  tilling  the  mercantile  stations,  and  descending  to  the 
departments  of  manual  labour,  while  those  who  take  the  name  of  Chris- 
tiana are  drones  and  beggars." 

gaanftLOtnras  Bud  Oommeioe.  —  The  manufactures  comprise 
leather,  parchment,  cotton  cloths,  tapestry  fabricated  from  wool 
and  goats'  hair,  and  articles  of  iron  and  hmas.  The  principal 
Eliporta  are  ivory,  gold,  slaves,  cattle,  ghee,  dhourra,  honey,  wai, 
coffee,  must,  frankincense,  mvrrh,  cotton  cloth,  and  mules  ;  and  the 
Imports,  lead,  tin,  copper,  silk,  cotton,  sngar,  rice,  gunpowder,  glass, 
IndioD  goods,  Peraian  carpets,  French  cloths,  and  coloured  skins. 
Buaness  is  chiefly  carried  on  at  Massowah,  a  small  Egyptifin  port 
on  the  Bed  Sea,  and  is  conducted  chiefly  by  barter.  The  slave  ti'ade 
u  actively  prosecuted  by  the  Mohammedans  on  the  frontier. 

Elver-Syitem  ef  Egypt,  Itutita,  and  AbysEliila,  or  the  basin  of  the 
Nfle.— The  totiJ  length  of  the  river  cannot  yet  be  stated,  though 
beyond  doubt  L.  Tanganyika  does  not  belong  to  its  basin.  Inclnd- 
ing  the  Shibiyu,  Qonrinu;  into  L.  Victoria,  the  Nile  must  have  a 
lengiii  including  windings  of  lOOO  m.,  while  the  area  ot  its  basin  is 
believedto  amount  to  620,000  geographicalaq.  m.  (sea  above,  p.  4*3). 

The  following  table  shows  the  principal  towns  in  this  immense 
basin  (we  under  ' '  Al'riea  ") : — 

Jtinn.  Tomu, 

mie, Damletia,  Rosetta,  Alexandria,  Cairo,  Jtes^  Metro- 

henn;/,  Modinet-el-FaioHm,  n.,  JJeni-Sovef,  Siont, 
Girgeh,  Keneb,  Jtuiiu  pf  ThAa,  £a7ieh,  Assouan, 
Derr,  Ipsambul,  New  Dongolo,  Berber,  AferSe, 
Sbendi,  Khartum,  Gondokoro,  JUureJiiiux,  Fall/, 
Ripmi  Falli. 

[[Atlitrs,... Antalo,  n. 

Marab Artown,  Amm,  n, 

tcihr.el-A!Tek,...Khartuiu,  Seunir,  Zage,  Knnrala.  Gohdah. 

r  DjInuuR.  I, .  ...Aiigotiala,  a.,  Ankobar. 


462 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


BARBARY     STATES. 

Boundaries. — N.,  the  Mediterranean  ;  W.,  the  North  Atlan- 
tic ;  S.,  the  Sahara  or  Great  Desert ;  E.,  Egypt. 

The  Barbanr  States  extend  from  lat.  21*  (Fezzan)  to  37'*  16'  N.  (Biserta, 
in  Tunis),  and  from  Ion.  26*  E.  (Oasis  of  Siwah)  to  C.  Nun,  in  Marocco, 
11"  W.  They  thus  occupy  over  16"  of  lat.  and  d&*  of  Ion.  The  length 
from  E.  to  W.  along  the  30th  parallel  is  about  1785  nL,  while  the  breadth 
varies  from  200  m.  on  the  I^gyptian  frontier  to  750  m.  in  Tripoli  and 
Fezzan.  The  coast  line  is  estimated  at  2600  m.  The  city  of  Marocco,  on 
the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat.  as  Jerusalem,  Ispahan,  Lahtr, 
Nanking,  and  the  head  of  the  6.  of  CalifoiTda. 

Area  and  Population. — ^The  aggregate  area  is  ronghly  estimated  at 
940,700  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  11,664,218.  The  whole  area  is 
about  seven  times  that  of  the  British  Isles,  while  the  population 
does  not  exceed  one-third  of  ours.  The  area  and  population  of  the 
different  states  are  as  follows  : — 


States. 


Tripoli,  including  Barca  and  Fezzan, 
Tunis, 

Algeria  (1867),     .... 
Marocco, 


Area  in 
English  sq.  m. 


356,820 

47,860 

267,600 

268,920 


Population. 


1,150,000 
2,000,000 
2,414.218 
6.000,000 


Political  DIvlBlons. — The  Barbary  States  are  four  in  number— 
1.  Tripoli,  in  the  E.,  including  the  province  Barca,*  and  the  laige 
oasis  of  Fezzan  in  the  Desert,  termed  a  heyalic,  and  subject  to  the 
Ottoman  Porte.  2.  Tunis,  N.W.  of  Tripoli,  also  a  beyalic  of  the 
Turkish  empire.  3.  Algeria,  W.  of  Tunis,  a  colonial  possession  of 
France  since  1842,  and  divided  into  three  provinces— Goustantine^ 
Alters,  and  Oran — but  by  the  natives  into  the  Tell  or  "  country  of 
grain  crops,"  and  the  Beled-el-Jered  or  "land  of  dates;"  and,  4. 
The  empire  of  Marocco,  W.  of  Algeria,  consisting  of  the  kingdoms 
Marocco  and  Fez,  lying  between  the  Atlantic  and  Mt.  Atlas,  and  the 
districts  Sus,  Draha,  Tafilelt,  and  S^*elmessa»  lying  to  the  S.  and  2L 
of  that  range. 

Tripoli.— Tripoli  30,  Dema  6,  Bengazi  7  (N.  coast),  Mounonkll 
(oasis  of  Fezzan). 

Tunis.— Tunis,  150,  Cabes  30,  Eairwan  50  n.y  Biserta  10  (ooutV 

Algeria. — Algiers  53,  Constantine  35  n«»  *  Bona  12,  Ona  8^- 

Tlemezen  14  n.  (N.  coast). 

Marocco.— Marocco  80  (Tensift),  Fei  80,  MekiMs  7^.n* 
*  Barca  now  forms  a  soj^amte  rtate^  tt^ 


BAKBAHV    STATES.  4GS 

Tatuan  18,  Ceuta  8,  Tangior  10  (K.  coast),  Salee  \i,  HaWtt  40, 
Mogador  20  (W,  coast),  Tarocknt  21,  Tedsi  IB  (Sas),  Tatta  10 
(Draha),  Tafilelt  10  (Zaimbi). 


is  iMagna. 


.fled ;  it  has  now  tbe  appstmiDce  of  a  European  city,  is  th< 
ihe  Governor- General  of  Algeria  and  of  man  j  foreign  consuls, 
a  fortified  city  taiien  by  tbe  French  in  1847,  ia  cow  a  Hour. 


DauTlptivB  Fotas.-~TiipaU,  properly  TcipoIiB,  derlvei 
the  three  ancient  Carthageuiui  cities— Sabrata,  Oea,  and 
It  carries  on  an  eitenaive  cominerce  irith  Central  Africa  dj  means  oi 
caravaiiB.  M onrzoiib,  in  an  oasis  of  the  Sahara,  is  the  la.'!t  9t,age  for  ob- 
taining water  and  provisions  on  the  caiavan-ronte  from  Tripoli  to  Bomon. 
Tnnia  is  the  most  populous  city  in  Barbsry,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
Alexandria,  the  most  commercial  in  Africa.  It  has  extensive  manufar:- 
torea  of  linen  and  woollen  cloths,  marocco  leather,  and  various  celebrated 
essences.  About  ten  m.  to  the  H.E.  are  the  nilna  of  ancient  Carthage, 
once  the  proud  rival  of  Eome.  Kairwan,  a  larve  city  in  a  aandv  plain  at 
a  considenible  distance  ttmn  the  coast,  was  the  first  seat  of  Baracenic 
ompi™  io  Barbary :  it  contains  the  finest  mosque  in  Africa,  and  is  one  of 
&»  holy  cities  of  the  Mohammedans.  Biurta,  a  fortified  sesport  town, 
and  the  moat  northern  in  Africa-  Algiers,  cap.  of  the  French  dominions 
In  Afiica,  was  seized  by  the  French  in  183(1,  since  which  it  has  been 

sti'ongly  fortified ;  ■*  '  '•     

residence  of  the  G< 

ConstaaWne,  a  .  . 

iBhing  place,  with  manufactures  of  saddlery  and  other 
Oina,  cap.  of  the  most  western  province  of  Algeria,  was  built  by  the 
Spamatds,  and  Is  surrounded  by  itrong  walls  and  ditches.  Uaiocco, 
cap.  of  the  empire,  situated  in  the  centre  of  an  immense  plain  whidi 
extendi  to  the  toot  of  the  Atlas  ran)(e,  is  ilt-built,  filthy,  and  spacious ; 
the  walls  of  the  city  are  six  miles  in  ciicumferunce,  but  many  lai^a  Gelds 
and  open  spaces  strewed  with  ruins  are  enclosed  within  this  area.  Tta, 
once  the  cap.  of  a  poweriul  independent  kingdom,  and  the  finest  city  in 
weatOTn  Borhary ;  though  now  reduced  to  tJie  rank  of  a  provincial  cap.,  it 
remains  the  holy  city  of  the  empire,  and  one  of  the  three  residencen  of 
the  Sultan.  It  is  the  principal  seatof  the  mannfactare  of  marocco  leather, 
which  is  prepared  here  in  great  perfection.  Mekinei,  one  of  the  hand- 
lomest  towns  of  Marocco,  contains  an  imperial  palace  of  great  beantv  and 
extant.  Tetoon  was  ceded  to  Spain  at  thetlose  of  the  recent  ^var  with 
Marocco.  Centa,  built  on  a  hill  which  woa  known  to  the  ancients  as  one 
of  the  Pillara  of  Hercules,  has  belonged  to  Spain  since  1040.  Tangier,  a 
strongly  fortified  towii,  was  coiled  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  British  in 
l(!lj2,  who  retained  possession  of  it  for  22  years.  Bales,  formerly  noted 
for  its  piracy,  is  now  sinking  into  decay.  Babatt,  formerly  the  centre  of 
,  the  Bnropean  trade  with  Marocco,  eiporta  wool  and  com,  and  has  maiin- 
nrea  of  carpels.  Jlogadw,  the  principal  seaport  of  Marocco,  main- 
»  regular  comnjunioation  with  Southern  Europe.  Tatta,  a  great 
)t  for  the  transit  trade  between  Marocco  and  Central  Africa.  Tafilelt, 
of  a  district  in  the  S.G.,  which  it  uaed  as  n  phioa  of  bauishment  tor 
lilitical  offenders. 

Capes,  iBlands,  Oulfa.  Lakes,  and  Str&lts.— See  under  "Africa.'' 
^  earbee  and  Uonatain*.— The  westm-n  half  of  the  conntrj-,  tTmn 
'  ns  In  the  Ailer*!"   — >"«i«ta  ot  an  elevated  plateau  sur- 
i»  lliren  i  '  ••-•,  which  run  parallel  to  the 

t"^  ■'■"W,  tiie  mwt  Bontherlj 

-  oulniiuatinK  in  Jebel 


464  POLITICAL    OEOGRAPHY. 

^kliltsin,  in  Marocco,  11,400  ft.  high.  In  Algeria  the  highest  elevap 
tion  does  not  exceed  7700  ft.,  and  in  Tunis  4400  ft  From  Tunis  to 
the  Egyptian  frontier  the  country  is  low  and  level,  save  that  gentle 
eminences  extending  in  an  easterly  direction  attain  in  the  W.  of 
Tripoli  a  height  of  (U)out  2000  ft.  Between  the  Atlas  range  and  the 
Sahara  there  is  a  deep  depression,  to  a  large  extent  occupied  with 
salt  marshes.  The  coast  region,  extending  from  the  6.  of  Gabes  to 
the  G.  of  Sidra,  is  very  low  and  sandy,  with  few  harbours ;  but  fur- 
ther east,  the  plateau  of  Barca  attains  a  moderate  elevation.    . 

Rivers. — Owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  Atlas  range,  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  other  to  the  Great  Desert, 
the  rivers  of  Barbary  are  all  comparatively  smalL  The  greater  num- 
ber of  them  are  little  more  than  winter  torrents,  the  channels  of 
which  are  dry  during  summer ;  while  those  which  flow  southward 
soon  lose  themselves  in  the  sands  of  the  Sahara,  or  terminate  in  salt 
lakes.  The  only  rivers  deserving  notice  are  the  following : — Med- 
jerda,  in  Tunis,  flows  N.E.  200  m.,  and  empties  itself  into  the  G.  of 
Tunis.  The  Shelif,  flows  N.  through  Algeria  into  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Mulwiah,  the  principal  river  of  Barbary,  flows  N.K  through 
Marocco  into  the  G.  of  Melilah.  The  Omer  Begh  and  Tensift,  flow 
W.  through  Marocco  into  the  Atlantic. 

Climate. — Taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  climate  must  be 
regarded  as  peculiarly  temperate  and  salubrious.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  coast  region  between  the  Atlas  ran^  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  the  sea-breezes  are  cool  and  refreshing.  South  of  the 
Atlas  the  climate  is  tropical  and  the  heat  intense.  Here  it  scarcely 
ever  rains  between  March  and  September,  but  rain  is  frequent  in 
winter.  North  of  Mt.  Atlas  the  thermometer  rarely  falls  below  40' 
Fah.  in  winter,  or  rises  beyond  85**  in  summer.  In  Tunis  the  mean 
annual  temp,  is  68".  7 ;  wint«r,  55".76 ;  and  summer,  83".  The  coast 
region  of  Algeria  is  well  adapted  to  Europeans.  Here  the  summer 
heat  is  great,  and  may  be  called  excessive,  the  thermometer  ranging 
between  74**  and  104** ;  but,  owing  to  the  sea-breezes,  even  this  heat 
is  endurable.  The  winter  temp,  at  Algiers  is  from  54**  to  65**,  and  it 
very  seldom  reaches  the  freezing  point. 

Minerals. — The  prevailing  mineral  in  Barbary  is  salt,  which  seems 
to  pervade  the  whole  soil,  and  of  which  there  are  innumerable  pits, 
rocKS,  and  springs.  Saltpetre  is  extracted  in  great  quantities  ;  but 
hitherto  coal  has  not  been  found  in  any  of  the  states.  In  Marocco 
are  found  gold,  silver,  antimony,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin,  but  the 
T)recious  metals  are  confined  to  the  province  Sus.  In  Tunis,  copper, 
lead,  and  silver  abound,  and  a  quicKsilver  mine  is  wrought  at  Porto- 
Farina.  Iron,  copper,  and  lead  are  abundant  in  Algeria,  especially 
in  the  province  Oran,  where  cinnabar  or  sulphuret  of  mercury  is  ob- 
tained m  small  quantities,  besides  extensive  mines  of  nitre,  salt,  tale, 
and  potters'  clay ;  while  amethysts  of  great  size  and  beauty  are  found 
in  the  recesses  of  the  mountains.  The  Atlas  range  contfuns  copper, 
iron,  lead,  antimony,  and  rock-salt ;  but  few  mines  are  WTOU|^t  to 
advantage. 


I 


I 


BARnAUV    STATES.  4G3 

Botany.— The  whole  of  Barbary  is  included  within  Schouw's  third 
lAyto-geogi'aphic  or  Mediterranean  Jtegion.     (See  p.  82.) 

The  northBrn  slopea  of  Mt.  Atlas  are  clothed  with  dense  forests  of  pine, 
oak,  cork,  white  poplar,  xnd  wild  olives.  On  the  southern  slope  the 
tower  ranges  are  covered  with  palm-trees,  especially  the  date-pHlin,  of 
which  this  is  the  true  native  region,  whence  it  is  denominated  by  the 
natives  Seltd-it-Jered,  or  "  land  of  daUa  ; "  higher  up  grow  gum-trees, 
■Imonda,  olives,  kc. ;  while  on  the  taWe-lands  are  found  pears,  apples, 
cherries,  and  other  Europ^a  fruits.  The  lotus  and  cassoh  are  indigen- 
ons  in  Tripoli.  Tlie  principal  cultivated  plants  are  wheat,  maiie,  barley, 
millet,  soighum,  tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  henna,  and  saflron  ; 
with  olives,  dates,  grapes,  and  the  fruita  of  Southern  Europe.  Tlie  soil 
in  the  valleys  has  been  always  celebrated  for  its  fertility,  and  in  souie 
places  yields  three  crops  of  com  in  the  year ;  but  so  little  la  agricidture 
understood  that  large  crops  of  com  are  sometimes  allowed  to  remain  uii- 
reaped,  while  at  other  times  many  of  the  inhabitants  die  of  famine. 

Zoology.^ The  animal  kingdom  comprises  most  of  the  species 
found  in  the  rest  of  Africa,  except  the  hipjiopotamiis,  rhinoceros, 
giraffe,  zebra,  and  several  species  of  monkeys.  (See  under  "Africa," 
.n.  1».) 

The  principal  mammals  are  the  Barbary  ape,  little  baboon,  panther, 
Wni,  jackal,  genet  Barbary  squirrel,  Barbary  mouse,  Barbary  antelope, 
.BaroccD  antetope,  bearded  sheep,  the  buhalis  (a  species  of  hnflalo),  wild- 
boar,  and  tlie  Egyptian  .jerboa.  The  Atlas  Uoiintaics  arc  infested  by 
Urge  Hercs  lions,  and  abound  in  antelopes,  monkeys,  and  porcnpines. 
In  general  the  Mammalia  differ  widely  from  those  of  Europe  ;  white,  in 
legard  to  Shilt,  besides  several  found  in  Southern  Europe,  Barhary  pos- 
Msses  numerous  species  not  occurring  in  any  part  of  the  nortliern  con- 
Unent.  Tlie /^plSsicomprise  thechanieleon  and  leathery  tnrtle.  Among 
JMnuiHc  Animali  may  be  mentioned  the  horse,  camel,  dromedary,  ass, 
mule,  buflalo,  ox,  merino  sheep,  and  goats.  The  merino  sheep  is  a 
native  of  Algeria,  The  goats  of  Marocco  are  highly  valued,  as  it  is  from 
their  skins  that  the  famous  "marocco  leatber'Ms  made.  The  Barbary 
horses  are  superb  animals,  vieing  with  the  Arabian  in  beauty  of  form, 
though  not,  perhaps,  in  lieetness.  The  dromedary  is  the  most  general 
beast  of  bniden. 

Bthuography'. — Long  before  recorded  history — perhaps  even  before 
the  full  formation  of  their  distinctive  languages — that  family  of  man- 
kind from  which  the  Semitic  tribes  liave  come  ponred  forth  its 
hordes  from  Asia  over  the  northern  portion  of  Africa.  Of  these,  one 
tribe,  the  Berbers,  with  the  tenacity  of  the  Semitic  stock,  has  held 
possession  of  the  valleys  of  the  Atlss  ander  all  the  successive  waves 
ofconcjaest  which  have  passed  over  Northern  Africa.  The  colonics 
and  conquests  of  the  PuDrnicianB,  the  Romans,  the  Byzantines,  the 
Vandals,  and  the  Arabs,  have  not  destroyed  or  abaorhed  this  toagh 
and  warlike  people.  Pressed  further  to  the  south  by  the  fierce  at- 
taclls  of  the  Arabs,  in  tlie  first  half  of  the  eleventh  centiiry,  they 
could  not  he  driven  from  the  desert;  and  they  now  hold  a  larger 
exteot  of  territory  than  is  occupied  by  any  otiipr  race  on  Africau 
u  K>it,  From  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  west,  their  tribes  extend  to 
■'Qie  borders  of  E}(ypt  on  the  east,  and  from  the  Atlas  chain  on  the 


466  POLITICAL    GEOORAPHY. 

Korth  over  the  oases  of  the  Great  Desert  to  the  region  of  the  NigcT 
and  Soudan  on  the  south.  * 

Language  and  Religion, — The  Berber  language — ^in  some  respects  a 
connecting-link  between  the  Semitic  and  Atrican  families — is  a  direct 
descendant  from  the  ancient  Libyan ;  and  the  antique  bi-lingnal  rock-in- 
scriptions in  Northern  Africa  show  that  not  only  the  idioms,  out  many  of 
the  letters  used  by  the  Numidians,  are  still  employed  by  the  modem  Ber* 
bers.  Tlieir  other  letters  are  Arabic.  The  Moors  and  Arabs  speak  a 
dialect  of  Arabic  called  the  Mongrebin,  or  Moorish  Arabic.  Islamlsm  is 
the  sole  religion  erf  the  Berbers,  Moors,  Turks,  and  Arabs.  The  negroes, 
who  are  very  numerous,  and  mostly  slaves,  are  generally  pagans,  Soudan 
being  their  native  country. 

Goyemment,  ftc. — Marocco  is  an  empire  ruled  over  by  a  sultan, 
who  is  more  despotic  than  is  usual  in  Mohammedan  countries.  It 
consists  of  the  two  kingdoms,  Marocco  and  Fez,  and  four  territories, 
above  mentioned.  The  army  consists  of  about  20,000  men,  besides 
a  sort  of  militia,  formed  of  negro  slaves,  numbering  about  80,000 
more.  The  navy,  at  one  time  very  formidable  to  European  mer- 
chantmen, is  now  insignificant.  Algeria  has  been  a  French  colony 
since  1842,  though  its  subjugation  commenced  12  years  earlier. 
The  administration  is  chiefly  military,  but  in  the  larger  towns  a 
civil  system  has  been  established.  As  yet  the  efforts  of  the  French 
to  render  this  a  prosperous  colony  have  b^n,  on  the  whole,  unsuc- 
cessful, and  it  may  bo  questioned  whether  they  will  not  ere  long 
have  to  abandon  it.  Tunis  and  Tripoli  form  two  states  of  the  Otto- 
man empire.  The  former  is  nearly  independent,  the  government 
being  vested  in  the  Bev,  who  holds  his  power  by  hereditaiy  right. 
The  governor  of  Tripoli  holds  the  title,  rank,  and  authority  of  a 
pasha  of  Turkey. 

Industry  and  Commerce.— Barbary  is,  next  to  Egypt,  the  most 
favoured  and  fertile  country  in  Africa,  producing  com  and  wine  in 
abundance,  together  with  tropical  fruits  of  every  description — the 
latter  forming  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Great  quantities 
of  grain  and  olives  are  produced  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Atlas 
range,  while  the  southern  is  celebrated  far  and  wide  as  the  land  of 
dates. 

The  Berbers,  or  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  who  now  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  mountains  and  the  Sahara,  cultivate  the  soil  with 
great  industry.  The  Kabyls,  or  Berber  tribes  of  the  mountains,  are  well 
versed  in  agriculture  and  in  the  manufacture  of  arms  and  gunpowder. 
The  Berbers  also  form  the  great  media  of  commerce,  their  caravans  con- 
stantly plying  between  the  coast  region  and  Soudan  through  the  Sahara. 
The  Arabs,  on  the  contrary,  are  a  nomadic  people,  owning  large  flocks  of 
sheep,  goats,  camels,  and  horses.  Marocco  leatner  is  made  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  towns,  as  also  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics.  Silk  and  woollen 
stuffs  are  made  in  Tunis :  saddlery,  carpets,  Fez-caps,  and  earthenwares 
in  Marocco.  The  principal  exports  of  the  country  are  grain,  fruits,  wool, 
cattle,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  madder,  saddlery,  and  marocco  leather; 
also  horses  (here  called  barbs),  indigo,  wax,  tin,  and  coral. 

*  'The  Races  of  the  Old  World,'  by  Charles  L.  Brace.  London,  1863;  pp. 
in,  178. 


SAB  ABA,  OR  THE  GREAT  DESERT. 

Boundaries- — N.,  Barbary  Statea  ;  W.,  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean  ; 
b'G.,  Seuegambia  and  Soudan ;  E.,  the  Egyptian  territories. 

The  Sahara  extends  from  lat.  18°  to  BS*  N.,  and  from  Ioq.  17°  W.  to 

_.ft)°  E.     Its  length  from  Cape  Blanco  on  the  W.  to  tha  SOth  lueridiao  on 

I  flie  K  is  about  3000  tn. ;  its  breadth  variea  rconi  lODO  to  1200  m. ;  nhlls 

"iB  Area  is  probahly  abont  2,436,510  bo.  m.,  or  twenty  tunas  the  urea  of 

le   Britieh    lalaj ;    whila  its  populatloti  ia  variously  Bstimateii  from 

■  *,DOO,000  to  4,000,000.    Its  central  point  (tat.  24J°,  Ion.  10°  K)  is  occu- 

[  ried  by  a  table-land  4000  ft.  in  elevation,  and  lies  on  tha  aamB  parallel  as 

•  issonan,  Karachi,  Murshidabad,  Amoy,  La  Paz  in  Lower  Calilumia,  and 

e.  Sable  in  Florida. 

Snr&oB. — The  Sahem,  is  the  most  eitenaiTe  desert  on  the  earth's 
wrTace.  For  hundreds  of  miles  the  eye  only  meets  with  bore  sands 
in  fiats  and  hillocks,  or  with  naked,  rocky  tracts,  destitute  of  vege- 
tation, and  seldom  exhibiting  any  of  the  forms  of  animal  life. 

Till  the  recent  discoveries  of  Barth  and  other  travellers,  very  erroneous 
notions  prevailed  respecting  the  conliguration  of  this  region.  It  waa  re- 
presented aa  a  monotonous,  low-lying  plain,  covered  almost  throughout 
with  loose  sand.  It  is  now  ascertained  to  be  an  immense  table-land,  with 
■n  BVemgie  elevation  of  from  1000  to  1500  fL,  and  aurmomited  ii 
parts,  espeoially  in  tlie  central  and  easl 
which  not  nnfrequently  attain  to  a  heig 

only  BitensivB  low  ground  in  any  way  connected  with  the  desert  ia  that 
whioh  separates  it  from  Maro^co,  Algiers,  and  Tunis,  and  which  estenda 
thim  the  Q-  of  Cabes  to  the  confluence  of  the  Draha  with  the  Atlantic — 
a  diafancfl  of  about  1400  ni.  This  immense  valley,  covered  witb  salt 
lakes  and  rivers  flowing  towards  them,  attains  no  greater  elevation  than 
fraro  GOO  to  lODO  ft ;  Lake  Tchad,  also,  in  tha  centra  of  the  continent 
and  at  the  opposite  frontier  of  the  desert,  is  only  S30  f  L  above  tha  level 
of  the  sea.  the  niinor  plateaui  which  snrinourit  the  great  table-Isnd, 
and  which  must  have  stood  out  aa  islands  when  the  vast  region  around 
them  formed  the  bed  of  ttie  ocean,  run  in  the  same  direction  as  Mt  Atlas 
in  Barbaiy,  and  the  Kong  Mountains  m  Nigritia  This,  it  will  be  ob- 
aervsd,  ia  the  direction  of  the  greatest  breaillh  of  tlie  continent,  and  of 
the  great  mountain-systems  of  Asta  and  Europe. 

me  OaaeB. — The  Sahara  also  abannds  in  low  fertile  tmcta  named 
oa^a,  which  are  watered  by  perennial  sprinfis,  and  which  not  unfi'e- 

ritly  snpport  a  numerous  popolation.  In  general,  they  consist  of 
deep  depressions  which  separate  the  lofty  plateaux,  and  are  there- 
fore more  numerous  in  the  centre  and  east  than  in  the  nest  of  the 
doserti     The  following  are  the  principal  oases  : — 

Eartkrn  Sahaha.— GAadanwM  7,  S.W.  of  Tripoli ;  Feziait,  S.E. 
of  Tripoli,  cap-  Monrzouk  (see  under  " Tripoli ')  ;  Sitca/i,  in  the 
Libyan  Desert,  cap.  Siwah-el-Kebir;  TibeMi,  S.E.  of  Fczzan  ;  BUma, 
midway  bet  Feizan  and  Late  Tchad  ;  Air  or  Atbeii,  W-  of  Bilmn, 
uap.  Agades;  Bhnt,  W.  of  Fezxan. 


4000  to  im'ii.     The 


V. 

468  POUTICAL   OEOORAPHY. 

Western  Sahara. — Tuat,  midway  bet  Cape  Nun  and  Monr- 
zouk,  principal  towns  Agablv  and  Insalah;  Hahirah,  S.E.  of  Tuat; 
Ghialata,  S.AV.  of  Tuat;  i'oudeni,  S.E.  of  Gualata,  cap.  Teleg; 
Aroioan,  midway  bet  Toudeni  and  Timbuctn. 

Descriptive  Votes. — Ohadames.  with  about  3000  inhabitants,  lies  on 
the  caravan  route  from  Tunis  and  Tripoli  to  Timbuctu.  This  handftil  of 
T)eoi>le,  secluded  from  the  world,  consists  of  two  parties,  as  distinct  and 
nostile  as  the  rival  factions  of  the  Italian  cities  in  the  middle  ages.  They 
never  intermarry.  They  occupy  sepamte  apartments,  and  never  pass 
from  the  one  to  the  other  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided ;  but  the  marlcet- 
place  is  common  ground,  together  with  the  house  of  the  native  governor, 
and  they  unite  against  a  common  foe.  The  only  explanation  they  can 
give  of  this  remarkable  feud  is :  "The  Ben  Weleed  and  the  Ben  Wezeet 
are  people  of  Ghadames  who  have  quarrelled  from  time  immemorial ;  it 
was  the  will  of  God  they  should  be  divided,  and  who  shall  resist  His 
will  ? "  Agades  has  a  population  of  7000,  and  some  leather  manufac- 
tures :  it  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  entrepots  of  Central  Africa,  being 
on  the  caravan  route  from  Mourzouk  to  Sokoto.  This  oasis  is  reported 
to  be  11  days*  journey  in  extent  from  N.  to  S.,  and  to  be  fruitful  and 
well  cultivated,  producing  maize,  vegetables,  and  senna.  Agably,  aboat 
700  m.  N.W.  of  Timbuctu :  here  meet  the  caravan  routes  from  Marocco 
and  Tripoli,  and  afterwards  diverge  to  Senegambia  and  Timbuctu :  it  has 
trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  sheep.  There  are  two  great  caravan  routes 
across  the  desert^one  from  Marocco  to  Timbuctu,  by  Tuat ;  and  the 
other  from  Mourzouk  to  Agades,  where  the  routes  diverge  westward  to 
Timbnctu,  and  southward  to  Sokoto  on  the  Niger.  Caravans  travel  at 
the  rate  of  3  m.  an  hour  for  6  hours  dailv,  and  generally  require  about  47 
days  from  Mourzouk  to  Agades,  including  long  rests  at  the  principal 
wells. 

CUxnate  and  Natural  Products.  —  Notwithstanding  the  extreme 
heat,  which  is  almost  insupportable  by  day,  there  is  often  great  cold  at 
night,  and  ice  is  frequently  formed,  owing  to  the  excessive  radiation. 

Rain  falls  in  torrents  at  very  distant  intervals,  in  some  places  not  oftener 
than  once  in  ten  or  twenty  years,  though  there  are  not  wanting  evidences 
of  its  having  been  at  one  time  more  frequent.  Even  dew  is  unknown, 
owing  to  the  ascending  currents  of  heated  air,  which  dissolve  the  vapours 
and  disperse  the  passing  clouds.  The  desert  is  also  visited  by  a  burning 
wind  from  the  S.  and  E.  called  the  n'ntoom,  which  generally  lasts  ten  or 
twelve  hours,  when  the  air  is  impregnated  with  fine  sand,  which  almost 
suffocates  the  traveller ;  and  the  drought  is  so  great  as  to  dry  up  the 
water  contained  in  the  skins  carried  by  the  camels. 

The  only  valuable  mineral  found  in  the  desert  is  salt,  vast  rocks  of 
which  occur  in  its  W.  division.  Palm-trees  grow  on  the  borders  of  the 
Sahara ;  and  the  chief  products  of  the  oases  are  dates,  gum,  com,  and 
some  vegetables.  These  require  constant  irrigation, — water  being  usually 
found  by  digging  a  few  feet  below  the  surface.  The  fauna  of  the  Sahara 
is  as  deficient  as  its  flora ;  the  lion,  panther,  hyena,  and  some  other  wild 
animals,  roam  over  the  outskirts ;  the  ostrich  and  gazelle  penetrate  far- 
ther into  the  interior;  the  land-tortoise  is  common  in  the  S.,  where  it 
attains  to  a  great  size ;  and  lizards  and  serpents  are  numerous.  The  only 
beast  of  burden  is  the  camel. 

Etlmograpliy. — Two  nations  of  Berber  origin,  but  divided  into 


hooB  in  the  F..,  and  the  Tawareks  iii  tha  W.  (sue  undur  '•  Africa,' 
17).    TheiiiIiBbtta.iitaof  Ghmiames  form  a.  aubdiTiHion  of  the  T  n 


d  tl   1 


I  Barter  language— Tibboo,  TawareE,  and  Ghaiiami— a       p  k  n 
the  Berber  tribes  ;  but  Arabi.:,  the  language  of  tha  Koran   a   ' 
which  is  indispensable  to  African  commerce,  is  also  wid  ly  p 
(sue  under  "  Barbary  ''). 


SENEOASIiilA. 


BoTmdaries.-^N.,  the  Sahara ;  W.,  the  Atlantic  ;  S.,  Liberia 
and  Ujipar  Guinea  ;  E.,  Soudan  or  Nigritia. 
Including  the  British  settlement  of  Sierra  Leon^,  this  ill-Jafliied  coun- 

SBxUnds  from  Int.  7°  Sff  to  17°  N,,  and  from  Ion.  T  to  17°  30'  W. 
B  term  Senegamhia  properly  sieui^Es  the  region  lying  between  the 
lower  courses  of  the  rivers  Senegaf  and  Gambia ;  but  it  is  aow  under, 
iitood  to  embrace  a  considerably  iarger  entsnt  of  country— viz.,  from  tliB 
former  rirer  southward  to  Sherboro'  Island  and  the  independent  colony 
of  Liberia,  while  eastward  it  eitends  to  the  aonrces  of  the  Senegal  river, 
sear  the  Tth  west  meridian.  Bsthurat,  the  csp.  of  British  Senegambio, 
near  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat.  as  the  southern  shon  of  I«ke 
Tchad,  Sennir,  Mocha,  Madraa,   Udong,  and  St  Salvador  in  Central 

AxMi  and  Foptilatltm. — The  area,  including  Sierra  Leon^,  is  prob- 
ably about  250,000  so.  m.,  or  more  than  twice  that  of  the  British 
Isles,  while  the  population  may  amount  to  13,000,000;  but  there 
are  no  reliable  data  to  enable  us  to  apeak  with  precision  of  the 
native  states.  The  British  posseaaions  of  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leon^ 
alone  embrace  an  area  of  439  eq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  1871,  of 
52,871  {p.  »i).  The  French  possess  an  area  of  250,U00  aq.  m.,  and 
II  population,  in  1872,  of  607,398;  and  the  Portugueso  an  area  of 
only  28  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  8500.  The  native  states  ai'e 
larve  and  poptilons,  Bomloo  alone  being  eatmiated  to  contain  a 
Dimion  and  a  half  of  inhal>itauts. 

Bnibca  and  MountalnB. — The  maritime 
very  low  and  level,  but  the  interior  and  east 
oue.  The  Fooladoo  monntaina,  in  the  N.E  ,  ^ 
thB  Senegal  am!  Niger,  while  the  Tengai  mountains,  in  the  S.E., 
form  the  watar-parting  between  the  Gambia  and  the  Bio  Grande. 
The  eleTStion  of  these  rangei  is  unknown,  but  does  not  exceed  the 
limit  of  trees. 

^Utloal  SlTlslmB.  —  Besides  tha  settlements  of  the  British, 
French,  and  Portuguese,  aitnated  on  the  coast,  and  nn  the  rivers 
~      ~       ~  '     nd  Jeba,  tiiera  is  a  ^eat  number  of  small  oatiTo 


470  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

states,  peopled  by  tribes 'belonging  to  three  great  nations— viz.,  the 
Foolahs  in  the  N. ;  the  Jaloofs  in  the  centre ;  and  the  Mandingoes 
in  the  S. 

Native  Seneqambia. — Sedo  6  (Guiloom,  affi.  Senegal),  Bolibani 
3,  Bambouk  n.  (Falem^),  Timbo  9  (Ba-Fing),  Wameo  n.  (Gambia), 
Kamalia,  Kemmoo  (Voulima). 

British  Sbnegambia  and  Sierra  Leone.  —  Bathurst  7  (Gam- 
bia), Free  Town  18  (Rokelle),  Regent's  Town  (coast). 

French  Senegambia. — St  Louis  16  (Senegal),  Ft.  Goree  (W. 
coast). 

Portuguese  Senegambia.  —  Bissao  8  (Jeba,  an  arm  of  Rio 
Grande). 

Descriptive  Kotes. — Sedo,  cap.  of  Footatoro,  on  the  Guiloom,  in  a 
beautiful  fertile  country,  has  6000  inhabitants.  Bulibani,  cap.  of  Bon- 
doo,  one  of  the  most  powerful  states  in  Senegambia.  nmob,  cap.  of 
Footajallon,  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  near  the  head- waters  of 
the  Senegal  wameo,  cap.  of  the  principal  Jaloof  state,  which  contains 
vast  forests  of  gum-trees,  and  produces  abundance  of  ivory,  skins,  and 
honey.  Kamalia,  cap.  of  Handing,  and  Kemmoo,  cap.  of  Eaarta,  the 
chief  towns  of  the  two  principal  states  of  the  Mandingoes  in  Senegambia. 
Bathurst,  a  seaport  town  and  cap.  of  the  British  colony  of  Senegambia, 
on  the  island  of  St  Mary,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Gambia,  exports 
gum,  ivory,  wax,  hides,  gold,  tortoise-shell,  rice,  cotton,  teak,  palm-oil, 
and  native  cloths.  The  colony  Ls  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Sierra  Leone, 
and  is  considered  to  be  the  healthiest  settlement  in  Western  Africa. 
Pree  Town,  cap.  of  the  British  colonial  settlement  of  Sierra  Leon^,  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Rokelle,  was  founded  in  1787,  with  a  view  of  suppress- 
ing the  slave-trade  in  Western  Africa.  Begent's  Town,  a  small  settle- 
ment of  liberated  Africans,  established  in  1813.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced here  by  a  poor  German  mechanic,  named  Johnson,  wiio  had  left 
England  for  the  colony  in  1812,  and  whose  devoted  labours  have  been 
crowned  with  remarkable  success.  In  1855,  the  population,  numbering 
several  thousands,  were  almost  entirely  Christians.  St  Louis,  cap.  of 
the  French  possessions,  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  river, 
is  the  entrep5t  of  their  trade,  the  principal  article  of  which  is  gum. 
Bissao,  an  island  and  seaport  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jeba,  and  the 
great  stronghold  of  the  Portuguese  slave-trade. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Senegambia  is  humid  and  extremely 
unhealthy  for  Europeans — the  heat  being  intense,  especially  abont 
the  end  of  the  dry  season.  The  HarmaUan^  or  dry  hot  wind  from 
the  Sahara,  destroys  vegetation,  and  cracks  all  articles  made  of  wood 
as  if  they  were  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire  ;  but  it  arrests  the  pro- 
gress of  disease,  and  banishes  the  deadly  fevers  that  prevail  in  the 
wet  season,  which  extends  from  June  to  October.  The  climate  of 
Sierra  Leone  is  subject  to  periodical  epidemics,  the  season  from  May 
to  November  being  specially  pestilential 

Products. — Bambouk  is  celebrated  for  its  rich  gold-mines.  The 
greater  part  of  the  mountains  are  mainly  composed  of  ironstone,  and 
the  natives  are  acquainted  with  the  art  of  extracting  the  metaL 


SENEGA.MMA.  471 

LS  of  the  irnre  usefal  treea  are  tlie  niaguificeut  liaobub  or  bread- 

frnit  tne'i  the  shea  or  l)utt«r  tree  ;  the  miiuosn,  from  which  the  guni' 
Senega!  Is  obtained,  and  which  forma  the  moat  iniportant  export  of  the 
country,  together  with  teak,  mahogany  wood,  and  palni,  num  which 
^m-oll  is  prodnired.  The  coffee  plant  hss  been  Inti-cdaced  by  the 
Britiah  at  Sierra  LeonJ,  and  the  pDrtuBuese  have  introduced  the  vine, 
Bg,  lemon,  and  citron ;  and  the  principal  cultivated  ptantji  comprise 
maize,  rice,  millet,  yams,  bananas,  indipi,  and  cotton.  The  elephant, 
hippopotamna,  lion,  leopard,  panther,  atriged  hyena,  buffalo,  wild-boaj, 
deer,  antelope,  and  monkeys,  arc  the  principal  wild  animals,  Alligatora 
Avquent  the  rivers,  hoaa  the  marshes,  and  turtles  the  islands.  Locusta, 
bees,  and  ants  are  extremely  numerous. 

EUmography. — Senepmbia  conbiiua  tbree  prominent  tribes,  two 
of  wbich  me  of  the  deepest  interest  to  the  ethnologist — viz.,  the 
FdUatab,  in  the  N. ;  the  Manitingoca,  in  the  3. ;  and  the  Jaloofs  or 
Jolofs  in  the  centre.  These  tnbea,  however,  are  not  conRned  to 
Senegsnibia,  but  are  spread  over  Weatarn  Souilan  and  Upper 
Guinea. 

The  FaUtaha,  or  Foolaha,  deserve  tlia  moat  special  attention,  as  being 
not  only  the  most  widely  spread,  hut  also  as  being  greatly  superior  in 
intelligoncB  and  civilisation  to  all  the  other  intertropical  tribeB  of  Africa, 
unless,  indeed,  we  eicept  the  Mpongwe  or  Lower  Guinea.  The  F^tatnh 
are  described  by  travelfera  aa  a  people  conapiciious  for  their  noble  hear- 
'  ,  their  Sne,  regular,  and  apparently  Aryan  features,  and  a  lematkahlv 
it  colour  cf  complexion,  resembling  the  rich  brown  of  the  Spaniarda 
or  PortnjtuBSB.  They  lead  a  nomadic  life,  and  are  engaged  in  manufac- 
ttms  and  commerce.  "  This  people,"  says  Brace,  in  his  '  Races  of  the 
Old  World,'  ■'  are  intereating  to  the  atudent  of  history,  as  having  enactei!, 
within  this  century,  on  the  plains  of  Africa,  something  of  the  part  played 
■o  formidably  by  the  Arabians  iu  Asia  under  Mohammed.  Uniting 
under  the  fanatical  leadership  of  a  religious  refoni'er,  they  have  founded 
a  Mohammedan  empire  the  most  powerful  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  em- 
bracing  a  territory  eqnal  in  extent  to  a  tenth  of  the  cuntinent,  and  as 
large  u  a  quarter  of  Europe.  It  embraces,  besides  the  greater  part  of 
Sanegambia,  the  kingiloms  of  Sokoto,  Adamawa,  Gando,  Massina,  anii 
Ihe  lower  basin  of  the  Banue  or  Chadda.  Aa  the  preachers  of  Islamiam, 
they  have  undoubtedly  advanced  the  progress  of  civilisation  among  the 
DBgan  tribes  of  Africa ;  for  MohaTumedanism  restrains  Vi  a  certain  dc^ee 
hmtol  passions,  does  away  wilh  human  EacriHces,  cultivates  learning, 
and  su rati tates  the  sense  of  personal  dignity  and  the  belief  in  an  Ini- 
motable,  heneflcont  Proytdenee,  with  the  feeling  of  a  membership  in  a 
vast  community  of  behevers,  for  the  low  habits,  the  superstitions  beliefs, 
sod  isolated  lelflshnesa,  of  pagan  tribes.  Though  the  moat  intelligent 
of  African  tribes,  they  have  as  yet  no  native  alphabet,  and  make  use  of 
the  Arabic  far  writing.  They  have  made  some  progress  in  domestic 
manufactures,  are  skilful  in  the  care  of  cattle,  and  have  never  partici- 
pated in  the  foreign  slave.trade.  It  is  luipossihlc  as  yet  to  trace  their 
origin.  Some  maintain  that  they  are  a  Malay  race  ;  others,  with  more 
protability,  that  they  are  of  Egyptian  or  Eastern  descent "  "  The  Man- 
ainsinia  ore  also  a  civilised  race,  thoi^h  Inferior  to  the  F^Uatah, — are  of 
.   black  colour,  woolly  hair,  thick  lipa.  broad  flat  nose,  and  tall 

iwenol  frame.      Their  leading  men  can  all  read  and  write  Arabic  ; 

~lcnjture  is  carefnlly  puiaued  by  them ;  they  are  expert  in  weavinij 


l^t 


472  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  dyeing  cloth,  tanning  leather,  and  working  iron  into  yarions  Infttra- 
ments.  In  religion  they  are  zealous  Mohammedans,  though  a  few  adhere 
to  the  old  pagan  belief.  They  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancestors  came 
from  Egypt ;  and  their  language  is  said  to  haye  a  considerable  similarity 
to  the  Coptic."  It  is  the  most  useful  to  traders  along  the  coast,  and  is 
characterised  as  copious  and  elegant. 

The  Jaloofs  live  principally  in  the  deltas  of  the  Gambia  and  Senegal. 
They  are  mild,  hospitable,  and  trustworthy,  but  are  physically  of  a  Tow 
type.  They  live  by  the  chase,  and  profess  the  Mohammedan  faith ;  and 
their  language  greatly  resembles  the  Mandingo,  the  type  around  which 
all  the  other  languages  of  Senegambia  cluster.  • 

Commerce,  &c.  — The  British,  French,  and  Portuguese  have  effect- 
ed numerous  settlements  on  the  coast,  each  of  them  having  taken 
possession  of  one  of  the  three  large  rivers  of  the  country  for  the 
purposes  of  trade.  The  English  are  located  on  the  Grambia  and  in 
Sierra  Leon^,  their  principal  settlement  on  the  Gambia  being  Bath- 
urst,  from  which  they  export  wax,  hides,  ivory,  gold  dust,  rice,  palm- 
oil,  timber,  and  ground  nuts,  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Their  total 
exports  in  1869  amounted  to  £40,000,  while  their  imports  (from 
Britain)  amounted  to  £49,000,  consisting  mainly  of  cottons,  arms, 
tobacco,  and  iron.  SieiTa  Leon^  is  the  most  important  English 
settlement  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  exports  comprise 
bennie  seed,  cocoa-nuts,  ginger,  ground  nuts,  gum*copal,  hides,  palm- 
oil,  and  paJm  kernels,  kc;  and  the  imports,  ale,  porter,  apparel, 
flour  and  biscuits,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  cutlery,  earthenware 
and  glassware,  guns  and  gunpowder,  haberdashery,  rum,  wine,  and 
tobacco.  In  1868  the  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to 
£81,000,  and  the  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  to  £230,000. 
This  commerce  is  conducted  by  steamers,  four  steamers  per  month 
leaving  the  colony,  and  other  four  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
French  have  numerous  forts  and  settlements  along  the  Senegal, 
their  principal  station  being  St  Louis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
The  chief  article  of  exportation  is  gum-Senegal,  which  oozes  out  of 
the  acacia-tree  by  cracks  produced  by  the  JaarmaUan,  a  hot  wind 
from  the  desert.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  printing  calico,  but  is  deemed 
inferior  to  gum-Ai-abic.  Some  of  the  ivory  obtained  in  the  interior 
is  carried  to  the  French  settlements,  but  the  greater  part  finds  its 
way  to  Bathurst.  The  Portuguese  are  limitea  to  Bissao  and  Jeba, 
on  the  Rio  Grande,  their  principal  trade  consisting  of  ivory,  wax, 
hides,  and  some  gold,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  shipped  to  Eng- 
land, obtaining  in  return  nrearms,  powder,  iron,  tobacco,  rum,  and 
cutlery.  The  great  want  of  the  European  colonies  in  this  region  is, 
to  have  a  good  road  opened  into  the  valley  of  the  Niger* 


SOUDAN,  OR  NIGRITIA. 

Boundaries. — ^N.,  the  Sahara ;  W.,  Senegambia  ;  S.,  Guinea 
and  the  unexplored  countries  of  Central  Africa ;  E,  Kordofan 


r 


Lat.  0°  to  16=  N. ;  Ion.  10°  W.  to  28"  E.  Kuka,  near  the  centre 
of  thia  immense  repon,  on  the  S.W.  ahore  of  Lake  Tchad,  lies 
on  the  same  parallel  as  Bathurst,  Goadar,  Aden,  Madras,  Cam- 
bodia, and  Leon,  the  cap.  of  Nicaragita. 


1,  but,  according 
i,  probably  amoniits  to  1,213,000  sq.  m.,  or 
9  tlie  area  of  the  British  Isles  ;  whila  tha  papulation  is  esti- 
t  66,400,000,  being  less  than  double  that  of  the  United 


I 


indepeniient  stutea,  the  principal  of  which,  so  far  as  known,  and  pro- 
ceeding from  W.  to  K,  are  the  following  ; — 

BAMBAHSi Sogo  30,  Sanaanding  10  (Joliha  or  Niger). 

I.tTDAMAR.— Benowm  n.,  Yarra  (an  ojft  Senegal). 

Beroo.— Walet  20  (GozsD  Zair,  of!.  JoUba). 

Masbiita.— Jsnneh  10,  Isaca  (Joliba). 

TiMsncrn.— Timbuctu  20  n.,  Kabnra  (Joliba). 

BOHQU. — Bonasa  IS,  Kiotna  20  n.,  Wawa  IS  n.  (Joliba). 

YiOTiRi.— Yaouri  (Joliba),  Tabra  20,  Koolfa  IG  (Mayarrow). 

Ganho.— Knbha  40.  Eyeo  20  (Jolibal,  Fundah  30  n.  (Chadda). 

SoKOTO.— Sokoto  80  (Zirroie),  Eano  30  (KomadugaJ, 

Adamawa.— Tola  or  Jalo  10  (Dhadda). 

MiNnAB.v,— Mora  □.,  Delow  10  (Serbenel,  ajl.  Shsiy). 

BoBsn,— Kuka  10,  Angornu  30,  New  Bimi  10  (Lake  Tchad). 

Baqirmi.— Maaona  (Shary,  a;ffl.  Lake  Tchad). 

EAyBM, — Maoo  n.,  Berri  (Lako  Tchad). 

Wadal  *— Warra  SO  n.  (Eat-ha,  aJL  Lake  Fittrd). 

DiBFUB.* — Eobhe  B  (an  oasis  in  the  desert). 

DewriptiTB  Hotes.— Sep),  ran.  of  Upper  Bambnrra,  has  numerous 
mosques,  and  is  the  seat  of  considerable  tmffic.  Near  this  place  Mungo 
Park  first  saw  the  Niger,  July  1796.  "  Hero,"  ha  writes,  "  I  saw  with 
ioflnlte  pleaaure  the  areat  object  of  my  mission  —  the  IcDg-aought-for 
m^estic  Niger,  glittenng  in  the  moming  son,  aa  bmad  as  the  Thames  at 
WestminHtar,  aud  flowing  alowly  to  the  eastward.  I  hastened  to  the 
brink,  and  having  drunk  of  the  water,  lifted  up  my  fervent  thanks  iu 
prayer  to  the  Great  Ruler  of  all  thinga  for  having  tbua  far  crowned  my 
endeavours  with  success."  Bflnowm^a  principal  ear.ivau  station  en  tha 
rente  bom  Senegal  to  Timbuctu.  Yarra:  here  Major  Honghton,  the 
African  triTOller,  was  killed  in  1791.  Talet,  cap.  of  Beroo,  on  the  cara- 
van route  from  Benowin  to  Timbuctu.  Janneh,  cap.  of  Lower  Bamharra, 
a  targe  well-built  town  on  an  island  in  the  Joliba,  and  the  seat  of  a  great 
trade.  It  was  viaiteil  by  CailliS,  a  French  traveller,  hi  1823.  Timbuctn, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Great  Desert,  and  tan  m.  N.  of  the  Joliba,  at  its 
great  bend,  is  a  considerable  town  three  m.  in  circumference,  with  eight 
mosques  and  20,000  inhabitants.  It  is  meanly  boilt  on  a  aandy  plain, 
'l  (nd  provisions  have  to  be  imported  from  Jenneh,  3D0  m.  distant.  To 
•  Now  tributary  tn  EgFpt  (sea  p,  451). 

2a 


474  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Europeans  this  is  the  best-known  place  in  Soudan,  liaving  been  visited 
by  many  travellers.  It  is  the  principal  entrepdt  for  the  trade  between 
Guinea,  Sen^ambia,  and  Barbary.  Kabara,  the  port  of  Timbncto. 
BoTLSsa :  here  Park  was  murdered  by  the  natives  while  descending  the 
river  in  a  canoe,  1805.  Rabba,  a  populous  town,  with  an  extcmsive  tn^e  in 
slaves  and  ivoiy.  Eano,  cap.  of  the  empire  of  the  Fellatahs,  has  graat 
trade,  and  manufactures  of  silk.  Sokoto,  the  most  i>opulou8  and  im- 
portant city  in  Central  Africa,  has  great  trade  with  Guinea  and  Tripoli ; 
it  has  important  manufactures  of  blue  cloths,  and  was  the  scene  of  Clap- 
perton*s  death  in  1827.  Tola,  near  the  Benu€  or  Chadda,  about  S&O  m. 
above  its  junction  with  the  Joliba.  Dr  Baikie  was  the  first  European 
who  visited  this  region ;  he  navigated  the  river  for  400  m.  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Niger,  and  has  thus  opened  a  new  highway  for  British 
commerce,  and  rendered  a  service  to  civilisation  which  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  over-estimate.  Mora,  cap.  of  Mandara,  visited  by  Barth  in  his 
recent  travels  around  Lake  Tchad.  Kuka,  the  cap.  of  the  powerful  king- 
dom of  Bomu.  Dr  Barth  states  that  it  is  900  fL  above  the  sea-level,  and 
50  ft.  above  that  of  the  lake.  Angomu,  the  most  important  town  in 
Bomu,  on  the  margin  of  Lake  Tchad,  has  a  great  weekly  market,  and  is 
the  centre  of  an  extensive  trade  in  slaves,  cotton,  amber,  coral,  and 
metals.  Maoo,  cap*  of  Kanem,  a  kingdom  situated  between  Lake  Tchad 
and  the  Sahara,  warra  is  described  as  large  and  populous,  but  it  is 
little  known  to  Europeans.  Kobbe,  in  an  oasis  of  the  eastom  desert,  is 
a  place  of  great  resort  for  caravan  merchants. 

Sur&ce  and  Mountains. — Soudan  may  be  provisionally  divided 
into  three  physical  regions — viz.,  1.  The  basin  of  the  Niger  as  far 
down  as  the  town  of  Benin,  in  the  same  lat  as  the  Kong  Mountains ; 
2.  The  district  around  Lake  Tchad  ;  3.  The  unexplored  country  be- 
tween Lake  Tchad  and  the  Upper  Nile. 

The  first  of  these,  which  lies  between  the  Sahara  and  the  Kong  Moun- 
tains (from  2000  to  3000  ft.  above  the  sea),  is  for  the  most  part  a  level 
plain  of  moderate  elevation,  and  exceedingly  fertile.  The  country  around 
Lake  Tchad  is  low  and  level,  the  surface  of  the  lake  being  only  830  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  receives  two  large  rivers,  the  Yeou  and  the  Shary,  and 
contains  many  islands  which  are  densely  inhabited.  Tlie  basin  of  the 
Chadda,  between  the  lake  and  the  delta  of  the  Niger,  is  mountainous, 
Mt  Alantika  attaining  an  elevation  of  9000  ft.,  and  Mt  Mindif  6000  ft 
The  third  region,  embracing  Wadai  and  Darfur,  is  very  imperfectly 
known  to  Europeans,  but  is  said  to  be  hilly  and  sterile,  and  to  send  its 
drainage  to  Lake  Fittrd,  which  lies  east  of  Lake  Tchad  The  Niger, 
Joliba,  or  Quorra,  is  the  great  river  of  the  country,  and  the  second  in 
size  in  this  continent.  It  rises  in  the  Kong  Mountains,  due  north  of  C. 
Palmas,  flows  W.,  then  N.E.  as  far  as  Timbuctu,  on  the  southern  border 
of  the  Sahara,  where  it  makes  a  great  bend,  and  finally  flows  southwaids 
to  the  G.  of  Guinea,  on  nearing  which  it  forms  a  delta  of  240  m.  of  coast. 
Its  total  length,  including  windings,  is  about  3500  m.  Nearly  its  entire 
course  has  been  traced  by  Park  and  Lander.  It  is  navigable  throughout 
its  entire  length,  though  here  and  there  the  navigation  is  impud^  by 
shoals ;  but  the  great  obstacle  to  its  becoming  the  highway  of  commerce 
in  Western  Africa  is  the  extreme  insalubrity  of  the  climate. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Western  and  Central  Soudan  consider- 
ably resembles  that  of  Senegambia  and  Guinea;  that  of  Eastern 
Soudan  is  still  yeiy  imperfectly  known.    It  is  eyerywhere  tropica] 


BOVDAS,    OX    KIGEITIA.  475 

d  iiiteiuiel}>  hot,  wIiQr  the  rear  conaistE  of  tn-D  Be^Bous — Ihe  &ry  oi 
uat  geasoil,  and  the  Tainj. 

The  dry  semon  oontinues  from  March  to  June,  wlisn  the  tlifirrooniBtor, 
&t  nud-daT,  staads  in  the  Hliodc  at  shout  107°,  BUd  evmt  doniig  the  ui^it 
rarelj  siukb  bolow  100°.  The  rainy  Baason  oommenoes  in  June ;  violent 
thnndBiEtonEB  ragu,  ttccDrnpauied  br  heavy  rainB,  elondy  ireathoii  and  a 


damp,  BnlUT  utmaBjihere.    The  rivers  oveiion  their 
,  — . -_r., ^      m^ ,  .___^ 

eoording 


Ibteb  tr»cta  of  tlie  Eountry.  The  iubbii  siuinal  temperature  of  Tim^ractu 
the  mean  annuat  tempemtuie  of  Ceutial  Boudan  ii 

■tnerali. — The  only  impDrtant  mlueralf  oocurring  in  Soadmi  are 
iron  uid  gold.  The  former  in  obtained  from  the  ironBtone  so  pre- 
valent in  ull  parts  of  the  country.  The  usisvec  poaaeaG  the  aj-t  nj 
extracting  the  metal,  and  of  converting  it  into  nmuerous  lUiafiil  im- 
plementB.  Qold-dnst  is  abnndont  in  the  rivers,  and  forma,  with 
iron,  tile  principal  article  of  export  across  the  desert.  The  carnvana 
brioff  home,  in  exchan^  ealt  from  the  Etatea  of  Barbary — a  coin- 
raodity  whiri  ia  ertraniBlr  deficient  in  all  parte  of  CEntraJ  A&icn. 

Batany. — The  botany  of  Ceotrail  Africa  is  still  very  imperfoetlr 
known,  nulviiLslaudiiig  the  great  uamlter  of  tisvellen  that  have 
viutsd  portions  of  it.  In  WsEtem  Suadan  there  are  no  foreata, 
properly  ao  called,  bat  luobabB,  aheos,  cotton-trees,  and  ned^  are 
munBTonB  in  many  parts. 

Millet  16  esteneively  cultivated,  vhich,  with  muze  and  cassava,  yiddE 
two  crops  a-jear.  In  Central  Boudas  treeb  ore  ecarce,  eioept  tlie  pahu- 
OH,  cocoa-nut,  and  iudia-nihber  trees :  but  olhor  products  are  ertreniely 
various-  Wheat  Hnccefids  in  the  niorr  elevated  tracts ;  but  the  graina 
generally  imltjvated  are  nee,  maize^  and  millet.  Cotton,  tohacco,  and 
indigo  art  grown  in  lor^  quantities,  as  also  ysms,  sweet  patMaefi,  heane, 
WBter.nielonfl,  muak-meions,  onioaa,  plantalna^  and  bananas.  Fruit-trees 
comprise  figs,  pomegtanHteE,  limes,  pupavs,  ahes£.  numgueB,  &c  :  dste- 
traee  are  cnronioii  to  the  E.  of  Lnite  Tchad. 

ZoolOKr.— The  hippopotamne  and  crocodile  are  found  in  ci'eat 
nTonbeni  in  tbe  Jolilra.  Among  other  wild  jtnimnU  are  the  elephant, 
piaffe,  zebra,  Iton,  hyena,  tiner-iiat,  jackal,  leopard,  aulelapc, 
buffalo.  vild-Lorse,  squirrel,  nionkey.  deer,  and  oatrich;  while 
the  domestic  animals  compriae  the  carnal,  goat,  aheep,  ass,  horae.  ax, 
and  poultry.  Birds  oialin  great  uumhersand  in  bonndlea  varietiea  ; 
they  are  often  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  espeoially 
the  purognets  and  bnmming-btrdi.  The  whole  region  is  ntucb  in- 
fested with  noxious  and  veacnuona  reptile^  and  inaecis  of  conntleaa 
species  Bwami  in  all  directiuuE, 

EUmoenLPltr. — Soudan  has  been  for  ages  immemorial  the  home 
and  headqnartera  of  the  negro  race :  here  the  black  man  atiains  bis 
highest  plrv^col  development ;  here  bis  mental  and  moral  onubties 
are  moet  easily  Etadied  ;  and  here  a  seen  tbe  eitent  to  which  he  has 
lieen  enabled  to  go  in  the  march  of  civilisation,  fritboat  the  teaching 
and  in&uence  of  more  highly-bvoured  racea  (p.  S-)- 

As  existing  in  his  o«n  heloved  Soudan,  the  aegni  is  far  from  being  fhiit 
mifnnible-iooldug  and  disenerale  ciEatute  whidi  be  seems  to  be  wlisu 


476  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

long  subjected  to  the  bondage  and  inhuman  treatment  of  the  white  man. 
Though  beyond  doubt  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Caucasian  in  mentsJ  en- 
dowments, he  is  fully  his  equal  in  stature  and  physical  strength,  while 
even  intellectually  he  is  greatly  superior  to  most  of  the  natiye  races  of 
the  other  continents,  especially  those  of  Australia  and  America.  His 
moral  nature  is  indeed  deeply  degraded — a  result,  however,  whidb  is  to 
be  attributed  more  to  his  religion  and  geographical  position  than  to  any 
inherent  ferocity  of  disposition.  It  is  only  by  a  stretch  of  language  that 
the  people  of  Central  Airica  can  be  called  savages ;  for  though  they  have 
not  mvented  the  art  of  writing,  and  nowhere  possess  a  native  alphabet, 
or  even  the  picture-writing  of  other  semi-civilised  nations,  they  have 
nevertheless  made  considerable  attainments  in  other  useful  arts.  Agri- 
culture, for  example,  is  practised  over  the  whole  of  Nigritia,  though  the 
plough  is  an  implement  unknown  in  their  husbandry.  They  irrigate  the 
land  by  artificial  processes ;  various  species  of  grain  are  raised ;  and  in 
some  places  the  produce  of  the  field  is  stored  in  large  granaries  raised  on 
poles  as  a  secunty  from  vermin.  Oxen  are  reared  m  great  numbers ; 
cotton  is  everywhere  grown,  and  indigo  of  the  finest  quality  is  produced 
in  great  abundance.  Manufactures,  though  not  numerous,  are  carried  on 
with  considerable  skill  and  activity— the  most  important,  by  far,  being 
that  of  narrow  cotton-cloth,  which  is  beautifully  woven  by  the  women, 
and  very  tastefully  dyed.  They  are  able,  moreover,  to  extract  the  iron 
from  its  native  ore,  and  to  convert  it  into  many  useful  implements ;  and 
they  evince  skill  and  taste  in  the  various  ornaments  of  gold  which  they 
construct. 

Langwjugt  and  Religion. — ^The  languages  and  dialects  are  very  numer- 
ous, but,  according  to  Dr  Krapf,  they  may  all  be  included  in  what  he 
calls  the  Nigro-Hamitic  group,  indicating  that  they  are  spoken  by  sudi 
descendants  of  Ham  as  are  located  in  the  great  basin  of  the  Niger  (p.  450). 
The  religion  of  Soudan,  formerly  a  species  of  Fetishism,  and  consisting  of 
the  worship  of  the  crocodile,  is  now  for  the  most  part  Mohamme£m. 
The  Fellatahs,  Mandingoes,  and  other  tribes  who  have  established  their 
power  in  Western  Soudan,  are  all  Mohammedan,  and  have  imposed  their 
creed  on  the  heathen  tribes  they  have  subjugated  (see  under  "  Senegam- 
bia  ").  Fetishism,  however,  is  still  widely  prevalent  in  the  eastern  king- 
doms. All  the  tribes,  indeed,  even  when  professing  Islamism,  retain  the 
ancient  superstition  of  the  fdiih,  and  not  unfrequently  practise  the  rite 
of  circumcision. 


GUINEA. 

The  term  Guinea  is  applied  to  an  immense  region  of  Western 
Africa  extending  along  both  sides  of  the  gulf  of  that  name  from 
the  eastern  frontier  of  Sierra  Leone  to  C.  Negro.  It  consists 
of  two  great  divisions — viz.,  Upper  Guinea  in  the  N.,  between 
the  Kong  Moimtains  and  the  GT.  of  Guinea,  or  along  the  coast 
from  Sherboro*  Island  to  C.  Lopez  (lat.  9°  N.— 0°  33'  S. ;  Ion. 
12°  40^  W.— 12°  E.) ;  and  Lower  Guinea  in  the  S.,  extending 
from  the  equator  to  C.  Negro  (lat.  15°  50'  S.),  having  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  on  the  W.,  and  the  unexplored  regions  of  Central 


H  477 

^H  Africa  on  the  E.  The  equator,  which  separates  Upper  from 
^H  Lower  Guinea,  passes  through  C.  Lopez,  L.  Victoria  Nyanza, 
^H  the  centre  of  the  islands  Sumatra  auu  Borneo,  Quito,  imd  the 
^P   mouth  of  the  Auiazou. 

Area  and  Population.  —  Upper  Guinea  extends  from  W.  to  E. 
about  1800  m. ;  the  breadth,  friim  the  Kong  Mountains  to  the  G,  of 
Guinea,  is  about  300  m. ;  while  the  probable  area  amounts  to  300,000 
aq.  m.  The  length  of  Lower  Guinea  from  N.  to  S.  ia  1140  m. ;  its 
miuimmn  breadth,  about  300  m.j  and  its  probable  area,  312,500  sq. 

»m.  The  population  ia  extremely  uncei'tain.  That  of  Upper  Guinea 
fs  aetimatad  at  10,000,000,  and  uf  Lower  Guinea  at  9,067,600.  Tha 
total  area  ia  therefore  about  S72,600  sq.  m.,  or  fire  timea  that  of  the 
Irtish  Islea  ;  wliile  the  papulation  doea  not  probably  ex{^eed  that  of 
England. 

BniCuie  and  Uoostalus. — The  main  feature  in  the  physical  geo- 
Rmphy  of  Upper  Guinea  is  the  chain  of  the  Eons  Mountains  (p.  440), 
The  cooBt  rwion  between  this  ran^  and  the  Atlantic,  and  extending 
from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  is  flat,  low,  and  in  nianj 
jilaces  marshy,  especially  on  the  Slave  Coast,  where  there  are  nnmet- 
ous  salt  lagoons.  This  plain,  which  ia  ISOO  m.  lon^  and  extends  in- 
land for  about  80  m.,  is  exceedingly  fertile,  inaalubrions,  and  covered 
with  lumriant  giusa.  The  shores  are  low  and  sandy,  and  esposed 
to  the  violenco  of  the  wares.  North  of  the  Bight  of  Biafra  and  east 
of  the  lovrer  Niger  the  aarfaoe  ia  high  and  mountainous.  Here  the 
Tolcania  gronp  of  the  Camaroons  attain,  in  Albert  Peak,  an  elevation 
of  13,000  ft.  South  of  these  a  moderately- elevated  table-land,  from 
2000  to  6000  ft.  high,  skirtfl  the  coast  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  Lower  Guinea. 

PoUtloal  DtvlBtDnB. — The  political  diviaions  are  fluctuating  both 
in  nnmbor  and  extent,  and  little  is  known  of  the  country  beyond  the 
coast,  which  ia  visited  bv  Europeans  for  the  purposes  of  trade.     Dif- 
ferent names  are  applieS  to  different  parts  of  the  coast,  depending 
on  the  articles  ohbiTned  there  for  exportation,  as  the  Grain  Coast, 
Qold  Coast,  Slave  Coast,  Irory  Coast,  &c.     The  British  possessions 
in  Upper  Guinea  are  chiefly  Cape  Coast  Castle,  Accra,  Elmina, 
Lagos,  together  with  numerous  forts  intended  for  the  promotion  of 
commerce  and  mitigating  the  inhnman  traffic  in  slaves.     The  very 
interesting  colony  of  Liberia,  on  the  Grain  Coast,  near  the  British 
aettlement  of  Sierra  Leone,  was  foanded  by  the  Ajnerican  Colonisa- 
tion Society  in  1822,  as  a  retreat  for  the  free  negroes  of  the  United 
^_    States.     Its  area  and  popiUation  are  uncertain,  but  itt  seaboard  ei- 
^K    tends  along  the  coast  for  about  600  m.,  and  it  probahly  contains 
^B  about  258,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  SOOO  are  immigrants. 

^H  Upper  Gitihea. 

^H       LiBBBU.— Monrovia  9  (St  Paul). 

^H       Gold  Coast.— Cape  Coast  Castle  10  n.,  Elmina  10  n,  (Cham&), 

^B-Aoora  &  (coast). 


478  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

AsHANTEE. — Coomassie  18  (Bah),  Assinie  (Assino). 
Dahomey.— Aboraey  30,  Ardra  20  n.  (Akini),  Whyda  7  (cnast). 
Yariba. — ^Abbeokuta  150  n.  (coast),  Egga,  Eakunda  (Niger). 
Benin. — Benin  15,  Bonny  20  (Niger),  Lagos  6,  Badagry  (coast) 
Eggarah. — Idda  or  Attab  8  (Niger). 
Old  Calabar. — Bongo,  Duke  Town  6  (Calabar). 

Lower  Guinea. 

BiAFRA. — Biafra  (Donga),  Adjumba  (Oaboon). 

LoANGO. — Loango  15,  Mayumba,  Cabenda  (coast). 

Congo. — San  Salvador  20  n.,  Punto  de  Lenha  (Congo  or  Zaire). 

Angola. — St  Paul  de  Loanda  12  (coast). 

Benguela. — San  Felipe  de  Benguela  3  (coast). 

Descriptive  Kotes.— Monrovia,  cap.  of  the  free  negro  state  above  men- 
tioned, has  now  a  population  of  9000.  Cape  Coast  Castle :  the  English 
first  settled  here  in  1664,  and  the  settlements  now  consist  of  numerous 
forts  along  the  coast,  erected  and  maintained  at  an  enormous  expense, 
for  the  purpose  of  mitigating  the  inhuman  traffic  in  slaves.  Elmina,  in 
common  with  all  the  other  Dutch  possessions  on  the  Guinea  coast,  were 
transferred  to  Britain  in  1871»  so  that  now  the  entire  coast  from  Ion.  2° 
40'  W.  to  V  10'  K  is  British.  Coomassie,  formerly  cap.  of  Ashantee, 
was  destroyed  by  a  British  force  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  in  1874. 
Assinie,  a  fort  and  factory  belonging  to  France,  which  exports  ]^alm-oil, 
ivory,  and  gold-dust.  Abomey,  cap.  of  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  is  a  lar^e 
populous  town,  much  resorted  to  by  merchants  from  all  parts  of  Africa,  m 
quest  of  slaves,  palm-oU,  ivory,  &c.,  aU.  of  which  are  exported  at  Whydali, 
90  m.  distant.  The  inhabitants  of  Dahomey  are  extremely  barbarous ;  hu- 
man sacrifices  are  practised,  and  the  most  absolute  and  unmitigated  tyranny 
prevails.  Clapperton  visited  Eyeo  in  December  1825,  and  gives  an  in- 
teresting account  of  his  journey.  The  king  boasted  that  his  wives,  linked 
hand  in  hand,  would  reach  entirely  across  the  kingdom.  Egga,  a  large 
populous  city,  70  m.  above  the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and  Chadda. 
Aenin  was  at  one  time  the  great  emporium  of  the  slave-trade  in  this 
region :  near  it,  Belzoni,  the  traveller,  died  in  1823.  Abbeoknta,  cap.  of 
the  kingdom  of  Yariba,  is  a  walled  town,  containing  about  150,000  in- 
habitants. The  houses  are  built  of  mud,  without  windows,  and  contain 
from  10  to  500  persons  each.  Captain  Burton,  who  visited  this  town  in 
1862,  represents  it  as  a  most  wretched  place,  full  of  filth  and  misery  of 
every  description.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  has  established  a  mis- 
sion here,  with  a  vigorous  educational  establishment.  Lagos,  ceded  to  Bri- 
tain, in  1861,  by  the  native  king,  together  with  Badagry,  promises  to  be 
an  important  centre  of  commerce  and  civilisation.  Attan  carries  on  ex- 
tensive manufactures  in  cotton-cloth,  tanning,  and  iron.  Bongo  is  the  cap. 
of  the  kingdom  of  Old  Calabar,  but  Bnke  Town  is  the  principal  seat  of 
commerce.  Loango  is  10  m.  in  circumference,  and  contains  about  15,000 
inhabitants.  Mayumba,  a  great  slave-market  on  the  coast.  San  Sal- 
vador, a  large  town  near  the  Congo  or  Zaire,  and  the  residence  of  a  chief 
who  claims  supremacy  over  several  petty  states  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Punto  de  Lenha ;  here  are  numerous  rortuguese,  English,  and  American 


r 


GUINEA.  479 

uttoQ- factories.  Tlie  wild  cotton,  growing  ia  aburdancB,  is  of  goal 
qnalitr,  and  easily  separated  from  tlie  seed.  6t  Fanl  de  Xoanda,  cup.  ai 
the  Portuguese  dominions  in  Western  Africa,  has  n  good  harbour,  and 
exports  slaves  and  ivory;  cotton  is  al^o  exported,  and  its  cultivation  en- 
couraged by  the  present  governor.  Ban  Felipe  de  Beii|rQCla,  a  seaport 
town,  and  the  Portuguese  cap.  of  Benguela.  Its  principal  inhabitants 
■re  alaTB-dealera. 

Climaite. — Tbo  climate  of  Upper  Guinea  ia  tropical,  and  not  essen- 
tially different  from  tliat  of  Sencgambia  and  Nigritia.  The  coasts 
are  law  and  imhcalthy  ;  the  boat  very  great,  uough  less  intense 
than  in  the  regions  farther  nortli. 

The  year  ia  divided  into  two  seasons— a  wet  and  a  dry.  In  the  differ- 
ent parts  o!  Guinea  the  rainy  season  occuia  at  very  different  periods  of 


the  year.  In  Uberia  it  lasts  from  November  to  May.  Farther  east,  it 
the  Ashanlee  country,  it  Bitflnds  from  May  till  November;  while  in  Lowei 
Guinea  it  lasts  fram  February  to  April    During  the  wet  season  the  quan- 


tity of  TMU  that  falls  is  prodigious.  It  ia  usually  followed  by  a  short 
fo^y  seaaon,  which  ia  extremely  deleterions  to  hmnan  life.  At  Cape 
Coast  Castle,  which  is  considered  tlie  hottest  part  of  the  coast  of  U^ier 
Guinea,  the  thennometer  during  the  hottest  month  variea  from  85°  to  90°. 
iioango,  Congo,  and  Angola,  in  Lower  Guinea,  ara  reckoned  healtJiy  ami 
agreeable,  as  is  also  the  interior  of  Bengueta ;  but  the  maritiine  regions 
of  the  whole  of  htTKBT  Guinea  are  very  pestilential,  owing  to  the  constant 
erolutioQ  of  snlphnretted  hydrogen  gas,  given  out  by  the  mud  and  detritoa 
home  down  by  the  rivers. 

Fradncta.  —  The  only  imimrtant  mineral  production  of  Upper 
Gainea  ia  golii,  which  abounds  chiefly  ia  Aahantee,  It  is  fonndnot 
only  In  the  form  of  dus^  but  also  ia  large  aoggets,  by  digging  from 
five  to  nine  feet.  Native  antimony,  used  for  tattooing,  together 
with  nstron  and  salt,  are  found  in  Yariba  and  the  Niger  valley.  In 
l/owsr  Guinea  ara  found  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  sulpliur,  petro- 
ItRim,  and  near  the  town  of  Benguela  is  a  rich,  mine  of  saltpetre. 
The  vegetable  productions  da  not  dliler  essentially  from  those  of 
Kigritiii  and  Senegambia,  comprising  cereals,  yams,  manioc,  cotton- 
plant,  bananas,  oil-palm,  bntter-tree,  sugar-oano,  coffee,  gum-trees, 
teak,  pepper,  and  mnger.  Lower  Guinea  is  the  principal  habitat  of 
the  gorilla  ape  (which  of  all  animals  most  nearly  apprOKimates  to  the 
hnman  form),  the  chimpaniee,  and  the  orang-outang. 

EtIuiDKT&iih7.~The  natives  arc  all  of  the  nesro  race,  end  generally 
in  a  very  iow  stage  of  civiliBation.  Their  religion  consists  of  various 
fomia  of  paganism  (cbiedy  Fetishism),  except  tbe  Mandingo  tribes 
in  tbe  extreme  W.,  who  are  Mobamniedaiis,  and  certain  tribes  in 
Angola  and  Benguela,  who  have  embraced  a  spurious  form  of  Chris- 
tianity from  the  Portuguese  colonists.  Slavery  and  polygamy  are 
everywhere  prevalent ;  human  sacrifices  are  jiractisod  by  several 
tribes,  and  morality  is  at  its  lowest  ebb. 

Though  presenting  the  degraded  negro  type,  with  which  foreign  coon- 
tries  ore  familiar  throiieh  the  slave-trade,  yet  they  are  not  among  the 
lowest  of  mankind,  as  ootb  agriculture  and  commerce  are  pursued  to 
some  extent  by  them.  Hie  Veys,  who  are  physically  more  h^y  dfc 
veloped  than  the  neighbouring  tribes  of  Upper  Guinco,  have  acquired  tbe 


480  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

high  distinction  of  having  invented  an  alphabet,  which  shows  great  ori* 
ginality.  It  consists  of  200  signs,  each  of  which  represents,  not  a  letter, 
out  a  syllable.  On  the  Gold  and  Slave  Coasts  the  people  live  in  square 
houses  two  or  three  stories  high.  They  cultivate  the  soil  skilMly,  and 
have  made  considerable  proficiency  in  the  mechanical  arts.  The  Fantia^ 
one  of  the  tribes  on  the  Gold  Coast,  have  learned  to  read  and  write  Eng- 
lish, and  many  of  them  are  employed  by  Europeans  as  teachers  or  as 
clerks  in  business-houses.  They  are  expert  in  manufactures,  and  excel 
in  the  construction  of  musical  instruments.  Throughout  Upper  and 
Lower  Guinea  various  religious  and  national  customs  exist  which  bear  a 
wonderful  analogy  to  those  practised  among  the  Jews,  such  as  circum- 
cision, bloody  sacrifices,  the  observance  of  new  moons,  the  rites  of  purifi- 
cation, the  division  of  time  into  seven  days,  and  a  belief  in  demoniacal 
possession.  The  native  population  of  Lower  Guinea  consists  of  various 
tribes  of  n^roes,  known  collectively  as  the  Bunda,  who  belong  to  the 
great  South  African  or  Eafiir  family — a  race  widely  diflferent  in  many 
respects  from  the  negroes  of  Northern  Africa  (see  under  "  Languages  "). 
Among  the  more  remarkable  of  the  Bunda  nations  are  the  Pangwes,  who 
are  the  only  people  of  Western  Aftica  that  have  a  circulating  medium 
and  do  not  practise  barter ;  and  the  Mussorongo  and  Kabundas,  who  live 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  and  are  described  as  skilful  mariners  and 
shipbuilders.  They  have  ouilt  ships  which  they  have  sent  as  far  as 
Brazil,  laden  with  slaves. 

The  Lanquaqes  are  numerous,  but  those  in  Upper  Guinea  may  be 
reduced  to  five  distinct  groups  or  families,  which  have  few  characteristics 
in  common.  They  are  usually  harsh  and  abrupt,  but  energetic  and 
direct.  Their  vocabulary  is  small,  and  the  words  have  but  few  inflec- 
tions ;  while  those  of  Lower  Guinea  all  belong  to  one  family,  the  dialects 
of  which  are  spoken  throughout  all  Southern  Africa,  from  ttie  Atlantic  to 
the  Indian  Ocean,  and  from  the  equator  to  near  Cape  Colony.    This 

freat  family,  taking  the  Mpongwee,  spoken  between  the  Gal)oon  and 
aire,  as  a  specimen,  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty,  elegance,  and  perfectly 
philosophical  arrangement,  as  well  as  for  its  almost  indefinite  expansibil- 
ity. It  diifers  essentially  and  radically  from  all  the  languages  N.  of  the 
equator.  The  five  families  of  languages  spoken  in  Upper  Guinea  are  the 
MandingOy  spoken  from  the  Senegal  river  to  Cape  Mesurado  (see  under 
"Senegambia");  the  Orebo  or  Mandoo,  from  Cape  Mesurado  to  St  An- 
drews, on  the  Grain  Coast,  and  embracing  the  Grebo,  Basa,  Km,  and 
other  dialects ;  the  Ktoahwa,  along  the  Ivory  Coast,  presenting  no  trace- 
able affinity  with  any  other  African  tongue ;  the  PanM,  including  the 
Ashanti,  Dahomey,  Popoe,  and  other  dialects,  extending  eastward  to 
Badagry,  where  the  Yanba  commences— a  language  closely  allied  to  the 
Manddngo  and  Haussa,  and  extending  inward  a  great  way  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Niger ;  the  Waree,  extending  along  the  Bight  of  Benin,  and 
embracing  the  delta  of  the  Niger. 

Commercd  and  Maimfactiires. — ^The  main  articles  exported  from 
the  European  settlements  in  Upper  Guinea  consist  of  gold  (which  is 
obtained  in  small  grains,  and  also  fished  up  from  the  beds  of  the 
streams),  ivory,  gum,  palm-oil,  and  cotton.  The  skins  of  monkeys, 
which  are  very  numerous,  form  an  important  article  of  export  to 
England.  The  slave-trade,  at  one  time  the  great  staple  of  commerce 
in  Western  Africa,  is  now  rapidly  decreasing.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  those  settlements  of  Britain  situated  on  the  Gold  Coast, 


GUINEA.  4S1 

and  which  were  originally  occupied  as  slave- faetorica,  a.re  now  main- 
tdnad  na  the  moat  efTectual  check  nn  the  Blave-trads,  not  to  speak  of 
their  being  great  centrea  of  oommeroe,  civilisation,  and  Cbriatianity. 
I'ha  inflnencB  of  the  Portameae,  on  the  cantrary,  in  Lower  Gninea, 
h»3  sot  been  boDeGcial,  mainly  on  accoant  of  the  aupport  which  that 
nation  has  always  given  to  the  slave-trade;  and  since  its  suppression 
their  Bettienients  have  decayed  or  dwindled  away.  The  Gold  Coast 
is  pre-eminently  the  region  of  the  oil-ptilni,  its  product  forming  a 
)>riDCipaI  article  of  commerce.  The  British  aettlementa  on  the 
Guinea  coast  exported  to  the  home  cautitry,  in  1869,  goods  to  the 
value  a!  £1,167,749,  and  imported  from  Britain  various  commodities 
valued  at  £842,744.  The  internal  commerce  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially  in  Upper  Guinea,  is  carried  on  at  fairs  and  the  native  bazaar, 
where  the  women  expose  for  sale  innumerable  articles,  inolnding  pro- 
visions, hardware,  dry  eooda,  earthenware,  &o.  The  provisions  em- 
brace cerealfl  of  every  description,  ground-nuts,  dried  rats,  palm-oil, 
shea  or  tree-biitter  (one  of  the  most  considerable  of  the  productions 
of  Africa),  and  cnndimenta  of  every  description.  The  hardware  is 
usually  represented  hy  European  cutlery  and  glass  beads ;  and  the 
dry  goods  by  raw  ailks,  broadcloths,  and  velvets.  The  natives 
manufactore  cloths  of  grass  and  varioua  fibres.  They  also  have  at- 
tained considerabla  skill  in  the  preparation  of  leather,  which  they 
work  into  saddles,  embroidered  cushions,  and  many  other  articles. 
The  Aahantees  excel  in  the  construction  of  native  musical  instru- 
ments.  In  most  localities  the  great  niediom  of  barter  is  cowries. 
The  Kiver-Syatam  of  Senegambla,  Qiiinea,  and  Soudaa. 


r^.BiLoi 

.  I  ....Skuo. 
Hi,  (..FattaconA 


I 


Bokene... 
BtPatO,... 


..OookJi.k'"" 


..Punaa,n.,  YoLA 
..Tub™,  Koulfii. 

'.'.VAtxr. 
..DoBoo,     Ephi 

.,  Adjmnba. 


Coaou Copalle,  Blhe,  o. 


~  tiimei'.'.'.'.'.'. 
rhta  rlvrjr.  W 


la  roi  the  mciat  part  ui 


482  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUY, 


COUNTRY  OF  THE  HOTTENTOTS. 

Boundaries. — N.,  Benguela ;  W.,  the  Atlantic ;  S.,  the  Orange 
River,  separating  it  from  C.  Colony;  R,  the  Kakdiari  Desert 
and  L.  Ngami. 

This  conntry  is  but  little  known  to  Europeans,  there  beinp;  few  objects 
of  interest  to  attract  travellers.  It  is  re^urded  as  extendmg  from  the 
Nourse  river,  in  lat  17°  7',  to  the  Gariep  or  Orange,  lat.  ^"  80' ;  and 
from  C.  Frio,  Ion.  12°,  to  L.  Nganii,  Ion.  22*  50'  E. 

Area  and  Popniation. — ^These  are  exceedingly  uncertain,  the  peopls 
being  barbarous,  and  the  limits  of  their  country  being  ill  defin^ ; 
but  the  former  is  now  roughly  estimated  at  1,000,000  sq.  m.,  and 
the  population  at  about  10,0C0,000,  being  only  10  persons  to  each 
sq.  m. 

Surface  and  Mountains. — A  mountain-range,  the  central  portion 
of  which  is  known  as  the  Omatako  Berg,  8739  ft.  in  elevation,  ex- 
tends from  N.  to  S.  at  a  short  distance  from  the  Atlantic.  The 
coast  region  consists  of  a  low,  sandy,  barren,  and  exceedingly  dreary 
strip  of  land,  said  to  be  wholly  uninhabited.  The  interior  is  hilly  or 
mountainous,  and  occupied  in  part  by  pastoral  and  nomadic  tribes, 
who  find  sustenance  for  their  nocks  in  the  curious  knots  of  tufted 
grass  whicli  here  attains  to  great  luxuriance ;  and  in  part  by  settled 
nations,  who  cultivate  the  soil,  which  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  in- 
terior is  described  as  fertile.  Rain,  however,  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
and  the  inhabitants  suffer  greatly  for  want  of  water. 

Ethnographic  Divisions.  —  As  already  indicated,  this  region  is 
peopled  by  a  number  of  nations  of  different  blood  and  language. 
The  principal  of  these  are  the  Oyampos  and  Damaras,  in  the  north, 
from  the  17th  to  the  25th  degree  of  south  latitude,  and  extending 
eastward  as  far  as  Lake  Ngami.  They  are  branches  of  the  great 
Kaffir  family  which  prevails  so  extensively  in  South  A&ica.  The 
Ovampos  are  an  agricultural  people,  skilled  in  the  working  of  metals, 
and  are  largely  engaged  in  trade  between  the  Portuguese  colonies  of 
the  coast  and  the  Damaras,  who  live  farther  south.  They  are  a  su- 
perior race,  with  black,  short,  crisped  hair,  and  so  fond  of  their  coun- 
try that  the  Portuguese  traders  do  not  consider  them  profitable 
slaves,  as  they  are  found  to  sicken  and  die  of  home-sickness.     The 

world.  Great  hopes  are  entertained  that  it  will  become  ere  long  the  great  commer- 
cial route  into  the  interior  of  the  conthient.  Unlifte  the  Zambezi,  which  Is  not 
navigable  for  sea-going  ships,  owing  to  the  bar  at  its  mouth,  the  Congo  has  no 
bar— having  150  fathoms  water  at  its  mouth ;  it  is  navigable  for  large  ships  for 
nearly  100  miles  (the  slave-traders,  indeed,  report  that  it  is  navigable  for  600 
miles  above  the  rapids);  it  floAvs  through  a  rich  coimtry,  which  produces  iu 
abundance  palra-oil,  ground-nuts,  copper  ore,  gum,  bees'-wax,  lignum-vitae,  and 
two  crops  of  excellent  cotton  annually ;  and,  above  all,  it  is  vastly  nearer  Eng- 
land than  the  Zambezi,  while  the  dangers  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
liozambique  Channel  are  avoided.  , 


COUNTRY  OF  THE  HOTTENTOTB.  483 

DHrnaras  or  Ovapereros  are  a  pastoral- nomadic  people,  end  lire  prin- 
cipidly  on  ihejr  nocka  and  herds.  Thoagh  related  ta  the  Ovampos, 
and  speaking  the  same  language,  they  are  greatl;  inrerior  to  the 
latter  m  civiliaatioa.  Thej  have  no  cTear  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  snppDse  a  tree  to  hare  been  Uieir  aneestor.     They  p---"-  -  -■- 


Hottentots. 

The  HotteatotB  occupy  the  country  between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn 
(md  the  Oranse  river,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  country  of  tlio  £ec)m- 
ana  in  the  Kalahari  Desert  Formerly,  indeed,  their  locality  was  to  the 
•onth  of  the  OroDge  River,  bat  the  progress  of  tlie  white  race  ia  gradually 
pushing  them  norUivrards,  though  they  are  Etill  numerous  in  the  uortliem 
diatricta  of  Cape  Colony.  This  people  ara  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  in 
Southern  Africa,  and  are  entirely  dicerent  from  the  Kaffir  family  Loth  in 
pJa/iique  and  language.  They  are  an  exceedinely  degraded  nice,  of  a 
BOijpBr  colour  and  low  physical  development,  living  side  by  aide  with 


darX  races  of  noble  form.  They  are  greatly  inferior,''for  example,  to  U 
pporeet  of  the  BeelinaDa  tribes,  who  raise,  wherever  possible,  a  few  pump- 
Kins,  or  keep  a  few  goats ;  while  the  Hottentots  scom  any  culture  of  the 


re  of  cattle,  and  prefer  the  wild  life  and  the  scanty  gi 
vermin  (ants,  spiders,  snails,  caterpillars,  and  dried  locusts)  which  the 
desert  furnishes.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  Hottentot  tribes  are  the 
Bushmen,  who  are  generally  in  the  condition  of  the  most  savage  barbar- 
iam,  living  ia  hushes  or  in  holes  in  tlie  ground  ;  they  are  the  wild  Indiana 
of  this  continent,  are  great  huntsmen  and  warriom,  but  are  low  in  stature, 
with  sliglit  limbs,  prominent  cheek-bones,  depressed  profile,  protruding 
lips.  Hat  noses,  brown  skin,  and  black  woolly  hair,  which  grows  in  JEolaterl 
tufts.  Their  moral  condition  is  exceedingly  low,  all  family  ties  being  dis- 
regarded, havlne  no  personal  names.  Such  of  them  as  have  any  religion 
are  FeUshisls ;  hut  not  a  few  have  embraced  Christianity.  The  Hotten- 
tot language,  properly  bo  called,  is  now  nearly  extinct  but  it  belongs  to 
what  is  tenned  the  "Click  family,"  cliarai5«rised  by  deep  aspirated 
gutturals,  hnnh  coosonanb!,  and  a  multitude  of  ugly  mimitahle  clicks. 
Their  nouns  have  a  double  form  for  the  plural,  which  so  far  assimilates 
them  to  some  Polynesian  and  North  American  tongues.  Thett  vocabuiari" 
ii  limited,  and  possesses  certain  affinities  with  the  Coptic  The  dialect 
spoken  by  the  Ovanipoa  and  Damaras  belong,  on  the  other  hand,  to  tie 
great  Kaffir  family  of  tongues,  which  possess  considerable  melody  and 

Cciaion  of  eipression  (see  under  "  South  Africa  ").   Tlie  religion  o(  Christ 
made  considerable  progress  among  these  aavi^  tribes,  the  Wesleyans 

Towns  and  VUlaeBB. — Properly  speaking  there  are  no  towns  [  but 
villsf^ea  or  kraals,  formed  of  a  lal^nth  of  little  conical  hovels, 
arth,  or  of  a  few  poles  covered  with  eking,  are 
cipal  missionary  stations  are  Onflurga,  in  the 
Ovampo  country ;  Damaia  and  TeslByvale,  in  the  Damaia  cimntiy; 
■ad  BetiUuv  and  Jenualem,  among  the  Hottentota. 


fs  and  e 
he  i)Tit 


484 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


SOUTH     AFRICA. 

Under  this  heading  we  propose  to  embrace  oiir  various  South 
African  possessions,  the  two  small  native  states  of  Kaf&aria 
and  Zulu  Land,  and  the  two  independent  Dutch  republics  of  the 
Orange  River  and  TransvaaL 

Boundaxies. — N.,  the  Limpopo  River  and  the  Orange  or 
Gariep,  the  former  separating  it  from  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions on  the  E.  coast,  and  the  latter  from  the  country  of  the 
Hottentots  and  Bechuanas  ;  W.,  the  Atlantic ;  S.  and  E.,  the 
Indian  Ocean.     Lat.  21°  40'— 34°  50'  S.;  Ion.  17°— 32°  45'  E. 

Extending  from  the  Orange  River  on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Delagoa  Bay 
on  the  Mozambique  coast,  and  from  the  northern  frontier  of  the  Trans- 
vaal Republic  to  C.  Agulhas,  this  region  embraces  13°  of  latitude  and 
nearly  16°  of  longitude.  Pietermaritzburg,  cap.  of  Natal,  near  the  cen- 
tral parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat.  as  Coquimbo  Bay  in  Chil6,  and  the  middle 
of  the  Argentine  Confederation  in  S.  America ;  but  Cape  Town,  the  cap. 
of  Cape  Colony,  in  the  extreme  south,  is  situated  nearly  in  the  same 
parallel  as  Valparaiso,  Buenos  Ayres,  Adelaide,  and  Sydney. 

Area,  Population,  and  Political  Divisions. — ^The  area  of  South 
Africa,  within  the  above  limits,  may  amount  to  428,000  sq.  m.,  and 
the  population  to  about  2,760,000,  of  whom  nearly  1,000,000  are 
of  European  descent,  the  remaining  being  natives.  South  Africa 
may  be  now  (1878)  said  to  consist  of  six  separate  states — ^three  of 
which  (Cape  (3olony  with  its  dependencies,  Natal,  and  the  Transvaal) 
are  British  possessions ;  one  (the  Orange  Free  State,  between  the 
Orange  River  and  the  Transvaal)  is  an  independent  Dutch  Republic ; 
while  two  others.  Native  Kafl5uria  (situated  between  the  Great  Kei 
and  Natal)  and  Zululand  (situated  on  the  east  coasts  north  of  Natal), 
are  governed  by  native  Kaffir  chiefs,  whose  territory  is  yearly  being 
annexed  piecemeal  to  the  British  Empire.  About  six-sevenths  of  the 
entire  area  of  these  states,  together  with  one-half  of  the  popula- 
tion, belong  to  England ;  and  in  all  probability  the  whole  of  South 
Africa  will  ere  long  be  formed  into  a  confederation  of  British  States, 
similar  to  the  Canadian  Confederation.  The  area  and  population  of 
the  different  sections  of  South  Africa  are  as  follows : — 


States. 


Cape  Colony,  Basutoland,  West  and  "J 
East  Griqualand,  and  the  Tnmskei  V 
Territory, j 

Natal, 

Transvaal, 

Orange  Free  State,  

Native  Ter.  (Kaffraria  and  Z\]l\]Aasid.^,«. 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 


\ 


229,858 

16»145 
114,857 


Population 
in  1877. 


778^659 


t 


SOUTH  AFRICA,  485 

Capa  Colony  proper  (inclndiiiK  Britisli  Kaifi-aria)  now  oirtiaista  of 
■eTsu  provincee,  which  are  subdivided  into  60  connties.  The  ;irin- 
cipol  towns,  with  two  or  three  exceptioDS,  ore  nil  very  Bmall. 

W.  Province.— Cape  Town  33  (Table  Bay},  Siioon'aTDwa3(FalsB 
B»j),  Stolknbosuh  i.Faarl  4  (inland). 

N.W.  Peotince.— Worcester  i  (Breede),   Port  Hollnth    (K".W. 

last). 

8.W.  Proviscb.— Swellendam  i  (Breede),  George  Town  2  n,  (S. 
eoaat). 

Midland  Pbovibcb. — Eenufort  2  (Ganritz),  Graaf  Rejnet5(Snn- 
day). 

8.E.  Pkovince.— Grahitw's  Town  7  (Cowie),  Port  Elizahtth  13, 
UitenhagB  4  (Algoa  Buy). 

S.E.  PfloviNOK.— Fort  BeauEort  3  (Kat),  Ccadoek  (Groat  Fish), 
Colesberg  n.  (Orange). 

E.  Pbovibcb.— (Brit.  Kaf&aria).— King  William's  Town  4,  E. 
London  (Buffiilo). 

HataL— Pietermoritzburg  3  (Umgeni),  D'Urban  (E.  coast). 

Orange  Frea  State,— Bloumf on tein  1  (Kaiba,  affi.  Vnal). 

Tranavaal. — Praetoria  I  (Apis),  Potchefstroom  2  (Mooi),  Lydel 
bnrg  n.  (Olifantj. 

SeecriptiTe  Notes.— Caps  Town,  cap.  of  the  Biitieh  possession  i 
Cape  Colony,  was  founded  "tij  the  Dutcli  in  1651.  Situatad  on  tL. 
Bouttem  BboiB  of  Table  Bay,  at  the  foot  of  Table  Mountain,  it  haa  all 
the  appearance  of  a  Dutch  town,  the  streeta  being  parallBJ  and  crossing  a' 
right  angles,  and  always  kept  eitreraely  clean.  The  public  bnildinga  ar 
nnmerons,  embiacin);  a  cathedral,  castle,  museum,  librair,  and  a  mug 
netic  observatory,  rendered  famous  by  the  labouta  of  Sir  John  Hersebel 
and  Professor  Henderson.    Simon's  Town,  with  a  naval  araenal  and  i 

C'  ait  alip,  is  tbe  residence  ot  the  naval  commander  of  the  colony 
t  JTollotli,  witb  a  railway  65  m.  long  to  the  vast  copper  deposits  a. 
Ookiep.  Grsbam's  Town,  600  m.  east  of  Cape  Town,  is  an  important 
place,  and  perhaps  the  moat  pleasant  residence  in  the  colony.  Port  Zliia- 
with  on  Algoa  Bay,  the  priuuipal  shipping  port  for  the  eastern  province, 
and,  neit  to  the  cap.,  the  moat  freqiiButed.  place  in  the  colony.  Graaf 
B^net,  at  the  foot  of  the  Snenw-Bereen,  ia  the  priiicipnl  place  in  the 
far  interior  of  the  colony.  King  WHliam's  Town,  fui'iiierly  cap.  of 
Britiah  Kaflraria,  has  the  aspect  of  an  English  village.  PietermaritzBnrg, 
cap.  of  tlie  colony  of  NatsJ.  situated  about  50  m.  from  the  coast,  ia  a 
amill  t«wn  neatly  laid  outiu  the  form  of  a  parallolograin.  D'Drhan,  for 
merly  Port  Natal,  on  tlie  northern  ahore  of  a  fine  inlet  of  the  ocean,  i. 
the  only  port  of  the  colony,  and  ia  fast  rising  in  bnpnrtance.     Bloemfim. 

--'-   —  -'■'■- Orange  Free  State.    Praetoria,  the  seat  of  govert 

om,  the  principal  town  in  the  Transvaal.     I.ydei.__g, 

■the  vicinity  of  the  gold  fields,  and  on  the  E.  elope  of  Che  DnLkeniberg.  I 
^nifitf«Mid  HoKatBlni.— Sonth  Afnca  embiaccs  two  great  phjdn 
I  divisiona — viz.,  s  belt  o(  coast-lasd  of  varying  width,  and  an 
wior  plaloflti,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  great  triangular  plateau 
■  contioeot  Between  these  princixial  aeiilwns  VVe  csrap.'i.vs  inm- 
■ »  af  tetnea,  riting  fiMn  soat^  to  Mittt,  ani  se^iw.'wJJi. 


486  POLITICAL   GEOORAPHY. 

from  each  other  by  mountain-chains.  The  only  passage  from  one  of 
these  terraces  to  another  is  by  narrow  and  difficult  mountain-gorges, 
named  Kloof  8,  some  of  which  have  been  made  available  for  wheeled 
carriages.  These  terraces  are  called  Karroos^  the  largest  of  which — 
the  Great  Karroo — is  an  arid  desert  350  m.  long,  50  m.  broad,  and 
2000  ft  high.  The  mountain-chains  are  three  in  number,  and  paral- 
lel to  each  other,  as  also  to  the  S.  and  S.  E.  coasts. 

I.  The  Sicellendam  Mountains,  of  moderate  elevation,  proceed  from 
Table  Mountain,  in  the  Cape  district,  for  200  m.  eastwani,  and  at  an 
average  distance  of  20  m.  from  the  south  coast.  Height  of  Table  Moun- 
tain, 3582  ft.  It  owes  its  name  to  its  peculiar  form,  which  resembles  a 
table  in  shape,  and  having  a  flattened  summit.  It  is  often  covered  with 
a  white  mist,  locally  named  "The  Table-Cloth."  2.  The  ZtoarU  or  Black 
Mountains,  about  30  m.  farther  inland,  and  separated  from  the  former 
by  the  plateau  of  Kannaland.  In  some  places  they  attain  an  elevation  of 
4000  ft.  3.  The  Northei^n  Chain,  which  forms  the  water-parting  between 
the  basin  of  the  Orange  and  those  of  the  other  rivers  of  the  coimtry,  and 
which  is  separated  from  the  Zwarte  Mountains  by  the  Great  Karroo.  It 
receives  different  names  in  its  course  from  W.  to  K,  as  Roggeodd  in 
Tulbagh,  Nieuwveld  in  Beaufort,  &neeuv)  Berg  in  Graaf  Revnet,  and 
Drakenherg  or  Quathlarriba,  W.  of  Natal,  where  Cathkin  Peak,  tne  highest 
summit  of  South  Africa,  rises  to  a  height  of  10,367  ft.,  while  Compass 
Berg,  in  Graaf  Reynet  (8500  ft.),  is  the  highest  point  in  Cape  Colony. 

Rivers. — These  are  numerous,  but  being  generally  very  small,  and 
interrupted  by  rapids  and  sandbanks,  they  are  not  navigable ;  and 
their  beds  being  considerably  depressed  below  the  general  surface, 
they  are  ill  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  while  many  of 
them  are  quite  destitute  of  water  in  the  dry  season.  The  following 
are  the  principal : — 

The  Orange  River  or  Gai^ep,  in  the  N.,  separating  the  colonial  territory 
from  the  interior.  Its  principal  brancn,  the  Vaal,  rises  in  the  Draken- 
herg Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Great  Fish, 
Nosop,  Aiutaas,  Vaal,  and  Caledon  on  its  right ;  and  the  Great  Hartebeest 
and  Brak  on  the  left.  Olifant  or  Elephant  River  enters  the  Atiantic 
midway  between  the  Orange  and  Cape  Town.  The  Breede,  in  Worcester 
and  Swellendam,  enters  the  Indian  Ocean  at  Fort  Beaufort :  it  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  deepest  rivers  of  the  colony,  but  its  navigation  is  impeded 
by  a  sandbank  at  its  mouth.  The  Oauritz  separates  the  districts  of 
Swellendam  and  George,  receiving  as  affluents  the  Olifant  and  Gkunks. 
The  Gamtoos,  in  Uitenhage,  200  m.  long,  receives  the  Salt  River  and 
Kouga.  The  Sunday  River,  from  Graaf  Reynet,  falls  into  Al^  Bay. 
The  Greai  Fish  Rivei%  between  Albany  and  Victoria,  and  the  Keitiamma, 
the  Buffalo,  the  G^eai  Kei,  and  the  Tvgela,  all  flow  S.E.  to  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy,  but  very  dry,  remaric* 
ably  free  from  epidemic  diseases,  though  few  of  tne  innabltantl 
attain  to  an  advanced  age.     It  is  particularly  adapted  to  Enropeani' 
afflicted  with  pulmonary  complaints.    The  climate  of  liia  Ote 
Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  is  unrivalled  for  its  nhlbrilar. 

On  an  average  about  23  inches  of  rain  fall  annoallyst  f 
32  inches  at  Graham's  Town ;  but  the  interior  ud\f 


J- 


437 


the  Great  Karroo  no  rain  falls  so 
Snow  falle  only  on  the  mounta 
covered  by  it  for  eix  months  in  ths  yeai 


jsllel  foe  dryjiesj 
nnics  lor  inree  years  in 

the  highest  peiUcs  of  whii 

The  entire  teiritory  lies  between  tlie  mean  aimnal  isotherms  of  61  and 
BS°  Fall.  The  hottest  months  nra  Decemlwr  and  jaimnry,  when  the 
thennDmeter  soinetimeB  rises  to  Si" ;  while  in  the  coldest  months,  Jnno 
and  July,  it  descends  to  67'.  At  CnpB  Town  the  mean  nimual  tempera- 
ture iB  Sr.S,  mean  whiter  68°.3,  and  mean  summer  70°.  In  Natal  tha 
tempei-atuTD  is  higher  and  tlia  rain  more  ropioHS.  At  Durhan  tha  ther- 
mometer ranges  in  summer  between  77°  and  83°,  and  from  53°  to  70°  in 
winter,  while  the  rainfall  amaunts  ta  SO  inches.  Here  thunderstorm  a 
are  frequent  along  the  coast, 

Minnmia — Immense  deposits  of  gold  were  discovered  in  1S6S  on 
the  Limpopo  river,  between  the  Tmnsvaal  republic  and  the  Portn- 
gpese  settlementa  of  Sofala,  &u.;  tlii'y  have  received  the  name  of  the 
victoria  Digpngs :  while  more  recently  valnahle  diamond-fieliis  have 
been  diaoovered  on  the  Vaal  river,  in  Griqualand  West,  and  in  the 
Orange  Free  State.  Rich  copper  ore  ia  found  near  tha  mouth  of  the 
Orange.  Coal  of  good  quality  has  been  discovered  in  Natal  and 
yarioua  places  of  Capo  Colony,  while  iron,  copper,  and  other  minerola 
occur  in  various  localities  of  that  colony.  Salt  is  obtained  from  salt 
lakes,  themost  considerable  of  which  is  near  Algoa  Bay,  and  aapecies 
of  Boda,  foondinthe  Great  Karroo,  ia  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

Botanj'. — South  Africa  is  comprised  within  "  Schonw's  23d  Pliyto- 
geographic  Region,"  the  lloca  of  which  is  of  n  peculiar  and  varied 
ohuacter,  rich  in  forms,  but  not  luxuriant  (p.  55). 

Timber  is  scarce  in  the  west,  but  Increases  gradnally  towards  the  east ; 
bat  fn  tfatal  hii^  forests  of  valuable  tiinhtr  abound  in  the  Kloofi,  and 
many  tracts  along  the  coast  are  covered  with  foi-esta  of  pines  and  man- 
groves.    It  is  BriiphatiEally  the  re^on  of  Slapelia,  Maembri/anlAenut,  and 

eath  are  enumerated  in 
vicinity  of  Cape  Town 

.  M  SilverTree,  conspicnouaforthe  brilliantsilkywhito- 

neas  of  its  leaves.  Tahle  Monntoln  is  remarkable  for  the  liiia  Orandi- 
fivra,  a  splendid  flowering  plant  not  known  to  occur  in  any  other  locality. 
'liiere  ore  tew  native  plauts  useful  to  man  fonnd  in  Cape  Colony,  but 
many  such  have  been  introdncsd,  as  the  Enropean  cereoli,  fhiita,  and 
eaculent  v^tables ;  also  Boi^hnm,  hntatos,  plantains,  tamarinds,  and 
shaddocks.  The  aloe  is  an  iniponont  artii^le  of  oonunerce,  Eonipeau 
gmins  and  the  fnilta  of  temperate  and  tropieal  dimes  have  been  aucoeis- 
ruUf  introdnced.    More  com  in  raised  in  Cape  Colony  than  ia  required 

'- ■'-       '  -^  — '--'■- —  '-  irippled  hythe  Dntch  hiw  of  suo- 

operty  equally  amom;  his  children, 
capital.  I-<u?e  quantities  oi  wine,  and  of 
'"ictd  ut  the  ^p" ;  but,  with  the  ciception 
'3^  inbirior.  This  wine  is  the  produce  ot 
»t  of  Table  Monntaio.  It  &  v«ry  rich 
wt  artJde  at  uominena.  The  agricnltBnil 
1,  inoluding  sogar,  coffee,  in  ''  - 

Tha  plua-appla  ri|ieu9  ii 
:  tictttt  adapted  for  the  gmwth  at 


aption ;  but  iwricn 
■'■^  ■-dWdme  a 


488  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

cereals.  In  the  Transvaal  colony — ^the  garden  of  S.  Africa— wheat  grows 
luxuriantly  in  the  watered  districts,  tropical  fruits  flourish,  and  the 
country  is  well  suited  for  the  cultivation  of  coifee,  cotton,  and  the  sugar-cane. 

Zoology. — Colonisation  has  driven  many  of  the  larger  wild  animals 
beyond  the  north  frontier  of  the  British  colonies.  The  lion,  hyena, 
leopard,  buffalo,  hippopotamus,  and  zebra,  are  occasionally  seen ;  the 
rhinoceros  is  rarely  met  with.  The  elephant  has  retreated  beyond  the 
Crariep,  but  is  still  found  in  the  county  of  Enysna.  The  ostrich 
and  eagle  are  the  most  remarkable  of  the  birds ;  the  secretary  or 
snake-eater  is  a  useful  bird  of  prey,  as  it  feeds  exclusively  on  rep- 
tiles ;  while  the  honey-guide  bird  has  the  faculty  of  discovering  the 
stores  of  the  wild  bees,  and  is  used  by  the  native  tribes  for  that  pur- 
pose. Snakes  are  numerous,  but  not  formidable.  The  boa -con- 
strictor, of  a  large  size,  has  been  killed  near  Natal,  and  also  a  new 
species  of  crocodile.  Fish  are  extremely  abundant  and  of  numerous 
species ;  and  during  winter,  whales,  porpoises,  and  sharks,  enter  the 
bays,  while  seals  and  penguins  frequent  various  parts  of  the  coast. 

Ethnograpliy. — South  Africa  is  inhabited  by  a  great  variety  of 
races — Europeans,  Kaffirs,  Hottentots,  Griquas,  Basutus,  and  Malays. 
The  coloured  races  are  the  most  numerous,  and  occupy  some  districts 
conjointly  with  Europeans ;  while  in  others  (as  Kaffraria  and  Zulu  Land) 
they  are  unmixed  and  independent. 

The  Europeans  consist  for  the  most  part  of  the  descendants  of  the  early 
Dutch  settlers,  of  British  who  have  emigrated  from  the  mother  country, 
and  of  a  few  French  and  Germans.  The  Dutch,  who  form  the  majority 
of  the  white  population  of  Cape  Colony,  and  occupy  almost  exclusively 
the  Orange  River  and  Transvaal  Free  States,  are  commonly  called  hotrs 
("  agriculturists  ").  They  have  lost  much  of  their  ancestral  industry  and 
cleanliness,  are  illiterate,  prejudiced,  and  not  always  well  aflected  towards 
the  British  Grovemment ;  but  they  have  retained  their  original  language 
and  religion.  Their  usual  avocations  are  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  ground,  while  the  British  are  chiefly  engaged 
in  commerce  and  in  official  situations.  The  Kaffirs,  who  give  their  name 
to  the  great  South  African  family  of  nations,  are  mainly  confined  to  the 
eastern  districts  of  Cape  Colony,  and  thence  along  the  coast  to  Delagoa 
Bay.  They  are  diviaed  into  three  branches — the  Kaffirs  proper,  the 
Zulus,  and  Fingoes,  each  speaking  a  separate  dialect  of  tiie  Kaffir  lan- 
guage,— the  main  representative  of  the  great  alliterative  family  of  tongues. 
The  Kaffirs  are  remarkable  for  symmetry  and  beauty,  are  warlike,  in- 
telligent, chiefly  pastoral,  and  live  under  a  patriarchal  government.  The 
total  number  of  this  race  occupying  the  territory  we  are  describing  does 
not  probably  exceed  half  a  million.  The  Hottentots  are  gradoallsr  di^p- 
pearing  before  the  attacks  of  civilisation,  and  are  now  chiefly  roimd  m 
the  N.W.  section  of  Cape  Colony,  many  of  them, howeverjittdatiiig  u 
servants  to  the  white  population  in  all  parts  of  that  colony.  The  GriapiM 
are  a  mixed  race  of  Dutch  and  Hottentot  extraction,  andazefimsdehiefly 
in  the  Orange  River  settlement.  They  speak  the  Cape  HoQaiididu  Tba 
Basutus  are  also  a  mixed  race  of  Bechuanas,  Ka£Br8,  and  Bmhiiup.  ^nuiT 
form  the  principal  race  in  Basuto  Land,  now  JMltisli  tMHtery.  T 
Malays,  who  were  introduced  by  the  original  Dutch  wMOBi  -^ 
otts  in  the  towns  of  Cape  Colony.    The  great  nujoittj  of  ti 


irious  calODies  arc  Protestants,  belonging  Eitlier  to  tbe  Eugtiiib 
Church  or  to  the  Dutch  Rafonned,  but  ■Wealeyan  MelhodiFtB  are  also 
numerous.  Both  Cape  Colony  and  Nuts!  is  the  diocese  of  an  Eneiiah 
tjlahop.  Nmneions  misEionaiV  atatiana  are  moinlsiiied  in  South  Africa, 
anil  very  m&n}'  of  the  natives  have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  The 
Moravian  Brethren  were  the  Erst  in  the  field,  and  they  were  followed  hy 
the  London  Mmioanry  Society,  the  Wasleyan  Mlsaionary  Societf,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  and  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  A  com- 
plete Kaffir  verBion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  has  gonB  forth  from  the  South 
African  niiasionary  press,  besides  tlie  Bechnana  version  by  the  Rev.  Eobert 
Moffat,  who  has  for  an  inanv  veara  lahourari  amon?  the  Bechnana  tribnA 
In  the  Intel 

Africa  in  li     ,  ^ 

race.  He  went  among  them  as  their  friend,  lived  with  them  ai.  .  .  ._ 
themaelvea,  learned  their  language  from  their  own  lipa,  then  gave  it  back 
to  them  in  a  writUn  form,  and  has  lived  to  present  to  thein  the  Word  of 
God,  translated  and  printed  and  published  in  Sonth  Africa  by  hia  own 
immediate  influence.  Hundreds  and  thonaanda  of  those  people,  who 
were  at  first  astonished  at  a  letter,  and  thought  it  a  spirit,  can  now  in- 
talligBntly  peruse  the  sacred  volnme  in  their  own  tongue.  In  view  of 
such  facts  as  these,  are  we  not  warranted  in  believing  thatsoaii  "Ethio- 
pia shall  stretch  out  her  hands  unto  Giod  " ! 

GoTermneiit,  fto.^ — Cape  Colony  waa  discovered  by  Bartliolomew 
*ie  Dial,  a  Portaguese,  in  1486,  and  Cape  Town  founded  by  the 
Dutch  in  1651.  The  colony  wai  taken  by  tbe  English  in  1795, 
restored  to  the  Dntch  in  1802,  and  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1814. 
Hatal  waa  discovered  by  the  PortugnesB  navigator  \*asco  do  Gama 
nn  Christmas  Daj,  1197,  and  hence  the  name  Nalal.  The  Dutch 
attempteii  to  colonise  it  in  1721.  It  was  annexeil  to  Cape  Colony 
hj  the  Britiafa  Government  in  1843,  and  in  135S  it  waa  erected 
into  a  separata  and  independent  colony.  The  government  of  Cape 
Colony  is  vested  in  a  governor  and  eiecntiva  council,  appointed  by 
the  Crown.  There  is  a  Isgislative  council  of  21  members,  aod 
a  Honae  of  Assembly  of  68.  The  government  of  Natal  is  vest*d 
in  a  lieutenant'gDvei'nor,  aided  by  an  executive  and  a  ]egislativa 
GonnciL 

CDmDier<!e  and  Hann&etiireB. — The  settlers  at  tbe  Cape  ere  chiefly 
employed  in  tbe  production  of  wool  and  wine,  in  the  breeilingof  horses, 
^beep,  and  cattle,  and  in  ugricultural  operations.  Tbe  first  ia  now 
^T  far  tbe  moat  important  article  sent  from  the  colony,  the  exports 
lkTingamauntedinlB741«£2,Q13,0OOinTalae.  Tbe  next  in  impoi- 
^ceucDupar.tlieexpDrtsof  wbicbamonnt«d  ta£321,100  ;  and  the 
Mrd  in  vntuo  is  oi,t neb  r.nf hers,  which  wsrs  rained  at  £205,800. 
"tain  was,  in  1S27,  no 
1  decreased  to  80,000 
and  boms  (which  are 
is  branch  of  trade  is 
.Iried  fish,  wbale  and 
m  the  moi 
lO  worth  ai 


490  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

cate  the  ostrich  on  laige  fanns.  The  total  exports  to  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1874  amounted  to  £3,951,000.  The  imports  consist 
chiefly  of  woollens,  cottons,  hardware,  forniture,  paper  and  books, 
from  Britain ;  piece  goods  and  teak  from  India ;  tea  m)m  China ;  and 
sngar  from  the  Mauritius,  &c.  The  total  imports  in  1874  amounted 
to  £5,725,000,  of  which  £4,431,000  came  from  Great  Britain.  Natal 
is  a  very  flourishing  colony,  but  as  yet  it  is  able  to  export  articles  of 
raw  produce  only,  as  wool,  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,.hides,  ostrich-feathers, 
arrowroot,  &c.  Its  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  in  1874  amounted 
to  £770,500.  The  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  same 
year  amounted  to  £1,122,000,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  ale  and  beer, 
ironmongery,  machinery,  haberdashery,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
manufactures.  In  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State,  ivory, 
hides,  tallow,  and  ostrich-feathers  are  the  principal  articles  of  ex- 
portation. 

Inland  OommnnlcatloiL — ^The  want  of  good  roads  forms  a  serious 
drawback  to  the  prosperity  of.  our  South  African  colonies.  The 
agriculturists  transport  their  goods  in  immense  lumbering  waggons 
drawn  by  oxen,  wnich  move  at  a  very  slow  rate.  In  the  Cape 
Colony,  however,  railways  are  being  rapidly  constmcted.  Already 
there  is  a  line  in  operation  from  the  capital  to  Simon's  Town ; 
another  to  Stellenbosch,  diverging  to  Maunsbury,  and  to  Worces- 
ter ;  also  from  Port  Elizabeth  to  Cradock,  with  a  In'anch  to  Graham's 
Town ;  and  several  others  in  construction.  In  Natal,  too,  a  com- 
mencement has  been  made. 


SOUTH  CENTRAL  AFRICA. 

Under  South  Central  Africa  we  propose  to  treat  of  the 
countries  lately  explored  by  Livingstone,  situated  north  of  the 
Orange  River,  and  embracing  the  Sechuana  country,  the  desert 
of  K^ahari,  and  the  basin  of  the  Zambesi  above  the  Portuguese 
settlement  of  Tet^. 

BoTindaxies. — ^N.,  the  district  of  the  Great  Lakes ;  W.,  the 
Portuguese  possessions  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  the 
country  of  the  Hottentots ;  S.,  the  Orange  River,  separating  it 
from  Cape  Colony  ;  E.,  Transvaal,  Sofala,  and  Mozambique. 

It  thus  extends  from  lat.  12°  to  29**  S.,  and  from  Ion.  20*  to  33°  26'  EL 
Lake  Ngami,  near  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat.  as  the  island 
Mauritius,  Port  Denisgn  in  Queensland,  New  Caledonia,  Potosi,  and  Villa 
Bica  in  South  America.  Its  extreme  length,  from  L.  Dilolo  in  the  N.  to 
the  Orange  River  in  the  S.,  is  about  1190  m.,  and  its  breadth,  on  the 
parallel  of  L.  Ngami,  about  870  m. 

Area  and  Populatlon. — There  are  no  exact  data  for  calculating 
either  the  area  or  population ;  but  multiplying  the  length  by  th* 


BOCTH  CEKTEiL  AFEICA. 


(treadtli,  the  former  may  be  ronphly  estimated  at  800,000  sq.  m.,  or 
■eren  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles.  An  maoy  portions  of  tbia 
'rast  r^oD  nre  known  to  hs  densely  peopled,  ve  may  safely  estimate 
dm  [xJpTilation  at  uot  less  than  IS, 000,000,  or  one-half  that  of  the 
Unitea  Kingdom. 

PollUeal  DlTislonB. — The  principal  political  divisions  of  the  vast 
region  above  defined  are — 1.  The.country  of  the  Griquas  or  Griqua- 
land  West,  now  forming  a  dependency  of  Great  Britaaa  (p.  484),  im- 
mediately N,  of  the  Oranee;  2.  Conntry  of  the  Becbniiniis  proper, 
IN.E.  of  the  Griquas  ;  3,  The  Bakdahnri,  in  the  desert  of  Kaialiari ; 
.4.  The  Mnkololo,  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Zambes6. 
Ohiiitta  ConNTBT.— GriquB  Town  n.  (Oranfie), 
Eechitanah  Phopeb. — Kuniman  or  New  Latafcu  n._,  Old  Lalaku 
IL  (Italopo,  o^.  Orange),  Kolobecgu.,  Shoshoug  n.  (Limpopo), 
Desebt  of  Kai<aba&i. — Numerona  viUages  of  mud  hutu,  but  uo 
Makololo  Countbt.— Linyanti  (Chobs,  o^  Zambesfi),  Zumlio, 
Scshske,  Nsriel,  Katougo,  Shinto,  Katcnia  (Zambesi). 

DMorlptlTe  Hotea.— Instead  of  giving,  sm  uanal  in  tbia  paragraph. 
Boles  desorihinf;  the  different  towns,  we  shall  better  consult  the  in- 
terest of  the  student  by  presenting  the  results  of  Dr  Livingstone's 
discoreriea  in  this  region  (in  1S52-3),  embracing  the  Physical  Qeo- 
graphy,  Cllmato,  Hatural  Fioducts,  and  ftlmography. 

Dr  Livingstone  started  in  the  beginning  of  June  1852,  on  his  famous 
journey,  from  Cape  Town— a  journey  which  extendsd  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  continent  to  St  Paul  da  Loanda,  the  cap.  of  Angola,  on 
the  west  coast,  and  thence  acraaa  South  Central  Africa,  in  an  oblique 
direction,  to  QuUliinan^,  on  the  channel  of  Mozambique.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  two  Christian  Bechuanas  from  Kumman,  and  two  Bakwain 
mBQ.  Tma  small  party  was  conveyed  in  a  Inmbering  Cape  waggon  drawu 
b]f  ten  oieu.  His  route  lay  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  nearly  parallel 
with  a  line  bisecting  the  triangular  area  of  Cape  Colony ;  he  crossed  the 
Change  lUver  in  Ion.  2i',  neai'  the  point  at  which  it  receives  the  Brak  on 
its  left.  If  we  suppose  this  triangular  tract  of  country  to  be  divided 
into  three  longitudinal  zones,  we  shall  find  each  of  them  presenting  dis- 
tinct pecaliantles  of  climate,  physical  appearance,  and  population;  and 
iftlie  triseoting  lines  be  produced,  these  characteristiL's  will  he  found  to 
be  better  marked  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Colony  lljau  even  within  It. 
The  eastern  zone  Is  often  furnished  with  mamttains.  well  wooded  with 
..3  succulent  trees,  on  which  neither  tiiu  nor  diBught  has  the 
illest  effect,  and  its  seaboard  gorges  are  ctad  with  gigantic  timber.  It 
la  ulso  comparatively  well  watered  with  streams  and  flawing  rivers ;  the 
wmnal  supply  of  rain  is  considerable,  and  the  inhabitants — Kaffirs  or 
Zolui^Bn  tall,  muscular,  and  well  made,  ehrewd,  energetic,  and  brave ; 
in  ihoTt,  fully  meriting  the  character  given  them  of  being  "  mtgnilicent 
savages."  Their  splendid  physios!  development  and  form  of  skull  show 
that,  but  for  their  block  ikiu  and  woolly  bair,  they  would  take  rank 
among  the  foremost  Europeans.  The  nert  division— that  which  embrace* 
the  centre  of  this  region — can  scarcely  be  called  hilly,  for  what  hills  there 
•ware  very  low,  II  consists,  torthe  most  part,  of  eiaansiveslightly-undu- 


amaSest  t 


492  POUTICAL    GEOGRAniy. 

lating  plains,  with  no  lofty  mountains,  only  a  few  springs^  and  still  fewer 
flowing  streams ;  rain  is  far  from  abimdaut,  and  droughts  occur  every  few 
years.  Without  artificial  irrigation  no  European  grain  can  be  raised ;  and 
the  inhabitants,  who  are  named  Bedmanas,  though  evidently  of  the  same 
stock  originally  with  the  Kaffirs,  and  closely  resembling  them  in  being  an 
agricultural  as  well  as  a  pastoral  people,  are  a  comparatively  timid  race, 
and  inferior  to  the  Kaffirs  in  phvsical  development.  The  western  division 
is  still  more  level  thou  the  middle  one,  being  ru^ed  only  near  the  coast. 
It  includes  the  great  plain  called  the  Kalahari  jDesert,  which  is  remark- 
able for  little  water  and  very  considerable  vegetation.  The  reason  prob- 
ably why  so  littie  rain  falls  in  this  extensive  plain  is,  that  the  prevailing 
"Winds  of  most  of  the  interior  are  easterly,  with  a  little  southmg.  The 
moisture  taken  up  by  the  atmosphere  from  the  Indian  Ocean  is  deposited 
on  the  eastern  hilly  slope  long  before  the  wind  which  had  transported  it 
arrives  at  the  desert  The  first  and  last  of  these  zones  having  been  de- 
scribed under  "Eastern  Africa,"  and  the  "Country  of  the  Hottentots," 
we  shall  confine  ourselves  here  to  the  great  missionary's  discoveries  in 
the  country  of  the  Bechuanas.  The  term  "  Bechuana  "  is  the  most  gen- 
eric and  comprehensive  of  all  the  ethnographic  distinctions  of  Southern 
Africa,  if  we  except  the  word  **  Kaffir,"  as  it  includes  nearly  all  the  tribes 
that  live  between  the  Orange  River  on  the  S.  and  the  Zambesi  on  the  N. 
Recently,  indeed,  some  of  the  tribes  comprised  under  this  designation 
have  pushed  their  conquests  considerably  farther  north— c  or. ,  the  Mako- 
lolo,  who,  under  their  able  chief,  Sebituane,  have  extended  their  domin- 
ion  as  far  as  lat.  14°  S.  In  general,  however,  the  Zambesi  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Bechuanas.  The  numerous  tribes  or  nations  of 
which  they  consist  are  mainly  comprised  under  the  leading  divisions  of 
Bakalahari,  Makololo,  Matabele,  Basutos,  and  Bakoni 

Tlie  Bakalahari  are  regarded  as  the  oldest  existing  division  of  the 
Bechuana  family  of  nations.  Laving  immediately  noith  of  the  Orange 
River,  and  confined  for  the  most  p^  to  the  stenle  desert  of  Kalahari, 
they  form,  in  all  likelihood,  the  remnants  of  the  first  extensive  emigration 
southwards  of  that  family.  In  point  of  antiquity,  therefore,  they  wonld 
appear  to  rank  next  to  the  degraded  Hottentots,  who  partly  live  amoDgst 
tnem,  and  partly  lie  W.  of  them,  and  who  are  regarded  as  the  aboriginee 
of  the  country.  Formerly  they  possessed  laige  nocks  of  homed  cattle, 
of  which  they  were  deprived  by  a  fresh  migration  of  their  own  nation 
from  the  north,  and  dnven  into  the  desert,  where  they  live  by  compul- 
sion and  not  by  choice.  They  still  retain  in  undying  vigour  that  love  of 
agriculture  and  domestic  animals  so  characteristic  of  the  Bechiuma  laoe. 
Though  confined  to  the  same  arid  regions  with  the  Bushnien,  and  rab- 
iected  to  the  same  climatic  influences,  they  greatly  differ  firom  tliem  in 
language,  race,  habits,  and  appearance — a  fact  which  very  deBxly  ahcfws 
that  mere  external  agencies  cannot  account  for  difference  of  XBoei  Thef 
hoe  their  gardens  annually,  though  the  only  return  they  cen  hope  for  ii  a 
supply  of  melons  and  pumpkins,  and  carefully  rear  small  herds  of  80>'^ 
though  they  have  usually  to  supply  water  for  them  in  spooiiftilS|Mnr  vita 
a  bit  of  ostrich  eg^-shell,  out  of  small  wells  dug  in  the  sand.  TbiUf  an 
a  timid  race,  andm  physical  development  often  resemUe  the  aboriginal 
of  Australia.  They  nave  thin  lep  and  arms,  and  laige  pcotndtqg  aib- 
domens,  caused  by  the  coarse,  mdigestible  food  tliqy  ML  7S^ 
greatly  tyrannised  over  by  the  other  Bechuana  tribee  HTfa^Br 
and  their  hard-earned  property,  consisting  chiefly  of  Hia  ddm 
is  carried  off  with  impunity.  Such  is  their  diead  tiyv 
more  warlike  neighbours,  that  they  choose  their  ntf' 


BOUTH    CENTEAL  XFEICA.  493 

r,  Bud  hide  their  enpplieB  of  it  by  tilliiiB  the  wttter-jiits  wlUi  aatid, 
>na  niEifcing  a  lire  oybt  tliB  spat,  bo  that  a  stranger  gbji  form  no  concep- 
tion of  the  place  where  the  precimiB  fluid  ie  etowed  away.  The  ttsi:!  of 
country  eztendiug  from  the  Drauce  Biver  to  Lake  Ngatui,  asd  Irom  24° 
K  Ion-  tQ  near  the  west  coast,  has  hean  called  a  "  desert,"  simply  l>eca.use 
it  contains  no  mnning  water,  and  very  little  in  wbIIb.  But  it  is  by  no 
means  desl^tate  of  veget&tiuu ;  for  il  is  covered  with  gmse  smd  a  great 
»ariBty  of  crBsping  plaula,  beaides  which  there  are  large  patchEs  of  bushes 
■nd  even  treea.  It  is  ramsTliably  flat,  bnt  intenected  in  diSeirait  parts 
by  the  beds  oF  anient  TiTen ;  and  prodigiaus  flocks  of  a  speuicE  of  ante- 
IotW]  which  require  little  or  no  water,  roani  uvar  the  trackless  plains. 
The  Bakalahan  and  Bualunen  prey  on  the  game,  and  on  the  coantless 
Todentia  and  sniiUI  apedes  nf  tiie  feline  race  wliicL  mbsiat  on  those.  Tlio 
quantity  of  gra^s  that  grows  in  this  remarkable  rsgioii  Is  astonishing.  It 
jumaily  rises  Id  tufts,  ■with  >rore  spaces  between,  or  the  intervals  are  oe- 
onpisd  by  creeping  plants.  The  umnber  of  these  that  lave  tnberoos 
roots  is  very  great,  and  their  structure  is  soch  as  to  supply  Qntriment 
and  mtneture,  when,  during  the  long  dronghts,  tiey  can  be  obtained  no- 
stalk  not  thicker  than  s  crow's  guiil ;  on  digging  down  a  foot  or  ei^l«eii 
inches  beDeath,  he  cnmea  to  a  tiihar,  often  ae  large  as  the  head  of  ■  yonng 
tiiilA  ■  and.  when  the  rind  ia  rBmoved,  he  finds  it  to  be  a  mass  of  callular 
tdssue,  filled  with  fluid,  mnch  like  that  of  a  yonng  tsmip;  while,  owing 
to  the  depth  at  which  it  is  found,  il  is  generally  deliciously  cool  and 
lefreshing.  The  fauna  of  the  Kalahari  consists  for  the  most  part  of  small 
BBTnivora  of  the  felrue  tribe,  ai  the  .jackal,  ocelot,  lyni,  wijd-cut,  aiid 
iqwtted  cat,  and  occasjonaJly  hons,  leopards,  panthers,  and  hyenas ;  the 
mminants  include  the  buffalo,  eland,  gau,  bleaWuk,  blnelmck,  steinbuch, 
Knd  springbuck.  Birds  are  comparatively  few,  but  indade  the  ostrich 
v&d  EwzJt ;  while  serpents,  which  ore  aome1dmE£  of  an  enormous  size,  are 
vary  DntneroaE.  The  prindpal  subdiviBion  of  the  Bakalahari  is  the  Bak- 
waiDB  or  Baquena,  who  are  the  most  commercial  tribe  belonging  to  this 
ianiilr.  Properly  speaMng  they  have  no  towns,  bnt  there  are  numerous 
assemblages  cf  huts,  longing  in  an  orderly  manner  around  the  central  one, 
wbicb  forms  tlie  restdence  of  the  chief,  and  they  are  often  mirvsd  from 
plaoe  to  plaoe  as  their  radgenoies  raqnire.  Many  of  the  people  have  been 
oouverten  to  CfadBtiauity,  tiie  prinrapai  mission  atatloDS  bemg  Eommaji 
orLfttaAu,  53(1  m.  S.E.  of  Onie  Town,  with  a  fine,  evsr-flowinB  foun- 
tain ;  and  Enlobeag,  about  SSn  n.  farther  N.,  with  a  charming  elimate. 
Dt  Livingstone  residHd  tbr  a  tjtue  at  each  of  these  places,  and  has  im- 
parted to  them  a  classioU  interest. 

Makololo.— Th^si.'  form  tbr  mrrr.t  nortliem  divisioii  of  the  great  Bechn- 

'^'i;'       "       -.       "  ■         "  ■.liltiein.     They  people  the 

■■     ■  "imbes^,  and  recantly  have 

'  latitude  14°  e.;  bnt  tiiia 

■I  bvtha  nnmorouB  negro 


494  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

to  avoid  beinff  swept  away  by  its  inundations  during  tlie  rainy  seasoOy 
the  sites  on  which  tney  stand  are  of  necessity  very  limited.  This  valley, 
the  upper  ^rtion  of  which  is  called  the  Valley  of  the  Barotse,  is  ex- 
tremely  fertile,  and  capable  of  producing  two  crons  in  the  vear.  The 
Makololo  cultivate  a  large  ext^t  of  land  arouna  their  vilifies,  and 
raise  great  quantities  of  maize,  millet,  and  native  com  {holciu  tcr^iwm), 
besides  yams,  sugar-cane,  Egyptian  arum,  sweet-potatoes,  two  kinds  of 
manioc  or  cassave,  beans,  pumpkins,  melons,  and  cucumbers.  Fmit- 
trees  abound,  buL  not  having  received  any  care,  the  fruit  is  usually  acid. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Chobe  grow  some  species  of  the  Fieu*  Indteoy  acaciaa 
of  a  lieht-green  colour,  splendid  motsintsella,  and  the  eveigreen  cypress- 
shaped  motsuri.  At  the  confluence  of  the  Leeba  and  Leeambye  is  found 
a  large  variety  of  flowers  of  great  beauty  and  of  curious  forms,  and  in 

fenend  quite  unlike  those  to  be  met  with  south  of  Lake  Ngami  The 
'apilionaceous  family  of  plants  is  espnecially  numerous.  The  grass  is  so 
luxuriant,  Dr  Livingstone  says,  that  in  many  places  it  quite  concealed 
his  oxen  and  waggon.  Trees  of  many  new  species  occur.  The  baobab, 
the  most  gigantic  form  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  together  with  the  ban- 
van,  the  wild  date,  the  wild  vine,  and  Palmyra,  give  character  to  the 
landscape ;  while,  skirting  the  margin  of  the  Chobe  and  many  other 
rivers,  are  seen  forests  of  tall  reeds,  and  a  serrated  ^rass,  the  edges  of 
which  cut  like  a  razor.  This  region  abounds  with  wild  animals,  many 
of  them  unknown  to  science.  Among  the  more  common  species  may  be 
mentioned  the  lion,  eleplumt,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  wud-hog,  zebra, 
giraife,  gnu.  tsessebe,  leche,  buffalo,  koodoo,  nakong,  and  antelope. 
Birds,  whick  are  extremely  numerous,  comprise  the  turtle-dove,  ibisy 
fish -hawk,  plover,  white -necked  raven,  parrots,  weavers,  francolins, 
guinea-fowls,  iguano,  speckled  king-fisher,  bee-eater,  swallow,  sand- 
marten ;  white  pelicans,  in  flocks  of  three  nundred  at  a  time,  following 
each  other  in  long-extending  line ;  clouds  of  a  black  shell-eating  bird, 
called  linongolo ;  snipes,  curlews,  and  herons  without  number ;  the 
stately  flamingo,  the  Numidian  crane,  gulls,  waders,  black  geese,  ducks ; 
kala,  ardelta,  crow,  marabou,  and  the  strange-loolui^  scissor-biU  with 
snow-white  breast,  jet-black  coat,  and  red  beak,  sittmg  by  day  on  the 
sandbanks,  the  very  picture  of  comfort  and  repose.  Crocodiles  in  vast 
numbers  frequent  the  rivers,  with  water-turtles  of  great  size.  North 
of  the  Bakwam  country  are  found  occasionally  huge  land-tortoises,  which, 
with  their  unlaid  eggs,  make  a  very  agreeable  dish.  The  serpents  attain 
here  an  enormous  size,  and  are  often  highly  venomous ;  while  others  are 
harmless  and  even  edible,  as  the  huge  python  and  tari,  which  not  un- 
frequently  are  from  15  to  20  feet  long.  Fish  of  many  species  abound  in 
the  larger  rivers,  and  during  the  rainy  season  are  seen  descending  in 
immense  shoals,  especially  in  the  Zambesi  and  the  Chobe.  The  great 
scourge  of  the  country  is  the  tsetse  fly,  whose  bite  is  fatal  to  the  ox, 
horse,  and  dog,  but  perfectly  harmless  to  man  and  wild  animals,  as  also 
to  the  mule,  ass,  and  goat.  The  climate  being  tropical,  and  the  country 
well  watered,  all  nature  teems  with  life  ;  and  though  the  lower  grounds 
are  in  general  unhealthy  to  Europeans,  there  are  numerous  spots  in  which 
the  white  man  can  reside  with  impunity.  On  the  whole,  the  discovery 
of  this  immense  and  fertile  tract  of  country  forms  the  most  important 
contribution  to  geographical  science  that  has  been  made  in  modem  times. 
The  ereat  Bechuana  family  of  nations,  isolated  for  ages  from  the  civilised 
world,  and  constantiy  at  war  with  one  another,  destitute  alike  of  the 
blessings  of  Christianity  and  the  use  of  letters,  stand  far  hi^er  in  the 
scale  of  humanity  than  Euxo^^easxa  1[^  '^t^viouslY  any  conception  oL 


EAST   AFUCA. 


.    .     _  nsidenible  propCTt  in  rtnnr  of  lbs  m 

fal  uts.  indndiiig  Ui>t  of  ■gncnltnre ;  ibey  an  lamDnihiT  dupoMd  ti 
waidi  Enfrtishmen,  with  irbom  Uiey  ue  ready  to  engiTB  In  coniincrca  i 
and,  thon^  lununally  destitute  of  the  relifriiMiB  feeline,  Uey  hiTe  eriDml 

thodr '     — -'^-  --    --■ ._.v_*_..-i.._.,^  _.    .      - 

thatc 
lAter  Discorerie 

liyMrC.  IJTingBtcne,  Dr  Kirk,  Mid  Mr  Rae,  (need  the  ri' 

its  conflucnn  with  the  Zainb»^  ■  point  midway  between  8«BA  and  tht 
apex  of  the  delta,  up  to  its  point  of  deputnre  mm  Lain  Nyasaa  (lagni- 
fyinc  "  Lake  of  ttw  Stars  "|.  The  soathetn  extremity  of  ths  lain  is  bt 
lat  11°  Sy  S.  Its  elflVBtion  above  the  aea  ii  mnch  leea  than  tlut  of 
Itikt  Tanganyika,  the  lOQthem  end  of  whieh  is  in  lat.  7°  SO*  S.  (sm  jl 
4451;  bntDr  Lirinastone  conld  not  then  poaitiTely  say  whether  any,  or 
wha^  ocamection  inbusts  between  them.  Another  luge  body  of  mUx 
-wmter,  named  l«ke  Shirwa,  90  m.  long  by  40  broad,  is  sitnated  a  few 
miles  to  the  ea«t  of  L&ke  Nyaua,  being  M^anted  bom  it  by  a  narrow 
iitlinins,  over  which  all  the  trade  from  the  interior  to  the  eout  most  of 
neCTsmty  cross.  It  is  at  this  pmnt  that  Dr  Livingstone  thinks  the  ex- 
portation of  slaves  may  most  easily  lie  diecked.  At  the  ]ioint  of  egnn 
from  Lake  Ilyassa,  the  Shir4  is  a  magnifieent  liver,  vaijing  from  80  to 
150  yards  wide,  IS  ft.  deep,  and  mnning  at  the  rate  of  2{  knots  an  honr. 
Eicept  for  about  33  m.  of  rapids,  it  is  navigable  througboDt  its  entin 
conrae,  while  the  adjacent  conntry  eiyoyB  a  highly  salnbrioua  cliniateb 
with  a  soil  capable  of  jiroducing  anything  that  can  grow  in  troidcd 
nglont.  The  natives  are  intelligent,  and  actively  engaged  in  ^ricnltnra, 
eapedaUy  cotton,  which  the  explorers  declare  is  of  foreign  ongin.  The 
worst  feature  about  them  ii  their  frequent  drunkenness,  from  the  over- 
use of  native  beer  and  Indian  faemp.  Until  slavery,  however,  is  abolished, 
the  rvsoDTcea  of  the  coimtry  can  be  of  no  use  to  Enropeim  nations — all 
^timate  commerce  being  efTeotually  paralysed  by  this  master-evil  of  tha 


i 


EAST     AFRICA. 


fnDBR  tliis  deugnation  i 
eastern  coB£t  of  the 
the  Gulf  of  Aden. 


comprehended  all  the  counlrien  on 
lying  between  Delagoa  Bay 


Bonndaries. — It  h  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Zulu  land  and  the 

Transvaal  Gepublic ;  on  the  E.  by  the  Indian  Ocean ;  on  the  N. 

by  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  Abyssinia ;   and  on  the  W.  h^  the 

— '"i  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  unexplored  territoneB  of 

■al  Africa.     It  thus  extends  from  lat.  26°  Itf  a  to  lat  ll" 

Nt  embracing  s  coost^line  of  upwards  of  3500  m.,  with  a 

adth  varying  from  200  m.  in  the  S.  to  SOO  m.  in  the  N. 

rea  and  Population. — These,  in  the  present  imperfect  state  nt 

ir  knowledge,  cannot  be  given  with  anj  sy^TOfcc^Vt  awwaa^-.^roN. 


496  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

maltiplying  the  length  by  the  average  breadth,  we  have  an  area  of 
upwards  of  1,979,425  sq.  m.;  while  the  total  population  may  be 
roughly  estimated  at  22,000,000. 

SurflEUie,  ftc. — The  eastern  coast  of  intertropical  Africa  strikingly 
corresponds  with  the  western.  On  both  sides  the  traveller  meets 
with  tne  same  maritime  plain  of  rank  and  exuberant  vegetation,  cut 
by  streams  disemboguing  into  the  ocean  ;  the  same  expanse  of  stony 
ridges  and  uplands,  running  parallel  with  the  coasts,  and  curiously 
resembling,  both  in  direction  and  position,  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Ghkts  of  tne  Dakhan  ;  the  same  diseases,  which  have  the  same  effect 
on  the  European  constitution  ;  the  same  alternation  of  damp,  cold, 
and  depressing  heat ;  the  same  sensation  of  invincible  lan^or  and 
oppression.  Moreover,  the  fauna,  many  of  them  peculiar  to  Africa, 
are  identical — lions  and  leopards,  elephants  and  hippopotami,  zebras 
and  buffaloes,  giraffes,  antelopes,  and  crocodiles.  The  ethnographic 
characteristics  are  also  analogous — the  same  cruel  despotisms,  eternal 
feuds,  and  bloody  rites ;  the  same  exports  and  imports — the  one  con- 
sisting of  slaves  and  ivory,  and  the  other  of  piece  goods  and  wires, 
cowries  and  beads ;  the  same  sort  of  dress — unbleached  cotton,  skins, 
or  grass  kilts ;  and  the  same  diet — ^goats*  flesh,  poultry,  river-fish, 
holcus,  manioc,  and  pulse. 

Political  and  Geographical  Divisions.— In  the  extreme  south  are 
the  settlements  of  the  Portuguese,  whose  authority  extends  from 
Delagoa  Bay  to  Cape  Delgado,  where  they  lay  claim  to  an  area  of 
382,700  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  300,000  (?).  The  greater  part  of 
the  seaboard  N.  of  tne  Portuguese  dominions  is  tributary  to  the 
Sultan  of  Zanzibar,  whose  capital,  Shanganny,  is  situated  in  the  popu- 
lous  island  of  Zanzibar.  His  territory  on  this  coast  is  said  to  embrace 
an  area  of  706,725  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  10,000,000.  Still 
farther  N.  are  the  Gallas  and  the  Somfl<li  country,  extending  to  the 
Gulf  of  Aden— area  890,000  (?),  population  about  12,000,000. 

SoFALA  and  Mozambique. — Sofala  8,  Inhambane  (coast),  Lanbo, 
Sena,  Tet^  4,  Zumbo  (Zambesi,  Mozambique  9,  Quilliman4  (Chan- 
nel of  Mozambique). 

Zanguebar.  —  Shanganny  60  (I.  Zanzibar),  Quiloa,  Mombas, 
Lamoo,  Patta,  Juba,  Brava  5,  Magadoxo  4  (coast),  Gkdwen  10 
(Haines). 

Somali  Country. — Bad  (E.  coast),  Berberah  (G.  of  Aden). 

Gallas  Country. — Melinda  (Co.  of  Zanguebar),  Har^  (Webbe), 
Zeyla  (G.  of  Aden),*  Bonga  (Sobat,  qffl.  Nile). 

Descriptive  Kotes. — Sofala,  cap.  of  a  Portuguese  government  of  tame 
name,  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Ophir  oi  King  Solomon — ^it  being 
the  port  of  Manica,  tne  best  gold  country  in  Eastern  AMca.  It  oonaiiti 
chiefly  of  mud  huts,  and  is  protected  by  a  fort  Inhambaaei  tlie  bealiiii- 
est  of  the  Portuguese  stations  in  Eastern  Africa:  it  eirooirti  ivonrand 
bees'-wax.  Sena  or  Senna,  midway  between  Tete  and  QaaUmiaB,  via 
the  former  cap.  of  the  Portuguese  dominions  in  Eastern  Atda^  but  ^ 
now  in  a  ruinous  condition.    It  is  a  slave-mart,  and  very  imliMltiiy :  lit 

*  Zeyla  Is  now  claimed  by  lEgypL 


EAST   AFRICA.  497 


K  is  thB  monntem  Mommbala,  from  3000  to  400n  ft.  high.  Teti  ot  TettS, 
cap.  of  a  Portugueaa  government,  nowmnchdaolioedfrom  its  former  jiro- 
iperitj,  contains  a,  fort  with  a  few  guns.  Dr  Liviiigstone  considers  it  very 
healthy.  Gold-dust  in  small  quantities  is  found  in  the  vicinity,  together 
-with  rich  seams  of  coal  and  some  Ironstone.  Sozambiqns,  a  foTtifled 
maritime  vity,  and  the  cap,  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Eastern 
Africa,  is  situated  on  an  island  near  the  coast.  It  eiports  ivory,  gold- 
j — 1  — j  slaves  hronght  down  from  the  regions  of  the  Upper  ZambeaS. 
_in6,  cap.  of  a  Portugnese  government,  was  visited  by  Dr  Living- 
□  1856,  who  describes  it  aa  a  mere  village,  extremely  unhealthy, 
being  huilt  on  amud-bniik  and  smroundEil  byextfinaive  swanips  and  riee- 
RTOunds.  It  contains  a  fort,  and  has  a  trade  m  gold,  ivory,  and  especially 
m  slaves ;  coal  of  good  quality  is  plentifuL  ShRnganny  or  Zanzibar, 
cap.  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar's  poaseasiona  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  is 
situated  in  the  populous  island  of  Zanaibar.  It  contains  a  wooden  tort, 
snd  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  vdth  Arabia  and  the  ports  in  the  Bed 
fiea,  eiiporting  ivory,  sharlts'  fins,  sandal-wood,  amber.  sloUs,  and  cocoa- 
nnts.  It  is  indeed  the  chief  market  in  the  world  for  the  supply  of  ivory, 
gum-copal,  and  cloves.  It  is  unhealthy  for  Europeans,  the  annual  fall  of 
rain  being  about  167  inches.    QuilOEt,  on  an  island  off  the  coast,  is  the 

Srincipal  town  of  a  province  of  same  name  under  the  rule  of  theSuitan  ot 
anzibar.  Once  an  important  town,  it  is  noiv  a  mere  village.  UombM, 
a  small  town  on  an  island  near  the  shore,  was  visited  by  Vasco  de  Gama 
Id  1497  :  it  is  now  a  missionaiT  station.  KagadoiO,  cap,  of  a  state, 
which  is  snbject  to  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar,  Is  the  chief  commercial  entre- 
pot between  Cape  Guardafui  and  the  river  Juba,  fierheiaJi,  a  seaport 
in  the  SomSli  country,  has  a  great  annual  fair  frequented  by  merchants 
from  Arabia,  India,  and  other  parts  of  Asia.  Kellnda,  a  seaport  town 
on  the  coast  of  Zangnebar,  belongs  to  the  Gallas.  Ewrar,  the  principal 
place  of  the  Galla  toontry,  exports  coffee,  slaves,  gum,  and  myrrh,  oy 
way  of  its  port  Zejla.     Both  are  now  subject  to  Egypt. 

"-\frica," 

CUnute  and  FroductB, — Soutli  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  ur  in 
the  region  eitcnding  from  Natal  to  Cape  CorrienteB,  the  climata 
approaches  cloaoly  to  tlint  of  Cape  Colony ;  eveijrwhere  else  it  is 
tropical,  and  is  characterised  bj  extreme  heat,  periodical  raina.  anil 
i;reat  insalubrity.     The  island  Zanzibar  is  noted  for  its  c- 


butniditf,  the 
which  bring  the  heaviest : 
from  tha  Indian  Ocean,  -^ 
The  principal  mineral- 
gold-dust,  which  is  Ivi. 
Sofala ;  copper,  rich  ■ 
Mozambiijue ;  and  aujl 
"■it  portion  of  the  nuii. 
nea  to  achonw's  ■ 
idy  desoribed  nnd' : 
.ion,  together  with  r' 
ith  region  of  that  nsti. 
V  chftTBrteriatio  vege  1  ■  ■ 
f  «7),  wid  toLiviiv/ 


sr:!, 


.67ini!he».    Tbe  w 


498  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the  basin  of  the  Zambesi  already 
given  in  full  (p.  494).  The  elephant  and  lion  inhabit  the  gorges  of 
Mozambique;  crocodiles  abound  in  the  rivers.  For  the  peculiar 
zoology  of  Madagascar,  see  p.  442. 

Ethnography. — The  natives  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  and  in- 
land as  far  as  the  great  lakes,  are  regarded  by  Burton  and  Speke  as 
belonging  to  the  great  Kaffir  or  South  African  family,  and  as  occupy- 
ing a  mean  position  between  the  Syro- Arabian  races  of  the  Barbary 
States  and  the  aborigines  of  Nigritia. 

They  are  closely  allied  by  blood,  language,  and  other  analogies,  to  the 
natives  residing  in  the  basin  of  the  Zambesi;  and  extend  from  Cape 
Delgado  to  the  equator,  where  they  come  in  contact  with  the  Gallas  and 
SomMi.  "They  are  all,"  says  Captain  Burton,  "similar  in  appearance 
and  cognate  in  idiom,  although  the  difference  of  vocabulary  renders  neigh- 
bouring tribes  unintelligible  to  each  other. "  The  group  of  dialects  spoken 
by  them  has  been  termed  the  Zangian  family  of  languages,  which  radi- 
cally differs  from  Ihe  Syro- Arabian  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Nigro- 
Hamitic  on  the  other  (see  p.  450).  Interiorly,  they  extend,  according  to 
Biurton,  into  the  central  regions  of  intertropical  AMca.  The  Gallas  and 
SomMi  belong  to  Erapf's  Nilotic  class.  Arabs  are  numerous  in  the 
dominions  of  the  Imam  of  Muscat,  while  a  few  Europeans  are  found  in 
the  Portuguese  territories.  For  the  Ethnography  of  Af  adagascar,  see  at 
p.  442. 

Commerce,  See, — A  considerable  traffic  in  slavea,  ivory,  and  tropi- 
cal products  is  carried  on  with  the  interior,  but  the  commercial  rela- 
tions are  chiefly  with  Arabia.  Shanganny,  cap.  of  Zanzibar,  and 
the  residence  of  its  Sultan,  is  the  great  mart  for  the  supply  of  ivory, 
gum-copal,  and  cloves.  The  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  alone 
produce  annually  no  less  than  £80,000  worth  of  cloves.  Cloves  were 
introduced  into  Zanzibar  from  Mauritius  in  1880,  and  the  produc- 
tion here  is  now  so  great  that  the  vtdue  of  the  article  has  been  re- 
duced about  70  per  cent.  The  total  exports  of  the  former  island,  in 
1863,  amounted  to  £500,000  (embracing,  in  addition  to  the  above, 
cocoa-nut  oil,  seeds,  &c.) ;  while  the  imports  (consisting  of  Indian 
manufactured  goods,  beads,  arms,  &c.)  amounted  to  £560,000.  The 
nefarious  traffic  in  slaves  is  still  vigorously  carried  on  in  Mozambique 
and  Sofala,  in  spite  of  the  endeavours  of  uie  Portuguese  Government 
to  suppress  it.  A  great  trade  in  slaves,  gums,  ffpiceSp  and  coffee,  is 
also  carried  on  at  Harar,  in  the  country  of  the  Gallas.  The  i^and 
Socotra  is  famous  for  aloes,  and  gives  name  to  the  finest  aloes  of 
commerce,  which  is  very  scarce  in  England,  as  tiie  greater  part  of  the 
extract  obtained  in  Europe  under  the  name  of  Socotrine  afoes  is  pro- 
duced at  Melinda,  on  the  Zanguebar  coast. 


REGION  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 

Under  this  designation  we  include  the  npper  barin  o' 
and  the  district  around  Lake  Tanganyikai  extendii^ 


REGION   OP  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 


4D9 


» 


Bouthem  fcontierof  Nnbio  to  the  lOlh  degree  of  aoutli  lat.,  being 
the  region  recently  explored  by  Captains  Burton,  Speke,  and 
Grant ;  Baker,  Peuiericfc,  Stanley,  and  Cameron. 

Bonndaries.— N.,  Nubia  and  Kordofan  ;  W.,  the  unexplored 
regions  of  Central  Africa  ;  S.,  the  Biisin  of  the  Zambese  ;  E., 
Zangnebar  and  the  uountry  of  the  Gallas ;  lat.  11°  N. — 10°  S. ; 
Ion.  27°— 37"  E. 

It  thui  embraces  21°  of  lat  and  half  ns  tnany  of  loc.  The  ei^nator, 
Khich  posBss  through  the  centre,  cnta  C.  Lopei  in  Western  AfncH,  L. 
Tictoiia  Nyauza,  ths  islands  Sumatra  and  Bomec,  Quitfl,  and  the  mouth 
ot  the  riTer  Ajnaran. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  mny  be  approximately  estimntcil 
—  780,000  aq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  10,500,000,  or  eeven  times 

e  oreai  of  the  British  Isles,  with  oue-third  their  population. 

PoIlUesl  DlTlslonB. — These  cannot  be  given  as  yet  with  any  degree 
|af  Biactitnde,  owing  to  onr  imperfect  acquointauce  with  the  country, 
^d  tha  brief  aojoura  there  of  the  distingnished  travellers  above 
Duned.  One  or  the  largest  kingdoms  in  the  interior  of  Africa  is 
Dnyamneri,  S.  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  of  abont  the  same  size  as 
Scotland.  West  of  this  state,  but  on  the  E.  side  of  Lake  Tangan- 
yika, is  the  country  of  Hjiji.  The  shores  of  this  lake  were  survByed 
by  Lieutenant  Cameron  in  187*,  who  found  that  it  has  an  outlet 
on  its  western  side,  named  the  Lukuga.  Thia  river  he  has  traced  to 
its  confluence  nith  the  Lualaba,  which,  he  has  no  doubt  forms  the 
head-waters  of  the  Congo.  Between  the  Lakes  Yictoria  Nyanza  and 
jUbertNyanaiare  the  small  stattB  of  Uganda,  Korsgue,  andUnyoro; 
S.  of  the  Victoria  Lake  are  Dzinza  and  Usukuma;  and  on  the  E. 
side,  Ururi,  Ugeyeya,  and  Usofta.  The  E.  half  of  tha  npper  baain 
of  die  NUe,  as  far  S,  as  the  equator,  has  been  wrested  by  Egypt 
from  theG^laa.  This  powerful  and  warlike  people,  after  aubjuj^ating 
a  large  portion  of  the  SomUi  country,  have  penetrated  into  the  in- 
terior, crossed  the  Nile  near  its  eources,  and  in  the  rich  pasture-lands 
ofUnyort^  between  the  two  great  lakes,  have  founded  the  great  king- 
dom of  Kittara,  Here  they  have  lost  their  religion,  forgotten  theii' 
language,  and  changed  their  national  name  to 'Wohuma,  no  longer  re- 
isembering  the  name  of  Gallas.  Beferring  the  reader  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  head-waters  of  the  Nile,  and  [he  lakes  forming  or  con- 
tiguous to  its  source,  to  the  artiole  "Afrioil"  ^.  M4),  we  diall  hero 
^ve  a  brief  epitome  of  the  principal  disooreiiea  of  Button  and  Speke 
la  this  region ; — 
_  On  the  6lli  of  Fi'branrT  lKi7.  Cmitmri!  Riirton  nw!  ."^i.tlie  S£t  oul  from 


500  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

people  are  industrious  *  the  husband  and  children  labour  in  the  fields  and 
tend  the  cattle,  while  tne  women  provide  wood  and  water,  pound  the  com 
in  a  mortar,  bake  the  bread,  and  take  care  of  the  younu?.  Both  sexes, 
however,  are  described  as  dirty,  diseased,  and  ill  fed.  The  siUtan,  who  ^^ 
is  named  Kimwere,  rules,  like  African  kings  generally,  by  t^e  sale  of  his 
subjects.  He  is  a  thorough  despot,  and  sells  without  remorse  man  and 
woman,  gentle  and  simple,  by  families  and  hv  villages.  He  has  a  body- 
guard of  400  musketeers ;  his  person  is  sacred,  and  even  a  runaway  slave 
IS  pardoned  if  successful  in  touching  his  majesty.  Having  finished  this 
experimental  journey,  our  travellers  returned  to  Pangajii,  a  place  of  con- 
siderable commerce ;  for  besides  Zanzibar  rafters  (which  are  cut  in  the 
river),  holcus,  maize,  and  ghee,  it  exports  annually  to  Zanzibar  about 
35,000  lb.  of  ivory,  the  finest  and  largest  in  the  world ;  1760  lb.  of  black 
rhinoceros  horn,  and  160  lb.  of  hippopotamus-teeth.  On  the  26th  June 
1857,  and  after  the  rainy  season  had  terminated,  they  left  Zanzibar  on 
their  great  journey  into  the  interior.  Their  party  consisted  of  twelve 
Bilucms,  furnished  by  the  Sultan  of  Muscat,  some  ne^es  who  had  been 
slaves,  and  asses  for  the  transport  of  goods  and  for  ridmg.  Reaching  the 
mainland  at  Bagamoyo  (lat.  o**),  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Kingani,  they 
proceeded  along  the  coast  to  Eaole,  10  m.  farther  S.,  and  thence  westwam 
into  the  interior.  Passing  over  the  low  hilly  country  called  M'rima,  they 
entered  the  coast-range  of  mountains,  here  called  the  Rubeho  chain,  which 
rises  to  a  maximum  altitude  of  5646  ft.,  with  a  width  of  about  90  m., 
and  composed  of  sandstone  and  crystalline  rocks.  Crossing  this  range 
through  the  Gomo  Pass,  2200  ft.  hi^h,  and  120  m.  from  the  coast,  they 
began  their  descent  to  the  great  intenor  plateau,  which  is  at  a  much  lower 
leveL  Travelling  over  some  poor  lands,  they  reached  a  rich  country  in 
which  knolls  or  bosses  of  granite  and  basalt  rise  up  like  rocks  in  an  ocean. 
This  country  is  exclusively  peopled  by  negroes,  none  of  whom  are  Mo- 
hammedans, like  the  Som&lis  and  trading  Arabs  of  the  coast ;  but,  like 
the  negroes  described  by  Livingstone,  they  have  no  special  religion,  trust- 
ing solely  to  good  and  evil  spirits.  Such  of  them  as  have  sultans  are  on 
the  whole,  peaceable — firearms  being  rare  among  them.  Their  country 
produces  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  sweet-potatoes,  a  great  variety  of  pulses, 
manioc,  yams,  plantains,  and  melons.  They  have  made  considerable 
advances  in  civilisation,  manufacture  iron,  produce  cotton  fabrics,  have 
abundance  of  cows  and  goats,  and  live  in  comparative  comfort.  The 
climate,  however,  is  very  prejudicial  to  Europeans :  at  Zim^omero,  in 
Khutu,  lat.  5°  S.,  and  about  200  m.  from  the  coast.  Captain  Burton  was 
seized  with  an  intermittent  fever,  which  prostrated  him  for  20  days,  and 
almost  every  man  belonging  to  his  party  came  by  turns  asking  meidicixie ; 
but  at  Ugogo,  some  distance  farther  to  the  W.,  where  the  elevatioii  is 
greater,  the  climate  is  reported  to  be  clear  and  healthy.  From  Xai6|  in 
Unyanyemb^,  a  spot  where  the  Arab  traders  have  established  a  sort  ol 
mart,  and  where  articles  from  the  coast  are  bartered  for  ivoiv  and  sUvas, 
the  travellers  moved  westerly  until  they  reached  the  long  inland  mass  ol 
water  trending  S.  to  N. ,  the  name  of  which  is  Tanganyika.  It  was  ctossed 
by  Speke  in  me  centre,  and  navigated  coi^'ointly  with  Burton  to  nesr  its 
northern  end,  where  it  is  surrounded  by  mountains  ranging  from  6000  to 
7000  ft.  in  altitude.  Possessing  no  known  outlet,*  its  waters  areperfBcUy 
fresh  and  agreeable ;  it  abounds  in  delicious  fish,  while  its  basks  an 
grazed  by  red  oxen  with  stupendously  long  horns.  O^m,  indood,  an 
common  over  nearly  all  the  region  examined,  for  the  isetm  ftj,  fha  seoiw 
of  the  more  southern  African  countries,  is  here  whoUr  viikiiown.  "^ 
western  shores  of  the  laWe  axe  ^^'^  aii^  VAiuQL^s&al,  siracding  manj 
reizient  harbours,  and  Tequxnx^^  W^i  aUXM^^  v^Xa  laikib^fik^gifiii^  v 

♦  But  Ba»V.  *«"**• 


REGION    OF   THE   GKEAT  1 


tniB  Whita  Nile. 

........   .     „  "  13  fnmoua  ti 

HonrcB  of  the  Nils  Uiua  discoveicd,  but  wi 
with  the  key  that  unlocka  the  iini" 


Setuniing  to  their  chief  central  station  in  UuyanyHnb*, 
Spefca  left  his  inVBlid  commnion,  in  order  to  reach  the  great  Ibmb  Victoria 
NyanHi,  ths  position  of  which  had  been  pointed  ont  to  him  by  the  Arabs, 
who  asaerteil  that  it  vaa  much  longer  ancL  larser  than  Tanganyika,  from 
which  it  lies  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  and  at  a  distance  of  240  m. 
The  Victoria  Lake  la  aitnated  nnder  the  eqnatOI,  ita  S.  extremity  being 
in  2°  ate  S.  laL  It  ia  upwards  of  300  m.  long,  about  90  m.  broad,  and 
ahoQt  3800  ft.  aboTe  the  Bea-level.  It  ia  studded  with  numeroua  islands, 
and  its  waters  are  sweet  and  good.  It  receivea  a  multitude  of  rivets  on 
all  sides,  eave  its  N.  extremity,  at  which  it  discharges  iU  surplus  waten 
by  the  KiTira  (or  Masaba),  which  Gipt  Speke  believed  to  be  ths  White 
Hile.  Baker,  however,  has  since  provcil  that  the  Maeabs,  after  flowing 
N.W.  for  about  250  ni.,  enters  the  N.E.  corner  of  another  huge  lake, 
which  he  has  named  the  Albert  Nj-anza,  in  honour  of  the  lata  Prince 
Consort ;  that  a  short  distance  from  its  entrance  into  the  lake,  it  again 
a  mighty  riyer,  flowing  due  N. ;  and  that  this  river  is  the 
*'-■'-       To  Speke,  therefore,  belongs  the  immortal  honour 

r.i..,  r 1 —      ^jj^  jigj  ijjjjy  jj  the  main 

I  at  the  same  time  supplied 
.  stery  connected  with  that 

eciodical  innndations,  on  which,  for  ages,  so  much  fruit- 
a  been  expended.  Tbe  rainy  season  in  the  region  im- 
mediately 8.  of  the  two  lakes  commences  on  the  15th  November,  and  ends 
on  the  ISth  May,  during  which  period  of  six  months  the  rain  falls  in  an 
slinost  continuous  downpour,  flooding  all  the  rivers  ov 
area  of  country.  The  Nile  b^ns  to  nse  in  Egjitt  about 
Ktice,  and  attains  ita  greatest  height  almut  the  autumnal 

ingdue  allowance  fortlie  time  required  to  fill  these  enon 

and  forthe  great  length  of  the  jonniey  which  tlieir  waters  must  tr 
before  they  arrive  in  Ejppt,  there  appears  no  real  discrepancy  b( 
the  respective  seasons  of  llie  two  phenomena— the  rainy  season  und 
equator,  and  the  rise  of  the  Nile  in  Lower  Egypt. 

Cuneron'a  DisooTeries, — Lieutenant  Cameron,  who  wo»  sent  i 
aenrch  of  Dr  Livingstone,  arriveil  at  TJjiji  in  Pebmaty 
.  careful  survey  of  the  S.  and  W.  shores  of  Tanganyika,  hs  found,  to  bis 
great  joy,  that  the  lake  has  an  outlet,  named  the  Lukuga,  on  its  wexteru 
side,  about  lat.  6°  S.  He  was  informed  the  Liikugn  flowed  into  the  Lua- 
laba.  which,  accotding  to  Livingstone,  issiies  from  Lake  Baogweolo,  and 

ED«eeda  N.W.  tlirou^  Lakes  Uoero  and  Kamolonda.    Contrair  i^  il— 
lief  of  Livingstone,  Cameron  showa  that  the  Lnalabo  cannot  now  in 
the  Nile,  inasmuch  as  the  latter,  even  at  Gondokoro,  is  EOO  feet  aboTS  tb 
level  of  the  Lunlnba  ti  Nyongwe.    After  making  this  notable  discovei 
Cameron  pm^ued  bli  caimB  weatwanl  thiough  the  ^reat  valley  at  ' 

Lualaba,  which  be  dBscrflK:i  lu  a  iiuiLjidlktHt  aj-  -■  •  -  ■'' ■—  -■ 

—  eakaWe  ri.'l,..f,  i  i..- ■ 
-■entll...! 


After  a 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


NORTH    AMERICA. 

1.  Position  and  Boundaries.  —  Including  Greenland  and 
Central  America,  this  large  division  of  the  globe  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  on  the  W.  ana  S.  by  the  Pacific ; 
and  on  the  £.  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends  &om 
the  7th  to  about  the  82d  degree  of  N.  lat.,  and  from  the  20th  to 
the  168th  degree  of  W.  Ion.,  thus  embracing  76°  of  lat.  and  148° 
of  Ion. 

North  America  lies  wholly  within  the  northern  hemisphere,  having  its 
southern  extremity  within  seven  degrees  of  the  equator,  and  its  northern 
within  about  the  same  number  from  the  north  pole.  Of  the  six  great 
continents  of  the  globe  it  is  the  third  in  size,  and  the  fourth  as  regEuda 
population. 

2.  Forxii,  Coast-Line,  and  Extreme  Points. — The  general  form  of 
the  continental  portion  is  that  of  a  scalene  triangle,  with  the  longest 
side  fronting  the  Pacific,  and  the  shortest  the  Atiantio.  If  a  line  be 
drawn  from  G.  Prince  of  Wales  in  Behring  Strait  to  C.  Charles  in 
Labrador,  we  have  approximately  the  line  of  the  Arctic  coast,  front- 
ing the  N.K  Then  if  we  connect  the  extremities  of  this  line  with 
Acapulco  in  Mexico,  we  shall  have  the  other  two  sides. 

The  mainland  rarely  extends  farther  north  than  the  70ih  paralle^  being 
separated  from  the  great  American  Ard)ii)elago  by  Hudson  Strait,  Fox 
Channel,  Gulf  of  Boothia,  Bellot  Strait,  Franklin  Channel,  Yictaria 
Strait,  Dease  Strait,  and  Coronation  Gulf;  nor  farther  east  than  Cape 
Charles  in  Labrador,  in  Ion.  55**  3(y  W.  Great  Salt  Lake,  near  the. cen- 
tre of  this  area,  is  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  with  New  ToiIl  Mad- 
rid, Rome,  Constantinople,  and  Peking ;  and  on  the  same  metrioiau  as 
Great  Slave  Lake,  Cape  San  Lucas,  and  Easter  Island  in  Polynesia.  Tbm 
extreme  length,  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Cape  Lisbnm,  in  Aliaska, 
is  about  5600  m. ;  the  extreme  breadth,  from  Cape  Canso,  in  Move  Scotia^ 
to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Oregon,  3120  m.  Murchison  Promontoiyy  in 
Boothia  Felix,  lat.  72'',  is  the  most  northern  point  of  tiie  continent ;  Ctaipa 
Prince  of  Wales,  in  Behring  Strait,  Ion.  168*  W.,  the  moat  westam: 
Mariato  Point,  in  the  Bay  of  Panam^  lat.  7°  11',  the  most  aootham;  and 
Cape  Charles,  in  Labrador,  Ion.  ^^"^  4Q'  W.,  the  most  eastern.  Jjwwdhig 
the  larger  indentations,  the  co;];s\.Am«\&  ^i^maX^v^^fioKsoX^MIi^m.,^  V 


r 


503 

1  m.  of  aeiboard  for  every  365  m.  of  suif&ce ;  wliile  Europe  has  1  for 
erer;  225  m.  The  Arctic  and  Atlantic  coasts  are  nearty  equal  in  length, 
Uid  ore  aiike  ia  having  each  one  great  and  many  amallei-  indentatiaiis. 
Tha  Pacific  coast  is  much  langur,  and  is  unlike  the  others  in  having  but 
few  indentations,  while  its  solitary  iuloiid  sea  (the  G.  of  California)  id 
narrow,  and  parallel  to  tbe  coast. 

3.  Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  still  very  uncertain,  but, 
includiug  Greenland,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America,  it  i» 
eatimatBd  at  8,G91,1S7  ai^.  m.,  or  2]  timp^  the  size  of  Europe,  and 
;  of  the  British  Isles.     Tbe  popnlation,  according  to  the 
ot  the  varioasstates,  Binount3_tp68,900,iI8,or  a 


EtUe  more  than  i 
ther  more  than  six  persona  tc 
4.  Polltloal  Dlvlaiona, — The  total  nnmbar  of  separate  and  inde- 

Bndent  states  is  about  76  ;  but  if  we  regard  the  United  States,  the 
ixican  Confederation,  and  tbe  West  Indies  as  one  state  each,  the 
number  wiU  be  reduced  to  eleven.  The  following  table  coutains  the 
name,  position,  area,  population,  capital,  and  other  particulars  of  the 
dilFerent  states : — 


Table  op  North  American  States 

._.„^™,. 

K^JU 

S^ 

' 

'^B,^'^ 

British  H.America,  la 

B,MS,4M 

a.8so,isi 

OtUwa,  *o. 

Ottswi 

of  Brit  N.  America, 
DDited  SUM.  S.    Df 

Brit.  X.  America, 
Me.iiaDCocftd..a.W. 

SBD.OOD 
3.Mfl.SS4 
773, 1 S6 

S8,»a5,S99 

9, 270. ore 

ELW.  coaat. 
Poloin.OL 

kteileo. 

1 

Csntnl  America,  ft.E. 
MexIcBDConrsd,— 

GuiMmtli,    .    . 
Eondonn.  N.E.    at 

Ban  Salvador,     . 
Ni^aeai,  ati.   of 

GoiURIea,'8.B  of 

De^lTT-BritW, 
HanilBnui,N.E.Ot 

W«tIlirti«.E-'»tb«.-» 
tralAmertat.    .    .  f 

(188.aM) 
M.JTT 

4",«1 

[l.M5,110) 

i,m.m 

6UQ.O0D 

asLroo 

UoDlaguiL 

L  lIopBDgO. 

i 
■ 

M.1S7 

!i,m 

M,OM 

I39.C00 

«.Tie 

SuiJoai. 
"•Tam.Ac 

Uke  Leon. 
RioGruide. 

N.W.«o.Cnl«. 

I 

504  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

5.  Snr&ce. — The  surface  of  North  America  consists  of  three  widely 
dissimilar  regions — a  western,  an  eastern,  and  a  centraL  The  first, 
or  western,  forms  the  great  backbone  of  the  continent,  consisting  of 
one  enormous  highland,  extending  without  interruption  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  the  north  to  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and 
continued  thence,  though  lower  and  less  regular,  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama. 

This  plateau,  which  is  of  very  moderate  elevation  in  the  north,  increases 
in  height  as  we  advance  southward,  till,  in  the  lat.  of  Acapnlco,  it  reaches 
8000  ft.,  and  then  descends  rapidly  towards  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  It 
attains  its  greatest  width  about  the  40th  parallel,  where  its  elevation  is 
about  5000  feet.  The  plateau  is  fringed  on  either  side  and  throughout 
its  entire  length  by  a  gigantic  mountain-range — that  on  the  eastern  side 
being  called  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  that  on  the  western  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges.  In  general^  the  moimtains  attain  their  lofti- 
est elevations  where  the  plateau  sustainmg  them  has  its  greatest  width ; 
but  at  both  ends  of  the  high  land  are  many  volcanoes  of  great  elevation 
— the  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  near  Mexico,  being  the  loftiest  summit  of  the 
continent  (see  under  ''Mountains").  The  Eastern  or  Atlantic  highland 
is  much  narrower  and  shorter  than  the  Western.  It  extends  from  Hud- 
son Strait,  in  Labrador,  to  the  G.  of  Mexico,  is  about  2500  m.  long,  with 
a  breadth  varying  from  150  to  200  m.,  except  in  Labrador,  where  it 
exceeds  400  m.  It  lies  opposite  the  middle  portion  of  the  pi  eat  western 
highland,  inclining  towards  it  in  the  south — ^thus  giving  a  tnaneular  form 
to  the  continent.  The  St  Lawrence  divides  it  into  two  unequal  parts— a 
northern  and  a  southern— the  latter  being  by  far  the  longer,  and  support- 
ing the  loftier  mountain-chain — ^viz.,  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  which 
attain  in  Black  Mountain  a  height  of  6707  ft. 

The  Third  Region,  or  great  Central  Plain,  extends  from  the  AlleghiUiies 
to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  triangular  in  fonn,  broad  at  the  north  and 
narrow  at  the  south,  and  embraces  several  of  the  largest  lakes  and  river- 
basins  in  the  world.  A  crescent-shaped  water-parting  about  the  parallel 
of  48°,  and  of  about  1500  ft.  in  elevation,  divides  it  into  two  ^reat  slopes 
— a  northern  and  a  southern.  The  former  has  an  average  elevation  of  from 
600  to  700  ft,  Lake  Superior,  in  the  south,  being  only  627  ft  above  the 
sea,  and  the  basin  of  the  Saskatchewan  not  much  higher.  The  southern 
slope  mainly  consists  of  the  huge  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  the  highest 
part  of  which  does  not  exceed  850  ft.,  while  its  average  height  ia  only 
about  600  ft. 

6.  Peninsulas  and  Isthmuses. — The  principal  peninsulas  are, 
Labrador  and  Nova  Scotia  on  the  E.  side  of  British  America ;  Flor- 
ida, bet.  the  Atlantic  and  G.  of  Mexico  ;  Yucatan,  bet.  G.  of 
Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea;  Lower  Califoipiia,  separatiiig  the 
Pacific  Ocean  from  the  G.  of  California ;  Aliaska,  separating  the 
Pacific  Ocean  from  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  Isthmus  of  Chigneeto, 
8  m.  wide,  connecting  Nova  Scotia  with  the  continent ;  Isthmtii  of 
Tehuantepec,  130  m.  wide,  separating  the  G.  of  Mexico  tmn,  the 
Pacific  Ocean  ;  Isthmus  of  Panama,  30  m.  wide,  conneotiiiff  Oentnl 
with  South  America.  The  remaining  isthmuses  have  no  d&tiiiBtivo 
names. 

7.  Capes  and  Islands.— Farewell,  S.  of  Greenland  ;*  C^ndli 

*  C.  Columbia,  Grant  Land  Gat.  S3*  70i  is  the  most  northem  kaowa  hr 
the  globe. 


r 

^      anil 


NORTH    AMERICA.  505 


I 


and  Cbu-lea,  tlie  N.E.  and  S.E.  extremities  of  Labrador;  Race, 
8.E.  of  Hewfoimdland  ;  Sable,  S.W.  of  Nova  Scotia;  ^nne  and 
Cod  gnard  the  entrance  of  HassachasettB  Bay  f  Hatteraa,  E.  of 
North  Carolina  ;  Sable,  8.  of  Florida ;  Cfltoohe,  N.E.  of  yncatac  ; 
Gracios  a  Dioa,  E.  of  Honduras ;  Comentes,  'W.  of  Mexico  ;  St 
Lacaa,  S.  of  Lower  California ;  Concepglon,  Meadocino,  Blanco, 
and  FlatteiT,  W.  of  tlis  United  States  ;  Newenham,  RoDumzoff, 
Prince  of  Wales  and  Lisbume  on  the  W.  coaat,  and  Icj  Cape  and 
Point  Barrow  on  the  N.  coast  of  Alastca  ;  C.  Bathurst  and  Hnr- 
diigon  Promontory  in  Hudson  Bay  Territory.  The  ifllflnda  of 
North  America  mity  be  conveniently  arranged  under  three  heaiia, 
eorreaponding  with  tha  three  oceans  in  vrhicli  tbey  are  respectively 
dtaat«d. 

In  Iht  Aniie  Ortan,— Greenland,  N.E,  of  British  Amerfoa,  from  which 
it  ia  separat»l  by  the  Greenland  Sea.  Davia  Btrait^  Baffin  Bay,  Bouth 
Bouoii,  and  Kennedy  Channel ;  the  Parry  group,  including  Grinnell  Land 
or  Elleamere  (lat.  76°  Siy— 81°  Sff),  North  Devon,  Cornwallia,  and  Mel- 
ville Island,  W.  of  Northern  Greenland;  Banks  Land,  Prinze  Albert 
Land,  Prince  of  Wales  I.,  N.  Somerset,  and  Coclihuro  I.,  between  the 
Parry  Ifl.  and  the  mainland,  h  iht  Allantie. — Newfonndlnnd,  Anticosli, 
Prince  Edward  I. ,  and  Cape  Breton,  B.  of  Labrador ;  Long  Island,  B.  E. 
of  New  York ;  the  Bermndaa,  680  ra.  E.  of  South  Carolma ;  the  West 
Indies,  between  Florida  and  South  America,  aJid  embracing  two  minor 
gnnipa—viz.,  the  Bahamas,  B.E.  of  Florida,  and  the  AntUlea,  S.  of  the 
Bahamas,  separatini;  the  Atlantic  from  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Ik  the  Faafc. 
—Vancouver  I.  and  Queen  Charlotta  I.,  W.  of  British  America;  Prince 
of  Wales  I.,  Sitka,  Kodiac,  and  Aleutian  Archipelago,  S.  of  Alaska ; 
Clark  1.,  1b  Behring  Strait 

a  BeaB,  BsjB,  and  BtraltB.— Baffin  Hay  and  Davis  Strait,  be- 
tween  Qraenland  and  the  North  American  Arcbipelago ;  Hudson 
Strait,  between  Labrador  and  the  Archipclafpi ;  Hndson  Bay  or  Sea, 
W.  of  Labrador  J  Fox  Channel,  Gulf  of  Boothia,  Bellot  Strait,  Vic- 
toria Strait,  Coronation  Gulf,  and  Prince  Albert  Sound,  between  the 
mainland  and  the  Archipelago  ;  Lancaster  Sound,  Barrow  Strait, 
and  Melville  Sound,  nejNirating  the  Farry  groap  from  Uie  gontherji 

Sirt  of  the  Archipelago  ;  Strait  of  Bslleiale,  b«tweett  Labrador  and 
ewfoundland ;  Gulf  of  St  l.nwrence,  between  Newfoundland  and 

New  Brunswick;  Bny  i''  "-■-■■'-    '-■ >•!  Nora  Soetia  awl  New 

Brunswick  j  Chesanent:.'   >  ■   'ind  Maryland  ;  Golf  of 

Mexieo,  between  Ueii  .tts  •  Yucatan  Channel, 

between  Yucatan    iiuii  Sea,  between    Central 

America  and  tlie  Wf'  u.nni.  S.W.  of  Central 

rii:ai;    Gulf  of  Cl.  '■.'■    ii!  Juan  do 

,  between   Unit"!  ■  n  Chnrlotle 

id,  between  Vaiii-  .    Uilntaml 

istcl  Bay.  S.   of   A:  M:i-t.«  ami 

.  BTountftlDC. ' — T^i-' 


506i  POLITIOAL   OEOORAPHT. 

are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  great  central  plain  already  de- 
scribed  (p.  504). 

The  Alleghanies  or  Appalachian  Chain,  2000  m.  in  lengi^  by 
about  150  m.  in  breadth,  extend  from  Point  Gasp^  in  the  Gulf  of  8t 
Lawrence  to  the  State  of  Alabama,  and  divide  tne  waters  which  flow 
eastward  into  the  Atlantic  from  the  two  great  basins  of  the  Mississippi 
and  the  St  Lawrence.  Average  elevation,  about  2500  ft. ;  highest  sum- 
mits—Mitchell's Peak,  in  N.  Carolina,  6782  ft. ;  Mount  Washington,  in 
New  Hampshire,  6428  ft. ;  Black  Mountain,  bet.  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina,  o707  ft ;  and  Green  Mountains,  in  Lower  Canada,  4000  ft. 

The  Western  or  Paoifio  System,  better  known  as  the  Rookt 
Mountains,  consists  of  two,  and  in  some  places  of  three,  parallel  chains, 
supported  by  elevated  table-lands,  and  extending  in  the  direction  of  the 
greatest  length  of  the  continent,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  Lake  Nicar- 
agua in  Central  America.  The  two  principal  ranges,  with  their  highest 
summits,  are  the  following :— 1.  The  Padnc  or  Oceanic  Sange,  extend- 
ing along  the  western  coast,  from  Alaska  to  the  peninsula  of  California, 
forms  the  water-parting  bet.  the  Padfic  Ocean  on  the  west,  and  the 
Youcon  and  Rio  Colorado  on  the  east.  Its  principal  members  are :  The 
Sea  Alps  in  the  north,  extending  from  lat.  60**  in  Alaska  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Frazer  River  in  British  Columbia,  of  volcanic  orinn,  and  forming 
some  of  the  highest  summits  on  this  continent, — Mt.  St  Elias,  17,900 
ft,  highest  in  N.  America.  The  Cascade  Range,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Frazer  to  Cape  Blanco,  in  Oregon, — Mt.  St  Helens,  N.  of  the  Columbia, 
the  highest  sunmiit  of  the  United  States,  15,750  ft. ;  Mt.  Hood  and  Mt 
Jefferson,  S.  of  the  Columbia,  15,500  ft.  The  Sierra  Nevada,  e](tending 
from  Cape  Blanco  to  Cape  San  Lucas,  and  separated  from  the  eastern 
range  by  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Colorado, — Mt.  Tsashti,  in  the  N.  of  Cali- 
fornia, 14,400  ft.  2.  The  Becky  Mountain  Chain  forms  a  waving  line 
along  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  table-land,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
^Mackenzie  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  near  Lake  Nicaragua  in  Central 
America,  and  separates  the  basins  of  the  Colville,  Youcon,  Frazer,  Col- 
umbia, and  Rio  Clolorado  on  the  west,  from  those  of  the  Mackenzie,  Sas- 
katchewan, Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Rio  del  Norte  on  the  east.  Its 
principal  members  are :  The  Northern  Range,  extending  from  the  Nor- 
thern Ocean  to  the  northern  frontier  of  the  United  States, — Mt.  Brown, 
east  of  British  Columbia,  and  the  culminating  point  of  British  America, 
15,990  ft. ;  Mt.  Hooker,  15,700  ft.  The  Wind  River  Mountain,  be- 
tween Oregon  and  Nebraska ;  highest  summit,  Freemont's  Peak,  18,5^ 
ft  Sierra  Verde  and  Sierra  Madre,  in  Utah  and  New  Mexico, — Long's 
Peak,  12,000  ft. ;  Bighorn,  10,000  ft.  Mountains  of  Anahuac,  in  sonui- 
em  Mexico,  extending  from  east  to  west  across  the  table-land,  and  all 
volcanic, — Orizaba,  an  extinct  volcano,  17,847  ft ;  Popocatepetl,  for* 
merly  regarded  as  the  highest  summit  of  North  America,  17,884  ft. ; 
Agua,  in  Guatemala,  13,000  feet 

10.  River-basins  and  Capitals All  the  rivers  of  this  continexit 

belong  to  four  great  oceanic  basins — viz.,  those  inclining  to  the  Atlan* 
tic,  to  the  American  Mediterranean  (the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Gaiibbean 
Sea),  to  the  Pacific,  and  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Besides  these,  thers 
are  two  continental  basins,  similar  to  those  of  the  continenti  of  th« 
Old  World — viz.,  first,  the  Great  Basin,  in  Utah  and  Nevada,  whem 
the  table-land  is  widest :  its  average  elevation  is  5000  ft.  above  ^'^ 
sea,  and  it  occupies  an  area  of  more  than  800,000  sq.  m. :  it  ' 
tains  Great  Salt  Lake  (which  receives  the  Bear  and  ilie  Sotf 


r 


^mm 


NORTH    AMEEICA. 


507 


ly  others  whicli  are  salt,  and  have  no  outlet.  SkoivI,  a  de- 
pression in  the  tahle'lnad  of  Mexico,  where  it  is  highest,  and  where 
occnr  L.  Tezcuco,  vhicli  ia  salt,  nod  four  others  T^liich  are  cither 
freeh  or  bracliish,  "Sai  a  few  of  the  larger  river-haaina  eunnierated 
in  the  following  table  contain  no  capitaiB,  whila  the  area  of  several 
others  remains  andetennined.  When  the  name  of  the  statu  diifera 
from  that  of  the  capital,  it  ia  put  within  parentheses  ; — 


Bme -rai-.r  oi 

st'S'^- 

—  — ~ 

S 

24Ei 

•ulined  to  t 

12.000 

lothtAm 
062,400 

180,000 
10,000 
13.000 
8.000 

Albuiy  (>ew  York). 
Trenlon  pJew  jMtBy). 
Annapolis    (MaryUod),    Harrls- 
burB(FendsylvBnla),  Riuhiuonil 

sir  '"■'""  "'• 

ruan  UeiiUrranean. 

fart     (Keutuckf],     CUlnmbui 

Tapeka  (Kanwal.  Lincnln  <Na- 

Ees   ifoinM  (Iowa).  UadiaoD 
(WlscoDnln). 
YbiiWod  (Dakota).  HeJea..  (M on- 
t»M),     Che«BDB     (Wromlng), 
I>«iver     (Colorado),      Aiiatin 

Sail  la' Fi  (New  Ueiio),  Ohibua- 

Bna''jium    Ba"t1"»   (TiilHatii), 

Ci»daa  Ilo=l  (CUUipu). 
Leon  (tcicnngua). 

.■■tL.i,,,™,.ut-ltt(I,!i,liu}. 

::ii>n.U|(l!tUI>]>CnlURI- 

DeUnn 

!,  Zforin. 
Uissiraippl 

Nr.rte,™  ° 

flif  f 

POUTICAL   OEOORAFflir. 


.-«-  \m 

^: 

— — - — - 

*.  BatlntintliHtd  10  04  Arab  0e4an. 

MKkeiut. im        M1.SM      Kotowiu. 

BackoraFWi,...        4M 
ChorehQl, 1800          TS.SM 

ch^n IMO        m.m      FortTnittHaiiltob*). 

11.  Lakea One  of  the  ptindpal  pecnlimties  of  thii  continent  a 

the  immenw  number  and  maRnitude  of  its  freah-water  lakes,  some 
of  which  (as  Lakes  Snperior,  Michignn,  and  Huron)  are  the  IsrgMt 
in  the  world.  Arranged  in  the  order  of  the  river-baiins  in  which 
they  occur,  the  following  are  the  lareest  lakes  of  N.  Anerica.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  principal  lakca  are  conGned  to  the  basini 
of  the  St  Lawrence,  Mackenzie,  and  Saskatchewan,  and  that  the 
cotnbiaed  area  of  the  five  great  Lanrentian  lakes  amounts  to  Sl,300 
aq.  m.,  or  more  than  the  area  of  Great  Britain  with  its  adjacent 
islands.  The  indiridnal  areas  of  the  principal  lakea  are  appended 
in  a  tabular  form. 

Sc  £awrni«  Sana  —  I^akes  OntsHo,  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and 
Superior.  ifiirUiippi — Lake  Itasca,  in  Minneaota,  fonning  the  souree 
of  the  river.  San  Jttan — Nicaragua  and  Leon,  in  C^tial  AJioerioa.  Jtte 
Saniioffo—I&ki  Chapala,  iu  Mexico.  JKaeitnlie— Great  Bear  Lake, 
Great  Slave  Lake,  Athabssia,  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  WoUaitton.  CkmcMU 
— Indian  Lake,  Deer  L^ke,  'WollaBton.  5a»to*eS«Bttii— Winnipeg,  Winnl- 
pegooa,  Manitoba,  I^ke  of  the  Woods,  Bain;  Lake.  CoKittiaUiU  Bam 
—Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  Sevier. 


=,.-„.,.... 

•^i: 

abOTB 
eetleveL 

578 

S? 

623 

m 

230 

mo 

Erie,  '...::;.    . 

9,'600 

Mlchrgan, 

Sapenor, 

Wmnipeg, 

22,400 
82,000 
9,000 

Great  Bear  Lake 

Great  Slave  Lake, 

H.O00 
12,000 
S400 

12.  OUout*. — In  acontinentembradngTSdegreMof  Utitild^ud 
nearly  twice  ai  many  of  longitude,  the  vsrietiet  of  alimata  an  n—w 
sarily  very  f^eat.  Speaking  generally,  however,  m  flM  that  ite 
covi™.  ==^f.n„.  i,.-^  J  lower  average  temperatnw  tlwn  ft*  CM 


varions  sections  have  ■ 


NUUTII    AMERICA.  509 

spoudiug  latitudes  of  the  Old  World.  The  immensa  forests  nhich 
FDver  so  large  a  portion  of  the  surface,  the  general  want  of  cultiva- 
tion or  the  soil,  and,  above  all,  the  great  width  of  the  continent  in 
high  latitudes,  are  no  doubt  some  of  the  niain  caTisos  that  lead  to  this 
resalt.  Other  causes  which  affect  the  climate  are  the  poaition  of  its 
mountain-ran^ea  and  of  the  sarroniiding  aeaa,  together  with  the 
great  ocean  currents  traversing  the  latter.  The  eaatem  highland, 
with  ita  slope  towarda  the  Atlautic,  has  an  abundance  of  moisture 
throughout  the  year,  brought  by  southerly  and  easterly  winds  from 
the  Oulf  of  Mexico  aod  the  Atlautic.  The  western  highland,  on  the 
contrary,  ia  very  dry,  aa  the  moisture  which  the  weaterlj  winds 
ehotild  bring  to  it  from  the  Pacific  ara  arrBstod  at  the  margin  of  the 
plateau  by  the  lofU  mountains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
rangea.  The  annual  rainfall  at  Utah  in  this  region  is  only  about  5 
in.,  while  at  New  York,  on  the  east  coast,  and  nearly  in  the  same 
latitude,  it  ia  43  in.  The  eastern  half  of  the  great  Mississippi  baain 
is  sufficiently  watered,  the  moisture  increasing  in  amount  Irani  N. 
to  S. — Si  Louis  haviag  an  annual  rainfall  of  42  in.,  and  New  Orleana, 
near  the  month  of  the  river,  51  in.  ;  but  the  western  half  of  this 
basin  is  less  humid,  and  especially  the  immense  tract  lying  between 
the  Itocky  Mounlaina  and  the  lOOtb  meridian,  known  as  the 
"  Plaina,  where  acarcely  any  rain  falls,  and  the  country  is  covered 
with  a  thin  growth  of  grass,  agriculture  being  nearly  impassible. 
In  genemJ,  North  Anienea  is  more  humid  than  the  corresponding 
continents  of  the  Old  World.  The  average  rainfall  of  Europe  is  only 
SI  in.,  bot  the  corresponding  zoue  of  K.  America  3B  in.;  and  while  the 
tropii»l  zone  of  the  Old  World  shows  77  in.,  that  of  the  New  World 
is  lis  in.  Again,  in  regard  to  temperature,  the  western  side  of  the 
continent  is  greatly  warmer  than  the  eastern,  the  reason  being  that  a 
warm  oceanic  current  proceeding  from  Japan  lavea  the  western  cnast, 
while  a  cold  Arctic  cnrrent  flows  southwani  along  the  eastern,  l)e- 
tween  the  coast  and  the  wann  Gulf  Stream  flowing  northward.  The 
diSerence  of  temperature  between  the  W.  and  E.  coast  is  generally 
from  15°  to  20°.  For  example,  Sitka  I.  has  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  4S°  Fah.,  while  Nain,  in  Labrador,  in  the  same  latitude,  has 
H  mean  temperature  of  only  27°.82.  The  hottest  portion  of  the 
New  World,  embracing  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Carnoean  Rea,  and 
the  coastfl  immediately  adjoining  them,  lies  mainly  within  this  con- 
tinent. The  coldest  ret-ion  of  North  America  and  of  the  New  World 
lies  north  of  a  line  which,  commencing  at  Cape  Bathmst,  near  the 
mauth  of  the  Maekenxie,  defleHs  south -eastwards  to  the  head  of 
Chesterfield  Inlet,  and  thince  nortlwarils  to  Lanaaator  Sound  and 
North  Devon  (p.  38). 

13.  GeoloKT. — The  geologiml  slmrturn  of  North  America  rcinaiu* 
to  a  laigB  eitenc  unexplored,  Caiuda  onrl  the  United  StttlHt  being 
the  only  portions  that  have  rMciw4|^HWrtf  Mt|BMeB^_ 

_.  J  understood,  however,  t 
orater  put  of  Alaska,  BiUtiU  Q 


510  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Greenland,  though  its  western  shores  are  coTered  with  primary  and 
tertiary  formations ;  that  the  paubozoic  group  occupy  the  surface  of  that 
part  of  the  continent  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  great 
lakes,  together  with  the  western  and  southern  shores  of  the  Hudson  Sea, 
and  the  north-western  portion  of  the  great  American  archipdago ;  that 
SECONDARY  FORMATIONS  prevail  cliiefly  in  the  United  States,  especially 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Missouri ;  and  that  the  tebtiart 
SERIES  is  chiefly  prevalent  in  the  great  western  plateau  which  extends 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  G.  of  California.  The  principal  volcanoes 
and  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  the  Peninsula  of  Aliaska,  the  oceanic  range  of 
the  Coscada  Mountains,  the  table-lands  of  Utah,  Mexico,  and  Central 
America,  parts  of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and  Greenland. 
For  further  details  we  refer  the  student  to  the  corresponding  x)aragraphs 
of  the  different  countries  of  this  continent. 

14.  Minerals. — Ever  since  its  discovery,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  North  Ajnerica  has  been  celebrated  for  the  rich- 
ness and  varie^  of  its  mineral  productions.  The  mines  first  wrou^t 
were  those  of  Mexico  and  Central  America;  but  recently  California 
and  British  Columbia  have  eclipsed  all  other  countries,  with  the 
exception  of  Australia,  in  their  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  predous 
metaOs. 

We  can  here  enumerate  only  the  principal  localities  in  which  the  most 
important  minerals  occur.  Gold  is  principally  found  in  California,  British 
Columbia,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Canada,  and  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains. SilveTf  Central  America,  California,  Canada,  and  in  a  vast  number 
of  localities  on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  Copper,  Canada,  especially  N. 
and  E.  of  Lake  Superior  (which  is  one  of  the  richest  copper  regions  on 
the  globe),  New  York,  Indiana,  California,  Mexico,  Central  America. 
Lecutf  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  New  York,  California,  Mexico^ 
Central  America,  Canada.  Tin,  Mexico,  Canada  (near  Lake  Superior). 
Zinc,  Central  Ajnerica.  Iron,  the  Alleghanies,  and  numerous  localities 
in  the  United  States,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Canada.  Mercury,  Ken- 
tucky, Ohio,  California,  and  the  region  S.  of  the  great  lakes.  Cinnabar, 
or  sulphuret  of  mercury,  California,  Mexico.  Coal,  generally  whererer 
the  upper  palseozoic  strata  abound,  as  in  Pennsylvania.  Michigan,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  California,  Cape  Breton,  Nova  Scotia,  British  Columbia^  Van- 
couver Island.  Sulphur,  Central  America,  especially  in  Guatemala.  Salt, 
Utah,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  Kentucky, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Mexico,  Honduras.  Marlle,  Canada,  United  States, 
Honduras.   Precious  Stones :  diamonds  in  Odifomia,  jasper  in  Honduxas. 

15.  Botany. — The  flora  of  North  America,  including  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  embraces  wholly  or  in  part  no  fewer 
than  six  of  the  twenty-five  **  phyto-geographic  regions  **  into  which 
the  land  surface  of  the  globe  is  divided — viz.,  the  1st,  4th,  5th,  15th, 
16th,  and  19th  regions.  For  the  names  and  precise  limits  of  fheae 
regions  we  must  refer  to  p.  54  and  55,  and  for  their  more  striking 
characteristics  to  the  botanical  sections  under  Europe,  Britiu 
America,  the  United  States,  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  ths 
West  Indies. 

The  New  World  has  lon^  been  famed  for  the  prodigious  luziixiaiiQt 
And  variety  of  its  vegetation.    MtVow^^-w^  «»^m  \xotcl  \M.va^miinilel7 


HOKTB    ASKSICA. 


511 


I 


,    JntflJ  n-itii  itfi  natttPil  biirtoTj,  it  ihbj-  lie  affirniea  intliout  hesit*- 

ftitm,  that  no  otlier  portjon  of  the  world  oF  eqim]  extent  con  nraT  it  in 

"te  lichee  and  splendour  of  its  Adib.    Bevera]  years  ago  mure  than  IG.DOO 

W  ^pedu  of  Soweriit^  plants  had  heen  described  as  bdon^lsE  to  it,  beeidca 

■ ^nnate  DUiuher  of  cryjitoganiia-     When  the  unrthern  continent 

ired,  one  tasl  and  almost  eontmuoos  forest  covered  the  whole 
nuface.  from  tJie  St  Lavrouce  and  the  great  lakec  tc  the  G.  of  Mejico, 
and  Irom  the  Kcicky  Mouutaine  to  tlie  AtlontiCj  embrai^ing  an  area  of 
apvarde  of  s  million  of  aqniue  mileE.  Mnch  of  this  DceaD  ol  regetatioa 
bae  since  ijeea  cleared  any.  though,  to  thia  daj,  husdredB  of  milec  of 
nnbmken  forest  exist  in  Qumerone  localitiw ;  wmlB  bonndlesB  prairieB, 
destitute  of  trees,  hut  covered  vitii  tall  erasaeB,  □ccup;  vast  tracts  in  the 
north  ol  the  continent,  aod  an  the  eastern  aide  of  the  Bocky  Hountains. 
The  fareBt  trees  are  extremely  nuiiierons  in  apBdea,  embracing  many 
vsrietias  of  Dak  and  pine,  with  the  ash,  beech,  birch,  radar,  cHeetnu^ 
(TI'resE,  juniper,  hickorr,  locnat,  maple,  molheny,  poplar,  and  walnut. 
As  the  traveller  paues  ncrthirards  into  the  Britiah  territories,  the  variety 
of  Epeciea  a  mm II it,  embracing  mainly  pinea,  larches,  aspens,  poplsrs, 
aldma,  hazels,  and  viltowa ;  while  towards  the  ehores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  the  treas  become  fewer  in  number  and  more  stunted  m  eize,  till  at 
length  the  dwarf-willow,  six  incbea  in  height,  is  the  sole  itjireaentative 
of  toe  gigantic  forsEte  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions.  Among  til* 
more  characteristic  plants  of  ^  orth  America  are  its  azaleas,  magnnliaa, 
loi^haiaa,  dahliai,  snri  ihodudendrons ;  while  the  enrire  cactus  tribe  is 
peculiar  to  its  tropical  regions.  Europe  is  indebted  to  the  western  con- 
-^ *  ' •  .'  ^.-  cultivated  plants,  more  espadally  maiie,  cacao- 
manioc  or  cassava,  the  potato,  and  the  toluiccti 
jdant;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  America  is  indelrtad  to  European  colon- 
-"■■■■'■"  ^"'  "'■i,'^*  i.*„i„,.  ^..j  4i.«  Q^Qf  kinds  of  com,  as  also  for  rice, 
tree,  tlie  sugar-cane,  Uis  coffee-shmb,  flax,  hemp,  and 
.  America  does  not  contain  a  single  indigenous  species 
tie.  nor  has  a  psonin  ever  been  found  in  it,  except  a  aoli- 
ad  by  Douglas  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Bocky  Uoun- 
ghty  chain  forms  an  impenettshle  bnrrier  between  ' 


laioB.     This  n: 


. 1  character  us  if  they  had  been  geparatedby  an 

ocean.  Helville  Island,  lat.  To°,  is  the  moat  DSrtbern  point  at  wtaieh 
vegetation  has  been  obseryed  ;  while  the  Red  ffiyer  BetUenient^  on  tjie 
soDthem  frontier  of  the  Hudson  Bav  Temtmy,  is  the  highest  laOtude  at 
which  the  oereals  have  been  cullivateri  ;  llmagli  doubtless  barler  conld 
oome  to  maturity  as  far  N.  u  Fort  C'iiippewyan,  lat.  69°,  where  the  heal 
of  the  four  suminer  months  is  fnnr  d»ereB!  higher  *hmi  at  Edinbnrrii. 


16.  Z 


-Tht  f 


Kiteaico  and  (:Biitnil    >-. 


512 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


those  countries  as  forming  the  third  or  tropical  province  of  the  northern 
continent.  The  zoology  of  the  first  or  Arctic  province  of  North  America 
closely  resembles,  and  is,  indeed,  for  the  most  part^  identical  with,  that 
of  the  corresponding  province  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Here  the  species  are 
comparatively  very  few  in  number,  and  consist  generally  of  the  lowest 
orders  of  the  respective  classes ;  but  this  is  in  a  large  measure  compen- 
sated for  by  the  extraordinary  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  tiie 
different  species,  and  occasionally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  whfues,  by  the 
gigantic  dimensions  of  the  forms.  The  colours  are  also  of  uniformly 
sombre  hues.  Not  a  bird  is  to  be  seen  of  brilliant  plumage,  not  a  fish 
nor  mollusc  with  varied  hues.  The  most  conspicuous  Mammals  of  tMs 
province  are  the  white  and  polar  bear,  the  moose  and  rein-deer,  the 
musk-ox,  beaver,  white  fox,  racoon,  marten,  squirrel,  sea-otter,  minx, 
musk-rat,  ermine,  wolverine,  lemming,  hare,  various  seals,  and  numerous 
species  of  whale.  Among  Birds  may  be  enumerated  some  sea-eagles,  a 
few  waders,  with  an  immense  number  of  other  aquatic  species, — as  gulls, 
cormorants,  divers,  petrels,  ducks,  and  geese.  Reptiles  are  almost 
wholly  wanting,  being  represented  by  a  solitary  tortoise.  The  Articxt- 
LATA  embrace  a  few  insects  of  inferior  species  and  numerous  kinds  of 
minute  crustaceans.  The  majority  of  the  Molluscs  belong  to  the  order 
Tunicata,  the  remainder  being  Gasteropoda  and  a  very  few  Cephalopoda. 
Among  the  Radiata  are  a  great  many  jelly-fishes,  star-fishes,  ana  sea- 
urchins.  The  fauna  of  the  Temperate  province  of  this  continent  also 
resembles  that  of  the  central  provmces  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  for,  though 
the  species  are  almost  all  different,  the  families,  and  even  the  genera,  are 
the  same.    The  number  of  terrestrial  species  regarded  as  identical  is 


con 


stantly  diminishing  as  the  progress  of  science  advances.  For  the 
particulars,  see  under  "  United  States,"  "Mexico,"  &c.  The  accompany- 
ing tables  show  the  distribution  of  the  land  Vertebrata  in  the  three 
provinces  of  this  kingdom : — 


Nam*  op  Obdbiu 

Totol 
Number  of 
Bpedea. 

Total 
Species  in 

Xortli 
Americik 

Aretie 
America. 

Tempk 
America. 

Tropical 
AmwioL 

M  AMMAT.TA   OW  NORTH  AMBRIOA. 

Quadrumana,  .... 

170 

8 

•  •  • 

..• 

8 

Camivora, 

514 

109 

86 

50 

109 

Marsupialia, 

123 

4 

•  •  • 

1 

4 

Rodentia, 

604 

118 

82 

60 

84 

Edentata, 

28 

12 

•  •  • 

1 

12 

Pachvdermata, 
RumiTiantIa,    . 

89 

4 

•  •  « 

•  •• 

4 

180 

13 

10 

10 

7 

Cetacca,  . 

76 

24 

24 

•  •• 

•  •• 

Totals, 

1 

»                          4 

» 

1733 

292 

102 

122 

178 

s.^., 

si 

.'.as. 

J^ 

:as 

BiBDS  OF  NoRTa  Amebic^ 

Rsp>=<«. 

8efliiBQrBs,        .... 
Oscines,   ..... 

Qallitiie, 

Grallatores,      .... 
Nntatonis,         .... 

Totals, 

::: 

G4 
127 
333 

s: 

122 

10 
fi 
11 

4 
21 
49 

22 
12 

72 
10 
36 
26 

53 
122 
319 
4S 
59 

0226 

772 

103 

178 

621 

EEFTILEa   OF    KOBTH   AHZEIC4, 

Teatadinas 

Saorio, 

Ophictia,  ... 
Amphibia,        .... 

Totals, 

203 
2S5 
120 

20 

82 
40 

1 
2 

19 
8 

38 

10 
20 
30 
2 

857 

115 

9 

93 

62 

17,  EUmograpliy.— The  popiUatiou  of  the  New  World  is  presently 
estimated  at  84,542,000,  two-thirila  of  wLom  belong  to  the  northern 
contineot  (inclading  Moxico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  lodiea), 
and  one-third  to  the  southern.  It  consists  of  three  pare  races— viz., 
the  Indians  or  aborigines,  the  Negroes  or  Africans,  tlis  Cancastans 
or  Whites  (consisting  of  Enropeans  with  their  descendants),  and  a 
miied  race,  springing  from  the  union  of  those  of  pure  hlooi  The 
European  population  amounts  to  aboot  a  half  of  ll 
the  other  three  divisions  are  nearly  equally  •<  ; 
tiisCiug  of  about  9.000,000.  The  Indian  |m| 
Esquimaui  of  the  uartheru  reejoua,  nho  fj: 
probably  of  a  different  origin  from  the  olhi^ 


Vln  Mexico  alone  thev  Dumber  5,000, 
Kj,0DO,OOO,  and  in  the  United  Ststea  tin 
rBonth  America,  nnlike  the  nortlisni  ooi 

derance  of  the  aboriginal  and  miied  I*. 

4,435,709  in  the  United  States :   2,000,< 

while  in  Brazil  they  constitute  a  full  ]ial£< 

n  the  Spanish  West  Indian 


I 


now  everywhere  in  the  anjojmBOt  rf  111 

AsTiqornEa.— How  AiiiB  ■  _    _' 

ibonginal  tnbes  to  the  rent  of  mini 

tavnived  in  obwunty,  notwithrtimdlliK  ** 


514  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

tions  that,  during  the  last  half-century,  have  been  instituted  in  every 
department  of  the  subject.  After  a  careful  examination  of  much  that  has 
been  written  on  this  very  interesting  theme,  we  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  New  World  was  peopled  at  different 
points,  and  from  different  parts  of  Eastern  Asia ;  that  these  migrations, 
though  all  very  ancient,  took  place  at  distinct  and  widely-separate  peri- 
ods ;  but  that  the  ancestors  of  the  present  aborigines  of  the  eastern  part 
of  North  America  entered  that  continent  directly  from  Northern  Europe, 
and  swept  before  them  the  comparatively  advanced  civilisation  which  had 
been  developed  there  before  their  arrival.  The  memorials  of  a  population 
differing  in  many  important  respects  from  the  tribes  which  roamed  in 
America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  C!olumbus — ^yet  in  other  points 
strongly  resembling  them — are  found  in  great  numbers  throughout  the 
whole  length  and  breadth  of  the  continent.  These  memorials  have  been 
discovered  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  continent,  where,  however, 
they  are  comparatively  few  and  uninteresting,  though  apparently  of  great 
antiquity ;  around  the  western  and  southern  shores  of  the  great  lakes, 
where  they  have  been  more  carefully  examined ;  along  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, where  in  some  places  they  cover  the  groimd  for  many  leagues ; 
and  especially  in  the  broad  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  with  its  tributaries 
the  Ohio  and  Missouri,  where  they  occur  in  almost  incredible  numbers 
and  magnitude.  Indeed,  so  far  as  the  northern  continent  is  concerned, 
the  valley  of  the  Ohio  would  appear  to  have  been  at  one  time — probably 
about  a  thousand  years  ago— the  grand  centre  of  power  and  population 
of  this  now  extinct  or  dispersed  people.  The  works  of  various  kinds 
which  they  erected,  the  remains  of  which  still  exist  (the  animal  mounds, 
the  conical  mounds  of  sepulture,  the  sacrificial  mounds,  the  temple 
mounds,  the  sacred  enclosures,  the  beacon  mounds,  and  the  systems  of 
fortification),  are  evidences  of  immense  resources  for  so  rude  an  age ;  feur 
greater,  indeed,  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  other  portion  of  the  continent, 
except  in  what  would  seem  to  be  another  and  much  later  centralisation 
of  the  same  people  in  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  where  they  passed  the  golden 
age  of  their  history.  (See  p.  555. )  These  and  other  monuments  of  hoary 
antiquity  in  the  so-called  New  World,  lead  us  irresistibly  to  the  inference, 
that  the  true  aborigines  of  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  had  made  great 
progress  in  the  useful  and  ornamental  arts  :  for  not  only  do  we  find  arrow- 
heads, beads,  coarse  vessels  of  pottery,  stone  axes,  knives  of  flint ;  but 
the  sculptured  figures  of  various  animals,  executed  with  much  skill; 
well-chiselled  likenesses  of  the  human  head ;  copper  bracelets ;  extensive 
remains  of  mining  operations  and  of  the  manufacture  of  salt ;  and  above 
all,  tablets  of  curious  hieroglj'phics,  apparently  recording  the  great  events 
in  their  history.  Having  entered  America  at  its  north-west  angle^  they 
resided  for  ages  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Allegbanies,  in 
every  part  of  which  are  still  seen  the  memorials  of  their  ancient  greatness. 
At  length,  driven  southward  by  fresh  hordes  of  immigrants,  they  ulti- 
mately settled  in  Mexico,  where  they  attained  the  climax  of  their  civilisa- 
tion, and  erected  great  cities  and  other  public  works  which  excited  tiiQ 
astonishment  of  Oortez  and  his  companions.  How  many  centuries  must 
have  elapsed  ere  this  primeval  race,  that  had  made  such  astonishing  pro- 
gress in  so  many  of  the  arts,  but  of  whose  existence  both  history  and 
tradition  are  alike  silent — whose  colossal  public  works  have  beoii  buried 
for  ages  under  gigantic  forests,  or  deserted  by  the  riven  and  lakM  In 
whose  vicinity  manv  of  them  must  have  stood— could  have  degMMwited 
into  the  savage  tribes  of  hunters  and  warriors  that  now  roam  Ofw  tht 
forests  and  prairies  of  the  North  American  continent  1  • . 


NORTH    AMEIllCA. 


But  tliB  attempt  to  trace  nny  close 


bym 


i  at  the9 


enta,  between  the  Meiicans  nnd  the  aborigines  of  South  America, 
a^^Eaia  to  Lave  entirety  faile{i.  The  Peruriait  civiliBation,  instead  ot 
being  ac  oS^boot  from  the  Mexican,  or  an  improvement  upon  it,  seema 
rather  to  have  been  spontaneously  developed,  having  its  origin  and  growtti 
within  the  limits  of  the  southern  oontinent,  and  attiuning  its  climax  nnder 
the  Incas.  Techudi  and  others  are  of  opinion  that  Mauco  Capac.  in  Peru, 
and  Quetiacoatl  in  Mexico,  were  Buddhist  miasionaries  who,  about  A.D. 
1000,  viaited  the  American  continent  with  the  view  of  reforming  and 
elevating  the  natives.  If  this  eupposition  ia  well  founded,  it  throwa  some 
light  on  the  gneation.  Whence  came  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  North  ami 
South  America  reapectively  I  and  corroborates  the  hypothesis,  that  the 
civilisation  of  tlie  southern  continent  was  not  ilerived  from  that  of  the 
northern.  On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  while  the  aborigines  of 
North  America  came  originally  from  Mongolia,  those  of  the  southem 
continent  came  from  Cliina,  Jajian,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  other 

Tender  this  supposition  sufficiently  probable,  while  their  charts  and  maps 
give  indications  of  voyages  to  the  New  World  (which  they  designate  by 
the  noma  of  Too-sang)  as  early  aa  the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  With 
chains  of  islands,  not  far  remote  from  each  other,  stretching  across  the 
Pacific  Ocean  from  continent  to  coutineiit— with  winds  and  marine  cur- 
lanti  setting,  often  tor  weeks  together,  towaida  the  American  shores — 
with  waiB  Co  make  them  Ilea,  and  cnrioEityorcapiditytomake  them  rove 
— and  with  casualties  to  lannch  them  on  voyages  the  direction  or  length 
of  which  they  knew  not— lie  need  not  marvel  that  the  first  inhabitants 
of  the  New  World  should  have  come  originally  flum  Eastern  Asia.  Simi- 
lar events,  though  on  a  smaUer  scale,  have  fiequeutly  taken  place  ui  more 
resent  times.  For  example,  Iceland  was  discovered  m  A.I).  Slil  by  Danish 
marlnera,  bound  for  the  Farlie  Isles,  but  thrown  out  of  their  course  by 
tempests ;  Greenland  was  discovered  by  a  Norwegian  in  982 ;  Cabral,  the 
cammondei'  of  a  Portoguese  fleet,  on  his  way  to  the  East  Indies  in  the 
year  1501,  departed  so  far  from  the  African  coast  as  lo  touch  the  shores 
of  South  America,  and  thna  the  discovery  of  Braiil  was  purely  aocideutal  -, 
while  in  1833,  a  Japanese  jmik  was  cast  ashore  on  the  Ammican  coast,  at 
Cape  Flattery,  opposite  Vanconver  Ishind,  three  men  being  still  alive  out 
ot  an  ariginal  crew  of  aeventeau. 

LANQEJAacs.— The  languages  spoken  by  the  aborigines  of  the  New 
World  are  distinguished  from  oil  Oriental  tongues  by  threo  atrikiup  pecn- 
liaritiea.  1.  Notwithrtanding  their  great  number,  they  all  strikingly 
rBsanihla  each  other  in  grammatical  utructura— «  atrong  proof  of  Hie 
comnion  ori^  of  the  inhabitants.  2.  Ttiey  differ  very  widalr  from  each 
other  in  then'  roole  or  vocables,  many  of  them  liaving  scarcely  a  worf  in 
common  with  any  other  tongue.  3.  But  Uielr  most  r«markanle  feature 
is  their  tiolyiyiith^ic  or  kolophtaiilic  e)iBrBctei>— that  is,  they  are  all  char- 
acteriEBd  by  peculiarly  conijiTct  forma,  b<"ijHvvlnLt  resembliog  our  eoro- 
ponnd  wonls,  each  ler^   ' — r-'" —  "  ....... k,..  ^t  ,i;..i^rit  iiieaa.     For 


gence."    In  thejio  lin^i  < 

tongues  from  oil  ath'['. 

American  continent  Wj.-,  ,■  ,. 
,    In  the  'Bible  ot  Every  L^ud 

longing  to  this  family  an  '— 
I    ipuiips  iBxdusive  of  Itie  dlil 


516  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

seven  of  which  belong  to  the  northern  continent,  and  three  to  the  south- 
em.  These  are :  1,  the  Esquimanx,  spoken  along  the  entire  northern 
coast  by  a  people  who,  in  physical  conformation,  appear  to  be  inter* 
mediate  between  the  natives  of  Northern  Asia  and  the  aboriginal  Indians; 
2,  the  Athapascan  or  Chippewyan,  occupying  a  broad  belt  south  of  the 
Esquimaux,  and  mainly  between  tiie  Hudson  Sea  and  the  Pacific ;  3,  the 
Algonquin,  found  now  chiefly  in  Canada  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Territories, 
but  formerly  covering  also  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States ;  4,  the 
Iroquois,  occupying  a  large  tract  of  country  in  the  United  States^  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  Algonquin  area ;  5,  the  Sioux  or  Dacota,  comprising  the 
tribes  inhabiting  the  prairie  country  of  the  interior,  from  the  MisslBsippi 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  6,  the  Floridian  or  Appalachian,  embracing 
the  langua^s  originally  spoken  in  the  southern  United  States,  but  now 
in  several  mstances  extinct;  7,  the  unclassified  tonnes  of  the  United 
States,  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific,  and  sometimes 
known  as  the  Panis-Arrapahoes.  The  numerous  languages  of  Central 
America  are  little  known  and  still  unclassified :  for  the  Aztec  or  Mexican, 
see  at  p.  555.  Less  is  known  regarding  the  ethnology  of  South  America 
than  perhaps  of  anv  other  region  in  the  world;  but  the  langaases 
have  Men  provisionally  arranged  under  three  groups — ^viz.,  I,  the  Ando- 
Peruvian,  8i)oken  by  aU  the  nations  occupying  the  great  mountain-chain 
of  that  continent;  2,  the  languages  of  Eastern  South  America,  embracing 
the  Guarani  and  Carib,  in  Brazil  and  Guiana ;  3,  the  languages  of  Central 
South  America,  spoken  by  the  tribes  that  inhabit  the  forests  and  llanos 
that  extend  from  the  Panm^  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


BRITISH   NORTH  AMERICA. 

Boundaries. — N.,  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  W.,  Alaska  and  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean ;  S.,  the  United  States,  from  which  it  la 
separated  by  the  parallel  of  49°,  by  the  great  lakes,  and  by  the 
River  St  Lawrence,  as  far  as  the  75th  demee  of  W.  Ion. ;  E.,  the 
North  Atlantic,  Davis  Strait,  and  Baffin  Bay. 

Extending  from  lat.  42**  21'  to  82*  N. .  and  from  Ion.  53'  ^  (Cape  Race) 
to  the  United  States*  territory  of  Alaska,  liV  W.  Ion.,  British  America 
embraces  39^**  of  lat  and  88°  of  Ion.  The  central  point  of  this  imTnanHn 
area  is  in  lat  62**  KV  N.,  and  97°  W.  Ion.,  a  short  distance  east  of  the 
southern  extremity  of  North  Lined  Lake,  which  discharges  its  waten  into 
the  western  side  of  the  Hudson  Sea. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimated  at  8,553,484  sq.  m., 
or  nearly  the  size  of  the  continent  of  Europe  ;  and  the  popilanonat 
8,880,131,  or  a  third  more  than  the  present  population  cff  Sootlindp 
being  little  more  than  one  person  to  every  sq.  m.  The  area  is  thus  eon* 
siderably  larger  than  that  of  the  United  States,  inoluding  AlMha^ 
but  the  population  does  not  amount  to  one-tenth  of  that  of  tha  gntt 
Republic.    Only  a  small  portion  of  this  immense  territoiy  ia  aetnal 


I 


BaiTIEH    NOUTH    AMEBIC*.  517 

colonised,  and  hy  fsr  the  larger  part  of  it  has  a  soil  too  sterile  and  s 
climate  too  severe  to  admit  of  the  snccesaful  pursuit  of  agriculture. 

Bnr&ca.  — An  alevatcd  plateau  in  the  W.,  traversed  by  lofty  raoun- 
tatn-cliains,  wliicli  increase  in  elevation  from  N.  to  S.,  and  rise  in 
many  places  nliove  the  limit  of  pereDnial  snow. 

East  of  this  is  an  immense  plain  of  slight  elevation,  vibich  gentlvin- 
elines  in  the  direction  of  tie  Hudson  Sea,  ita  aaatera  honndary.  This 
plain  ia  traversed  in  tha  direction  of  its  groBtB.rt  length  by  a  chain  of  lakes 
unparalleled  for  their  number  and  mafuitude.  The  prindpal  members 
of  this  chain  belong  to  the  basin  of  the  St  Lannmce,  ^Ich  is  throughout 
hi^y  fertile  and  admirably  adapted  for  colouisatlon.  The  other  prin- 
cipal lakes  are  in  the  basins  of  the  Macfcenrie  and  Saskatchewan.  On  the 
banks  of  the  latter  river,  and  around  Lake  Winnipeg,  there  is  an  area  of 
about  400,000  sq.  m.  of  rich  soil,  and  well  adapted  to  agricultural  pur- 
poses, the  climate  beipg  sufficiently  mild  for  the  growth  of  wheat  East 
of  this,  and  between  the  Hudson  Sea  and  the  Atlantic,  lies  t)ie  barren 
and  inhospitable  region  of  Jdbrador ;  whOe,  in  the  still  higher  latitudes, 
the  surface  is  a  monotonous  stony  wast«,  with  a  low  and  scanty  vegeta- 
tion, abandoned  to  the  ElaquhnauT,  the  rein-deer,  and  mnsk-ox.  Bei'e 
the  winter  cold  is  terrillc,  and  the  subsoil  permanently  frozen. 

Political  Divisions. — British  North  America  (a  term  now  nearly 
■ynonymoua  with  the  Daminion  uf  Canada)  comprises  the  follow- 
ing main  divisions  ;—l.  The  Eastern  or  Laurentian  Provinces 
— vix.,  Ontario,  Quebec,  New  Bmnswiok,  and  Nova  Scotia,  all  of 
which  were  united  in  1867,  under  the  name  o£  the  "Dominion  of 
Canada,"  together  with  Prince  Edward  Island,  formally  incorporated 
in  the  Dominion  ia  1873,  and  Newfoundland  not  yet  incorporated. 
2.  The  FaciQc  Colonies,  embracing  British  Columbia,  the  district  of 
Stickeen,  and  the  iahinds  Vancouver,  Qutcu  Charlotte,  &a.,  al]  uf 
which  were  formed  into  one  Colony  in  18S6,  aud  united  to  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  in  1871.  3.  The  Hortb-Wcat,  or  Hudson  Bay 
Territory,  extending  across  the  continent  from  Alaska  to  Labrador. 
This  immense  region  is  tmderstood  to  be  nnder  the  judadlction  of 
the  Dominion,  but  as  yet  it  is  unorganbed.  4.  MnDiloba,  formerly 
known  as  the  Red  Eiver  Settlement,  ijins  between  LaJre  Winnipeg 
and  the  United  States'  frontier,  and  formally  annexed  (o  Uie  Do- 
minion in  1870. 


NiHB  OT  PBOVWCt 

Ontario,        .... 

New  B^Jnnsft-ick,  ".         '.        '. 
NovaBootia,         ,        ,       , 
Friiice  Edward  bland, . 

Total,  Eastern  ProTln-r. 

518 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Name  op  Province. 

Area  in 
Eng.  aq.  miles. 

Population 
(1871). 

Brought  forward,     . 
British  Columbia,          .... 

Manitoba, 

N.-W.  Territory, 

Total  Dominion  of  Canada,    . 
Newfoundland  (1874),  .... 

Total  British  N.  America, 

852,361 

213,000 

13,923 

2,934,000 

3,579,782 
42,000 
11,968 
85,000 

8,513,284 
40,200 

8,718,745 
161,386 

3,553,484 

3,880,131 

DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

I.  The  Eastern  Provinces,  together  with  Prince  Edward  Island 

and  Newfoundland. 

Boundaries. — ^N.,  Labrador  and  N.W.  Territory ;  W.,  the 
00th  meridian  ;  S.,  the  Great  Lakes,  the  United  Statesi  and  the 
Atlantic  ;  E.,  the  Atlantic. 

Extending  from  Detroit,  in  Michigan,  lat.  42°  21',  to  Cape  Bauld,  in 
Newfoundland,  lat.  51°  39'  N.,  and  from  Cape  Race,  Ion.  53°  6',  to  90° 
W.,  this  region  embraces  9°  18'  of  lat.  and  37°  of  Ion.  Ottawa,  tiie  cap. 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  near  the  central  parallel,  is  in  the  same  lat. 
as  Oregon  City,  St  John  (New  Brunswick),  Lyon,  Venice,  Simferopol, 
and  the  centres  of  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  Lake  Balkash. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  these  five  provinces  and  of 
the  island  of  Newfoundland  amounts  to  392,561  sq.  m.,  or  3^  times 
the  area  of  the  British  Isles.  In  1871,  the  population  amounted  to 
3,741,168,  being  only  a  little  more  than  the  population  of  Scotland. 
In  1851,  the  population  of  the  six  provinces  was  only  2,478,145  ; 
hence  these  six  provinces  have  in  twenty  years  added  60  per  cent 
to  their  population,  while  in  the  same  period  the  United  States  have 
added  67  per  cent. 

Political  Divisions. — The  Dominion  of  Canada,  constituted  in 
1867,  embraced  four  provinces — viz.,  Ontario  or  Upper  Canada,  and 
Quebec  or  Lower  Canada — both  in  the  basin  of  the  St  Lawrence,  and 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Ottawa ;  and  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia,  south  of  the  estuary  of  that  river.  The  two  former  may 
be  called  the  inland  provinces,  and  the  two  latter  the  maritime  pro- 
vinces. Prince  Edward  Island  entered  the  confederation  in  1878, 
but  Newfoundland  has  hitherto  remained  aloof.  The  following  aro 
the  principal  towns  in  the  six  provinces  : — 


DOMISION   07  CiSiDi.  519 

O^TAR^o.— Ottawa  22  {Ottawa},  Toronto  46,  Kingston  12,  Ham- 
UtuD  27  (L.  Ontario),  Niagara  10  (Niagara),  London  16  (Thames). 

Quebec— QuebBc  60,  Three  Rivera  6,  Montreal  107  (St  Law- 
rence), Sherbrooke  6  (St  Fraocia). 

New  Brunswick.— Fredericton  6,  St  John  20  (St  John),  St  An- 
drews 7  (FasBllmsquoddy  Bay). 

Nova  Scotia.  — Halifax  30  (S.W.  coast),  Yarmouth  (Bay  o! 
Fundy),  Windaoc  (Minaa  Bay),  Pictou  5  (Northnniberland  Strait), 
Sydney  1  (L  Cape  Breton). 

Prince  Edward  Island.  —  Charlottetown  9  (Hilkboroiigh), 
Georgetown  (E,  coast),  Princetown  (N.  coast). 

Nbwfoundlakd.— St  John's  23  (S.E.  coast). 

Descriptive  IToteB,— Ottawa,  situated  on  the  edge  of  a  lireary  wilder- 
ness, but  DOW  connected  with  the  great  highwsya  of  commerce  by  caual 
and  railway,  possesses  several  iniportaut  BdvaDtagea  as  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion.  It  enjoys  uurivalled  water-power,  wliich  baa  aieady  been 
turned  largely  to  account  in,  the  lumber  trade :  the  supply  of  magnetic 
JTOu  ore  in  the  vicinity  is  of  uulimited  extent,  thongh  coal  is  wanting  to 
torn  it  to  proper  acuount.  Toronto,  the  cap.  of  Ontario  orUpperCanada, 
is,  ID  regard  to  population,  the  thinl  city  in  Canada,  and  the  grand  eni' 
porium  for  its  wheat,  which  it  exports  to  Britain  and  the  United  Stales. 
tongston,  a  considerabls  city  at  the  N.E.  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  is 
the  entrepSt  of  the  trade  between  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  and  a  naval 
Brsenat  of  Great  Britain.  Hamilton,  a  thriving  town  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  and  at  the  W.  eitremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  baa  an  active  and 
increasing  trade,  Iflagara,  a  flourishing  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  same  name  which  miites  Lakes  Erie  and  Onlsrio,  has  a  brisk  traffic  by 
Bteam  with  New  York,  Toronto,  and  Kingston :  abont  15  m.  farther  up 
are  the  celebrated  Falls  of  Niagara,  the  most  magnlHcent  in  the  world. 
The  Home-Shoe  Fall,  on  the  Canadian  aide,  is  1800  ft.  ai^ross  and  158  ft.  . 
■■     ■irdeptb,  while  the  American  Palls  are  600  ft.  broad,  and 


depth  :  it  is  estimated  that  the  falls  discharge  100  million  tons  of 

water  par  hour.  Iioadon,  a  beautiful  town  on  the  Thames,  in  the  centre 
of  the  Canadian  pentnaula,  is  fast  rising  into  importance.  Clnebeo,  the 
an<dent  cap.,  and  present  stronghold  of  Canada,  is  the  great  entrepot  for 
the  trade  of  the  dondiiion  with  Great  Britun,  the  West  Indies,  kc. 
Shipbuilding  is  very  eiteusively  carried  oil  Quebec  was  founded  hy  the 
French  in  160S,  and  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  17(i3  :  near  the  city  are  the 
Heights  of  Abraham,  on  which,  in  17&9,  was  fought  the  action  nndernl 
memorable  by  the  fall  of  Wolfe  and  Montcalm,  the  British  and  French 
commanders.  Six  miles  N.B,  of  Quebec  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  Mont- 
morency, 251]  it.  high  and  60  ft.  wide.  UilntreBl,  the  largest,  handaom. 
est,  and  most  commercial  city  in  Canada,  is  situiti'd  on  an  inland  oi  the 

Ottawa.  Its  architectnre  is  on  a  scale  of  uin  ■  '•  .1 
by  few  of  the  flnert  cities  in  Europe.  It  i^  :  i  - 
railway  syGteui,  and  the  natural  outlet  fortint  -  .i[i 
' — s  which  border  the  great  iakss.     Tlie  \  .■.■:_■, 


520  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

mercial  capital  and  the  laigest  city  in  New  Bronswick,  has  a  fine  har- 
\x)\ii,  which  is  open  at  all  seasons,  and  defended  by  several  forts.  It  is 
the  entre^dt  of  a  wide  extent  of  coantr^,  possesses  valuable  fisheries,  and 
exports  timber,  fish,  furs,  and  lime,  in  large  <][aantities.  HallfSuc,  the 
cap.  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  most  important  city  in  the  Maritime  Pro- 
vinces, is  built  of  wood,  and  beautifullv  situated  on  a  narrow  arm  of  the 
sea  leading  up  to  Bedford  Basin,  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world. 
It  is  the  principal  station  of  the  British  army  and  navy  in  North  America, 
and  is  well  defended  by  strong  forts  and  batteries.  Halifax  is  the  near- 
est port  to  Great  Britain  on  the  American  continent,  bemg  only  1800  m. 
from  Galway,  a  voyage  of  six  days ;  and  a'railway.  i>rojected  m>m  it  to 
Quebec  through  the  centre  of  New  Brunswick,  will  oring  that  city  witliin 
eight  day^s'  journey  of  Liverpool,  with  which  there  is  regular  steam  com- 
munication. Windsor,  a  small  town,  charmingly  situated  on  Minas  Bay, 
contains  an  Episcopal  college.  Pictou,  the  principal  town  on  the  G.  of 
St  Lawrence,  has  an  excellent  harbour  and  considerable  trade.  Charlotte- 
town,  the  cap.  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  has  a  magnificent  harbour,  and 
enjoys  great  commercial  facilities,  St  John's,  cap.  of  Newfoundland, 
stands  on  a  spacious  and  secure  harbour  defencied  by  several  forts ;  it  is 
much  resorted  to  during  the  fishing  season,  when  numerous  vessels  are 
employed  in  the  capture  of  seals. 

Capes,  Islands,  Gulfs,  and  Straits. — See  under  *'  North  America." 

SorflEU^  and  Mountains. — The  six  eastern  provinces  are  almost 
wholly  confined  to  the  basin  of  the  St  Lawrence,  which  is  estimated 
to  embrace  an  area  of  297,600  sq.  m.,  of  which  91,300  m.  are  covered 
by  the  five  principal  lakes.  Generally  speaking,  the  surface  of  the 
Dominion  is  very  varied,  and  in  some  parts  extremely  rueged.  On 
the  northern  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence  the  land  rises  gent^  towards 
the  interior  for  about  20  m.,  beyond  which,  is  a  plateau  of  very 
moderate  elevation.  The  mountains  have  no  great  elevation,  the 
highest  being  the  Green  Mountains,  4000  ft,  which,  form  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  the  United  States,  and  traverse 
Lower  Canada  south  of  the  St  Lawrence  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  termin- 
ating at  Gaspe  Point ;  the  Wotchisk  Mountains,  in  Lower  Canada, 
1500  ft.  high,  and  covered  with  perennial  snow,  form  the  water-part- 
ing between  the  basin  of  the  St  Lawrence  and  the  Hudson  Sea :  a 
range  of  hills  in  the  N.  of  New  Brunswick,  extending  from  the  Falls 
of  the  St  John  to  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  attains  the  height  of  2170  ft., 
and  forms  the  highest  elevation  in  the  maritime  provinces. 

The  interior  of  Nova  Scotia  forms  a  table-land  700  ft.  high,  and  the 
Cobequid  Hills  in  the  N.  are  1200  ft  high.  Cape  Breton  rises  in  the  N. 
to  an  elevation  of  1800  ft  Prince  Edward  Island  is  generally  flat  New- 
foundland is  for  the  most  part  rocky  and  uneven ;  the  "  Long  Range"  hi 
the  W.  stretches  from  S.  to  N. ,  attaining  an  elevation  of  1500  ft. 

Rivers  and  Lalces. — The  only  river  of  importance  in  this  part  of 
British  America  is  the  St  Lawrence,  which  has  its  remotest  souiees 
in  the  western  tributaries  of  Lake  Superior,  and  whose  entire  length 
is  estimated  at  2150  m.  The  area  of  its  basin,  as  above  stated,  is 
297,600  sq.  m.,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  occupied  bymagnificent 
fresh-water  lakes,  the  largest  in  the  world  (p.  608).  The  river  re- 
ceives different  names  in  the  different  partb  of  its  course — as,  the  8t 


r 


DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


the  Detroit,  betwaeE  Lakes  St  Clair  and  Erie  ;  the  Niagara,  tetween 
Lakes  Erie  sad  Ontario  ;  the  Iroquois,  between  Lake  Erie  and  Mon- 
treal ;  and  tha  St  Lanrence,  between  tliat  city  and  Gas]iS  Poiat 
For  the  principal  aMuenta  of  the  St  Laurence,  ate  table  of  liver- 
boams  (p.  GiO],  Owing  to  the  numerous  deep  indentations  oC  the 
KOi,  there  ere  few  riven  of  anjr  ma^itucle  in  the  maritime  provinoea. 
The  longeat  ia  the  St  John,  in  New  Brunswick,  which,  after  a  course 
of  400  m.,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  most  important  streams 
in  Kova  Scotia  are  the  Shubanacadie,  falling  into  Minas  Baun,  and 
the  Atlnapolia,  into  the  Bay  of  Fuudy.  For  the  principal  lakes,  see 
p.  COS.  Those  of  the  maritime  and  insnlar  ijrovincea  are  small  but 
very  numerona,  especially  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfonndlond. 

cnimate. — The  cliniate  of  Canada  is  what  geographers  call  exeta- 
iioe,  Ijoth  the  heat  of  snmmer  and  the  cold  of  winter  being  mnch 
greater  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  in  Europe. 

Though  the  mean  annnal  temperature  ia  41°  iu  tlis  S.,  and  32°  in  the 
N.,  thee«renies  of  heat  and  cold  range  from  85°  ahcreto  33°  below  zero ; 
Imt  the  djyness  of  the  air  and  the  absence  of  high  windu  greatly  mitigate 
the  cold  of  winter,  rendering  the  cliniate  salubrious,  and  highly  conducive 
to  longevity.  Fatal  epidemics,  and  even  cont^lous  diseaaea,  are  almost 
unknoTfii ;  and  peraans  enhject  to  coughs  and  colda  suffer  far  less  tlian  in 
Great  Britain.  Tha  sky  ia  remarkable  for  its  purity  and  transparency, 
and  fogs  are  rarely  seen.  In  Lower  Canada  winter  begins  about  tha  end 
ot  November,  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  April ;  bat  in  the  upper  province 
it  is  considerably  shorter,  and  it  sometiines  passes  without  almost  any 
mow.  The  difference  between  the  winter  temperatnre  of  tha  two  provinces 
amounts  to  11  degrees  in  favour  of  the  latter  {p.  36).  In  the  vicinity  of 
the  great  lakes  winter  is  much  milder  than  in  the  interior;  but  the  St 
Lawrence  ia  usually  frozen  over,  for  five  months  In  the  year,  as  far  down 
as  Quebec  The  avetsge  depth  of  snow  is  30  in.,  and  the  mean  fall  of 
rain  22  in.  In  the  interior  of  New  BruiiBwick  the  climate  Is  thought  to 
be  gradually  improving,  owing  to  the  cLearing  nwnv  nf  tho  fnrBitt  ■  hrit 
at  Fradericton,  ths  cap. ,  the  range  of  tcmporatu  rt  i  ^     .  .-i. 

Fogs  are  frequent  on  the  8.  coast  of  Nova  Scoti'! 
season  ia  cold  and  tedious;  in  summer,  the  rain 

but  the  antiimn  is  delightful.     The  annual  fall  cj    ,  . .  i.-. 

52  in.,  but  the  province  is  very  hoalthy.    The  cliu_^ 
laland  ii  oonaiiierably  milder  than  that  c*  "■■^--*=- 
Newfonndland  ia  noted  for  its  humid  atmoa, 
cold  of  its  winters,  when  the  thermometex 
the  freezing-point. 

Geology. — By  tat  the  greater  portion 
entire  centml  and  northern  puU,  flwD 
Lake  Superior  to  the  moutb  of  tha  St  Iai 
/in*  rocks.     Slltirtan  strata  line  baOl  l~~  * 
Kingston  to  Quebec,  and  the  sontlien) 
to  Point  Gaap^,  together  with  lll«       " ' 
extends  from  Georgian  Bay  "~  ' 
formation  occupies  the  ri^ht 


522  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

its  course.  Devonian  beds  cover  the  western  half  of  the  peninsnla 
now  mentioned.  The  Coed-Measures  do  not  occur  in  Canada,  as  the 
rocks  throughout  are  of  a  lower  geological  horizon  than  the  carboU' 
iferous  ;  but  the  country  is  very  favourably  situated  in  its  proximity 
to  the  coal  regions  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  recently  incor- 
porated maritune  provinces ;  and  it  contains  within  itself  such  ample 
supplies  of  wood,  peat,  and  mineral-oil  as  will  go  far  to  compensate 
for  the  want  of  coaL  Crystalline  and  Igneous  rocks  occupy  the 
greater  part  of  the  surface  of  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the 
W.  part  of  New  Brunswick. 

Silurian  and  Cambrian  strata  prevail  in  the  N.W.  of  New  Brunswick. 
The  CarboniferoiLs  Series  is  largely  represented  in  these  provinces — the 
Coal-Measures  occupying  the  immense  area  lying  between  the  Bay  of 
Chaleurs  and  the  K  extremity  of  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  and  pene- 
trating in  New  Brunswick  far  into  the  interior.  Jwrassic  Red  Sandstone 
is  found  largely  developed  in  Nova  Scotia  along  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  from 
Lon^  Island  to  Cape  Blomadon,  together  with  the  whole  of  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island. 

Minerals. — With  the  exception  of  coal  and  a  few  of  the  less  im- 
portant metals,  Ontario  and  Quebec  have  been  found  to  possess  all 
the  known  useful  minerals,  while  with  regard  to  most  of  them  it  may 
be  safely  asserted  that  these  two  provinces  contain  within  themselves 
a  supply  not  only  amply  sufficient  for  their  own  consumption,  but 
for  permanent,  profitable,  and  extensive  foreign  commerce.  The 
principal  minerals  are — iron,  lead,  copper,  nickel,  zinc,  gold,  silver, 
manganese,  limestone,  marble,  lithographic  stones,  paving-stones, 
mill-stones,  various  precious  stones,  asphalt,  and  valuable  wells  of 
petroleum  or  rock-oiL  The  iron-ores  of  Canada,  with  the  exception 
of  the  bog-ores,  are  generally  found  associated  with  the  Laurentian 
rocks,  in  which  they  occur  in  prodi^ous  quantities.  Most  of  the 
beds  are  of  very  great  extent  and  thickness,  yielding  from  60  to  70 
per  cent  of  pure  iron.  Copper,  however,  constitutes  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  mineral  treasures  of  Canada  Proper.  The  Huronian 
strata,  occupying  the  whole  northern  flank  of  Lake  Huron  and  parts 
of  Lake  Superior,  are  traversed  by  numerous  cupriferous  veins,  tiis 
export  value  of  which,  in  1866,  amounted  to  £68,600.  Discoveries 
of  gold  have  been  made  in  several  localities  of  province  Quebec,  bat 
it  has  only  been  obtained  through  the  laborious  process  of  washing. 
The  mineral  products  of  the  maritime  provinces  are  abnnduit  and 
valuable,  comprising  inexhaustible  supplies  of  ironstone  and  coad, 
together  with  plumbago,  copper,  manganese,  limestone,  |prpsnm» 
copperas,  alum,  pipeclay,  rea  and  yellow  ochre,  salt,  writing  and 
roofing  slates,  granite,  sandstone,  and  other  building-stones.  A 
ledge  of  gold-bearing  quartz  was  discovered  in  June  I860  near  the 
head  waters  of  Tangier  River,  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  several  gold  minei 
have  since  been  open/sd  in  various  parts  of  the  province.  In  1859  • 
vein  of  silver  ore  was  found  in  Newfoundland,  together  with  rich 
lodes  of  lead  and  of  copper  pyrites,  the  latter  being  as  valaable  lor 
its  sulphur  as  for  its  copper. 


I 


Botanj  andAgrlcaltuTB.— The  Dominion  of  Canada,  tocethcr  with 
the  1.  Ifewfomiiilaud,  is  almost  wholly  embraced  in  SchoQw's  <th 
phyto-geographic  region,  for  the  ciittrai:teri3tioa  of  wliicb  sea  under 
•'United  States,"  aod  at  p.  E5. 

The  gteater  p!irt  of  tLe  Dommioa  ia  coierad  by  enormous  forenta,  chiefly 
of  white  and  red  pine,  the  former  of  which,  frequentiy  messuriug  100  ft, 
from  the  gronnd  to  the  firat  branch,  is  eiported  to  the  United  Kingdom 
in  great  quantitie*.  Other  forest  trees  are  the  ash,  birch,  beech,  ebs, 
maple,  lime,  elder,  willow,  cedar,  and  many  otlien.  The  timber  trade, 
the  original  occupation  ot  the  people,  ia  sttll  the  inost  valuable  branch  of 
its  commerce,  thongh  fast  yielding  to  that  of  agricultDre.  Wild  fruits  are 
nnmerous,  and  nearly  all  the  Tegetables  and  iVuits  of  Great  Britain  arrive 
at  perfection  in  Ontario,  under  proper  cnltivar*  ■"      ■> 

jnat  beauty  and  variety,  bnt  geaerally  of  dlfl 

indiganoas  in  W.  Europe.    In  tlie  fertility  of  it , ..  ..  _ , 

lo  the  growth  of  cereaia,  Canada  yields  to  no  country  either  in  the  Old  oi 
Kew  World.  Ontario,  especially,  is  famous  for  its  wheat;  a  specimen 
grown  near  Toronto  obtained  the  first  prize  at  the  great  Paris  Eiliibition 
ot:865.  In  Ontario  and  Quebec  the  number  of  acres  under  tillage  in 
1861  was  10,673,000.  In  the  valleys  of  some  of  the  lai^  rivers,  ttiiity 
crops  of  wheat  have  been  raised  in  immediate  succession,  the  lirst  of 
which  averaged  forty  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  last  twelve  bushels,  with- 
out the  appilcation  of  manure.  In  many  places  the  soil  has  been  greatly 
iiyured  by  such  couatant  succession  of  the  same  kind  of  crops ;  but  of 
lata  more  improved  methods  of  agriculture  have  largely  restored  tho 
ground  to  its  original  fertility.  In  iSfll,  the  estimated  yield  of  Ontario 
alone  amounted  to  25,000,000  bushels.  Iniiian-com,  hops,  and  tobacco 
are  the  common  crops,  and  yield  large  returns.  Hemp  and  Hu  are  in- 
digenous plantA.  and  can  be  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  many  parts  of  the 
country.  Pumpkins  and  sqnaahea  attain  gigantic  dimensions,  sometitnes 
exceeding  2ii0  pounds  in  weight.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  great  lakes 
the  grape  and  peach  grow  luxuriantly,  and  ripen  to  perfectioo  In  the 
open  air.  The  '*  lumber  trada  "  (as  the  eiportation  of  timber  is  called) 
forms  the  principal  source  of  wealth  in  Mew  Brunswick,  where  only  a 
very  small  portion  of  the  soil  ia  cleared.  Nova  Scotia  is,  for  the  most 
part,  covered  with  wood  and  lake ;  the  trees  are  leas  mwestic  than  ia 
new  Brunswick,  hut  embrace  a  greater  number  of  apecles.  In  1861, 
about  1,000,000  acres  were  under  cultivation.  The  toil  i^  veryfertila; 
the  principal  creps  are  wheat,  maize,  barl^,  fya,  oats,  potatoes,  liuch> 
wheat,  and  field  peas.  The  wheat  i^rop  "lien  lufTf-.r;  froiu  wpiivll,  and 
the  province  does  not,  even  in  good  "•-.■"•r-   ..ii.i-.i.-  .-4  .-.um  .".....uiin,. 


apple 


o  obtained  from  the  ] 


is  cultivated ;  and  snch  i  <  i 
crops  are  produced  iiniDBdiately  <  . 
barley,  rye,  potatoes,  and  all  loiii 
yield  laiga  returns.  The  soil  of  Ki 
with  a  scrubby  vegetation.  T\"' 
kitchen  vegetables  fona  the  prlii^ii 
|_»re  found  to  thrive  well  in  favoutnl  i 

Zoology.— Tbe  wild  animali  <    ' 


524  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

tiger-cat,  beaver,  marten,  otter,  minks,  musk-rat,  porcnpine,  weasel, 
moose-deer,  squirrel,  and  hare — all  of  which,  except  the  two  last, 
are  rapidly  decreasing  in  numbers.  The  carriboa-deer  roam  in  vast 
herds  in  the  pastures  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  celebrated  Newfound- 
land dog  is  peculiar  to  the  island.  Birds  consist  of  wild  swans,  wild 
turkeys,  ducks,  Canada  geese,  woodcocks,  snipes,  and  many  beauti- 
ful  birds  of  the  smaller  feathered  tribes,  besides  eagles,  kites,  hawks, 
homed  owls,  herons,  bitterns,  and  crows.  There  are  two  remarkable 
features  in  the  ornithology  of  this  country — viz.,  1.  The  birds  are 
all  destitute  of  song ;  2.  The  periodic  migrations  of  birds  in  amazing 
numbei*s,  on  their  way  to  and  from  the  Arctic  regions.  Snakes  are 
numerous  in  Canada  Proper,  but  the  venomous  kinds  are  not  so 
plentiful  as  in  the  United  States.  Domestic  animals  comprise  cattle 
and  sheep,  which  in  Nova  Scotia  are  very  numerous  ;  horses  are 
reared  in  vast  numbers  in  Prince  Edward  Island;  and  swine  and 
poultry  in  all  the  provinces.  The  seas,  bays,  and  rivers  literally 
swarm  with  fish  of  almost  every  name ;  and  the  celebrated  "bank  of 
Newfoundland,"  which  forms  the  most  extensive  submarine  elevation 
on  the  globe,  is  tenanted  by  immense  shoals  of  capelin  and  lance, 
which  attract  the  larger  species — the  cod  and  whale. 

Ethnograpliy. — The  population  consists  for  the  most  part  of  emi- 
grants from  the  United  Kingdom  and  their  descendants,  the  prin- 
cipal exception  being  the  province  Quebec,  where  four-fifths  of  the 
inhabitants  are  of  French  extraction,  that  colony  having  belonged 
to  France  previous  to  its  cession  to  Great  Britain  in  1763.  They 
speak  the  French  language  slightly  corrupted,  and  are  nearly  all 
Koman  Catholics. 

In  1871,  there  were  in  the  Dominion  1,082,940  inhabitants  of  French 
origin,  of  whom  847,615  were  in  Quebec,  and  33,287  in  Ontario.  There 
were  21,496  negroes,  and  about  23,000  native  Indians,  all  of  whom  belong 
to  two  tribes,  tne  Chippeways  and  Micmacs— sections  of  the  great  Algon- 
quin nation — and  the  Mohawks,  a  branch  of  the  Iroquois.  A  few  of  l^em 
have  embraced  Christianity,  but  the  great  majority  are  still  heathens. 
Almost  all  the  other  inhabitants  are  of  British  extraction,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  66,500  "loyalists"  from  the  United  States  (that  is,  i>er8on8 
who  fought  on  the  side  of  Great  Britain  during  the  American  war),  and 
24,162  Germans.  In  the  same  year  there  were  in  the  Dominion  2,019,858 
Protestants  ;  1,532,489  Roman  Catholics ;  91,270  of  diverse  creeds.  The 
English  language  prevails  everywhere  except  in  Quebec,  where  the  French 

f)redominates ;  and  Irish,  Gaelic,  and  German  may  be  heard  in  various 
ocalities.  Few  countries  have  provided  more  liberally  for  education 
than  Canada.  In  Ontario  no  fewer  than  22  per  cent  of  the  population 
were  at  school  in  1862,  and  11  per  cent  in  Quebec.  There  were  14  col- 
leges, 131  ^mmar- schools,  and  6300  common  schools,  attended  by 
460,000  pupils.  The  maritime  and  insular  provinces  have  also  put  fortn 
great  efforts  to  educate  the  people.  It  is  said  that  in  Prince  Edwaid 
Island  one-fifth  of  the  whole  revenue  is  emended  on  education,  and  that 
there  are  more  schools  than  there  are  roads  to  them.  The  press  is  acU 
vancing  rapidly;  the  journals  are  unstamped,  and  there  is  no  dntfOB 
paper  or  advertisements.  Generally  speaking,  every  town  and  viUini 
nas  its  own  press,  and  not  unfrequently  two  pai>ers  are  issued  from  eaoL 


SOHIKIOK   OF  CASADA. 


52a 


OoTenmieilt. — The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  vested  in  a  Governor- 
General  (appointeil  by  the  Crown),  who  is  aided  by  a  privy  touncil 
and  a  parliament  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Commons. 
The  former  conaiata  of  77  members,  being  24  for  each  of  the  original 
jirovincefl,  S  for  B,  Colombia  and  Manitoba,  und  24  for  the  three 
maritime  provinces.  The  Hoase  of  Commons  consists  of  206  mem. 
berB  (wlio  are  chosen  every  fivo  yearaj,  thfli«  being  83  for  Ontario, 
65  far  Quebec,  16  for  Kew  Brunswick,  and  21  for  Ifova  Scotia,  4 
for  Manitoba,  6  for  British  Columbia,  and  6  fur  Prince  Edward  Is. 
land,  being  one  member  for  every  17,000  of  the  popnlatiou.  The 
laws  of  England  form  the  recogniBsd  code  in  all  the  provinces  except 
Quebec,  where  the  Old  French  laws,  sabject  to  the  alterationB  of 
Parliament,  are  still  respected.  Newfoundland  is  ruled  by  a  Lieat- 
Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executiva  Council 
and  a  House  of  Assembly. 

The  Imperial  Government  rarely  Joterreres  in  tlie  legislation  of  these 
colonies,  except  when  some  great  national  interest  is  involved.  The  ties 
that  bind  them  to  ttie  home  country  are  slackening  every  year,  and  it  is 
not  very  improbable  that  ere  long  they  may  become  wholly  independent. 
Not  being  represented  in  the  British.  pBrliament,  they  pay  no  taxes  ;  and 
though  &igland  protects  them  from  foreign  Invasion,  she  refuses  to  main- 
tain a  standing  army  in  the  country  except  at  the  expense  of  the  colonies. 
Already  the  number  of  British  troops  serving  In  the  colonies  has  been 
rednced  to  2DD0  men.  The  Dominion  maintains  a  volunteer  force  of 
87,170  men,  and  a  newly-oiganised  mililia,  in  which  all  the  male  inhabit- 
ants between  the  ages  of  18  and  60  ore  liable  to  serve.  In  1872,  there 
were  on  tlie  lakes  of  Canada  and  on  the  St  Lawrence  8  war-steamers 
carrying  18  cannons,  belonijing  partly  to  Great  Britain  and  partly  to  the 
Dominion.  The  Imperial  Government  possesses  besides  2  steamers  cap- 
able of  being  transformed  into  war-vessels.  In  1874,  the  Revenue  of  the 
Dominion  amounted  to  £4,348,100;  the  Expenditnie  to£4,820,000  ;  and 
the  Public  Debt  to  ^21,93G,949-  In  the  same  year  the  Beveuue  of  the 
two  insular  provincG3was£166,974:  theExnenditnre,  £201,994;  and  the 
Public  Debt,  £328,499. 

MattnfjuTtnrBs  and  Commerce. — In  the  Dominion  of  Canada  the 
timber  trade  contiuiiea  to  form  the  chief-industry  of  the  people.  The 
value  of  the  wood  exported  in  1873  was  £7,000,000.  of  which 
£5,196,956  worth  were  sent  to  Great  Britain,  and  a  niucb  greater 
quantity  was  retained  for  home  consumption. 

Thevalleyof  the  Ottawa  anppliea  the  finest  i.'i  '•-■■'■/ 

Brunswick  the  greatest  quantity.     Next  in   '  '  li' 

trade  is  that  of  agriculture,  which  bu  of  latr  ^  I  o 

1873,   the  total  exports  of   com  and  Boa:  :■" 

The  fisheries  are  also    of  imiiU'iian  vdii>'  in 

1867,  exported  SlSfihi  ■  :.■■  .  ■'!'< 

ported  Ji»50,m  wortl".  ■  ■  '..-. 

the  United  Kincdom,  I.  ••> 

from  the  United  Kinpl..  >i 

I    chiefly  with  the  Uniteii  Stiller   !i 

U  being  to  the  former  oonntry,  win  li 

f-ktler.    lu  the  same  yenr,  then. 


526  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

abont  £5,000,000,  and  the  imports  from  the  United  States  to  £4,300,000. 
Woollen  and  cotton  manufactures  are  the  principal  articles  derived  from 
the  mother  country,  though  the  duties  levied  on  them  are  almost  prohibi- 
tive, amounting  to  15  per  cent.  Wood  and  horses  form  the  principal 
exports  from  Prince  Eaward  Island ;  fish,  oil,  and  sealskins  from  New- 
foimdland.  The  total  Exports  of  the  two  colonies,  in  1869^  to  the  United 
Kingdom  were  £685,853 ;  and  the  Imports  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
£572,559.  The  total  exports  frt)m  the  six  provinces  to  all  countries  in 
1873  amounted  to  about  £18,122,000,  and  the  total  imports  to  about 
£23,317,000.  The  Dominion  possesses  a  considerable  merchant  navy. 
In  1867  there  were  6217  vessels,  carrying  912,715  tons. 

Internal  Communication. — The  Canals,  though  only  218  m.  in 
aggregate  length,  are  of  great  capacity,  and  are  very  superb  works. 

That  along  the  St  Lawrence,  from  the  tide  to  Lake  Ontario,  is  about 
41  m.  in  length.  The  Rideau  Canal,  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Ottawa  City, 
adistance  of  135  m.,  carries  vessels  of  120  tons  burden.  The  Wellaud 
CcUial,  from  the  S.W.  of  Lake  Ontario  to  Port  Maitland  on  Lake  Erie,  a 
distance  of  42  m.,  allows  vessels  of  125  tons  to  pass  from  the  one  lake  to 
the  other,  thus  avoiding  the  insuperable  Falls  of  Niagara.  The  Railwavs 
are  on  a  grand  scale,  and  some  of  their  viaduct  bridges  are  among  the 
most  stupendous  in  the  world.  Such  are  the  Victona  Tubular  Bridge 
across  the  St  Lawrence,  near  Montreal,  9194  ft  lon^,  which  cost  about 
two  million  pounds  sterling,  and  the  Great  Suspension-Bridge  over  the 
Niagara  River,  below  the  F^ls.  In  1836  there  were  not  20  m.  of  railway, 
whereas  in  1874  there  were  3899  m.,  besides  16,244  m.  of  electric  telegraph. 
The  principal  lines  in  the  Dominion  are  the  Grand  Trunk,  which,  com- 
mencmg  at  Port  Samia  on  Lake  St  Clair,  proceeds  eastwarii  by  Toronto 
and  Kington  to  Montreal,  where  it  crosses  the  St  Lawrence,  and  proceeds 
E.  to  Richmond,  and  thence  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Pornand,  in 
Maine.  From  Richmond  a  branch  line  proceeds  to  Quebec  and  Fraser- 
ville.  The  n^t  important  railway  is  tne  Great  Western,  which  runs 
from  Toronto^/jt^rough  Hamilton  and  London  to  Windsor,  opposite  De- 
troit, whence  A*  line  extends  to  Chicago  :  a  branch  line  connects  Hamilton 
with  the  Niagara,  2  m.  below  the  celebrated  falls.  From  Toronto,  the 
Ontario  and  Huron  Railway  proceeds  N.W.  to  Collingwood  on  Greoi^an 
Bay,  a  distance  of  96  m.  Another  line,  160  m.  in  length,  crosses  the 
Grand  Trunk  at  Stratford,  and  the  Great  Western  at  Pans,  and  connects 
Goderich,  on  Lake  Huron,  with  Buffalo  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The 
local  Government  of  Quebec  has  gifted  3,000,000  acres  to  companies  for 
the  purpose  of  constructing  railways  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  St 
Lawrence,  from  Quebec  to  Montreal  and  Ottawa.  In  addition  to  the 
above,  Halifax  is  connected  with  Windsor  and  Truro,  while  the  proposed 
intercolonial  line  is  to  connect  Halifax  with  Fraserville,  110  m.  below 
Quebec,  thus  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway. 

XL  Brltisli  Columbia. — Under  the  term  British  Columbia  is  now 
embraced  the  whole  of  British  North  America  west  of  the  Kocky 
Mountains.  It  includes  not  only  the  colony  formerly  known  as 
British  Columbia,  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mts.  and  the  Pacific, 
and  between  the  Simpson  River  and  the  United  States,  but  also  the 
district  known  as  Stickeen,  extending  from  the  Simpson  River 
northwards,  and  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  United  States  terri- 
tory of  Alaska ;  Vancouver  Island,  formerly  a  separate  colony,  bat 


DOUimON   OF   CANADA.  527 

united  to  Britiah  Columbia  in  1886;  and  Queen  Cliarlotte  Island, 
nortli-east  of  Vancouver.  All  theee  sections  now  form  one  colonj, 
which  in  1871  resolved  to  unite  itself  with  the  dominion  of  Ctinada. 
It  extends  from  lit  iS°  to  about  62°  N.,  and  from  Ion.  117°  (Mt. 
Brown)  to  133°  W. 

Its  entire  length  from  ¥!.  to  S.  is  ahont  900  m.,  with  a  hreadth  o{ 
mainland  varying  from  500  to  200  m.,  embracing  su  area  of  about  four 
timei  that  of  the  British  lalea.  But  the  settled  portion,  including  Van- 
cdQVer  Island  and  Stickeen,  does  not  exceed  213,000  sq.  m.,  while  tliF 
pop.  in  1S71  was  only  12,000  persons,  who  are  chiefly  migratory,  con- 
BlaHne  of  mining  adventurBiB  from  California  and  other  places.  The 
eettled  white  pop.  may  be  estimated  at  about  15,000,  not  inclnding  the 
Chinese,  of  whom  there  are  considerable  numbers.  The  mainland  is 
watered  by  three  noble  rivers — the  Simpson,  flowing  westward,  and 
dividing  the  country  into  two  nearly  ei]ual  portions ;  the  Stidieen,  or 
Frances  River,  fartlier  north,  in  the  settlement  of  that  name;  and  the 
Fraier  River  {with  its  affluent,  the  Thomson),  which  flows  from  N.  to  8., 
and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Geoi^ia  (which  eeparatea  Vancouver  Island  &om 
the  mainland)  afi^r  a  coarse  of  710  m.  The  head-waters  of  tlie  Col- 
nmbia  are  also  within  the  limits  of  this  colon; ;  as  also  the  Finlsy 
hranch  of  the  Peace  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Madienzio.  The  colony 
is  to  a  great  exteut  occupied  by  two  grand  mountain -ranges,  running 
N.N.W.,  but  gradually  diverging  from  each  other  towards  the  N., 
where  they  encloea  a  vast  plain,  of  from  1000  to  3000  ft.  in  eleva- 
tiou.  The  eastern  boundary  is  formed  by  the  main  creat  of  the  Eocky 
Uonnlains,  some  of  the  peaks  of  which  in  this  region  are  among  the 
loftiest  mountains  of  the  N.  Amerii^n  continent,  as  Mt.  Brown,  16,000 
ft.,  Mt.  Hooker  and  Mt.  Murcbison,  about  15,700  ft.  each.  The  Cas- 
cade Uta. ,  or  Sea  Alps,  run  along  the  coast  from  neur  the  mouth  of  tlie 
Frazer  into  the  U.S.  territory  of  Alaska,  formerly  Russian  America.  The 
average  width  of  tliia  range  »  about  100  miles,  sjid  many  of  its  ! 
attain  an  elevation  of  about  10,000  tt.  With  the  eieeption  of  tl 
above  mentioned,  the  interior  is  extremely  m< 
forests,  numerous  lakes,  and  swsjnpy  tracts.  During  the  laet  few  years 
agricultnral  operations  have  been  greatly  extended,  and  it  is  now  ascer- 
tained that  the  soil  and  dimate  are  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cereals, 
especially  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  which  grow  luxuriantly.  The  country 
Is  well  stocked  with  excellent  timber,  has  extensive  deposits  of  bitumin 
ouB  coal  well  fitted  for  the  production  of  steam ;  while  a  magnihcent 
gold-field,  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world,  was  discovered  in  1860  at  the 
confluence  of  the  BVazer  with  the  Thomson.  The  geological  formation  of 
the  gold  region  Is  precisely  similar  to  that  of  California.  Ilie  greater  part 
of  the  conutry  is  of  tertiary  strata,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sea  ^p8, 
which  are  of  trap,  and  the  middle  and  western  ranges  of  the  Bochy  Mouu- 
tains,  which  are  metamorphic  The  climate  la  very  mniat  in  snuuner  and 
extremely  cold  in  winter,  Bspeclally  in  the  elevated  interior,  whore  snow 
blocks  op  the  mountain-passes  Stom  October  to  July.  The  laBge  Of  tem- 
perature is  mnch  greater  than  in  correapondlng  latitudes  of  weslern 
Europe,  the  meau  summer  behig  86°  Fah.  and  the  mean  winter  15°.  As 
yet  there  are  no  towns  on  the  mainhiTid,  exoopt  New  Westminster,  tli" 
capital,  situated  near  Uie  moatb  of  tlia  Prazer,  with  a  pop,  of  only  GOO. 
Notwithstanding  many  serious  drawbackt    t"-"—  -■"  be  no  doubt  tl    " 

I   there  is  n  great  future  in  store  for  P' 

I  natural  advaittagfs,  as  compareil  wit 


if  the  plaii 


""! 


528  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

America.  Its  mineral  treasm^es  are  unrivalled  for  richness ;  it  is  admir* 
ably  adapted  for  agricultural  and  pastoral  operations :  while  its  supply 
of  yalaaole  timber  is  inexhaustible.  The  main  drawbacks  are,  its  vast 
distance  from  England,  and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  available  communi- 
oation  witii  Canada  and  the  mother  country.  The  possibility  of  open- 
ing railway  communication  between  the  colony  and  Canada,  throng 
British  territory,  has  been  for  many  years  a  subject  of  earnest  discussion; 
and  now  that  tiie  colony  has  linked  its  fortunes  to  the  Canadian  Domin* 
ion,  the  necessity  for  such  conununication  has  become  more  obvious 
than  ever.  At  present  England  has  no  available  route  to  the  Pacific 
coast  of  her  possessions  except  through  New  York  and  San  Francisco 
(now  united  by  the  great  Pacific  Railway) ;  but  in  the  event  of  war  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  the  only  possible  route  would  be  through  her 
own  Canadian  territory,  the  Red  River  Settlement,  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Therefore,  by  opening  a  direct  line  of  communication  through  our 
own  dominions,  we  coiild  at  once  effectually  defend  our  widely-separated 
American  colonies,  vastly  promote  their  mutual  prosperity,  and  ultim- 
ately obtain  readier  access  to  China  and  our  rapidly-developing  Australian 
possessions.  The  United  States  has,  by  her  last  great  experiment,  shown 
that  it  is  possible  to  construct  a  paying  railway  from  ocean  to  ocean,  across 
gigantic  rivers  and  frightful  ravines,  through  mountain-passes  of  several 
thousand  fL  in  elevation,  and  over  boundless  prairies  and  uninhabited 
wildernesses.  While  writing,  we  learn  that  the  Dominion  has  agreed  to  the 
construction  of  a  Pacific  ra^way.  The  Revenue  of  the  colony  (including 
Vancouver)  in  1868  was  £123,911 ;  Expenditure,  £97,706  ;  Public  Debt, 
£304,166.  The  Exports  to  the  United  Kingdom,  in  1869,  amounted  to 
£51 ,490 ;  and  the  Imports  from  the  United  Kingdom,  to  £115,095. 

Vancouver  Island  lies  S.W.  of  the  mainland  of  British  Columbia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Queen  Clharlotte  Sound  (in  some  places 
only  10  m.  wide)  and  the  Gulf  of  Georgia.  The  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca, 
18  m.  wide,  separates  it  from  the  United  States  territory  of  Washington. 
Lat.  48"  20'— 51"  N.  ;  Ion.  123°— 128°.  Length,  275  m. ;  greatest  breadth, 
50  m. ;  area,  16,000  sq.  m. ;  population,  25,000,  of  whom  18,000  are  Indians. 
This  fine  island,  by  far  the  largest  on  the  W.  coast  of  America,  came  into 
the  possession  of  Great  Britain  by  the  Oregon  treaty  of  1846,  which  de- 
termined the  boimdary  between  the  United  States  and  British  North 
America.  The  surface  is  highly  diversified,  and  a  chain  of  lofty  moun- 
tains occupies  the  interior  throughout  its  entire  length.  The  soil  consists 
in  some  places  of  rich  prairie-land,  which  is  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  but  only  a  small  portion  of  the  surface  is 
suitable  for  agriculture.  The  coast  abounds  with  fine  natural  harbours, 
which  will  afford  protection  to  ships  in  all  weathers.  Coal  of  an  excel- 
lent description  is  found  at  Naniamo,  while  copper  and  iron  ore  (the 
latter  found  nowhere  else  on  the  N.  Pacific  coast)  are  abundant.  Fish 
of  the  most  valuable  species  are  very  numerous  around  the  coasts.  Land 
animals,  important  for  their  skins,  embrace  the  beaver,  racoon,  and 
land-otter ;  while  game  comprises  the  elk,  deer,  grouse,  snipe,  &c. 
Temperature  seldom  above  80  ,  or  lower  than  15°.  The  interior  of  the 
country  is  little  known,  but  is  described  as  rocky  and  ricUy  wooded. 
The  importance  of  Vancouver  is  greatly  enhanced  since  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  the  adjoining  mainland  of  British  Columbia :  and  thei-e  can  be 
no  doubt  that  its  position,  climate,  excellent  harbours,  and  valuable 
minerals,  destine  it  ere  long  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  among  British 
colonies.  Victoria,  the  capital,  near  the  S.  extremity  of  the  island,  has 
a  population  of  5000. 


DOMIKIOS   OF   CiA-ADA.  52S 

HL  ITortli-'ffMt,  or  EndBDB  Bay  TEniloij,  Bitimtad  betweoii  tie 

■  Kock;  UouDtoiiiB  and  HiulHou  Se&,  and  between  tbe  Arcljc  Oomm  and  the 

"  rted  StBLee,  is  the  cantruJ  snd  largeEt  anbdiviBiDii  nf  whsi.  bos  hilln^rlD 

_u  known  OE  the  Hndsim  Bb;  Cumpuiy't  Territory.     Tluu  C(nii[>iiiif 

»  foniied  by  royal  chortet,  in  1G70,  under  tlie  Enflpices  of  Kinus 

Sbipflrtj  after  vhom  Uie  temter}'  whb  nsjned.     The  Coinpaay's  charter 

having  ex|iirad  in  1S63,  it£  Block  was  tnuiBfeiTsd  to  a  new  body  of  ]irit 

prietoiB.  uumed  the  Inteniational  Finauoisl  Soriety,  whiwe  pcrwera  are 

the  BDUthom  portions  of  its  gzgimtic  temtociH  ore  to  be  opened  up  to 
European  cDloniaatioii  under  the  Biifi]>iii«i>  of  the  Itominian  of  (Xanadu, 
la.  49°— "O*.  Fort  Torit,  in  the  cealire  of  tlie  entire  tanilorj,  and  the 
Cuiupuuy'n  tniucipal  d^5t,  Bituated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Nslaini 
and  cm  tjie  w,  Hhore  nf  Hudfioii  Bsy,  hot  the  mnie  latitude  as  .Ahardeen. 
Aalborg,  HIrk,  TDbolak^  ^^ew  Anihangel,  and  Kain  in  Labrador.  IDie 
]>reaise  area  le  unknown,  hut  it  mHy  he  SBtimaled  at  S,BS4,OjO  sq,  m.,  or 
eighteen  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles.  The  snrfEce  is  geneiBlly  low 
tmd  leret.  portly  alopinp  tDwarde  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  partly  towards 
till:  BudnOD  Sea.  The  whole  lemtDry  Ij'ing  between  the  lijuits  above 
stated  enibnifea  three  great  nBtural  legiDUS,  The  regicin  lying  N.  nf 
lake  Athabasca  and  E.  of  the  Mackenzie  may  be  called  the  Jiarm 
JUpioK,  as  little  or  no  vegetation  is  seen,  exce^it  lichens,  moiues,  and  a 
few  atunled  plants.  The  regiiiii  lying  aronnd  the  8.  and  W.  ahorei  of 
Hudson  Bay  may  in  like  momier  he  styled  the  Wbb^  JitgioK,  as  the  soil 
IS  nenally  tuvered  wit^  magnificant  forest-triws.  The  entire  remaindei, 
BtTBtching  westward  tc  the  ilockj  Mountains,  »nd  northward  to  the 
Art^ic  Ocean,  may  be  dannminated  the  J^rairi^  Hrrjisfiy  as  it  consistB  for 
the  mobt  pan  of  immense  plaiuit  devoid  of  timW,  but  clothed  with 
Innmajit  posturo-graaseB  and  sedges.  The  only  important  fojBste  in 
this  rc^on  an:  along  the  E.  base  of  the  Rocty  Uoimtains.  Od  t^e  wimble, 
it  is  well  adupted  for  hecomiitg  an  ughcultuBl  countr}-,  as  all  the  Euro- 
pean cereolB,  together  with  potstoes,  tnmijis.  and  other  tisefu]  vegetables, 
COD  he  here  hroo^iit  to  maturity.  This  region  wae  suhdi^ed  hy  the 
Company  into  twenty  distdcts,  each  oontammg  one  or  mote  factories,  or 
fur-trading  eatahlifliunants.  The  prinpipal  of  these  are,  Ft  Goad  Ma/x 
on  Mackeuzie  Birec,  and  FL  liacphenon,  on  Peel  Giver,  the  two  most 
northeru  of  tlie  Company's  fkitories.  The  phie  and  the  alder  are  shun- 
danl  in  their  neighhourhood,  amongrt  the  valleys  of  tiie  Bocfcj  Moun- 
tains, Barley  ripens  at  .Ft.  JVomuHi  flat  G5°),  and  good  cro|is  of  oato 
hove  bean  raised  at  Pt.  Simpaon.  Ft.  Fraailin,  on  the  western  shore 
of  Great  Bear  l^ke,  has  a  mean  annnol  teDiperature  of  Id"  below  freezing- 
minimum  heat  of  SB"  below  zero,  and  a  maximmn  heat  of  80° 
-dFI.  CkippeKtiiiim,  on  Luke  Alhub»»i:a,  tliara  is  not  the  alighteet 
vated  vegetnticn.  Coarse  pjasE  is  yielded  by  the  BWauijifi,  and  cut 
r  the  few  cattle  nguitad  at  the  station,  whidi  have  to  Jeed  on  fish 

»-—->■ Tjelaila.    In  IBG2,  gold  was  discovered  at  fiiimoWoii  Jfoiai. 

katchewan,  the  whole  valler  of  which  is  likely  to  prove 

te  cold  at  Ft.  York  durii^g'the  winter  months  is  feaifnlly 

e,  the  thenuometer  desoending  sometimes  ns  low  as  50°  below  mm. 

mt  with  a  constant  tire,  brandy  freezes  mto  a  solid  suhstimce.     In 

HTlhe  sor&ce  thaws  to  the  dnith  of  10  or  12  inches,  and  becomes  a 

clommy  mud  ;  and  but  for  suppues  imjiortid  from  more  tamperate 
regioni,  eiiBtence  would  be  impwaihle.  Tet  this  dreary  r^on  cimtains 
eitaoaive  areas  well  adapted  for  colonisation.  The  entire  country  aronnd 
Luke  Winnipeg,  togeth^  with  tlie  inuneuw  basin  of  tbe  Baskatchewim, 


530  POUTICAL  GEOORAFHT. 

is  marvellously  fruitful  in  forage  plants,  possesses  an  admirable  soil,  and 
embraces  besides  an  immense  supply  of  coal  and  iron-ore  of  the  best 
quality.  With  these  conditions,  aidded  to  a  very  healthy  climate,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  expect  that  the  southern  part  of  the  country  will  one 
day  become  the  seat  of  an  industrious,  prosperous,  and  powerful  people. 
The  great  desiderat\un  of  the  country  is  the  opening  up  of  land  and 
water  communication  with  Canada  and  British  Columbia. 

IV.  Manitoba,  hitherto  known  as  the  Bed  River  Settlement,  was 
originally  founded  in  1813.  It  is  situated  on  the  btmks  of  the  Bed 
River,  which  has  its  upper  course  in  the  United  States.  The  population, 
11,963  in  number,  is  composed  of  emigrants  from  the  Highlands  of  Soot- 
land  and  Canada,  together  with  retired  servants  of  the  Hudson  Bey 
Company,  and  50,000  native  Indians  and  half-breeds.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile,  and  large  crops  of  grain  are  raised  ;  and  there  are  natural  forests 
of  oak,  elm,  maple,  and  pine.  The  settlers  possess  groat  numbers  of 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  most  of  the  domesticated  animals  of  England  have 
been  introduced.  The  rivers  freeze  in  November  and  open  in  April ; 
but  Lake  Winnipeg  remains  frozen  till  the  end  of  May.  This  is  the  only 
colony  to  be  found  in  the  boundless  tract  formerly  known  as  Bupert's 
Land.  Hitherto  the  Settlement  has  been  isolated  and  independent  of 
Canada,  but  in  conseauence  it  vzas  formally  included  in  the  Dominion,  in 
opposition  to  the  wishes  of  many  of  the  settlers,  who  raised  the  banner 
of  insurrection  in  1870 ;  but  on  hearing  that  a  British  force  was  on  its 
way  to  subdue  them,  they  agreed  to  be  annexed  to  Canada, 

Labrador,  an  immense  peninsula  between  Hudson  Sea  and  the  Atlan- 
tic, forms  the  eastern  portion  of  the  British  territory ;  but  the  authority 
of  the  new  International  Financial  Society  (p.  529)  does  not  extend 
farther  east  than  to  Ion.  70°.  Greatest  length,  from  E.  to  W.,  1000  m. ; 
greatest  breadth,  850  m. :  area  estimated  at  420,000  sq.  m.,  or  five  times 
the  area  of  Great  Britain.  The  whole  of  this  immense  country  is  uninhab- 
ited by  civUised  man,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  settlements  on  the  St 
Lawrence  and  Atlantic  coasts,  which  are  visited  during  the  summer  by 
vessels  engaged  in  the  cod  and  salmon  fisheries,  and  in  seal-hunting. 
At  this  season  the  population  rises  to  about  30,000 ;  while  at  other 
times  it  is  thinly  peopled  by  nomadic  bands  of  Montagnais.  Nasquapee, 
and  Mistassinni  Indians,  and  the  northern  coasts  by  wandering  Esqiii- 
niaux.  Large  establishments  are  maintained  on  the  coast  for  salting 
fish,  and  extracting  their  oil.  Nain,  a  mission-station  near  the  middle 
of  the  east  coast,  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  New  Archangel,  Fort  York, 
Aberdeen,  Riga,  and  Tobolsk.  Labrador  is  subdrvided  into  Bu^i 
River,  or  East  Main,  in  the  W.,  and  Labrador  Proper  in  the  B.  Tbs 
former  of  these  contains  the  principal  trading  stations  of  the  Company. 
The  only  sites  of  importance  in  Labrador  Proper  are  four  settlements  of 
the  Moravian  missionaries — viz.,  Nain,  Okhak,  Hebron,  and  Hqpedale, 
all  on  the  N.E.  coast.  The  shores  are  desolate  and  sterile  in  the  extreme^ 
but  the  interior  consists  of  a  lofty  sterile  table-land,  2240  fL  above  the 
sea,  strewed  with  an  infinite  number  of  boulders,  which  vary  in  sixe  firam 
1  to  20  ft.  in  diameter.  The  climate  is  very  severe,  but  less  foge^tiua 
in  Newfoundland.  Mean  annual  temp,  of  Nain,  27  82^ :  winterly  W ; 
summer,  47°  9'.  Com  will  not  ripen,  and  only  hardy  kitchen  y^ietablei 
can  be  raised.  Labrador  Proper  is  under  the  provisional  joriadictioii  ol 
Newfoundland. 


GREENLAND,  oh  DANISH  AlIERICA. 

Boimdaxies, — N.  anil  N.E.,  the  Arctic  Ocenn  ;  W.,  Kennedy 
:;haniiel,  Baffin  Bay,  and  Davis  Strait  ;  S.  and  S.E.,  the  Atlan 
tic    Lat  59°  49'— 81"  30'  N. ;  Ion.  20°— 75"  W. 

1  island,   or  gronp  of 
^  Ice,  and  deeply  peno- 

trated  on  ita  western  aids  hy  narrow  inlets  wMcb  resemble  the  fiordi  o! 
Norway.  Captain  Nares  of  Che  British  Ajctio  Expedition,  in  I87B.  found 
Greenland  to  eitemi  on  the  N.W.  to  lat.  82.64°,  Ion.  18.31''  W.,  from 
which  point  the  coast  probably  treads  south-eastward.  In  these  lati- 
todea  tne  ice  avErnces  80  feet  in  thickness.  Capa  Farewel],  the  sontheni 
extremit;  ol  Greenland,  la  on  the  Game  parallel  as  Mt.  Bt  Elias  in  Alaska, 
Unst  in  Shetland,  St  Petersbnrg,  and  Yakntsik. 

Aiea  uid  Population. — Tlje  area  of  Greenland  is  rou{rlily  eeti- 
mated  at  380,000  sq.  m.,  or  thrice  the  aize  of  the  British  lalea  ;  and 
the  popuiation,  in  1H75,  at  9800,  of  whom  only  about  340  are  Danes, 
the  remainder  being  Eaquiniauj:. 

Surface  ajid  DItIsIoiib. — The  surface  is  generally  liigh,  rocky, 
and  baJTen,  Tha  elEvated  portions  are  covered  with  perennial  snow ; 
the  glaciers  extend  in  tuany  placea  to  the  sea-shore  ;  while  the  in 
terior  is  supposed  to  be  one  vast  field  of  ice.  The  E,  coast  appears 
to  be  about  the  most  inhospitable  region  in  the  world.  The  W. 
cout  is  fringed  with  islands,  some  of  them,  as  Disco  Island,  being 
of  considerable  size.  The  Danish  goverament  has  divided  the 
country  into  two  Inspectorates — a  southern  and  a  northern — which 
are  separated  by  the  Long  Fiord,  lat.  87"  N.  Tha  principal  villages 
are  Julianshaab,  New  Herrnhut,  Christianshoab,  and  Uppemavik, 
all  on  the  west  coast ;  and  Godhavn,  on  Disco  Island.  JnUanahaab 
is  the  cap.  or  chief  Danish  atotion  in  Greenland ;  Herrnhut  is  the 
principal  mission-atation  ;  wliile  irpperaavlk  is  the  most  northern 
civilised  place  on  the  globs. 

OUmate  and  Frodoeta Tlie  mean  annual  temperature  of  Green- 
land is  probably  about  2T.5  Fah.  ;  but  the  difference  between  the 
highest  and  lowest  temperatures  (124°)  is  perhaps  without  a  parallel. 
In  July  the  thennometar  sometimes  BtandB  as  fugh  as  84*,  while  in 
January  it  often  sinks  as  low  as  40°  below  zero.  July  is  tlie  OJity 
month  of  the  year  in  which  no  snow  falls  ;  but  the  seas  do  not 
usually  begin  to  freeze  till  January,  The  vesrtntion  mainly  cunriitn  ot 
grasses  and  liohena  in  the  north,  and  of  n  ("■«:  ".■iii^i-.'ii  iiir,] 
njders,  and  willows  in  the  south,  where  arc  n] 
titles  ot  com,  potatoes,  and  kitchen  VBgetiili 
the  western  coast,  from  kt.  BB°  to  73° ;  oop]-  ■ 
an  Disco  Island  ;  and  kryolite,  ■  new  miin^r  i 

""  rei'ently  been  found.     The  prlni'ip.il  nni' 
r  bear,  the  reindeer,  foi,  anrl  fi.i  ■■■  ■■■ 
I,  and  whales,  large  numbi^ii  ul 


532  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

by  fleets  of  vessels  from  Scotland,  England,  and  the  United  States. 
The  seal  is  hunted  for  its  valuable  skin,  which  fetches  a  liigh  price 
in  the  English  market ;  the  walrus,  for  its  blubber  and  the  ivory  of 
its  tusks  ;  and  the  Greenland  whale,  for  its  valuable  oil  and  wliale- 
bone  of  commerce. 

Ethnography. — The  natives,  who  are  named  Esquimaux,  are  a 
peculiar  race,  allied  to  the  Mongolian  family. 

They  live  chiefly  on  seals  and  whale-blubber,  and  are  clothed  in  skins. 
In  summer  their  bouses  are  tents  formed  of  bone  and  the  skin  of  the 
dog-fish,  while  in  winter  they  live  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground  and  covered 
a-top  with  turf.  It  is  now  ascertained  that  this  portion  of  the  New 
World  was  discovered  by  a  Norwegian,  as  far  back  as  a.d.  982.  It  was 
soon  after  colonised  from  Iceland,  but  the  intercourse  between  the  colony 
and  the  mother  country  gradually  diminished,  and  ultimately  ceased,  till 
at  length  the  existence  of  Greenland  became  unknown  to  European 
nations.  In  1587  it  was  rediscovered  by  Davis,  and  in  the  following 
century  the  Danes  re-established  a  communication  with  the  lost  colony. 
The  natives  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  by  Moravian  mission' 
aries. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 

This  country  embraces  the  central  or  most  compact  portion 
of  the  continent  of  North  America,  together  with  a  large  terri- 
tory in  the  extreme  north-west,  now  known  as  Alaska,  but  for- 
merly as  Russian  America. 

Boundaries. — Omitting  the  district  of  Alaska,  purchased 
from  the  Russian  Government  in  1867,  the  United  States  are 
boimded  as  follows  : — N.,  British  America,  from  which  they  are 
separated  for  the  most  part  by  the  49th  parallel  of  latitude  and 
the  great  Canadian  lakes ;  W.,  the  N.  Pacific  Ocean ;  S.,  Mexico, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Strait  of  Florida ;  E.,  the  N.  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  New  Brunswick, 

This  vast  territory  extends  from  Cape  Sable  in  Florida,  lat.  25®  7',  to 
the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  from  Eastport  in  Maine,  Ion. 
67°  2',  to  Cape  Flattery  on  the  Pacific  coast,  124°  40'  W.,  thus  embracing 
23  degs.  of  lat.  and  58  degs.  of  Ion.  While  the  lat.  of  its  northern  bound- 
ary corresponds  with  that  of  Cherbourg,  its  southern  limit  is  on  the  same 
parallel  with  the  centre  of  the  Sahara ;  and  the  parallel  of  37°,  which 
passes  through  the  centre,  cuts  San  Francisco  ana  Norfolk  in  the  New 
World,  and  Cape  St  Vincent,  Syracuse,  Smyrna,  Astrabad,  Kunduz, 
and  Yeddo,  in  the  Old.  The  extreme  length,  from  Passamaquoddy  Bay 
to  the  Pacific,  is  estimated  at  2800  m.,  and  the  extreme  breadth,  firom 
Red  River  Settlement  to  the  mouth  of  the  Riu  Grande,  1600  m.  The 
frontier  line  measures  about  12,000  m. ;  but  including  the  sinuosities  of 
the  shores  and  the  coast-line  of  Alaska,  the  entire  sea-line  is  about  12,600 
Di.,  or  one  mile  of  seaboard  to  every  278  sq.  m      The  Atlantic  coast,  as 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


far  south  as  Cape  Cod  ill  New  Eiiglnnil,  id  high  and  rocky,  and  ha^  mauf 
fine  hnrboura ;  but  farther  south,  aa  also  along  the  GuU  of  Mexico,  tli« 


jf  the  bays,  protected  by  projacting  spurs  of  ...  ._ _._. 

afford  good  harbourage.     Ban  Fraacisco  Bay,  on  Uiis  coast,  is  one  of  the 
liuBst  and  most  capacioUR  in  the  world. 

Area  and  Popnlatlini.— The  aren  of  the  United  Statea,  without 
hicladiOK  Alaska,  a  vast  but  sterile  territory,  amounts  to  3,036,494 
sq.  m.,  but  including  Alaska,  the  area  is  reckoned  at  3,611,844 
sq.  ni.,  being  twenty-eight  times  the  area  of  ths  British  Isles,  or 
ahtmt  the  same  sise  as  Euro[)B  without  the  islands.  At  the  treaty 
of  Veraaillea  iu  1783,  when  Britain  acknowledjred  the  indBpand- 
enCB  of  the  States,  the  area  was  estimated  at  388,279  sii.  m.,  or 
less  than  oue-aevenlh  of  their  present  extent.  Tlie  population  has 
increased  at  a  still  more  rapid  rate.  In  1790,  when  the  Arst  reeuiar 
census  was  taken,  the  population  numbered  only  S,929,S23,  whua  at 
the  last  oenana  (June  1870),  inclading  tha  thinly-peopled  territoir 
of  Alaska,  it  amounted  to  3a,!l2S,593,  or  nearly  ten  times  what  it 
was  eighty  yeais  ago*  The  population,  indeed,  doubles  itself  in 
every  twenty-tive  years, — a  rate  of  progress  almost  unparalleled,  and 
exceeding  even  that  of  the  Canadian  Dominion,  which  ooly  adds  GO 
per  cent  in  20  years.  The  main  cause  leading  to  this  result  is  the 
constant  stream  of  emigration  from  Europe,  especially  from  the 
Britiah  Isles  and  Germany.  In  the  deeaile  irom  1845  to  18S1  thent 
entered  the  country  a  million  and  a  half  of  Irish,  while  In  1876  there 
arrived  227,000  persons  from  all  countries.  A  large  number  of 
Chinese  have  within  tlie  last  few  years  entered  the  Western  States  of 
r  the  Union. 

V     BuTfa,cs Thf  country  may  be  divided  into  three  great  physical 

Kifegions  —  viz.,  the  Atlantic  slope,  the  great  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  Pacific  slope.  The  Atlantic  or  Eaatem  slope  extends 
from  the  ocean  for  some  50  or  100  m.  inland,  and  CTadually  increases 
in  elevation  till  it  terminates  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  ivhich 
separate  the  waters  that  Saw  westward  to  the  Mississippi  from  those 
that  flow  eastward  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Alleghanies,  or  Appal- 
ftchisii  chain,  con.'riat  of  a  series  of  jiarallel  ranges  about  1300  m.  in 
length,  with  a  valuing  breadth  of  from  30  to  ISO  m.;  average  eleva- 
tion, 2600  ft.;  highest  summit  (the  Black  Mountains  in  North  Caro- 
linn),  6707  ft.  The  greater  part  of  this  slope  is  a  level  country,  and 
is  the  most  thickly  nettled  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  con- 
taining their  largest  cities.  The  great  valley  of  the  MlBsissippi, 
formed  by  the  long  inner  slopes  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pmfic  highlands, 
is  an  immense  level  plain,  the  highest  ]iart  of  which  does  not  exceed 
SnO  ft,  in  elevation,  except  near  the  Iraae  of  the  Bocky  Mountains, 
where  it  attains  a  height  of  6000  ft  The  Mississippi  is  navigable 
for  targe  ships  as  far  as  Natchez,  SSO  m.  from  Its  mouth,  nnd  for 
gigantic  river-Bteamera  as  far  as  tha  Falls  of  St  Anthony,  2037  m. 
Ita  giwt  trihutary,  the  Missouri,  ia  navignble  for  steamers  in  sum- 
•  In  DM.  IBSO  tha  a 


534  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

raer  to  Fort  Union,  in  Montana  territory,  2170  m.,  and  in  spring  to 
Fort  Benton,  400  m.  higher  up.  Most  of  the  other  great  tributaries 
are  also  navigable  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on  either  side,  and 
furnish  the  means  of  reaching  by  water  every  part  of  the  Yast 
fertile  basin  which  they  drain.  The  Pacific  slope  extends  frorii  the 
Rocky  Mountain  range  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  differs  widely  from 
the  two  regions  above  described.  Its  two  greatest  rivers  are  the 
Colorado  and  the  Columbia,  which  rise  near  each  other  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and,  surrounding  the  great  inland  basin  of  Utah,  enter 
the  ocean,  the  former  near  the  N.  frontier  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  latter  finding  its  way  to  the  Gulf  of  California.  Most  of  the 
rivers  of  this  entire  region,  especially  the  Columbia  and  Colorado, 
How  through  deep  gorges,  formed  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock 
hundreds  of  feet  in  height.  The  inland  basin  above  referred  to  is  a 
high  plateau  of  about  5000  ft.  in  elevation,  situated  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  on  the  one  side  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
ranges  on  the  other.  Great  Salt  Lake,  near  its  centre,  is  4738  ft. 
high.  This  plateau  is  in  general  a  sterile  forbidding  region,  and 
characterised  by  great  drought. 

Political  Divisions. —At  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  in  1776, 
there  were  only  13  states — viz.,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Georgia,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  South  Carolina,  New 
Hampshire,  Virginia,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  and  Rhode  Island. 
But  in  1875  there  were  38  states,  10  organised  territories,  and  1 
small  district  (Columbia),  containing  the  federal  capital,  being  in 
all  48  political  divisions  (without  including  Alaska),  having  an  aver- 
age area  of  63,052  sq.  m.,  and  an  average  population  of  810,000. 
They  are  conveniently  arranged  into  five  groups — viz.,  6  North- 
eastern, or  New  England  States  ;  7  Eastern  or  Mid-Atlantic  States ; 
10  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  ;  11  Central  or  Inland  States; 
4  Pacific  States  and  10  Territories.  Nearly  all  the  states  are  situ- 
ated east  of  the  dry  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  nearly 
all  the  territories  are  confined  to  the  elevated  plateau.  The  latter, 
though  dry  and  barren,  are  rapidly  increasing  in  population,  owing 
to  the  rich  mines  they  contain  ;  and  thev  will  no  doubt  soon  obtain 
the  rank  and  privileges  of  states.  The  last  state  admitted  into  the 
Union  was  Colorado  (June  1874). 

North-Eastern  or  New  England  States 

Maine. — Augusta  15,  Bath  12  (Kennebec),  Eastport  5  (Passama- 
quoddy  Bay),  Belfast  5,  Bangor  18  (Penobscot),  Portland  31  (Casco 
Bay). 

New  Hampshire.— Concord  12,  Nashua  10,  Manchester  23  (Merri- 
mac),  Portsmouth  11,  Dover  8  (Piscataqua),  Hanover  2  (Connecticut). 

Vermont. — Montpelier  3,  Burlington  14  (Onion  R.),  St  Albans  4 
(Lake  Champlain),  Middleburg  4,  Rutland  4  (Otter  Creek). 

Massachusetts.— Boston  250,  Charleston  28,  Cambridge  89,  Lynn 
28,  Salem  24  (Massachusetts  Bay),  Newbury  Port  22,  Andover  7, 


THE   UNITED    STATES.  535 

recce  28,  Lowell  41  (Marrimap),  Plymouth  S  (Capa  Cod  Biiy), 
New  Bedford  21  (Buzzard  Bay),  Fall  River  28,  TauatOD  18  (Fall 
Eivor),  WorcsBter  H  (Seehoiii),  Springlield  23,  Northmnpton  6 
(Connecticut),  Quincy  24  (E.  ocwat). 

EboCa  Island.— Providence  68,  Newport  12,  Warwiclt  8,  Bristol 
B,  TiTBiton  S  (Sarraganaett  Bay),  Pawtucket  7  (Pawtueltet),  Smith- 
field  12  (Blacknater). 

Canusetlcat. — Hartford  37,  M»ldleton  S  (Connecticut),  New  Lon- 
don 10,  Norwich  10  (Thames),  Newhaveu  SO,  Bridgeport  19  (Long 
|.  laUnd  Sound). 

H  EiSTEBK   OFl   lIlD-AlUkKTIC  StATBIS. 


2  (Geneaee),  Buffalo  117  (L.  Erie),  Syracuse  43  (Erie  Caual). 

How  JetM7.— Tronton  22,  Camden  20  (Delaware),  Newark  lOS, 
Pateraon  33  (Passiac),  Jersey  City  83  (Hadaoii). 

PenusylTiuila. — Harrisbarg  23  (SuacmeliannB),  Philadalphia  871 
(Delaware),  Reading  33  (Sehnylkill),  Pittsburg  S7,  Alleghany  63 
(Ohio),  Scrantou  35  (Lackawanna). 

Dtetrict  of  ColnmblsL^WAsaiNOTON  109  (Potomac). 

Delaware. — Dover  4  n.,  "Wilmington  30  n.  (Delaware  Bay). 

Haiyland-  —  Annapolis  B  (Severn),  Baltimore  267  (Chesapeake 
Bay),  Cumberland  10  (Potomac). 

VlrglnJa. — Richmond  SI  (James  River),  Petersburg  18  (Appomat- 
toi),  Norfolk  19,  Portsmouth  10  (Elizabeth  River),  Fredericksburg 
B  (Rappahannock). 

West  Virginia — Cbarlestown  (Gt  Kannawha),  \^Tieeling  19,  Par- 
bersbarg  6  (Ohio). 


p  Gdlf  Stai 


Horth  CEuroUna.  —  Haleigh  10  n.  (Neuse  River),  WilmingtoD  IS 
(Caiie  Fear). 

Santh  Caxollna. — Columbia  8  (Congaree).  Otarleston  51  (coast). 

OeorKln.— Atlanta  22,  Columbus  10  (Cbattshooche),  Milledge- 
ville  4  a.  (Altamaha),  Savannah  28,  Augusta  15  (Savannah). 

Florida.— Tallahasaee2Q.  (Ocklokouee),  Key  West  (Fioe  Islands), 
FeDsacola3(N.W.  coast), 

AlalnmBi. — Montgomery  10,  Mobile  32  (Alabama),  Tuscaloosa  4 
(Mobile). 

UiBslBilppL— Jackson  3  (Pearl  River),  Nfttche?  9,  Ticksburg  12 
(Mtasissippi). 

Tennesue. — NaabvilleSS  (Camberland),  blemphia40(MiasiE9ippi), 
Knoiville  10  (Ten 


536  FOLITICAL  GEOGRAPHT. 

Arkansas. — Little  Rock  12,  Van  Buren  3  (Arkansas). 

Louisiana — New  Orleans  191,  Baton  Bonge  6  (Mississippi). 

Texas. — Austin  5  (Colorado),  Galveston  14  (G.  of  Mexico),  San 
Antonio  8  (San  Antonio). 

Centbal  or  Inland  States. 

MissonrL — Je£ferson  City  3  (Missouri),  St  Louis  312,  Hannibal  4 
(Mississippi). 

Kentucky. — ^Frankfort  8,  Lexington  15  (Kentucky),  Louisville 
100,  Covington  24  (Ohio). 

Ohio.— Columbus  33  (Scioto,  affl.  Ohio),  Cincinnati  216  (Ohio), 
Dayton  32  (Miami),  Zanesville  10  (Muskingum),  Cleveland  92, 
Sandusky  13  (L.  Erie),  Toledo  32  (Maumee). 

Indiana. — Indianapolis  48  n.,  Lafayette  14,  Fort  Wayne  17  (Wab- 
ash), Evansvllle  22,  New  Albany  13,  Madison  13  (Ohio). 

Michigan. — Lansing  4,  Grand  Bapids  17  (Grand  River),  Detroit 
79  (Detroit). 

Wisconsin. — Madison  9  n.,  Janesville  9  (Bock  B.),  Bacine  11, 
Milwaukee  71  (L.  Michigan),  Fond  du  Lac  11  (L.  Superior). 

Illinois.— Springfield  17  n.,  Peoria  25  n.  (Dlinois),  Alton  11, 
Quincy  24,  Galena  12  n.  (Mississippi),  Chicago  298  (L.  Michigan). 

Iowa. — Des  Moines  12  (Des  Moines),  Keokuk  13,  Burlington  15, 
Davenport  20,  Du  Buque  18  (Mississippi),  Iowa  5  (Iowa). 

Minnesota.— St  Paul  20  (Mississippi),  Stillwater  (St  Croix). 

Nebraska. — Lincoln  n.,  Omaha  15,  Nebraska  5  (Missouri). 

Kansas. — Topeka  5,  Kansas  82  (Kansas),  Atkinson  4  (Arkansas), 
Leavenworth  18  (Missouri). 

Territories  and  Pacific  States. 

California. — Sacramento  16,  San  Francisco  160  (Sacramento). 

Oregon. — Salem  2,  Portland  8  (Williamette,  affl,  Columbia). 

Nevada. — Carson  City  3,  Virginia  7  (Carson). 

Washington  Ter. — Olympia  3  (Puget  Sound),  Pacific  City  (Colum- 
bia). 

Idaho  Ter. — Bois^  City  (Snake,  affl,  Columbia). 

Montana  Ter. — Helena  n.  (Missouri). 

Dakota  Ter. — Yankton  (^lissouri). 

Wyoming  Ter. —Cheyenne  n.  (Platte). 

Utah  Ter. — Great  Salt  Lake  City  13  (Jordan). 

Colorado. — Denver  City  (Platte,  affl,  Missouri)^ 

New  Mexico  Ter.— Santa  Fe  7  (Santa  F^,  affl,  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte). 

Arizona  Ter. — Tucson  (Santa  Cruz,  sub-affl,  Colorado). 

Indian  Ter. — Tahlequah  n.  (Arkansas). 

Alaska  Ter. —New  Archangel  2  (Sitka  Island). 


TUB    UNITED    STATES.  537 

Descriptive  MotSB.— AcMnlinj;  to  the  census  of  1B"0,  thoit  were 
ill  the  L'liited  States  fourtpeu  tuivus  of  above  100,001)  inhnbitantii ; 
eleven  between  100,000  and  50,000  ;fi>rtybetween&0,000  and  2I),OOD; 
and  twent,v-six  between  20,000  and  10,000. 

New  Ekglamd  SiaTEa.— Aogasta,  cap.  of  Maine,  is  a  sraall  town  witli 
a  United  BUtes  arsenal.  Banfar,  the  third  city  in  the  slate,  ia  one  of 
the  mast  extensive  lumber  depots  in  the  Union.  Portland,  the  most 
populons  and  comniBrciHl  city  iu  Maine,  has  one  of  the  finest  harhoors  on 
thu  whole  Atlantic  coast  Conoord,  cap.  of  New  Hampshire,  ia  a  great 
lailroad  centra,  and  manufactures  carnages  extensiiely.  Hancheater, 
the  largest  city  in  the  state,  is  one  of  tiie  cliief  sestK  of  the  cotton  manu- 
facture. Fortsmonth,  a  manufacturing  city,  possesaes  a  fins  harbour. 
BorlingtOD,  the  largest  city  in  Vermont,  stands  at  the  termini  of  several 
great  railways.  Boeton,  cap.  of  MaBsachnsettB,  and  the  great  literary  and 
commercial  metropolis  of  New  England,  is  iu  regard  to  population  tbe 
seventh  city  of  the  United  States.  Tlie  streela  are  narrow  and  irregular; 
the  houses  are  principally  of  brick,  hut  the  pablic  buildings  are  of  granite. 
Amongst  the  latter  stauds  Faneuii  Hall,  where  many  patriotic  meetinga 
were  held  during  the  War  of  Independence.  Bunker's  Hill,  in  the  suburb 
of  Cbartestomi,  is  the  scene  of  a  celelirated  battle  fought  in  June  177.% 
between  the  Aiiiericao  troops  and  the  royalist  forces.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin was  bora  hero  in  1706.  In  Cambridge,  one  of  the  suburbs,  stands 
Harvard  University,  the  oldest  and  best  endoM-ed  seminary  in  the  Union. 
Salem,  a  place  of  great  trade,  contains  a  valuable  museuin.  Lowell, 
called  the  Manchester  of  America,  from  the  number  and  variety  of  its 

^mannfacturea,  the  chief  of  whieh  is  cotton.  The  nnmher  of  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  mills  here,  in  1870,  was  nearly  15,000  of  whom  8800  were 
iSemales ;  nuitilier  of  mills,  60 ;  spindlei,  526,710 ;  weekly  product, 
X2*O,0O0  yards  of  cotton  cloth,  21,687  yards  of  woollen  goods,  and 
''K,000  yards  carpeting,  Flymoath,  a  small  sean^t  town,  and  the  oldest 
Id  New  England,  being  the  place  at  which  the  "Pilgrim  Fathers "  arrived 
in  the  Mayflower,  2nth  Bee.  16^.  Hew  Bedford,  mors  eitensively 
engaged  in  the  wbale-Hsbery  than  any  otlier  town  in  the  United  States. 
Prondence,  cap.  of  Bhode  Island,  and  ia  size  the  aaoond  nity  in  New 
England,  is  the  seat  of  BinttTi  University  and  other  literary  eatablish- 
Bewport,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  watering-places  Iu  Neu 


cities  In  the  Union,  is  the  seat  of  Yale  Llollcge. 

Mtd-Atlaktic  States.— Albany,  a  large  thrivii 
vantageously  Bltuiited  both  for  foreign  commef"  h 
has  a  university,  observatory,  and  state  librnrv    .■ 
BrooUjn,  at  the  western  eitrcmity  of  IiOng  I-im.' 
of  which  it  may  be  mganled  an  a  anburb,  cfu.l 
navy-yard,  40  acres  in  eittent,  and  a  Inrg"  '['i  " 
Uew  TorlE,  tht  lar^pst  and  most  popuhju^'citv 
the  chief  uommercial  emporium  ot  r'  , 
haltan  Island,  at  the  coiiflnenee  iii 
Dtty  is  triangular  in  fcnn,  in  30  mil 
regular  an^  handsome  iftreuts,  th'r  i 
fimr  m.  long,  ilued  with  shops  auil   i 
tments.     It  wai  founded  h 


leofth 


d  manufactures. 


_ ^       .    I17SS.- 

),  the  (Irrt  President  of  Die  Unil 


538  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHir. 

ter  are  important  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities.  BoAdo,  at  the 
north-east  extremity  of  Lake  Erie,  where  it  contracts  into  the  Niagara 
River,  is  the  great  entrepdt  between  the  North- West  and  tiie  Atlantic 
seaboard,  and  one  of  the  most  thriving  cities  in  the  Union.  Bynueuae, 
on  the  Erie  Canal,  is  noted  for  its  valuable  salt-springs,  and  for  being  the 
seat  of  the  most  extensive  salt  manufacture  in  the  United  States,  ^new- 
ark,  the  largest  and  most  populous  city  in  New  Jersey,  has  numerous 
public  institutions.  Philadelphia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Delaware  and 
Schuylkill,  formerly  the  cap.  of  the  United  States,  is  still  the  second  city 
in  the  Union  in  regard  to  population  and  importance :  it  was  founded  by 
William  Penn  in  1682,  and  m  the  Old  State  House  the  independence  of 
the  Union  was  declared  in  1776.  Pittsburg,  at  the  junction  of  two  streams 
which  form  the  Ohio,  and  in  the  midst  of  valuable  coal-mines,  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  iron  manufacture,  and  may  be  styled  the  American  Bir- 
mingham :  here  is  manufactured  most  of  the  machinery  of  the  steamboats 
that  ply  on  the  Mississippi.  This  is  the  greatest  market  in  the  Union  for 
bituminous  coal  and  petroleum.  Wasnington,  cap.  of  the  district  of 
Columbia,  and  the  metropolis  of  the  United  States,  contains  the  White 
House  or  residence  of  the  President,  and  the  Capitol  or  seat  of  the  United 
States  Congress,  but  has  neither  tnide  nor  manufactures.  Wilmington, 
the  most  important  town  in  the  State  of  Delaware,  contains  a  United 
States  arsenal,  and  numerous  manufacturing  establishments.  Here  took 
place  an  engagement  in  1777,  between  the  United  States  army  under 
Washington,  and  the  British  army  under  Lord  Howe.  Baltimore,  the 
sixth  city  in  the  United  States  as  regards  population,  is  ornamented  witii 
numerous  monuments,  one  of  which  is  an  elegant  obelisk  commemorative 
of  the  defence  of  the  city  against  the  British  forces  in  1814 :  Baltimore  is 
the  greatest  tobacco  and  flour  market  in  the  Union.  Cumberland,  the 
second  city  in  Maryland,  is  noted  for  its  coal  trade.  Sichmond,  cap.  of 
Virginia  and  recently  of  the  Southern  Confederation,  is  the  natural  depot 
of  a  large  extent  of  country,  exports  great  quantities  of  flour,  cotton,  and 
tobacco.  Petersburg,  a  busy  manufacturing  town,  which  largely  exports 
tobacco  and  flour.  Korfolk,  the  chief  commercial  port  of  Virginia. 
Portsmouth,  noted  for  its  fine  harbour,  and  for  its  bemg  an  important 
naval  depot  of  the  United  States.  Fredericksburg,  on  the  Rappahan- 
nock, will  be  long  remembered  as  the  scene  of  a  disastrous  defeat  of  the 
Union  forces  by  the  Confederates  under  General  Lee,  Dec.  13,  1862. 
Wheeling,  the  principal  city  in  the  new  state  of  West  Virginia,  is  largely 
engaged  m  manufactures  and  commerce.  Raleigh,  cap.  of  North  Caro- 
lina, contains  an  elegant  State-house,  built  after  the  model  of  the  Par- 
thenon at  Athens.  Wilmington,  the  largest  city  in  North  Carolina,  is 
connected  by  rail  with  all  the  populous  cities  lying  to  the  north  of  it. 
Columbia  is  a  very  handsome  little  town,  with  the  streets  beautifully 
ornamented  with  trees,  and  is  the  seat  of  South  Carolina  College. 
Charleston,  the  only  important  city  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  largest 
city  in  the  South  Atlantic  states,  will  be  long  famous  for  its  heroic  de- 
fence against  the  U.S.  fleet  in  1863.  Savannah,  the  largest  and  most 
commercial  town  in  Georgia,  has  an  excellent  harbour  defended  by  two 
forts,  and  exports  great  quantities  of  cotton,  rice,  naval  stores,  and  to- 
bacco. Key  west,  on  an  island,  commands  the  entrance  to  the  G.  of 
Mexico.  Montgomery,  cap.  of  the  state  of  Alabama,  exports  large  quan- 
tities of  cotton.  Mobile  {Mo-heeV),  by  far  the  most  important  town  in 
the  state,  and,  next  to  New  Orleans,  the  principal  port  in  the  Union  for 
its  export  trade  in  cotton.  Natchez  carries  on  a  considerable  foreign 
trade,  and  is  the  chief  port  in  the  state  for  the  exportation  of  cotton. 


I 


ffl: 


THE    UNITED    ST4TK3.  539 

ae  town  oq  the  Ipft  bank  of  tlie  Cunilierland,  here 
:ent  wira  suapenaion-bric^  :  its  railway  and  other 
ficilitiea  reader  it  the  seat  of  an  aetive  trade,  Memphia,  on  tliu  Miaaid- 
•ippi,  the  luoat  important  town  between  New  Orleans  and  3t  Louis,  and 
H  great  cotton  depot.  Little  Kocb,  c&p.  of  Arkansaa,  is  tbe  principal 
place  in  the  state.  Ifew  OrleuiB,  a  large  and  flourishing  city  ou  the  left 
Wnk  of  the  Miaaisaippl,  105  m.  above  its  month,  and  by  far  the  most  im- 
portaot  in  the  immense  river-basin  in  which  it  ia  sitnated,  posaessas  nn- 
rtralled  sdvantaaes  for  inland  trade,  and,  nert  to  New  York,  is  the  ptin- 
eipal  oommerci^  entrepOt  of  the  Union.  Previous  to  the  late  ingnircc 
tion,  it  was  tlie  great  port  for  the  shipment  of  cotton,  tlie  eiports  of  which 
la  1B62  amounted  to  nearly  one  and  a  half  million  bales :  tobacco,  sugar, 
flour,  corn,  lard,  and  lead,  were  also  exported  in  enormous  quantitiea. 
Atutiii,  cap.  of  Teiaa,  haa  only  6000  inhabitanta.  Texas  was  formerly  a 
member  of  the  Mexican  Confederation ;  waa  Independent  from  1836  to 
1845,  when  it  was  anneied  to  the  United  States.  GalyBBton,  the  most 
popalous  town  in  the  state,  is  the  principal  seaport  and  aeat  of  commerce. 

Centr&i.  States.— St  Lonia,  a  large  and  rapidly-growing  city  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Misai.asippi,  1130  ui.  above  New  Orleaaa,  is  the  centra 
of  the  overland  trade  with  Sleiico,  ia  an  important  military  station,  anil 
es  a  great  tranait-trade  by  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Illinola,  and 
LoaiiTills,  a  rapidly-increasing  and  well-hnilt  city  on  the  Ohio, 
imiuBuiatelv  above  the  rapids,  has  numerons  raannfactnres,  and  carries 
on  an  immense  trade.  Colnmbni,  cap.  of  Ohio,  conlaiua  a  U.S. 
■caesiil.  Cincinnati,  neit  to  Chicago  aud  St  Louia  the  moat  populous 
dty  of  the  central  states,  is  admirably  aituated  in  regard  to  commercial 
bcilitiea,  and  carries  on  an  immense  traffic  by  means  of  its  river,  canal, 
and  railway  commnnicatlona  :  it  is  also  distingnished  for  ita  literary  and 
benevolent  instltntiona.  In  the  year  1800  it  had  only  750  inhabitants ;  it 
haa  now  218,000.  Vinayarda  are  ejitenaively  cultivated  in  the  vicinity. 
It  is  the  largest  porii-market  in  America.  Dayton,  the  fonrth  city  in  the 
state,  la,  in  proportion  to  its  aize,  one  of  the  leading  mnnnfactDring  towns 
ill  this  group  of  stalaa.  Cleveland,  the  second  city  in  Ohio,  is  largely 
engaged  in  ahlpbuilding.  IndituiDpoUa,  cap.  and  la^eat  city  of  Indiana, 
haa  eitensive  mannfactnres,  and  ia  connecleil  by  railway  with  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  Detroit,  the  commercial,  emporium  of 
Michigan,  is  largely  engaged  in  commerce  and  ahipbullding :  ha-i  large 
Iron  and  braaa  fonndnea.  and  is  the  centre  of  an  extetisive  i-ailroail 
system.  Kilwankee,  the  commercial  mart  of  a  rich  and  improving 
country,  is  noted  for  the  superior  quality  of  the  bricks  manufactureil 
there.  Galena,  an  important  mining  town,  derives  ita  name  from  the 
tttui  ori  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  in  large  quantities  :  the  copper- 
mines  are  also  very  rich  and  valuable.  Cbtcago,  with  300,000  iniiabitant^, 
■ituatad  in  the  heart  of  the  grain- proilucing  States,  is  one  of  the  largest 
grain.markets  in  the  world  :  It  is  also  the  great  shipping  depot  of  an  im- 
mense fertile  r^on.  Dn  Bnqne,  the  central  depot  of  the  great  mineral 
region  of  Iowa,  ships  immenHe  quantities  of  lead.  The  lead  region,  partly 
in  this  slate  and  partly  in  Dlinois,  embraces  an  area  of  2880  aq.  m.  Here 
zinc,  iron,  and  miirble  are  also  met  with.  St  Paul,  cap.  of  the  newly- 
formed  state  of  Minnesota,  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  ^e  JiiSHfa> 
■ippi,  and  U  m.  below  the  celebrated  Falls  of  St  Anthony,  is  rapidly 
.  tlsing  into  importance.  Idacoln,  cap.  of  Nebraska  since  16tit>,  is  situated 
I  on  the  Platte  river,  Omaha,  the  former  cap.,  at  the  eaatem  tertainiu  of 
'  *>■-  "■■'—  "itlfic  Bailroad,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  here 


540  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

crossed  by  a  gigantic  railway  viaduct  of  cast-iron  half  a  mile  long.  Topeka 
has  taken  the  place  of  Lecompton  as  the  cap.  of  Kansas. 

Pacific  States  and  Territories. —Sacramento,  cap.  of  the  state  of 
California,  is  the  chief  depot  for  the  northern  mines :  it  has  also  extensive 
commerce.  San  Francisco,  the  New  York  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the 
shipping  port  of  the  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth  of  Califomia,  has, 
since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1847,  grown  to  be  a  great  city.  Its  bay, 
^vhich  is  perfectly  land-locked,  and  has  an  entrance  one  mile  wide, 
known  as  the  golden  gate,  is  capable  of  containing  the  navies  of  the 
world.  San  Francisco  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  recently-constructed 
Pacific  or  Trans-Continental  Railroad,  which  unites  it  with  Omaha  and 
Chicago,  from  which  places  there  are  several  routes  to  New  York  and  the 
Atlantic  coast.  Salem  and  Portland,  small  towns  in  the  state  of  Oregon, 
favourably  situated  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Williamette,  an  affluent  of 
the  Columbia.  Virg^inia,  the  most  populous  city  in  the  lately-formed 
state  of  Nevada,  is  surrounded  by  rich  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  mercury. 
Olympia,  cap.  of  the  territory  of  Washington,  wnich  is  the  only  territory 
having  a  sea-coast.  Great  Salt  Lake  City,  cap.  of  Utah  territory,  and 
tlie  headquarters  of  the  Mormons  or  Latter-Day  Saints.  Here  the  noto- 
rious Brigham  Young  sets  the  laws  of  the  United  States  and  of  morality 
at  defiance. 

Capes  and  Islands.— See  under  ''North  America." 

Onlfs,  Bays,  and  Straits. — Penobscot  Bay,  in  S.  of  Elaine ;  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  E.  of  Massachusetts ;  Delaware  Bay,  between  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware  ;  Chesapeake  Bay,  between  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia ;  Albemarle  Sound,  K  of  N.  Carolina ;  Bahama  Channel,  or 
Strait  of  Florida^  between  Florida  and  Cuba ;  Appalachee  Bay,  N.W. 
of  Florida ;  Monterey,  San  Francisco,  and  Humboldt  Bays,  W.  of 
California ;  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  N.  of  Washington  Territory. 

Mountains. — See  under  "North  America,'* 

Talile  of  Rivers  and  Towns.— The  annexed  Table  exhibits  in  de- 
tail the  river-system  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Northern 
Mexico,  together  with  the  natural  position  of  the  principal  cities  and 
towns  contained  in  their  basins. 

1.  Batint  inclined  to  ths  Atlantic  Oe§an. 

Riven.  T<nmt.  I        Eiven.  Tovnt. 

St  Lawrence,  ...Quebec,  Three  Rivers,    Massachusetts    Salem,     Charlestown, 

Montreal,  Kingston,  ■     Bay,  Cunlnidge,  Bosrox 

roroDto,       Oswego,   Cape  Cod  Bay, . .  PlywumOM. 
fiamilton,    Niagara,    Bnxzard  Bay* . . .  New  Bedford. 
Buffalo,     Qeveland, ' NamagaDsett      Newport,      Proti- 
Sandnsky.     Detroit, ;     Bay,  dissce. 

Milwaakee.  .  Connecticat,  . . .  Hasttokd,  Hanover, 

Ottawa,  I Montreal,  Ottawa.        «     Seehonk,  I Worc«9*er. 

Thames,  I Lcmdon.  Long  Island  Sd.,  Newhavesc. 

Grand  River,.. Lahsisq.  Hudson, Brooklyn,  New  York, 

Penobscot. Bangor.  i  Albaxt,  Troy. 

Kenneliec, Acgusta.  Mohawk Uiica. 

Casco  Bay, Portland.  Delawarr  Bay. .  .lV>viafc.  n. 

Piscataqna Portsmonth,  Dover.  Delaware  R. ,  .  Wilmiqgton,  n,,  Phil- 

Mcrrimae, Lowell,  Mandtester,  adelpkia,     Camd— , 

OuRCoui^  I  Tkesvox 


r 


Itivtn. 

PQlifflflO,... 

JiiDH  River 

Tawu. 
.RHding. 
,Aira.R.i,is,Bommots. 

'  FrederielalnitB. 

2.  Bonn*  fnci™d 
.Nkw  Oelkams.  Baton 

.FonWashiii 
.Ltttlb     Sock,     Fon 

.Nnw    Albany.    Louis- 
vtUe.      ClMinnsti, 

burg,  PfEtsbtug. 
.Dajton.  n. 

MOBELU,   ii.,'Leoiil 

Neois. R>i.Eian,n. 

Co,  S^niJina,  ChartiKton. 
BavanDnb. SavaDnali. 

to  Gvif  0/  Hexico. 

Chittahoocbee 
AkbuTiia,  .... 

Oesllalaia 

LiHCDLH,  n.,  Oqib. 

m^lMlpyi;  .. 

.D>a.-VKR,CHi;ii!BBe 
e.Fort  UqIdh. 

ELDes  Moikes.' 

RsdWvar,.. 
Aikuuu,  .. 

Co  orTeiu,! 

.'GalvMton."' 

Rio  Grauds  d 
8aD  Juan,  . 

.mS^bbt,  a*LT,L 

Cnoiber 
Kenluokr 

Conchas. . . 
Buita  Fe,  I 

IbaniaFb. 

.N.  Santander.  Vic 

OtK-BM 
hi. 

Smb. 

W  Pacific  0« 
W.  Co.  Mexico 

Lvia,  n„  PACnuo 
TranjHTEPEC,       A 

Lsnn 

p''ifccS'"' 

Wllllamette 

I  Portland.  Saum. 

Pu^^&und 
Frawr, 

SSl^: 

Olvkpi*. 

Lakw.— Tha  lalies  of  the  Untteil  States  are  aei' 
EXteBsLve,  if  wb  except  those  magnificent  fresh-water  seus  in  tJie 
basin  of  the  St  Lavreaco,  which  separate  it  from  Ciuiailii,  and  whicli 
ire  have  noticed  under  tliat  country. 

nrinclpal  lakes  are  £.,  Cluimptaiii,  between  New  York  and 

,T..™.I    1...  >I.A   01.-1--1I— .    1 — *    —  .  .       - 


Varment,  draiueil  by  tbe  Richelieu, 
UudMn;  Jled  Lake  and  Itmat,  iu  Hioneiiata, 
•  On  IU  afflusut,  the  Uareed,  ace  tha  Vi 


ibya 


the 


542  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

source  of  the  Mississippi ;  and  Pontchartrain,  in  Louisiana,  in  tlie  delta 
of  that  river.  Of  those  belonging  to  the  great  continental  basin,  or  that 
have  no  visible  outlet,  we  ne^  only  enumerate  the  Great  Salt  Late,  in 
tlie  territory  of  Utah,  and  L.  Tulare,  in  California.  The  entire  surface 
of  New  England  is  dotted  with  beautiful  and  transparent  lakes,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  Moosehead  Lake  in  Maine,  drained  by  the  Kennebec, 
and  Winnipiseogee  in  New  Hampshire,  which  dischaiges  its  waters  into 
an  affluent  of  the  Merrimac. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  necessarily  very 
diversified,  owing  to  the  vast  extent  and  great  variety  of  the  sur&ce. 
In  general,  however,  it  is  excetsive,  being  characterised  by  greater 
heat  in  summer  and  greater  cold  in  winter  than  any  other  country 
of  corresponding  latitude. 

New  York,  for  example,  has  the  summer  of  Rome  and  the  winter  of 
Copenhagen ;  though  it  is  one  degree  farther  S.  than  the  former,  and  15** 
than  the  latter.  The  mean  annual  temperature,  however,  is  greatly  less 
than  in  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  Old  World.  In  the  New  England 
s-tates,  where  the  latitude  corresponds  with  that  of  Northern  Italy,  the 
winter  is  so  severe  for  three  or  four  months  of  tiie  year,  that  the  snow  is 
sufficient  for  the  employment  of  sledges,  and  the  ice  of  the  rivers  strong 
enough  to  be  crossed  by  horses  and  waggons.  This  is  the  coldest  section 
of  the  United  States,  as  it  not  only  lies  m  the  northern  part  of  the  coun- 
try, but  is  also  exposed  to  the  cold  N.K  winds  of  the  Atlantic  Id 
common  with  all  the  other  eastern  states,  it  is  abundantly  supplied  with 
moisture,  as  it  lies  in  the  path  of  the  S.W.  winds  from  tne  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  New  York  is  51^7,  mean 
winter  81°.  4,  and  mean  summer  72**.  3.  The  climate  of  the  South  At-* 
lantic  and  Gulf  states  is  almost  tropical,  and,  except  in  western  Texas, 
quite  moist.  New  Orleans,  in  this  section,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature 
of  69°.8,  winter  55^8,  and  summer  82^04.  The  central  states  are  sub- 
ject to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  being  exposed  in  summer  to  the 
not  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  winter  to  cold  winds  from  the 
Arctic  regions  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  greater  part  of  these  states 
lies  in  the  region  of  abundant  rains,  but  mucn  of  the  country  between 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  subject  to  lon^  summer 
droughts,  and  is  hence  consign^  to  the  sole  use  of  tiie  Red  Indian.  Tha 
Pacific  coast  is  much  warmer  than  the  eastern,  the  mean  annual  temper- 
ature ranging  from  60°  to  50°  Fah.,  that  of  January  fh)m  50°  to  40",  and 
that  of  July  from  80°  to  60°.  The  re^on  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  ranges  has  abundance  of  moisture,  especially  in  the  north ;  but 
to  the  east  or  these  ranges  the  climate  is  characterised  by  great  drous^t, 
the  vapours  from  the  Pacific  being  intercepted  by  the  mountains.  Tte 
rainiest  districts  in  the  Union  are  Florida,  the  low  flats  of  the  Misdsdppiy 
then  along  the  course  of  its  valley,  then  Iowa  and  the  high  gronnos  m 
the  Missouri  districts,  and  lastly,  the  elevated  plateau  between  the  BockjT 
Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  rainfall  at  Pensacola,  in  Fiarida, 
is  57  inches ;  Monrosville,  in  Alabama,  66 ;  Mobile,  64 ;  Natcbra,  58;  Jack- 
son, 53 ;  Rapidas,  in  Louisiana,  63 ;  New  Orleans,  52 1  Nashville,  58;  Savan- 
nah, 48 ;  Fort  Madison,  in  Iowa,  50 ;  Jefierson,  m  Missouri,  S8.  Tbfl 
average  fall  of  rain  over  the  Union  is  37i  inches,  but  the  average  number 
of  rainy  days  is  smaller  than  in  Eur6pe. 

Geology.— Much  obscurity  still  attaches  to  the  geology  of  the 
United  States,  owing  in  pait  to  the  vast  extent  of  tfie  area,  ■  kq^ 


TIIK    UNITED    STATEa. 


543 


I 


portion  of  ivliicli  is  still  in  ths  wildne 
poi-tion.  bttt  thinly  peoplsd  ;  and  in  i 
of  expiorera.  In  so  far,  however,  as  I 
investigated,  it  nppeara  that,  in  a  geological  point  of  view,  it  dilTera 
very  considerably  from  those  portions  of  the  Old  World  wliich  have 
received  tlie  greatest  nttention.  The  eequence  of  formations  is  not 
so  complete  as  in  Europe,  there  being  seveml  important  geologt<al 
perioda — for  example,  the  Permian,  Triassic,  and  Wealden — that 
have  left  no  visible  monument  behind.  But,  while  thus  deGcltnt 
in  some  members  of  the  series  as  developed  in  Kurope,  it  is  ap- 
parently more  full  in  the  sobordinate  forroavions  of  some  groujis 
which  the  two  t    *■      ■ 


Crystalline  rocks  oceur  eitensively  on  the  Atlantic  slope  from  New 
Brunswick  to  Alabama,  especially  in  the  New  England  states  and  the 
eastern  half  of  New  York,  where  they  are  largely  in1«TSpersed  with  gran- 
itic rocks :  they  also  cover  very  extensiva  areas  in  Wisconsin  and 
Minnesota ;  while  the  great  mountain-chains  of  the  country— the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  Allegh^es,  and  the  Ozark  Mountains— are  for  the  most 
part  built  up  of  them.  Silurian  stratit  are  sapposed  to  underlie  more 
rficeat  formations  throughout  the  entire  liasln  of  the  Mississippi,  hut  ap- 
pear at  the  surface  chiefly  in  the  tollowiug  locahtics : — A  considerable 
^ract  in  the  state  of  Maine,  extending  from  the  capital  to  New  Brunswick; 
the  irestem  Hank  of  the  AllBRhanies,  along  their  entire  length ;  sn  im- 
mense circular  area  of  about  130  m.  In  dimeter  in  the  stales  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Kentucky,  having  for  its  centre  the  city  Cincinnati ;  a. 
smaller  oblong  area  in  TGDnessea,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  Cumber- 
land ;  the  northern  border  of  New  York  adjoining  Lake  Ontario,  and 
eilendhig  from  the  Hudson  to  the  Falls  of  Niagara ;  and,  lastly,  an  im- 
mense tract  south  of  Lake  Superior,  eil«nding  from  Iiaka  Michigan  and 
the  Canadian  frontier  to  the  Missouri,  The  Sevonian  system  is  highly 
developed,  not  only  in  regard  to  the  vast  thickness  of  the  strata  and  lie 
great  eitent  of  country  which  they  cover,  but  also  in  regard  to  the  great 
variety  of  its  organic  contents.  The  most  extensive  tract  of  Devonian 
Ftmta,  BO  far  as  yet  known,  is  that  which  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Lakes 
Michigan,  Huron,  and  Erie,  and  on  the  W.,  S.,  and  S.  by  the  lUinots. 
Tennessee,  and  Hudson  respectively.  The  CarboEiferous  system  Is  alao 
very  extensively  developed,  especially  in  the  eastem  states  between  thv 
Appalachian  chain  and  the  S7tli  meridian,  and  north  of  the  SUbparaUcl. 
The  carboniferous  limestone,  oue  of  its  members,  occupios,  morrovrT, 
a  wide  area  in  the  upper  basin  of  th"  Mi^o-.iw  ^.-.A  :„  ft...  ^-nuilmriUl 
baain,  eapeciaily  in  Nobraska,  WVIi'  ■  ■   i     . 

Secondary  or  Mesoioio  Series,  so  li  . 
Europe,  it,  in  America,  mainly  ri.] 
which,  with  its  sands,  clays,  marls. 
istie  greenaand,  occupies  by  far  tli- 
Union,  especially  between  the  m>i  i< 

'         "i,  including  the  Boulder  Clii>. 
ime  trontiBr*— from  Long  loin;  I 

|-»ud  from  Lower  (Uifomia  to  Vnri< 

|inlandlromIOOtolSOm.i  butinti. 

(vidth  cannot  be  less  than  tSO  ri> 
...Jin,  together  with  naroeroaB  li' 

VODveied  with  tertiary  d^Hvilts. 


544  •  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Minerals. — The  crystalline  rocks  in  many  parts  of  the  Union  are 
peculiarly  rich  in  metallic  ores.  In  the  Atlantic  slope  they  contain 
numerous  veins  of  the  ores  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  iron,  and  other 
metals.  They  also  form  the  matrix  of  the  gold  of  California  and  the 
South  Atlantic  states,  and  of  the  great  masses  of  copper  ore  on  the 
borders  of  Lake  Superior. 

The  gold-Held  of  California  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  yields 
only  to  those  of  Australia.  The  gold  was  accidentally  discovered  in  1848 
on  the  banks  of  the  Sacramenta  The  total  yield  of  the  precious  metals 
in  the  Union  in  1871  was  66, 633,000  dollars,  of  which  Califomiaprodnced 
20,000,000,  Nevada  22,500,000,  and  Montana  8,000,000.  The  same 
region  yields  also  iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  mercury,  coal,  diamonds, 
and  marble.  Mercury  is  also  found  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  great  lakes.  Rich  lead  mines  are  worked  in  Illinois,  Wis- 
consin, and  Missouri.  Masses  of  nearly  pure  copper  have  been  obtained 
from  the  Lake  Superior  mines,  and  a  whole  mountain  of  iron  ore  exists 
in  Missouri.  Zinc  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  Arkansas,  and 
valuable  beds  of  gypsum  have  recently  been  discovered  in  Michigan,  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron.  Salt  abounds  in  the  plateau-region  of  Utah, 
as  well  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  salt-springs 
of  New  York  produce  upwards  of  5,600,000  dollars  value  per  annum. 
The  Palaeozoic  rocks,  bo  enormously  developed  between  the  Appalachian 
chain  and  the  river  Missouri,  are  remarkably  rich  in  coal.  The  principal 
coal-fields  are:  (1.)  The  great  Appalachian  coal-field,  extending  from 
Pennsylvania  to  the  Tuscaloosa,  in  Alabama,  embracing  an  area  of  70,000 
sq.  m.,  and  attaining  a  maximum  thickness  of  2500  ft.  (2.)  The  coal- 
field of  Michigan,  near  the  centre  of  that  state.  (3.)  The  great  coal-field 
lying  between  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi.  (4.)  The  Iowa  and  Missouri 
coal-field,  occupying  the  immense  triangular  space  which  is  bounded  by 
the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Iowa  rivers.  The  united  area  of 
all  the  coal-fields  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  190,000  sq.  m., 
which  exceeds  twenty-fold  all  the  coal-deposits  of  Europe.  In  1874  there 
were  raised  in  the  Union  45,413,000  tons  of  coal,  of  which  33,000,000 
tons  were  produced  by  Pennsylvania.  There  are  also  numerous  and  in- 
exhaustible beds  of  iron  ore,  especially  in  the  Alleghanies,  Pennsylvania 
alone  producing  more  than  one-half  of  the  rolled  iron  of  the  states.  Great 
quantities  of  petroleum  or  rock-oil  are  also  obtained  from  this  state. 

Botany  and  Agricnlture.— The  vegetation  of  the  United  States, 
with  the  exception  of  the  portion  lying  "W.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
is  comprised  within  Schouw's  fourth  and  fifth  Botanical  Regions 
(p.  55). 

The  former  of  these,  or  the  Region  of  Asters  and  Solidagos,  extends 
from  the  35th  parallel  to  Lake  Winnipeg  and  St  James's  Bay,  and  conse- 
quently embraces  a  large  section  of  British  America.  This  extensive 
region  is  mainly  characterised  by  the  great  number  of  species  belonging 
to  the  genera  from  which  it  derives  its  name  ;  by  the  great  variety  of  its 
oaks  and  pines ;  and  by  the  total  absence  of  the  heath  tribe.  In  1848, 
tlie  number  of  known  indigenous  flowering  plants  in  this  portion  of  the 
United  States  was  1966  species.  The  cultivated  plants  are  m  general  the 
same  as  in  Great  Britain,  Central  Europe,  and  Canada,  and  consist  chiefly 
of  wheat,  maize,  flax,  hemp,  hops,  potatoes,  tobacco,  the  vine,  and  fruit- 
trees  in  great  abundance.    The  central  states  are  the  great  com-produc<« 


THE    L-MTEU    STATES.  5-15 

tag  countritB,  pflitioularly  Illinois,  Indinna,  and  'Wiieonsin,  Tlie  region 
lying  betweeu  iat.  3S°  and  tba  Gulf  of  Meiico,  and  lietweeii  Uib  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Kwky  Monntaisa,  is  termed  ths  Higitm  of  Magholim,  u 
it  is  mainly  characterised  by  plants  of  this  ordsf ,  so  raiiiarkahle  foe  their 
lara;s  odorit'crous  flowers,  ajiii  for  the  tonis  qualities  af  theii  bark.  Thu 
coSivatad  plants  of  tltia  region  are  chiefly  the  vine,  olive,  fig,  otsnee, 
siigar-oane,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  wheat,  maize,  and  other  grams.  The 
cotton  plant  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  aoutb  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  the 
•djaoent  statee,  Uw  total  crop  tor  1878  being  3,930,508  bales  of  4  cwt. 

'    "     yenr  the  total  export  of  cotton  to  the  British  market 

_._.«,OUOlb.,yalnBd  at  £31, 6«, 000,     Tohaceo  is  grown 

chiefly  in  Maryland,  Vireiuia,  Kentucky.  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina, 
'file  total  produce  in  1S71  being  eatimatAd  at  £263,196,000  lb.  Rice  is 
-Town  principally  in  Sonth  Carolina,  and  tha  sngar-cane  in  LoBieianfl, 
_'Iorida,  and  tieoi^a.  The  culture  of  the  vine  has  made  conaiderahle 
progress,  especially  in  Ohio,  Pemisylvania,  Indiann,  and  Calilomia,  where 
also  the  olive  and  orange  Buci:eed.  in  order  to  form  an  ac<!urate  idea  of 
the  staple  productions  of  the  Union,  let  ue  take  a  voyage  up  the  Minsis- 
■ippi,  trDm  its  mouth  lo  its  source  ia  Minnesota.  In  Lonisiana  we  find 
the  sugar-eane,  orange,  fig,  rice,  cotlou,  nialie,  sweet'potato,  and  forests 
of  pitch-pine  with  their  turpentine  oreharda.  As  we  ascend  the  river  to 
the  middle  of  Tuniie.ssBe,  about  lat.  Se°,  we  enter  tbe  district  of  the  siigar- 
maple,  sorghum  or  Indian  millet,  peach,  and  other  sttme-^'uits,  -wlieat, 
the  vine,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Proceeding  still  farther  up  the  river,  to 
the  states  flanking  the  great  lakes,  the  ciimatB  begins  to  get  too  cold  fur 
agricultural  pursuits,  except  the  production  of  wheat,  oats,  the  Irish 
potato,  apples,  live  stock,  dairy  produce,  beef,  and  pork,  Thronghout 
the  whole  of  the  northeni  and  eastern  states  ^ricultnre  is  pursued  with 
great  skill,  and  excellent  machinery  is  used  in  every  department  of  the 
operation.  Hence  much  larger  crops  are  produced  tlian  if  all  the  work 
waa  done  by  the  hand. 

Zao\a^. — CoiDparHtively  few  wild  animals  are  now  found  in  t)ie 
United  States.     As  the  country  is  beinj;  settled  they  Rradnally  dis- 


»chil 
'file 
■■% 
mo. 


appear,  and,  except  the  amalfer  and  inoffensive  apei;iei.  ...  __ 
confined  to  the  forests  of  tlie  Allcghanies,  the  western  part  of  the 
Mississippi  basin,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  quadru- 
inana,  edcntata,  and  pachydermBta,  are  unknown  in  the  united 
States  ;  the  niarsupialia  are  represented  by  one  species  of  opoiiauni  ; 
the  caniivora  by  nunieroas  species  of  bate,  hedjnihoBS,  racoons, 
coatis,  badgers,  martens,  skunks,  otters,  foxes,  and  by  the  puma  or 
cougar,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  Hon  of  tha  New  World  ;  tho 
rummaiits  euibrace  tlie  nieose-deer  or  Anierican  elk,  the  antelope, 
the  argnli  of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  and  the  American  bison,  which 
in  vast  !ierd»  roams  over  tlie  wide  j)rftiriea  ol  tbe  west ;  while  the 
rodents  include,  tlia  beaver,  niusquaali,  and  numerous  other  species 
belonging  to  the  squirrel,  mouse,  porcupine,  and  lisre  tribes.  In 
13S7,  the  nnmber  ul  ninmmala  in  the  sinale  state  of  lows  (a  prairie 
■tate)  was  ii  specica.  The  domestic  animals  have  all  been  introiluced 
from  Europe,  Among  these,  swine  take  a  praBiinaDt  place  lu  tlie 
w  inaixe-producing  states. 

e  been  alily  nod  beatitifuily 
!rs.    (Jreat  numbers  of  wild 


546  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

turkeys,  partridges,  and  qnails  are  found  in  the  prairies.  Reptiles  abound, 
and  belong  to  every  order :  tortoises  and  frogs  are  especially  nnmenms ; 
the  lizards  include  the  alligator  or  ca3rman ;  and  the  serpents,  which  are 
about  40  in  number,  the  deadly  rattlesnake.  In  184^  the  nxunber  ol 
known  fishes  was  440  species.  The  fresh-water  fishes,  especially  in  the 
Ohio,  are  extremely  numerous;  while  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  sea-coasts 
abound  with  a  surprising  number  of  molluscous  animals,  especially  bi- 
valves. The  oyster  trade  of  Baltimore  is  so  large  as  to  constitute  a 
separate  branch  of  industrj' ;  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  fish  and 
fowl  obtained  from  the  Chesapeake  alone  are  worth  nearly  as  much  as 
the  gold  of  California. 

EthnosraplLy.— The  people  of  the  United  States  belong  to  four 
'f^reBt  divisions  of  the  human  family — Caucasians,  Negroes,  American 
Indians,  and  Mongolians. 

The  Caucasians,  or  Whites,  who  embrace  about  six-sevenths  of  the 
entire  population,  are  mainly  of  British  and  Irish  extraction ;  but  Ger- 
mans, Dutch,  and  French  are  also  numerous.  In  the  New  EnMand 
tstates,  the  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  of  British  origin ;  Dutch  and  Irish 
are  numerous  in  the  central  states;  Germans  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin ;  French  in  Louisiana, 
Missouri,  and  Indiana;  and  Spaniards  in  Texas,  Florida,  and  California. 
The  ne^  population  are  of  African  descent,  and,  including  about 
4,500,000  freedmen,  form  one-eighth  of  the  entire  population.  They  are 
most  numerous  in  the  states  south  of  the  Potomac  aikl  Ohio,  where 
slavery  with  all  its  hateful  concomitants  was  upheld  by  law  till  1862, 
when  slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  entire  Union.  In  some  states, 
as  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi,  the  negroes  form  a  majority  of  the 
}>opulation,  while  in  others  they  amount  to  a  very  laree  minorify.  The 
Indians,  or  aborigines,  have  greatly  decreased  in  numoer  since  the  dis- 
covery of  America  by  Europeans,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Tliey  are  scattered  over  20  states  and  territories,  besides  the  Indian 
territory,  which  Congress  has  set  aside  for  their  permanent  residence, 
and  now  number  only  883.000.  Large  numbers  of  Chinese  and  Japaneae 
have  recently  entered  the  Pacific  states,  where  they  are  engaged  as  la- 
bourers and  servants.  The  English  language  is  predominant  everywhere ; 
but  about  4,000,000  Germans,  as  also  many  of  the  Irish,  French,  Span- 
iards, Chinese,  and  Indians,  continue  to  sp^ik  their  mother  tongues. 

Languages,  Edneatlon,  and  Religion. — ^Tbe  English  language  is 
predominant  throughout  all  parts  of  the  American  Union ;  but  for^ 
eigners  and  all  the  Indian  tribes  continue  to  speak  their  respectiTe 
native  tongues.  Education  is  universally  diffused,  and  a  laiger  |no- 
portion  of  the  people  can  read  and  write  than  in  any  other  conntiy, 
whether  of  the  Old  or  New  World.  High  schools  and  grammar 
schools  are  numerous,  and  there  are  throughout  the  Union  no  fewer 
than  120  colletf^  and  universities.  The  oldest  of  these  is  Harvard 
University,  Massachusetts,  founded  in  1636,  and  possessing  ffae 
largest  library  in  America.  The  Americans  are  remaricable  for  their 
intelligence  and  enterprise,  and  the  skill  with  whidi  they  eairf  on 
all  the  pursuits  in  which  they  engage.  Many  great  and  nsefnl  hb* 
ventions  have  been  made  by  them,  among  which  may  be  ennmentod 
the  lightning-rod,  invented  by  Franklin  in  1752 ;  ue  dectrie  tde- 
graph ;  the  first  successful  steamboat  i^-as  constructed  in  the  Uaitad 


THE   UNITED    GTATi:)!.  .147 

Statee,  and  its  triiJ  trip  made  in  liie  Hudson  ;  the  mtti-a-gra,  fo 
Mparatiiis  the  seeds  from  the  fihres ;  tiie  eeving-inaciiiiie  ;  and  io- 
nmiMrsble  improremeDtf  in  agricnltorsl  implemeotK.  Ohrutiaiiity, 
in  one  or  other  of  ita  fDrniB,  ie  [be  un]y  i^ligian  known  is  the  United 
States,  vritli  the  exception  of  Uormoaiflm  in  tlie  temtoi^  of  Ctiili ; 
I'Dt  the  THTiety  of  ■e<^ts  is  aiormons.  The  moEt  important  seetE  iire 
the  Uethodiets,  Baptists,  and  PreahTteriana,  who  nninher  aboat  four, 
Ihree,  Bui  two  millions  respectiveij.  After  thpse  rank  tie  ConRre- 
gidonalists,  Spiacopejians,  Boman  Catholiea,  and  Lnthenns,  noBB 
of  vhicii  far  exceeds  half  a  million  adherents.  Kone  of  the  deuonii- 
iistions  19  endowed  hy  the  State,  t^e  ministers  and  clinriJieG  htiug 
nppuTted  bj  the  Tolimtxry  cimtjibntiouB  of  the  people. 

UteiKtiire. — The  natinn  being  etiU  in  its  infanry,  iU  literature  is 
not  very  eitenaive.  The  jirogreBs  aiready  itade,  however,  in  eveiy 
department  of  learning,  is  truly  remaibahle.  Kowbere  is  science 
nutivmted  with  greater  zeal,  end  nowhere  are  ib  fotanes  more  highly 
LoDonred.  The  qns,rterly  jonmels  and  other  periodicals  uenumET- 
ouB,  and  conducted  in  general  with  great  ability.  Of  the  many  dis- 
tingimhed  names  that  adorn  the  literature  of  the  United  States  wis 
can  meDtton  only  a  few  exiuaples  : — 

POBTET  :  Brvant,  Dana,  HaUeek,  Hillhonafl,  LnMfellow.  Morris,  Pe»- 
hody,  PanaTal,  Pierpont,  Mra  Sieoumej.  Wilooi,  N!  P.  Willis.  STiiKS- 
aEli :  John  Qnincy  AdaiTiB,  CUj,  T^anklln,  HamilMn,  Jay,  JeSeison, 
I^DColn,  Genial  Wafihington.  mSTOHT  :  Bancroft,  Dmke,  Waabin^tou 
Irvina,  Motlev,  Prescott.  Ramsov.  WlieatoD.  GEOGaiPEr  and  Tkat. 
K*:  Cottin,  H.  T.  CheEver,  Flint,  Guj-ot,  Lewis  and  Qarke,  Morreil, 
Otmatead,  Bobinaon,  SchoDlciaft,  Steven,  Stewart,  Taylor,  Wairiner. 
pHYBiail.  Science:  Audnhon,  Bowditch,  Dana,  Hail,  Hare,  Hitch- 
eoct,  Maaij,  Michani,  Morton,  Newcombe,  Olrostead,  Pierce,  WHeoii. 
MKBTiL  ASB  MoHAl,  SaEKOE :  AdalDB,  Daj,  Henry.  Ijebar,  Banch, 
H^hmueker,  Tapper,  Cphani,  WaTland.  Theology  :  Alexander,  Bomes,  J 
Eeecher,  Buah,  Channing,  G.  B.  Gheever,  Dwigtt,  Edwarda,  K  B.  ££•  | 
wards,  Emmons,  Bodge,  Boptins,  Uason,  T.  Parker,  Payaon,  Poa^  ■ 
Prime,  Gtinnflr,  Btowe,  Todd,  Woods.  EcCLESLiartCii  HiBToaT: 
Hawl^,  MnrdDck,  Pond,  Ranch,  Kupp.  ClasbicaIi  akd  O&iestai. 
Ltteeatdhk:  Anthon,  BnEb,  ConnsBt,  Croshy,  Felton,  Leverett,  Nord- 
heimer,  Bohinson,  Riggs,  Sophocles.  Stuart.  ISirner,  Woolsey.  Rouance  : 
Brown,  Cooper,  Inrin^,  Hiss  Sedgwick,  M»  Stov.-e.  Oratohb  :  J.  Q. 
AduBi,  EverBit,  Daniel  Webster.  FlHB  A«TB :  Allalon,  GreenouRh, 
TmmbuU.  Enolish  LitbhatPrE  akd  MiscELLAKEora :  Abbott.  Apne", 
Cast,  Delofield.  Drake,  Enieraon,  Irving,  Mather,  M'Canley,  M'CuDocli, 
Tiitier,  Soah  Webster. 

apvanmumt.  Ann;,  Bnll  Va.vy. — The  eoremiriFiTt  of  the  Unitnl 
_£MtesiB  a  confcderat-r'  -—  '•'■■''■•    '■ '  '-  ■'■-  "■-■— ■"■■tttinn  of  1787: 


548  POLirrcAL  geographv. 

of  50,000  dols.,  with  an  official  residence ;  and  is  assisted  in  the  govern- 
ment  by  a  vice-president,  chosen  in  the  same  manner  as  himself,  and  by 
a  cabinet  of  six  ministers  of  his  own  selection.  He  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and,  with  the  cononrrence  of  the  senate, 
declares  war,  makes  peace,  and. appoints  ambassadors,  judges,  and  other 
officers.  The  present  president,  Ulysses  Grant,  bom  in  Ohio  in  1^2, 
who  acceded  to  office  on  the  4th  of  March  1869,  is  the  eighteenth  indivi- 
dual who  has  held  that  high  office.  The  senate  consists  of  two  members 
from  each  state,  who  are  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  the  different  states 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  one-third  of  the  number  retiring  biennially.  The 
vice-president  who  has  a  salary  of  10,000  dols.,  is  the  president  of  the 
senate.  The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of  one  member  for  every 
93,423  inhabitants;  the  present  number  being  292.  They  are  chosen 
biennially  by  the  citizens  of  the  several  states,  in  all  of  which  the  suf- 
frage is  universal.  Their  duties  and  functions  nearly  correspond  to  those 
of  the  members  of  the  British  House  of  Commons.  No  bill  becomes  a 
law  until  passed  by  both  Houses  and  approved  hj  the  president.  The 
president  may  also  veto  any  act  of  Congress ;  but  it  may  yet  become  law 
if  re-enacted  by  two-thiras  of  both  Houses.  Each  of  the  territories 
enjoys  the  privilege  of  sending  one  delegate  to'  Congress,  who  has  a  right 
to  speak,  but  not  to  vote.  In  1875,  the  actual  strength  of  the  regular 
army  amounted  to  27,525  men  of  all  grades ;  but  during  the  late  civil  war, 
probably  not  less  than  half  a  million  combatants  on  either  side  were 
drawn  up  in  deadly  array  against  each  other.  The  total  military  ex- 
penditure for  1869  was  80,474,545  dols.  The  naval  force  in  1874  con- 
sisted of  48  ironclads,  63  steamers,  and  26  sailing  vessels,  carrying  in 
all  2406  guns.  The  navy  estimates  for  1871  amounted  to  28,205,000 
dols.  The  national  income  is  mainly  derived  from  taxes  on  property, 
land  sales,  and  customs  duties.  The  total  amount  of  income  for  1875 
was  £79,400,000;  the  expenditure,  £63,800,000;  and  the  public  debt, 
£425,000,000.  In  December  1857  the  debt  amounted  to  only  25,000,000 
dols.    The  enormous  increase  since  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  civil  war. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce. — The  industrial  pursuits  of  the 
people  may  be  reduced  to  three  leading  heads — Agriculture,  Manu- 
factures, and  Mining — which  have  their  principal  seats  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountain  regions  respectively.  At 
present  agriculture  is  more  extensively  carried  on  than  either  of  the 
others,  as  thQ  resources  of  the  manufacturing  and  mining  regions 
are  not  yet  fully  developed.  The  great  agricultural  staples  of  the 
Southern  States  are  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  sweet-potatoes ;  those  of 
the  Northern  States  being  the  different  grains,  Irish  potatoes,  and 
hay.  Manufactures  are  most  extensively  carried  on  in  the  north- 
eastern states,  owing  to  the  abundant  water-power  in  that  region. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  iron  and  cotton,  in  which  the  United 
States  rank  second  only  to  Great  Britain.  In  the  manufacture  of 
iron,  the  states  that  rank  first  are  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and 
Ohio  ;  while  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  rank  first  in  cotton  ; 
California,  Nevada,  and  Montana,  in  the  precious  metals.  Owing  to 
the  deep  indentations  of  the  eastern  coast,  the  numerous  navigable 
rivers  of  the  interior,  the  magnificent  lakes  that  skirt  the  northern 
frontier,  and  the  vast  network  of  railways  which  is  spread  over  the 
fx>nntry,  the  commercial  facilities  of  the  United  States  stand  per- 


r 


THE  CSITED   STATES.  549 

hajit  nnriTalleJ  mnoiig  the  nFitions,  while  the  actunl  titeut  of  it» 
tmde  is  second  only  to  thnt  of  Britiiin.  The  foreign  trode,  thoogh 
shared  in  by  all  the  states,  ia  principally  confined  to  the  nine 
iiorth-eostcm  ststea,  among  whicb  New  York  and  MassnchusettB 
stand  pre-emioEut.  Tbe  eiporte  consist  almost  entirely  of  agricul- 
tural prodncB,  especially  wlieat,  flour,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  maizo, 
pork,  haoiB,  butter,  and  cheese.  The  total  exports  from  the  country 
in  1874  amounted  to  £133,606,000,  tno-thirde  of  which  went  to  Grnat 
BKtain  and  Ireland,  the  rest  being  taken  principally  by  Canada,  tbe 
British  West  Indies,  ond  Germany.  In  1S60,  immediately  before 
the  civil  war,  the  amount  of  cotton  sect  to  the  British  market  vbs 
1,116,000,000  lb.;  in  1863,  it  fell  to  6,000,000;  but  iu  1873  it 
iWainroHB  to  832,537,000  lb,,  of  the  computed  value  of  £31,5*4,000. 
The  imports  in  tbe  snme  year  amounted  to  £119,172,000,  tbe  chief 
items  being  sugar,  woollen  g;ooda,  iron  and  steel,  silk,  flue  cotton, 
llaz,  coQee,  ten,  and  breadstuffs.  The  imports  from  theBritish  Isles 
amoonted  to  £17,000,000.  The  domestic  commerce  is  greater  than 
GTUl  the  toieifpi,  owing  to  tbe  unparalleled  facilities  in  inland  com- 
munication  which  this  eountry  aflords.  The  grand  ai'tery  of  internal 
rce  ia  the  Mississippi,  which  sends  its  ramifications  into 
all  parts  of  the  Uniou.  These  uatui'al  facilities  are  supple- 
^jBented  by  canals,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Erie  Cniial, 
iffbich,  connecting  the  Hudson  with  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo,  unites  th« 
i^eat  lakes  with  the  Atlsotic.  Sevend  other  oanala  connect  the 
Mississippi  with  the  great  lakes,  as  the  Ohio,  Miami,  Wahaeh,  and 
lUinoia  canals  ;  while  the  PennsylvBDm  Canal,  between  the  Ohio 
and  the  Delaware,  caunectB  the  Mississippi  with  the  eastern  Ben- 
hoard.  The  railway  system  of  the  Unit^  States  dates  from  1S27, 
when  the  first  line  was  opened  at  Quincy,  Massachusetts.  At  the 
end  of  18£I  tbere  were  SS80  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic  i  while 
on  the  1st  Janaary  1874  tbere  were  no  fewer  than  72,623  miles  open, 
besides  27,G07  projected  or  in  progi'CBS.  The  average  cost  of  con- 
stnictton  has  been  40,000  dole,  per  mile.  The  Great  Pacific  Rail- 
road, connecting  San  Francisco  and  Chicago  with  New  York,  vid 
Omaha  in  Nebraska,  by  far  the  most  gigantic  nndertaking  of  the 
kind  in  existence,  was  finished  in  May  1868.  The  total  length  of 
the  liae,  from  San  Francisco  to  Omaha,  is  1914  miles  (sea  above,  p. 
fi40).  Aa  yet,  this  is  the  only  important  line  ofrajlnud  west  of  the 
UissDuri ;  but  the  vast  area  lying  between  that  river  and  tbe  Atlantic, 
and  from  the  Ohio  to  the  great  lakes,  is  one  unbroken  network  of 
railways. 

HiBTORicit.  Sketch. — This  portion  of  the  continent  wan  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1483.  Abont  twenty  years  aftflrwanls  the  Spaniards  took 
poHesslon  of  Central  An>erica;  titer  which,  crossing  tbe  Gulf,  they 
entered  MeiiciTlof  which  fexn*  then  (ormeil  a  paii),  and  finally  settled 
in  Florida,  while  thelrposssssion  on  the  Pacilic  coast  eitendgd  to  near 
the  Colnmbik  river.  The  French  ejitered  the  continent  by  the  G.  a!  St 
[  {lawrence  in  1536,  and  some  time  thereafter  took  possession  of  the  basin 
— 'the  Uissiseippi  down  to  theO.  ol  Uei^ico.  Tbe  first  permanent  Fug- 
ih  settlement  was  mode  at  Jamestown,  Vireiuia,  in  1607,  or  more  than 


muDicaiio 

»«im(»t  all 
rented  bj 
iffbich,  co: 
rieat  lake 


550  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPUY. 

a  hundred  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  continent ;  and  the  next  at 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1620  :  while  in  1774  England  possessed  no 
fewer  than  thirteen  flourishing  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  In 
1614,  the  Dutch  founded  the  settlement  of  New  Amsterdam,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson,  but  were  expelled  by  the  English  in  1664,  who  changed 
the  name  of  the  settlement  to  New  York.  The  English  now  took  posses- 
sion gradually  of  the  entire  Atlantic  slope ;  after  which  they  peneteated 
westward,  and  drove  out  the  French  fix)m  the  basins  of  the  Mississippi 
and  St  Lawrence.  They  conquered  Canada  in  1754,  and  in  1763  tne 
French  gave  up  all  claim  to  the  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  with  the 
exception  of  New  Orleans.  Owing  to  fiscal  disputes  between  the  British 
(rovemment  and  its  colonies,  the  latter  became  disaffected,  and  held  a 
congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1774.  The  English  Parliament  asserted  the 
right  of  the  Crown  to  tax  the  colonies  even  without  representation.  This 
led  to  the  War  of  Independence,  which  commenced  with  the  battle  of 
Ijexington,  19th  April  1775,  and  ended  with  that  of  Yorktown  in  1781^ 
when  Lord  Comwallis,  the  British  commander,  surrendered  to  General 
Washington.  Peace  was  declared  in  1783,  Great  Britain  acknowledging 
each  of  the  thirteen  colonies  to  be  a  ftee,  sovereim,  and  independextt 
republic.  The  present  American  constitution  was  adopted  in  17^,  when 
General  Washington  was  chosen  as  the  first  President  of  the  United 
States.  In  1803,  the  United  States  purchased  from  the  French  Louisiana 
and  the  whole  French  region  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1821,  Florida 
was  ceded  by  Spain.  In  1845,  Texas,  having  rebelled  against  Spain,  was 
admitted  into  the  Union ;  while  California  was  ceded  by  Mexico  in  1848. 
Great  prosperity  succeeded  these  acquisitions,  until  1861,  when,  owing  to 
the  great  question  of  abolishing  the  slave  trade,  the  Southern  States— 
thirteen  in  number — seceded  from  the  Union,  and  formed  themselves  into 
a  Confederate  Republic,  with  Richmond  as  their  capital,  and  Jefferson 
Davis  as  their  president  After  a  lengthened  contest  of  the  most  san- 
guinar}'  character,  the  fleets  and  armies  of  the  Northern  States  at  length 
triumphed,  and  slavery  was  finally  abolished.  The  country  is  now  re- 
covering its  former  prosperity.  Alaska,  formerly  Russian  America,  was 
purchased  from  the  Russian  Government  in  1867. 


MEXICO. 

fioundaries. — ^N.,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  California ;  W., 
the  Pacific  Ocean ;  S.,  the  Pacific,  Guatemala,  and  Belise ;  E., 
the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Lat.  15°  40'— 32°  47' 
N.;  Ion.  87°  4'— 117°  8' W. 

The  city  Durango,  cap.  of  the  state  of  same  name,  is  situated  almost 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  this  extensive  area,  and  on  the  same  parallel 
with  San  Salvador  in  the  West  Indies,  Mourzouk  the  cap.  of  Fezzan, 
Muscat,  Bhopal,  Dacca,  Canton,  and  the  Sandwich  Islanos.  The  form 
resembles  a  cornucopia,  with  its  mouth  directed  towards  the  north.  The 
extreme  length,  from  the  head  of  the  G.  of  California  to  Central  America, 
is  1800  m. ;  the  extreme  breadth,  from  C.  Corrientes  to  C.  Catoche, 
amounts  to  1300  m.,  but  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  it  does  not 
exceed  137  m. 


i<[i:xico. 


551 


Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimatec!  liy  tlie  most  refent 
authorities  at  ?73,12S  sq.  m.,  or  six  timas  tUe  area  a(  the  British 
Idles.  In  1873  the  population,  tncIuilinB  Yucatui,  was  estiiuateil 
ate,273,079,  orHtimua  the  populatioQ  of  Ireland. 

Political  SlTkloiiB.— Up  till  1665  the  confederation  conaisted  of 
27  states,  2  territories,  and  1  federal  diatriet,  makiua  in  all  30  poli- 
tical diviaione.  These  are  now  subdivided  into  SO  departments, 
which  are  ia  general  named  after  their  capitals.  For  historical  and 
rther  reasons,  we  prefer  adhering  to  the  old  anangemeLt. 

NOBTBEHN  StATEB. 

I.OWEB  California  (Ter.}— La  Paz  1  (S.E.  coast). 

SoNORi.— Urea  7,  Pitic  8,  Sonora  8,  Arispe  7  (Sonora). 

Cbibuahda. — Chihuahna  12  n.  (Conchos,  ajl.  Kio  del  Korte). 

COAKUILA.— Saltillo  8  (Sau  Juan),  Santa  Hoaa  10  (Sabinas). 

New  Leok. — Monterey  14  n.  (San  Jnan,  ajH.  Rio  Grande). 

Tahaulipas. — Victoria  6,  New  Santander  6  (Santander),  Iilatii- 
1  20  {Rio  Grande  del  Norte). 

Sah  Li7I3  PoTosi,^ — San  Luis  Potosi  3*  n.,  Vallea  4  (Paiiuco). 

Zacatkoas. — ZactttBcas  31  n.  (Santander). 

Aduab  Cahentss, — Agoaa  Calientea  23  (Santiagol. 

DlTKANOO. — Durango  12  n.  (Culiacan),  San  Juan  10  n.  (Nasas). 

SiNALOA.— Culiacan  10  (Ciiliacsn),  Sinaloa  10  (Sinaloa),  Mazatinn 
IS  (W,  coast). 

Centhai.  States. 

Xalisco. — Ouadalniara  70  u.,  Topic  2S  ii.  (Santiago). 

CoLiMA.— Colima  32  (Colima). 

OHOACAK.— Morelia  37  n.  (I.erma),  Zamora  6  (L.  Chapak). 

GcAHAXiTATO.— Guanaxuato63n.,Leon8D,  Salamanca  Ifi(Lemia). 

QuEBETAno.— Queretaro  48  n.  (Lenna),  San  Juan  del  Rio  lU 
(Pale). 

Mekcco.— Toluca  12  (Lernia),  Teiciico  10  (L.  Tozcuco). 

Federal  Dibteict  of  Max  ico.— Mexico  230  (L.  Tezcuco). 

HlDALQO.^Pnohuca  IB  n.  (Panuco). 

MoRKLOB.— Cuemavaca  7  n.  (liio  do  Eabzaa). 

Tlauoala.— TlaaoaU  i  (Nasca). 

Vera  Ckvz.— Vera  Cruz  10,  Tampico  7,  Xalapa  37  n,  \fi-  "t 
Mexico). 

Pdebla.— La  Poebla  B7,  Cholula  10  {Nasca). 

SoimiERN  States. 
GuERRBBO. — Tiitlft  G  n.,  Aeapnlco  6  (Pacific), 
Oaiaoa.— Oawca  25  (Rio  Verile). 
Tkhuanibfeo  {Ter.)*— Tahuatitepeo  1*  (Tehnautejiec). 


■  Bclonp  lo 


A  Cnttsl  Slalti. 


552  POLITICAL  GKOGRAPUW 

Chiapas. — San  Cristobal  10,  Cindad  Real  7,  Chiapas  15,  Commitan 
10  (Tabasco),  Palenque  n.  (Usamasinto). 
Tabasco.— San  Juan  Bantista  6,  Tabasco  (Tabasco). 
Yucatan. — Merida  24  n.  (G.  of  Mexico). 
Campeachy. — Canipeachy  15  (G.  of  Mexico). 

DescriptiYe  Kotes.— La  Paz,  with  a  celebrated  pearl-fishery  in  the 
vicinity,  now  nearly  abandoned.  Sonera  and  Arisve  have  rich  gold  and 
silver  mines  in  their  vicinity.  It  is  said  that  the  nou^ehold  utensils  in 
Arispe  are  nearly  all  of  pure  gold.  Chihuahua,  surrounded  by  silver 
mines,  has  numerous  smelting  furnaces.  Saltillo,  a  well-built,  handsome, 
and  important  towa,  with  extensive  woollen  manufactures,  and  a  laige 
annual  fair.  Monterey,  the  most  important  place  in  Northern  Mexico : 
near  it  are  valuable  gold,  silver,  and  lead  mines,  tfatamoros  exports 
specie,  hides,  wool,  and  horses.  San  Luis  Fotosi,  an  important  town, 
maintaining  an  active  home  and  foreign  trade.  Zacatecas,  the  principal 
mining  city  of  the  state  of  the  same  name,  all  the  towns  of  which  are 
extensively  engaged  in  mining  silver,— the  neighbouring  mountains  being 
the  richest  in  the  world  in  that  precious  metal.  Aguas  Calientes,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  hot  sprinas  in  its  vicinity,  is  admirably  situated 
for  trade.  Dnrango,  a  consideraole  place  carrying  on  a  good  trade  in 
cattle  and  leather,  and  having  iron  mnies  in  the  vicinity.  Mazatlan,  a 
cheerful,  well-built  town,  greatly  superior  to  any  other  on  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Mexico.  Guadalazara  is,  after  Mexico  and  Leon,  the  most 
populous  city  of  the  Confederation.  It  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1551,  has  well-supplied  markets,  and  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton 
shawls,  and  of  jars  made  of  scented  earth.  Guanaznato,  in  the  centre  of 
one  of  the  richest  mining  districts  in  tlie  world,  stands  on  the  plateau  of 
Anahuac,  6869  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Queretaro,  noted  for  its 
n)aguificent  aqueduct,  10  m.  in  length,  and  for  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  in  1848  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  Tezcuco 
derives  its  chief .  interest  from  historical  associations,  and  from  the 
remains  of  antiquity  which  it  contains,  especially  three  vast  pyi*amids, 
and  a  palace  said  to  be  that  of  Montezuma,  the  last  of  the  native  Mexi- 
can princes.  Mexico,  cap.  of  the  Mexican  Confederation,  is  universally 
regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  and  wealthiest  cities  in  the  world,  though 
in  population  it  does  not  much  exceed  Edinburgh.  It  is  situated  in  a 
spacious  plain  of  about  1700  sq.  m.  in  area,  at  an  elevation  of  7468  ft. 
above  the  sea-level.  When  taken  by  Cortez,  in  1621,  it  occupied  several 
islands  in  the  Lake  Tezcuco,  from  which  it  is  now  2.^  m.  distant.  The 
churches  and  other  public  buildings  contain  a  vast  amount  of  wealth  in 
statues,  vases,  candelabras,  balustrades,  &c.,  composed  of  the  precious 
metals,  and  ornamented  with  diamonds  and  precious  stones.  Pachuca, 
cap.  of  the  new  state  Hidalgo,  is  celebrated  for  its  silver  mines,  the  most 
valuable  in  Mexico.  The  existence  of  these  mines  was  known  to  the 
Aztecs  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and  they  were  acquainted 
with  the  process  of  smelting  the  ores.     Vera  Cruz  and  Taxnpico,  the 

Principal  seaport  towns  of  the  Confederation  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
lalaua  gives  its  name  to  the  drug  jalap,  which  grows  here  wild.  La 
Puehla,  noted  for  its  numerous  churches,  and  its  manufactures  of  soap, 
glass,  iron,  and  steel.  Acapulco,  a  seaport  town  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
with  a  fine  harbour,  and  rivalling  Mazatlan  in  the  extent  of  its  com- 
merce. It  was  once  celebrated  for  the  rich  Spanish  palleon  which 
annually  departed  from  it  for  Manilla  laden  with  the  precious  metals  of 


MEXifO. 
lleiicn.  and  returniriE  wiUi  tl 


^ leuL     Tohnmittpee,  niiar  th 

tlie  isllirouB  of  same  name,  was  in  1853,  togethsr  with  i 
Fid  to  the  United  Stataafor  25,000,000  doUnra.  Merida,  co 
port,  Slial,  by  a  good  road,  has  a  Moorish  aspect,  havu 


I 
I 


^ 


SL, ,-,_. 

built  at  a  time  when  timt  atyle  prevailed  in  Sp! 

peachy,  cap.  of  a  new  state  of  same  name,  and  the  principal  seaport  town 

of  the  pBDinsnla,  ia  strongly  fuitijied,  and  haa  a  good  export  trade  in 

Caiiea,  Bstb,  and  Qnlft.— See  under  "  Iforth  America." 

Moimtaliis  and  Table-Landa. — The  mountain -system  of  Mexico  ia 
altogether  peculiar.  Almost  the  entire  country  consists  of  an  enor- 
Moufl  plateau  raised  by  volcanic  forces  to  an  afevation  vorying  from 
6000  to  9O0O  ft.,  and  ramifying  aa  the  land  grows  wider  into  aBveral 
dlTerging  chaiits. 

This  plateau,  known  as  the  tableland  of  Anahuac,  attains  ila  highest 
elevation  between  the  capital  and  Vera  Cruz,  or  ahont  the  parallel  of  19' 
N.  In  this  latitude,  and  proceedii^  from  E  to  W..  are  the  followuiK 
Jottyyolcanio  peats— viz.,  Orizaba,  n.Hl  ft.,  now  eitinct;  Pupocate- 
petl.  one  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  North  America,  17,881  ft.;  Nevadn  (le 
Tolnca,  15,250  ft. ;  and  Jorulio,  which,  on  the  night  of  28th  Beptflniher 
175B,  rose  from  the  level  of  the  plain  to  a  height  of  4149  ft.  All  tliese, 
except  the  last,  rise  above  the  line  of  perennial  snow,  which  in  this  lati- 
tude has  an  elevation  of  about  15,000  ft.  North  of  Guanaiuato  the  ele- 
vated mass  ilivides  into  three  branches,  the  central  of  which  beniie  to  tbs 
N.N.W.  till  it  enters  the  United  States,  and  merges  into  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  about  lat.  H'  S.     (See  above,  p.  506.| 

niTsn  and  Lakei. — With  tbe  exceptfon  of  the  Hio  Grande  del 
iSorte,  on  the  N.E.  frontier,  the  Santiago  with  its  tributary  the 
liOma,  and  the  Rio  Colorado,  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
SoDora  and  Old  California,  the  rivers  of  Mexico  are  generally  mere 
torrents,  which,  rnslung  from  the  elevated  table-land,  reach  the  sea 
after  a  short  ponrae.  (For  the  towns,  see  table  ander  "  Uniteii 
atat«a.")  The  Jakes  on  the  Mexican  table-land  ara  very  numeroiia, 
and  many  of  them  of  volcanic  origin.  The  largest  are  Chapala,  be- 
tween Xalisca  and  Miuhoacan,  60  m.  long ;  Parraa,  in  Coahuila ; 
Texciux,  nnd  four  others,  in  the  immeiliate  vicinity  of  the  capital  ; 
whUe  several  large  salt-water  tagpona  fringe  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  chief  of  which  are  Tampico  and  Termiaos. 

OUmats  and  Vasstatlan. — Owing  to  the  great  elevation  and  semi- 
tropical  position  of  Mexico,  the  climate  is  exceedingly  various.  Two 
regions,  however,  may  bediatinguishad— the  tro[iical(ti«Ta  aiiiehU), 
and  the  teinperele  {tierra  lemplada)  or  cool  region. 

The  Gist  embracea  the  low  grounds  on  the  east  end  west  sides,  to  the 
ieight  of  2000  ft.,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  varj-ino;  from  68" 
fHi.  in  the  D.,  to  78^  in  the  H.  It  produces  in  abuodance  all  the  ordi- 
■aary  vegetation  of  the  tropins,  including  maize,  manioc,  cocoa,  pepper, 
Manilla,  indigo,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  the  lianiuia  ;  but  the  e>- 
eeasive  heat  and  the  great  fall  of  rain  render  it  alnioat  uninhabitable. 
Tills  region  afibrde  an  admirable  illustration  of  the  raaiim  in  physical 
gtOEiapSy,  that  wherever  vegetation  attains  its  must  luxuriaiit  aevelrn>. 


554  POLITICAL  OEOQRAPHT. 

ment,  tbeir  human  life  languishes.  An  intermediate  r^on  of  small 
extent  embraces  the  slopes  of  the  table-land  to  the  height  of  about 
6000  ft  Here  the  climate  is  mild  and  gentle,  and  the  regetation  includes 
most  of  the  cereals  and  fruit-trees  of  £uiope.  The  cool  region  embraces 
the  whole  remainder  of  the  country,  including  the  vast  table-land.  The 
climate,  though  agreeable  and  healthy,  is  excessively  dry,  and  the  mean 
annual  temperature  at  Mexico  is  61** ;  while  the  vegetable  productions 
include  the  Mexican  oak.  pine,  agave,  arbutus,  dahlia,  geranium,  and 
cactus.  Among  cultivated  plants  may  be  mentioned  the  potato,  which  is 
extensively  reared,  and  which  in  its  vdld  state  is  sometimes  met  with  at 
an  elevation  of  10,000  ft. ;  maize,  wheat,  barley,  and  Spanish  pepper  or 
capsicum,  which  is  consumed  by  the  inhabitants  in  enormous  quantities. 
The  cacao,  from  the  seeds  of  which  chocolate  is  made,  and  the  vanilla, 
which  imparts  to  the  chocolate  a  peculiar  flavour,  together  with  the 
medicinal  plants  sarsaparilla  and  jalap,  are  indigenous  to  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  were  found  here  growing  spontaneously  when  the 
country  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards.  Among  the  cultivated  plants  of 
^texico  there  is  none  more  imi)ortant  or  characteristic  than  the  maguSy, 
from  the  sap  of  which  is  prepared  the  favourite  drink  of  all  classes, 
pulque ;  it  tnrives  on  the  poorest  soil,  so  that  near  a  town  or  populous 
district  a  plantation  of  it  always  forms  a  valuable  estate. 

Kinerals. — ^Mexico  has  Ions  been  celebrated  for  its  minerals,  and 
especially  for  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  precious  metals  which 
it  contains.  To  obtain  possession  of  the  latter  was  the  great  motive 
that  led  to  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  country  on  the  part  of 
Spain  early  In  the  sixteenth  century.  More  silver  has  been  obtained 
from  its  mines  than  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world ;  while  the  produce 
of  its  gold  mines  has  only  been  inferior  to  those  of  Peru,  and  latterly 
to  those  of  California  and  Australia.  The  silver  mines,  which  had 
been  long  neglected,  were  partly  reopened  in  1864.  The  most  cele- 
brated silver  mines  of  Mexico  are  those  of  Pachuca  and  Real  del 
Monte  (situated  about  60  m.  from  the  capital,  and  belonging  now 
to  an  Anglo-Mexican  company),  San  Luis,  and  Guanaxuato.  Gold 
abounds  chiefly  in  Sonora  and  Oaxaca.  In  1860,  an  extremely  rich 
quicksilver  mine  was  discovered  near  Pitic,  in  Sonora,  which  pro- 
mises to  give  a  new  impetus  to  mining  operations  in  Mexico.  Valu- 
able copper  mines  are  also  wrought  in  Chihuahua ;  iron  ore  is  abun- 
dant in  Durango ;  tin,  lead,  zinc,  and  antimony  in  several  states ; 
but,  hitherto,  coal  has  nowhere  been  found.  Salt  and  carbonate  of 
soda  are  obtained  from  several  lakes. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  are  exceedingly  numerous,  comprising 
the  bison  or  American  buffalo  (which  in  mid-winter  enters  the  conn- 
try  in  immense  herds  from  the  forests  of  the  north-west),  the  tapi^v 
jaguar,  puma,  ocelot,  tiger-cat,  weasel,  sloth,  glutton,  ant-eater, 
porcupine,  grizzly  bear,  wild  swine,  and  monkeys.  The  feathered 
tribes  exist  in  countless  numbers,  and  reptiles  include  the  Mexican 
crocodile,  the  alligator,  cayman,  and  rattlesnake.  Perhaps  the  most 
useful  animal  in  the  Mexican  fauna  is  the  cochineal  insect,  which 
yields,  next  to  the  precious  metals,  the  most  important  article  of 
export.  The  domestic  animals,  with  the  exception  of  the  torkey,  a 
native  of  this  region,  were  all  introduced  by  the  Spaniaids ;  for,  not- 


r 


MKirco. 


555 


wifhsUndiliK  the  deKree  of  ci 
had  atUineii,  they  did  not  ]ia 

Ethnosraphy. — The  popnlntion  of  Mexico  is  composed,  as  in  other 
Spanish  Americnn  states,  of  three  distinct  raeea — ahorisinal  Indians, 
Europeaua,  who  are  nearly  all  Spaniards,  and  Africans  or  Negroes, 
who  were  formerly  in  a  state  of  alaverj-.  Besides  these  there  are 
rarioilB  mixed  races — meatiEos,  xamlios,  mulattoea,  quadroons,  Ac. 

The  Indian  papulation  la  by  far  the  mo^t  numerous,  being  estimated 
tn  1S72  at  5,000,000  :  tbey  rorui  tha  great  mass  of  the  labouring  popula- 
tion, are  averse  to  the  mechanical  arts,  and  in  many  places  assErt  a  viM 
independence.  The  Europeans  or  whites  are  lei^oneil  at  about  1,000,000, 
>nd  form  the  wcaltbieat  and  most  ponerM  section  of  the  community. 
The  nagroea  do  not  exceed  6000,  and  are  rapidJy  decreaaing  in  number, 
notwitbatanding  the  abolition  of  slavery.  The  Mataoi,  formed  by  the 
commingling  of  Euiopean  and  Indian  blood,  number  about  1,500,000,  and 
are  gentu^j  engaged  in  trade  and  meclianical  pursuits. 

LufaOAQEB  AND  CiviuaiTIOH. — SpBaish  is  the  univeiBal  language  of 
the  white  population,  and  the  general  medium  of  intercourse ;  but  no 
lewer  than  thirty-five  distinct  tongues  are  spoken  by  the  varioua  Imliaii 
tribea  -within  the  limita  of  Meiico.  The  chief  of  those  ia  the  Mexican  or 
Aztec,  which  waa  the  language  of  the  semi-dvili^d  tribes  at  the  time  uf 
the  Spanish  conquest  of  tlie  country.  It  possesses  the  same  general  charac- 
teristics aa  the  other  American  tongues,  and  is  closely  allied  to  them  In 
internal  structure.  The  ancient  Mexicans,  Tcltecs,  and  Yucatanese  had 
attained  to  a  very  considerable  degree  of  civilisation  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards,  in  the  early  part  of  the  aiiteentb  century.  Tiiey  possessed 
K  regular  monarchical  government ;  tbey  had  stationary  abodes,  and 
pUFSaed  agricnlture  with  success  ;  maize  was  the  staple  crop,  and  ca&so 
was  cultivated  for  chocolate ;  mining  was  extensively  practised,  and  the 
precious  metals  sold  in  the  markets  ;  they  were  well  Bkilled  in  architec- 
ture, raised  great  adificfls,  constructed  vast  palaces,  pyramids,  roatiji, 
aqueducts,  and  bridges.  The  remaina  of  aculpture  found  in  Mexico  are 
nnmerous,  and  of  great  variety  of  form  and  material.  Feather-painting 
Traa  a  favourite  art,  in  which  the  gor^ous  plumage  of  tropical  birds  was 
employed  to  produce  exquiaitoly-tiniehed  pictures.  Tbey  bad  a  more 
accurate  calendar  than  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  or  Romans;  while  the 
splendid  ruins  of  Paianque  exhibit  medals,  musical  instruments,  coiosivil 
statues,  and  well-eiecuted  flgurea  in  low  relief,  adomoil  with  characters 
which  appear  to  be  real  hieroglyphics.  By  means  of  these  they  were  able 
tie  record  many  facts  connect^  with  th^  national  history.  They  usually 
wrote  on  cotton  doth,  on  the  prepared  nkins  of  auimals,  and  on  a  specie) 
of  paper  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  great  aloe,  similar  to  that  luaunCao- 
tuiVd  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  fmm  the  papyrus,  Numerous  manu- 
iicripts,  executed  in  this  mode  of  picture-wntiug,  Tforo  committed  to  the 
"  mes  by  the  Spaniards;  but  a  few  preciona  relics  still  survive  in  some 

the  libraries  of  Europe. 

1  BeuoiDH.— The  eatabliahed  religJon,  and.  Indeed,  the  only  one  iscog- 

fased  by  the  eovemment,  ia  the  Roman  Catholic ;  and  though  others  are 

pBterated  by  law,  yet,  jimettcally,  iunumerahle  restrictions  are  Imposed 

Proleatantisra.     Almost  the  entire  whlt«  population  are  devoted 

,n  Catholics,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  the  Totariea  of  pleasure, 

.igacy,  and  crime.    The  Aztecs  and  sthar  Dative  tribes  also  profna  s 


556  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

nominal  adherence  to  that  Church,  interweaving  its  ceremonies  with  the 
idolatrous  rites  of  their  ancestors. 

OoYemment  and  Fixumce. — From  the  conquest  of  the  country,  in 
1521,  till  1824,  Mexico  formed  one  of  the  four  great  Viceroyalties 
of  Spanish  America,  and  was  sadly  misgoverned.  In  the  latter  year, 
a  representative,  popular,  and  federal  republic  was  adopted,  which  in 
many  of  its  features  resembled  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  president  was  elected  for  four  years.  The  legislativepower  was 
vested  m  a  general  congress,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  The  deputies  were  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years, — there 
being  one  for  evei-y  80,000  of  the  population.  The  laws  were  said  to  be 
exceUent,  but  the  continually  -  recurring  insurrections  and  revolutions 
rendered  the  executive  power  little  better  than  nominal.  The  state  of 
civil  war  having  apparently  become  chronic,  Great  Britain,  Spain,  and 
France  resolved,  in  1861,  on  an  armed  intervention.  The  two  former 
powers  abandoned  the  enterprise  at  an  early  period,  but  the  French 
army,  after  experiencing  many  reverses,  at  length  obtained  possession  of 
the  capital,  ana  set  Duke  Maximilian  of  Austria  on  the  throne.  After 
reigning  three  years,  this  heroic  p^rince  was,  in  1867,  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  Juarez,  the  former  president,  and  cruelly  massacred.  Juarez 
was  then  re-elected  president,  and  the  constitution  of  1824  re-established. 
The  republican  army  in  1867  numbered  35,000  men,  but  it  does  not  now 
exceed  21,000.  The  naYv  consists  of  9  small  vessels,  carrying,  in  th0 
aggregate,  35  guns  and  300  marines.  The  revenue  in  1874  amounted 
to  £3,700,000,  the  expenditure  to  £4,800,000,  and  the  public  debt  to 
£79,100,000. 

Commerce  and  Industry. — The  commerce  of  Mexico  is  consider- 
able. The  exports  consist  of  metals,  cochineal,  indigo,  hides,  cattle, 
cacao,  vanilla,  jalap,  and  a  few  other  medicinal  herbs.  In  1874  the 
exports  were  valued  at  £6,338,000,  of  which  £500,000  were  sent  to 
Great  Britain.  The  imports  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  £5,800, 000, 
of  which  England  sent  £1, 194,000  worth.  These  consisted  chiefly  of 
manufactured  goods,  earthenware,  firearms,  hardware,  and  machinery. 
The  manufactures  are  unimportant,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  little  cot- 
ton, silk,  and  woollen  cloths,  soap  and  candles,  gold  and  silver 
utensils,  and  ornaments.  Agiiculture  is  greatly  neglected,  and  much 
of  the  land  cultivated  by  the  Spaniards  is  now  lying  fallow  ;  but  the 
natural  fertility  of  the  soil  causes  it  to  yield  a  sufficient  supply  for 
the  wants  of  the  inhabitants. 

Inland  Communication.— The  roads  are  deplorably  bad,  and  im- 
practicable for  wheel-carriages.  The  descent  from  the  table-land  to 
the  sea  is  everywhere  precipitous,  and  presents  such  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  carrying  goods  as  will  probably  always  cut  off  the  interior 
states  from  a  fair  participation  in  the  commerce  of  the  globe.  Mules 
are  the  only  beasts  of  burden,  and  vast  numbers  of  them  are  employed 
by  carriers  and  in  the  mines.  Railways  are  of  limited  extent  In 
1874  there  were  327  m.  open  for  traffic.  The  principal  line  is  that 
connecting  the  capital  with  Vera  Cruz.  Other  300  m.  are  in  process 
of  construction.  The  principal  seaports  are  Campeachy,  Vera  Cruz, 
Tampico,  and  Matamoros,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  Mazatlan 
and  Acapulco  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


I 
I 


CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

Boundaries. — N.W.,  Yuoatun  and  Cliiapas ;  S.W., tlie  Pacific; 
E.,  the  U.  S.  of  Colombia  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Lat.  8°— 
18°  30'  N.;  Ion.  82°  ao"— 93°  W. 

La  Union,  on  Fonaeca  Buy,  ia  the  centra  at  the  u'ea  thus  indicHted,  is 

1  the  BBiuB  pnnillel  oC  latitude  witli  the  Islnnd  of  St  Lucia  in  the  Weat 
Indios,  Bathurat  in  W.  Africa,  Lake  Tchad,  Aden,  Madras,  Bangkok, 
■nd  the  PhQipnine  Isles ;  ami  on  the  same  meridian  aa  Mobile  and  Lake 
Michigan.  The  greatest  length  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  is  about  900  in.; 
tlie  breadth  varies  from  70  to  SSO  m. 

Population,  and  Political  DtviBliMiB.  —  Central  America 
iDotuprises  aix  states,  Hve  of  wbich  am  independent  rt-publica,  and 
4H1B  (Belize)  a  Bntiah  colon;.  The  united  area  in  estimated  at 
Bq.  m.,  and  the  popiilation  (in  1871)  at  2,605,410.  Henca, 
though  14  times  ths  size  of  the  British  Isle«,  the  population  is  only 
two-thirds  that  of  Scotland.     (See  Table  of  North  American  States.) 

Guatemala. — New  Guatemala  4.^  n.  (Montagua),  Quesaltenaugo 
SO  (Samala),  htapa  (W.  coast),  St  Thunias  (IC.  coast). 

San  Salvador. — San  Salvador  20  n.,  Sansonate  S.  Acajutl.i,  l.a 
liibertad  (W.  coast).  La  Union  (Ponseca  Bay),  Cojutepeque  16  n. 
(L.  Ilopango). 

Honduras. — Comayagua  8  n.  (Ulu»),  Jntiwalpa  10  n.  (Patook), 
Vmoa  2,  Tnudllo  6  (O.  of  Honduras),  Tefiuci^lpa  12  (Choluteca). 

KiOABAClTA. — Managua  10,  Leon  25  n.  (L.  Leon),  Granada  10, 
Hicaragua  8  (L.  Nicaragua),  Rialejo  5,  Mas.4ayB  IS  (Paci&c),  San 
JUBD  de  Nicaragua,  Blewfields  (Mosquito  coaot). 

Costa  Rica.— San  Jos*  25  n.,  Cartago  5  n.,  Alabuela  10  n.  (Rio 
Grande),  Punta  Arenas  (G.  Nicoya],  Port  Culebra  (Pacific). 

Belize,  or  BaiTisa  Hondubas. — Balize  or  Belize  6  (Balize). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Now  Bnatemala  is  a  mean-looking  citjr,  occupy- 
ing a  wide  area,  as  llie  houses  are  all  of  one  story,  owing  to  the  frequent 
flbrthquakea.  The  exports  ara  nnmerous,  consisting  cbieQy  of  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  cigars,  dye-woorls,  and  other  native  products.  Quesalten- 
KafO  ranks  nest  to  the  capital  tor  the  ejttent  of  its  trade  and  the  variety 
of  Its  tuaouractnres.  The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  eacao,  sugar,  woollen 
and  cottou  fabrics.  Istapa  and  Bt  Tliomaa  are  the  principal  seaports  of 
the  state.  Ban  Salvador,  nswly  rebuilt,  after  having  been  destroyed  by  a 
terrible  earibqnake  in  1S51,  ia  again  the  cap.  of  stute  of  eame  name. 
Ao^jntla  and  La  Libertad,  on  Uib  PactDc,  wjtTi  La  Union  on  the  Bay  of 
Fonseca,  are  the  prinuipal  seaports  of  San  Salvador.  Comayagoa,  for- 
tnerly  Valladolid,  cap.  of  the  state  of  Handoras,  lias  a  college  and  several 
convents.  Omoa  and  Tmiillo  are  the  principal  seaports  of  Honduras ; 
the  former  is  very  iinhealtby,  and  is  the  liottest  place  in  the  New  World, 
Tegucigalpa  has  gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Uuiagna, 
the  present  cnp.  of  Sicaragiia.  Leon,  the  former  cap.,  a  now  grcutly 
^Cayed:  its  public  ediQces,  which  include  a  magnilicenl  Gothic  cathedrul, 


'560  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPUY. 

opossum,  tapir,  peccary,  fallow-deer,  hare,  sloth,  squiiiel,  armadillo,  and 
monkey.  Tiie  other  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom  are  all  extensively 
represented  (p.  ^).  The  domestic  animals  are,  for  the  most  part,  the 
same  as  In  Eiut)pe. 

Ethnograikliy. — ^The  population  of  Central  America  greatly  re- 
sembles that  of  Mexico.  The  larger  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
aboriginal  Indians ;  probably  fewer  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole  are. 
of  European  origin  ;  w^hile  the  remainder,  who  are  named  mestizoa  or 
ladinoSy  are  a  mixed  race,  having  sprung  from  the  union  of  the  white 
with  the  native  Indian  population.  The  whites  are  most  numerous 
in  Costa  Rica  and  San  Salvador.  The  negroes  form  but  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  population  of  Central  America. 

The  Spanish  language  prevails  over  all  Central  America,  being  now 
spoken  by  the  ^reat  mass  of  the  Indian  population,  except  in  Guatemala, 
where  the  aborigines  have  evinced  a  greater  tenacity  for  the  dialects  and 
customs  of  their  forefathers.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  prevails  every- 
where, but  the  nunneries  are  open  to  the  public,  and  the  inmates  can 
leave  them  when  they  please.  A  small  portion  of  the  Indian  population 
in  tbe  different  states,  more  especially  in  Honduras,  continue  m  their 
original  idolatry.  Central  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1502. 
In  1527  it  was  made  a  Spanisli  Captain-generalcy,  and  remained  attached 
to  the  Crown  of  Spain  tiU  1821,  when  Guatemala  first  declared  its  inde- 
pendence. The  other  states  speedily  followed  its  example,  and,  after  a 
severe  struggle,  succeeded  in  casting  off  the  yoke  of  the  mother  country 
in  1823.  Subsequently  they  formed  themselves  into  a  confederation 
under  the  title  of  the  ''  United  States  of  Central  America,"  which  was 
dissolved  in  1839 ;  and  they  now  exist  in  the  form  of  five  sovereign  and 
independent  republics.  Ever  since  their  independence  there  have  been 
much  anarchy  and  bloodshed  among  them,  greatly  aggravated  by  fili- 
busters from  the  United  States.  Each  state  has  its  own  president, 
vice-president,  senate,  and  assembly  of  deputies,  who  are  chosen  by 
electoral  colleges ;  while  the  Spanish  laws  have  been  replaced  by  codes 
modelled  on  those  of  the  United  States.  Guatemala,  which  has  a  million 
of  inhabitants,  is  by  far  the  most  populous  and  flourishing  state,  and  has 
enjoyed  a  greater  share  of  tranquillity  than  any  of  its  neighbours. 

Industry  and  Commerce. — The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  in  felling  timber,  and  in  the  transfer  of  produce 
to  the  seaboard.  Mining  employs  only  a  limited  number  of  the 
population.  The  people  of  Costa  Rica  grow  great  quantities  of 
coffee,  while  those  of  Guatemala  are  largely  engaged  in  manufactures 
and  in  the  productijon  of  artificial  flowers  and  embroidered  work. 
The  principal  exports  consist  of  silver  and  other  metallic  ores,  ma- 
hogany and  other  valuable  woods,  dye-woods,  indigo,  cochinealt 
hides  (chiefly  from  Nicaragua),  sarsaparilla,  balsam,  tobacco,  cigars, 
cacao,  rice,  coffee,  and  sugar.  In  1868,  the  total  exports  of  the  fiw 
republics  amounted  to  £1,665,142,  and  the  imports  to  £l,i81»885. 
The  principal  imports  are  British  and  North  American  manufactures^ 
together  with  silks,  wines,  and  gloves  from  France,  and  linens  and 
glass  from  Germany.  The  total  revenue  for  1869  amounted  to 
£1,087,633,  the  expenditure  to  rather  more,  and  the  pnUiodebltc 
£1,631,350. 


WEST   INDIES    AND    BERMLDAS.  AH  I 

Sellza  or  Brltltb  Hondnias  lies  K  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatou 
and  N.E.  of  Guatemala,  and  extends  aloug  tha  Caribbean  Sea,  tram 
the  Rio  Hondo  on  tlie  H.  to  the  Kio  Sarstoon  on  the  H.  Aloug  the 
const  it  is  low  and  awampy ;  forests  of  niHhogany  and  cedor  occuiiy 
tbe  interior;  and  the  boiI  in  the  valleva  is  moderately  fertQe.  The 
climate  is  rooiat  but  nut  unhealthy,  the  heat,  though  great,  being 
moderated  by  aea-breezL'S.  The  colony  is  well  adapted  for  Taising 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  iudigo.  The  fauna  enibra<^es 
Dances,  panthers,  tapirs,  deer,  peccaries,  agoutis,  armadilloa,  and 
monkeys.  Birds,  fish,  and  turtle  are  abundant ;  niaiiatis  and  allica- 
tora  frequent  the  lagoons.  The  population,  numbering  about  25,031), 
is  composed  chitfly  of  negroes,  woo  wera  tirst  brought  to  the  countiy 
as  slaves.  Tlieuuite  inhabitants  are  ex elnaiTely  occupied  in  ngricul- 
lure  and  commerce  ;  the  negro,  in  cutting  mahogany  and  dye-woodi 
(or  exportation,  and  in  fishing.  Tlie  yalne  of  the  exports  to  Great 
Britain  in  ISSS  amounted  to  £139,210,  and  the  imports  from  Gttat 
Britain  to  £133,883.  Till  recently  the  colony  formed  a  dependency 
of  Jamaica,  hut  the  government  is  now  vested  in  a  lieutenaut- 
govemor,  an  executive  council,  and  a  legislative  asselnhly.  It  vaa 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1503.  Its  possessioD  was  long  disputed 
by  the  Spaniards,  but  it  was  finally  yialded  to  Britain  in  1783. 


I 
I 


WEST  INDIES  AND  BERMUDAS. 
Position  anii  Boundaries.— The  Antilles,  or  West  Indies, 
Cdnsist  of  a  huge  archiptlayo  of  nearly  one  thousand  islands, 
extending  in  a  curvilinear  line  between  the  petiiusuk  of  Floridii, 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  dejtft  of  the  Orinoco,  in  South 
America  ;  and  separating  the  Atlimtic  Ocean  on  ita  N.  and  E. 
I'rom  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  G.  of  Mexico  on  its  S.  and  W. 
Jjat.  10' to  27=  N.;  Ion.  SS"  to  85°  W.  They  are  culled  Jw(«/f.! 
from  their  position  being  opposite  to  the  Aiuerican  continent, 
and  Weit  Indifs  from  Columbus,  their  discoverer,  inia^iuiuy 
that  they  foiined  the  nearest  portion  of  India,  a  westerly  passage 
to  which  he  was  in  quest  of. 

The  entire  Archipelago  {■  phynicalty  diviiied  iul«  four  itistitict  groups 
— vii.,  1.  The  Bahama  or  Lucayo  Islands,  about  SOU  iii  number,  tj.E.  of 
Florida,  tbe  lafgar  islands  belne;  Oreat  B.i'iflnm,  Al-aivJ,  Elpiitlnrn,  >few 
Providnuue,  Andros,  Siiu  Holvmbr.  Lotji;  IfilniiJ.  Ai-kliti.  Mrid^.Tjiiiin,  and 
Great  laagua.     2.   Tl,.-  ■  ■     ..iJ 

Central  ADiericO,  auo  ■  .;  ■, 


nclndinglheVlighil^.  ■ 

Jlartinique,  8.   Cnt:i:i. 

I  Triniilad.    J.  Tha  U"" 

|>  aistini;  chiefly  of  ilui^.u 


o62 


POUTIGAL   GEOGKAFUy. 


Area,  Poiralation,  and  Political  Relattoni. — The  area  amonntf 
to  93,650  sq.  m.  (without  including  the  Bennadas),  or  constder- 
ably  more  than  the  area  of  Great  Britain ;  while  the  population  at 
last  census  amounted  to  4,202,400,  or  one-sixth  the  population  of 
Britain.  With  the  exception  of  Haiti,  which  now  coniosts  of  two 
independent  states  (Haiti  in  the  W.,  and  Dominica  in  the  E.),  and 
some  of  the  Leeward  group  which  belong  to  Venezuela,  all  the  West 
Indian  Islanda  are  in  tlie  possession  of  European  nations.  About 
one-half  of  the  whole  area,  including  the  large  island  of  Cuba, 
belongs  to  Spain.  Great  Britain  has  the  next  largest  share,  alter 
which  rank  France,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 

Table  op  West  India  Isla^tds. 


1 

1 

ISLAMIML 

OoTcniBMnt 

Area  in 
Bnidish 

PaviatlMt 
OniMis. 

Haiti,  San  Domingo,  or  Hiapaniola, 

Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Isle  of  Pines,  \ 
and  two  of  the  Virgin  Isles.        1 

The  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  and  most 
of  the  Windward  Islands— (Tri- 
nidad, Tobago,  Barbadoes,  Gre- 
nada, St  Vincent,   St   Lncia,  \ 
Dominica,  Montserrat,Antigna,  ' 
St  Christopher,  Barbuda,  An- 
guilla,  and  most  of  the  Virgin 
Isles,  .        .        •        .        .        / 

Ooadeloupe,    Desirade,    Martin-  \ 
ique,     Marie     Galante.      Les  1 
Saintes,  northpart  of  St  Mar-  ( 
tin— all  in  the  Windward  group,  J 

CuraQoa,  Bnen  Ayre,  Orul^  Los'v 
Boqnes  (Leeward  Islands),  Stf 
Eostatios,  Saba,  and  south  part  V 
of  St  Martin  (Windward  Is- 1 
lands),        .       .        .        .        J 

St  John's,  St  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz  \ 
(Virgin  Isles),     .       .        .         t 

St  Bartholomew  (Windward  Isles), 

Haiti  and  Dominica. 
Spain. 

Britain. 

France. 

XetJierlands. 

Denmark. 
Sweden. 

2S.031 
49,478 

15,051 

1,005 

S68 

119 
10 

708,500 
8,085,000 

1,064,500 

887,408. 

80,161' 

87.881 
1.898 

Total, 

98,050 

4,808,400 

The  following  are  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the  Archi- 
pelago : — 

Independent. — Port-au-Prince  81,  Cape  Haitien  10  (in  Haiti), 
San  Domingo  15,  Santiago  12  (in  Dominica). 

Spanish.— Havana  200,  Santiago  37,  Mantanzas  Sd,  Porto  Prin- 
cipe 30,  Holguin  8,  Bayamo  7,  Trinidad  13,  a  Espirita  11  (in  Cnbi^^ 
San  Juan  15  (in  Porto  Kico). 

British. — Nassau,  cap.  of  Bahamas,  7  (New  Providflnofl)t  Spamib 
Town  6,  Kingston  32,  Port-Royal  15  (Jamaica),  Fort  BudEa  U 
(Trinidad),  Scarborough  3  (Tobago),  Bridge  Town  SS  (BntadMit, 
St  George  4  (Grenada),  Kingston  5  ^S.  Vincent),  CattrieiSQL  Uaek 


WF.ST   INDIES   AN1>    BEUUUIIAI:. 


I 


5C3 

KoBeBU  5  (Dcmliiica),  Plvmouth  (JIostBerrait),  St  Joliii  14  (Antigua), 
Bssae-Tetre  7  (St  Chriatoplier),  Koad  Town  (Tortola). 

French, — Basse-Terre  5,  Poiot-i-Pitre  20  (Gmideloupe),  Fort 
Jloyal  12,  St  Pierre  23  (Martinique). 

Dutch. — Williamstadt  or  Cura^oa  7  (Curai;oa). 

Dahibh.— Chrietianatadt  10  (Santa  Cnu),  St  Thomas  (St  Thomss). 

SwBDifiH.— Gustavia  10  (St  Battliolomew). 

DescTiptive  Votes. — Pdrt-an-Princs,  formerly  cap.  of  the  island  San 
Domingo,  and  now  of  the  Haitian  republic,  ia  a^loce  of  Bome  commercial 
importance,  aituated  on  the  W.  coast.    San  Somuigo,  cap.  of  the  re- 

ELtilii;  Dominica,  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  made  by  Europeans 
America,  having  been  founded  in  1502,  and  ia  now  the  oldost  exiBtiug 
city  in  the  New  World.  The  bones  of  Columbus  reniaiticd  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  San  Domingo  till  1795,  when  they  were  reiuoved  to  Havana. 
Hkvuia,  cap.  of  the  island  Cuba,  on  its  northern  coast,  is  the  largest  city 
in  tha  West  Indies,  and  oue  of  the  greatest  commercial  marts  of  thti 
western  world.  About  one-half  of  the  inhabitants  are  whites,  the  re- 
mainder being  slaves  and  free  coloured  negroes  :  its  principal  article  of 
manufacture  la  cigars,  which  have  long  obtained  an  almost  universal 
celebrity.  Santiago,  a  fortiSed  town  on  the  S.E.  coast,  is  the  oldest 
town  in  Cuba,  of  which  it  was  formerly  the  cap,,  and  is  still,  next  to 
HaTana,  the  most  commercial  in  the  island.  Porto  PrincipB,  in  the  in- 
terior, is  a  poor,  ill-built,  bnt  lai^e  town.  San  Jnan,  cap.  of  the  island 
Porto  Bico,  is  strongly  fortified,  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  is  a  large, 
weli-built  town.  HMaau,  in  New  Providence,  the  cap.  of  the  Bahama 
Islands,  is  a  neat,  well-built  town,  with  spacious  etreeU,  bandaome  houses, 
and  a  considerable  trade  :  the  prmcipal  exports  are  cotton,  pimento,  and 
■alt.  SpUiiBh  Town,  cap.  of  Jamaica,  is  a  small  ill-built,  and  unhealthy 
town.  Klngiton,  the  chief  commereial  city  in  Jamaica,  stands  on  a  6ne 
harbour  on  the  S.K  coast;  it  is  well  built,  lias  eiteniive  trade,  and 
steam  communication  with  Eugland  and  several  West  Ind' an  ports  Port 
SapBlU,  cap,  of  Trinidad,  is  a  liandsonie  town  on  the  W  coast,  wit!  a 
spacious  harbour  and  conaiderable  trade.  Brid^  Town,  cap  of  Etarbn 
ion,  England's  first  colony,  is  a  large,  gay,  and  handsome  town  on3  o  a 
of  the  strongest  military  posts  in  th*  W^st  Indies  8t  John  p  1 
Antigua,  istheseatof  government  of  the  Leeward  Is  ands  Baaae  Terre 
with  a  harbour  defended  W  several  battsriiw,  u  the  ap  of  t  e  Br 
island  St  Christopher  ot  St  Kitt's.  BMie-Terre  cap  of  t  a  Fns 
island  Guadeloupe,  ia  the  raaidence  of  t^n  a   1  hu         ni 

schools  and  a  botanic  gardeii.    StPiT"  ''■■'  •" 

town  of  the  French  We't  IndloB.  v 
queen  of  Napoleon  1.  'WHliamsi. 
Dutch  West  Indies.  Christiaiiata'i 
the  Danish  West  Indies,  haSoB  ti 
battery,  and  ia  the  chief  entTepGh  ■ 
ta,Tia,  cap.  of  island  3t  SarthnI:  i. 

Snr&M  ajid  KonntsdnB.— Til' 

I  aity  of  aspect— Mme  hdng  tuiu' 


/>64  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Rhoals.  The  Great  AntUles  consist  of  one  immense  mountain-chain,  e:^- 
tending,  with  certain  interruptions  now  occupied  by  arms  of  ^e  sea, 
from  Cape  St  Antonio  in  Cuba,  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  thence  prolonged  tlirougli  the  Lesser  Antilles  to  tiie  N.E.  coast  d 
South  America.  It  attains  its  maximum  elevation  in  tlie  K  end  of  Cuba, 
where  the  Sierra  del  Cobre  reach  to  the  height  of  7200  ft.  Haiti  is  tra- 
versed by  parallel  mountain-chains,  Mount  Chaco  being  8900  ft.  high. 
The  Blue  Mountains,  in  Jamaica,  vary  from  6000  to  7150  ft. ;  in  Porto 
Rico  the  height  does  not  exceed  4000  ft. ;  while  many  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles rise  to  elevations  of  between  4000  and  5000  ft.  The  majority  of  the 
islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  but  many  are  of  coralline  formation.  Vol- 
canic action  is  now  confined  to  the  Windward  Isles,  from  Grenada  to  St 
Eustatius,  La  Souflfrifere  in  St  Vincent  being  an  active  volcano,  from  which 
considerable  eniptions  have  occurred  in  modem  times ;  whUe  many  others 
Jiave  vomited  ashes  and  lava  within  the  historical  period.  St  Domingo 
and  Jamaica  have  repeatedly  been  the  scenes  of  some  of  the  most  tre- 
mendous earthquakes  on  record ;  while  the  earthquake  of  Guadeloupe, 
which  occurred  in  1843,  destroyed  the  town  Point-^-Pitre,  when  6000 
people  perished. 

Climate. — With  the  exception  of  the  northern  Bahamas,  which  lie 
beyond  the  tropic  of  Cancer:,  the  entire  West  Indian  Archipelago  is 
situated  in  the  torrid  zone.  The  heat  is  consequently  very  great  on 
the  lower  grounds,  where,  however,  it  is  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes, 
which  generally  blow  in  the  afternoon,  when  their  cooling  agency  is 
most  needed.  In  the  elevated  regions  of  the  larger  islands  me  tem- 
perature is  usually  cool  and  delightfully  pleasant. 

Snow  is  never  known  to  fall,  but  slight  frosts  occadonAlly  occur  in  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Cuba.  The  annual  mean  temperature  at  Havana 
is  77*'.9  Fall. ;  mean  winter,  73"  ;  mean  summer,  82**. 4.  When  the  sun  is 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  Archipelago  enjoys  the  benefit  of  the 
trade- winds,  blowing  from  N.E.  and  E.N.E.,  and  diffusing  over  it  a  re- 
freshing coolness ;  but  when  the  sun  has  passed  the  equator,  the  trade- 
winds  retire  northward  and  are  replaced  by  south-eastern  winds,  which 
are  warm  and  gentle.  The  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons— the  dry  and 
wet.  All  the  islands  south  of  the  18th  parallel  have  two  dry  and  two 
wet  seasons,  and  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  southern  shores  of  Jamaica, 
Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico.  The  long  dry  season  sets  in  about  the  end  of 
November,  and  continues  till  the  beginning  of  March,  during  which  time 
the  sky  is  cloudless  for  several  weeks  and  even  months  in  succession. 
The  long  rainy  season  commences  in  July,  and  continues  till  the  month 
of  November,  when  the  min  falls  in  torrents,  but  rarely  lasts  for  many 
hours  continuously.  It  is  ushered  in  by  violent  gusts  of  wind,  accom- 
panied by  terrific  thunderetorms,  and  during  their  continuance  the  de- 
structive yellow  fever  and  other  diseases  are  prevalent.  On  some  of  the 
islands  the  annual  rainfall  is  enormous  ;  thus  at  Guadeloupe  it  is  said  to 
amount  to  192  in.;  Cuba,  142 ;  Haiti,  107  ;  Barbadoes,  72 ;  and  Jamaica, 
50 ;  while  the  average  rainfall  over  the  Archipelago  is  60  in. 

Natural  Products. — The  copper  mines  of  Cuba  form  an  invaluable 
source,  of  revenue  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  mines  of  excellent  coal 
have  been  discovered.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  iron,  and  rock-salt 
are  found  in  San  Domingo,  but  the  mines  are  now  unproductive.  In 
Jamaica  no  metal  is  known  to  exist,  except  lead  and  copper,  both  ol 


WEST    IMJlF.a    AND    BERUUDAS.  SfiS 

*}ii(:h  are  now  being  minfd  nith  aflvantsge.  Porto  Rico  contaioi 
suma  cold,  copper,  iron,  lead,  nnd  coal,  but  no  mines  have  lieen 
wrouRlit  until  very  recently:  The  mineral  products  of  tha  smaller 
i<ilaTids  are  unimportaut.  Salt  ia  plentiful  in  the  BaJiamu  Istaads, 
anil  aaphalt  in  Trinidad. 

The  floTs  is  intetmedlalfi  between  that  of  South  and  Central  America, 
from  hoth  of  which,  however,  il  ia  distinguiahed  by  its  great  quantity  of 
ferna  and  orchidaceous  plants.  Among  the  principal  articles  which  the 
Archipekgo  auppUea  to  ihe  commerce  of  the  world  are  coffee  and  sugar 
(both  of  which  were  introduced  hy  Europeans),  ram,  molaaaea,  cotton, 
tobacco,  cigars,  arrowrDot,  and  Jamaica  pepper.  Other  articles  of  lees 
importance  ara  indigo,  ginger,  cochineal,  logwood,  and  various  other 
medicinal  plants  and  dye-woods  ;  tt^ther  with  mahogany,  lignum-vitie, 
and  otber  trees  whose  woods  are  susceptible  of  the  nnest  polish.  The 
frmts  are  nnmeroue  and  highly  luxuriant,  comprising  the  pine-apple, 
cocoa-nut,  pomegranate,  mango,  guava,  orange,  bread-fruit,  and  banana. 
Maize,  or  Indian-corn,  ia  extensively  grown  throughout  the  Archipelago, 
forming  the  main  staple  of  food.  The  wild  quadrnpeds  which  existed  in 
the  Archipelago  when  the  Spaniards  flrst  arrived  were  the  agouti,  peccaiy, 
n»coon|  Indian  do^,  and  wild-hoar.  These  ere  now  all  extinct,  with  tue 
exception  of  the  wild-hog  and  monkey,  which  are  still  found  on  several 


ie  Bouthem  islands 

the  more  northern 

a  have  long 

of  Cariba  in  the 


Etbnograpliy. — At  the  time  of  their  discovery,  tl 
were  inhabited  by  the  fierce  and  warlike  Cariba;  t 
by  a  gentler  race,  the  Arrowauka.  Both  these  n 
been  extinct,  irilh  tha  exception  of  a  few  families 
islands  of  St  Vincent  and  Trinidad. 

The  indiscriminate  and  wholesale  butchery  of  the  natives  will  ever 
remain  an  indelible  stigma  on  the  Spanish  name.  The  tint  settlement  of 
the  Spaniards  in  Cnba  took  place  is  Ifill ;  and  in  less  than  half  a  centnry 
afterwards,  the  aborigines,  who  are  supposed  to  have  amounted  to  at  least 
1,500  000  persons,  had  become  extinct.  Tlie  inhabitants  of  Haiti,  esti- 
mated at  1,000,000  were  in  like  manner  rednced,  in  the  lirat  fifteen  yeara 
afterthearrivaiof  the  Spaniards,to60,000,andinnui6yenrsmore  to  10,000. 
The  present  popnlation,  amounting  to  nearly  four  millions,  consists  of 
three  classes — v/hitea,  negroes,  and  inulattoea.  In  Cuba  and  Porto  Bico 
the  negroes  conatitnte  about  one-half  of  the  entire  population,  in  tha 
British  islands  about  three-fourths,  and  in  the  others  about  two-thirds. 
The  descendants  of  white  parents  bom  in  the  West  Indiea  are  termed 
Creoles,  those  of  mised  parentage,  Mulattoes.  The  negroas  were  Intro- 
duced as  slaves  from  AlHcn,  but  slavery  ia  now  abolielied  in  all  the 
itianda  except  those  belonging  to  9pain,  which  now  enjoys  the  unenviable 
distinction  of  being  the  only  civilised  country  In  the  Old  World  which 
directly  and  avowedly  esn'ies  on  the  slave  tiiide  in  all  its  horrors.  The 
nnmber  of  slaves  in  the  Spanish  W.  Indies  is  about  7D0,O(lO.  Slavery 
was  abolished  in  the  colonial  possessions  of  Grtat  Britain  In  1834,  when 
the  British  Parliamant  voted  tor  the  liberation  of  the  negroes  no  leas  a 
tarn  than  twenty  million  pounds  sterling — a  sum  unparalleled  for  auch  a 

fnrpose  in  the  annals  of  our  race.    The  slaves  in  the  Dutch  coloniea  were 
berated  in  1883. 

lage  and   Riliffion. — The  languages  principally  Biwlien  in  the 
idits  ara  Spanish,  French,  and  £nglieh — Spanish  in  Cobs  and 


566  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Porto  Rico,  French  in  Haiti  and  most  of  the  French  possessions,  English 
in  Jamaica  and  the  other  islands  belouginff  to  Britain|,  except  in  Trinidad 
ami  St  Lucia,  where  French  is  spoken  Toe  Roman  CathoUc  is  the  most 
prevalent  religion,  but  Episcopacy  is  established  in  the  British  colonies, 
'fhe  negroes  and  mixed  races  in  the  several  islands  generally  speak  the 
lan^naure  and  profess  the  religion  of  the  white  race  dominant  in  each. 
In  Trinidad,  however,  there  exists  a  Mohammedan  n^ro  commanity, 
the  only  one  in  connection  with  the  western  world. 

Education  and  Oovemment, — Education  is  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  the 
West  Indies,  not  excepting  the  British  possessions,  m(^  of  the  opulent 
persons  in  which  send  their  cliildren  to  oe  educated  in  the  mother  coun- 
try. Codrington  College,  in  Barbadoes,  is  a  thriving  institution,  and  the 
most  important  educational  establishment  in  the  Archipelago.  Haiti 
was  formerly  held  partly  by  France  and  partly  by  Spain  ;  but  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  au  insurrection  of  the  black  population 
took  place,  which  resulted  in  their  complete  independence.  Tnere  are 
now  two  native  governments,  both  republican :  one  named  Dominica, 
mnsisting  of  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island  ;  and  the  other  Haiti,  of  the 
French  part.  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  each  governed  by  a  CAiptaln- 
C General  appointed  by  the  Spanish  Crown.  The  government  of  the 
French  possessions  is  conducted  by  a  Governor  and  Colonial  Council  of 
French  residents ;  that  of  the  Dutch  is  vested  in  a  Stadtholder,  assisted 
by  a  Civil  and  Military  Council.  The  government  of  Jamaica  is  vested 
in  a  Governor  and  a  Council  of  8  members,  half  of  whom  are  nominated 
})y  the  Crown,  and  a  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Bahamas,  Bermudas,  and 
each  of  the  other  British  islands,  have  a  representative  government  con- 
stituted after  the  model  of  that  of  Jamaica. 

Industry  and  Commerce. — The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  entirely  per- 
formed by  the  negro  population,  who  alone  are  capable  of  enduring  the 
intense  heat  of  the  lower  grounds.  The  amount  of  sugar  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  export  from  the  British  West  Indies  is  greatly  less  than  it  was 
Itrior  to  the  emancipation  of  the  blacks,  and  very  many  of  the  planters, 
formerly  employing  slave  labour,  have  been  ruined.  The  prindittl  canaes 
that  have  led  to  this  disastrous  result  are  the  unwillingneas  of  the  free 
negroes  to  engage  actively  in  agricultural  labour,  and  the  low  price  of 
sugar,  arising  from  the  unequal  competition  of  the  slaveholdxng  pltnters 
of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  The  Exports  from  the  British  islands  to  the 
home  country  consist  chiefly  of  sugar,  cotton,  spirits,  cacao,  cofTee,  log- 
wood, pimento,  guano,  ginger,  sponge,  and  arrowroot ;  whOe  the  Impox^ 
from  Great  Britain  comprise  apparel,  arms,  leather,  iron,  cotton,  woollen, 
and  linen  cloth,  drugs,  soap,  candles,  hardware,  rice,  beer,  and  wine. 
n^otal  Exports  to  Great  Britain,  in  1874,  amounted  to  £4,318,000,  and 
the  Imports  from  Britain  to  £2,465,000.  The  Spanish  islands  in  the 
Fame  year  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom  goods  to  the  valne  of 
£5.109,000,  the  principal  articles  being  unrefined  sugar,  tobacco,  bd^ 
cigars ;  while  we,  in  turn,  exported  to  tnem  £2,752,000  worth. 

The  Bermudas  or  Somers  Islands,  580  m,  E.  of  South  Caio- 
lina,  and  about  900  m.  N.£.  of  the  Bahamas,  CQnsiflt  of  a  gioi^p 
of  about  300  small  islets  and  rocks  belonging  to  Britain.  IftL 
32°  20'  N. ;  Ion.  64°  50'  W.    The  largest,  named  Long  Ialii«' 
is  only  180  ft.  above  the  sea,  while  most  of  the  oUiBii  j 


SOLTH  AMEuici.  567 

I  •cftTcriy  rniEecl  above  the  water.     Aren,  alioiit  24  sq.  m. ;  pup. 
n  1871,  lil£L     Eevenue,  i33,000  ;  Expenditure,  X32,O0O. 
Tlrey  are  of  eorelline  forniHtioti,  contain  neither  sprinp  nor  streams ; 

I  tan  Uie  sail  ia  t«rt3e,  climate  mild  and  sulubrinus.  Biid  the  fmitc  of  both 
tPDpical  and  temperate  regiotia  are  raiBod  in  great  ahnndanoe.  The  cnltore 
of  the  oiaDge  in  extending,  and  the  urovroot  i>  eoiiBidered  of  enjellent 
qualitj.  Uore  than  haU  of  the  mbabitants  are  blacke  and  people  of 
mixed  odIdoi.  Hamilton,  tha  cap.,  aitiiated  [>n  Long  laland,  and  St 
Georpe,  on  an  island  of  tht  lame  name,  are  tbe  onl;  towt  in  the  group. 
Tbe  Bennndaa  are  chiefly  eerviceahle  as  a  naval  station  and  penal  aettle- 
nent.  On  the  island  Ir^and,  vhich  is  EtiDngly  fnrtilied.  and  one  of  the 
moat  impurtnnt  naval  ^Ijons  in  the  BriUeb  colcnieR,  an  extenstTe  dock- 
yard hae  been  constractdd  caloulatod  to  be  of  peat  importance  to  Britain 
in  the  ovent  of  a  war  with  the  Tlnttod  States.  They  were  diacovered  lij- 
Jaan  Bermudei,  a  Spanish  narigatnr,  in  ln22;  the  firet  settlemuut  wu 
made  on  them  in  160B,  Hinca  wl.icb  thej  liove  remained  in  the  posaasaioQ 
flf  England. 


I 


SOUTH     AMERICA. 

1.  Boimdaries.— N^tieCiiiLbeaa  Sea  ;  W.,  Central  America 

«iii.l  the  Pauitic  Ocean ;  S.,  tite  Antarctic  Ocean  ;  £.  atid  N.E, 

He  Allanlic.     Lat,  ]S°  28' N.— BS'SS'  S.;lon.  35°  20' — sa"  T\'. 

It  tlini  smbrscei  BBj"  of  laL,  and  nearly  48"  of  Ion.     Point  Gallinai, 

its  Dortliani  Ertramity,  is  on  the  ume  parallel  vith  Capes  Boxo  and 

CuinlaftLi  in  Africa,  the  cities  Aden,  Uadjaa,  and  Bangkok  in  Asia,  aud 

•---  '-  "-mtralAineriea;  while  itBcentml  point  cut.  22°  S.,  Ion.  58"  W.I 

oms  latitude  with  Lake  Ngami  in  K  Africa,  N.W.  Cape  in 

and  Tarija  in  Bolivia,     It  fonne  tbe  sonthem  oontinBnt  of  tlie 

Eew  World,  aa  Africa  does  of  the  Old,  and  is  EomiiKted  with  the  uortheru 

lanlineiit  bjtbe  Istbntus  of  PansmA  and  the  Archipal^  of  theAntJIlen. 

■4lie  shime  approiimatas  to  a  riglit-angled  triangle,  with  the  right  anglu 

■jAtaated  near  Pajshyba  in  BrazQ.    The  extreme  Isn^  is  about  4800  m.. 

Valid  the  maiintum  breadth  about  3000  ni.     Tlie  cuast-Iine  is  estimated  at 

m  ttiwaida  of  12,000  m.,  being  only  one-half  of  that  of  N.  America;  but 

P  Ait  deficiency  of  seaboard  la  in  a  greBt  cnuasare  compensated  for  by  t)ie 

unber  of  large  rinis,  which  are  in  general  navigable  nearly  to 

rea  and  PupUlatloii.— The  aggre^te  area  of  tlie  dilTei'etit 
kate^  m  exhibited  in  the  followtng  table,  is  7,028,206  tn.  in.,  ami 


568 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


states;  but  if  we  regard  the  Granadian  and  Argentine  Confedera- 
tions  as  forming  one  state  each,  the  number  will  be  reduced  to  14. 
With  the  exception  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  all  the  states  of  S.  America 
have  adopted  the  republican  form  of  government ;  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact,  that  while  all  the  colonial  possessions  of  Portugal 
contained  in  this  continent  have  been  kept  entire  in  the  form  of  an 
empire,  enjoying  the  blessings  of  a  staole  government,  those  of 
Spain  have  fallen  asunder  into  numerous  republics,  which  are  in  a 
state  of  chronic  disaffection. 


Table  op 

South  American  States. 

Kamr. 

Area  in 

Ens.  Square 

Milea. 

Population 
at  last  Ceiinia. 

Caktax. 

Rirer.  Ac,  on 

which  the 
Chpital  UandiL 

U.  S.  of  Colom- 

bia   .    .    . 

514,325 

2,900.000 

Bogotft  .    .    . 

San  Francisco. 

Venezuela 

426,712 

1,784,194 

Caracas      .    . 

n.  N.  Coast. 

Ecuador'  .    . 

219,000 

1,308,082 

Quito     .    .    . 

Esroeraldas. 

British  Guidna 

99,925 

215,200 

Georgetown    . 

Demarara. 

Dutch  Guiana 

62,850 

69,834 

Paramaribo     . 

Surinam. 

French  Guiana 

85,080 

26,137 

Cayenne     .    . 

I.  Cayenne. 

Brazil  .     .     . 

3,231,000 

9,70 -,187 

Rio  do  Janeiro 

E.  Coast. 

Pen\     .     .    . 

610,091 

2,500,000 

Lima      .    .    . 

W.  Coast. 

Bolivia     .    . 

374,480 

1,987,352 

Chuquisaca     . 

Pilcomayo. 

Chil6    .     .    . 

116,043 

2,0fi8,'147 

Santiago     .    . 

Mapocho. 

Argentine  Conf. 

896,900 

1,840,000 

B.  Ayres     .    . 

Rio  de  la  Plata. 

Paraguay^ .    . 

75,000 

221,079 

Asuncion    .    . 

Paraguay. 
Rio  de  la  Plata. 

Uruguay'  .     . 

66,800 

450,000 

Montevideo  . 

Patagonia 
Total    . 

400.000? 

80,000 

Pnnta  Arenas 

Str.  of  Magellan. 

7,028,206 

25.099,512 

4.  SurfELce. — The  Andes,  a  vast  mountain-chain,  with  its  plateaux 
and  declivities,  stretch  along  the  western  coast  from  the  Isthmus  of 
Panami  to  Cape  Horn,  dividing  the  continent  into  two  unequal 
slopes,  and  covering  nearly  a  sixth  part  of  the  entire  area. 

The  remainder  of  the  surface  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  three  im- 
mense plains,  watered  respectively  by  the  Orinoco,  Marafion,  and  Parang 
The  first  of  these,  named  the  Llanos ,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  east- 
em  chain  of  the  Columbian  Andes,  and  on  the  S.  hy  the  Parim^  and 
Pacaraima  Mountains,  which  separate  it  from  the  hasin  of  the  Amazon. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  level  portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  having,  at  a 
distance  of  450  m.  from  the  ocean,  an  elevation  of  only  192  ft.  The 
basins  of  the  Marafion  and  Parang,  lying  south  of  it,  are  enclosed  between 
the  Andes  on  the  west  and  the  Brazilian  mountains  on  the  east.  The 
former  of  these  is  the  largest  river-basin  in  the  world,  having  an  area  of 
a  million  and  a  half  sq.  m.  It  is  separated  from  the  Orinoco  by  a  water* 
parting  so  low  that  the  Bio  Negro,  one  of  its  principal  tributaries,  sends 
off  a  branch,  named  the  Casiquiari,  to  meet  the  Orinoco— the  two  basins 
thus  merging  into  one  another ;  while  the  Madeira,  another  of  its  tribu 
taries,  rises  only  a  few  mUes  distant  from  the  head- waters  of  the  Paraguay, 
which  finds  its  way  southward  to  the  Parang,  both  lUlufiats  Domg  uavi- 


BOUTH    AMERICA.  569 

p  LIb  to  their  sources.  Tliese  three  va^t  rivcr-baains  tire  thus  virtually 
intsrlocked,  and  a  mighty  circle  of  inlanil  navigation,  which  is  without  a 
parallel  in  any  other  part  of  the  alobe,  ia  establislied  by  natural  meana. 

6.  lattmtna.  Penl&anlaE,  and  CBjna. — lathmna  of  Panamli,  tiiiiting 
Southern  with  Ceutral  America  ;  Peninsala  of  Paraguaoa,  N.W.  of 
Venezuela ;  Peninaulaa  of  Tres  Mootes  and  St  Josef,  on  the  W.  and 
E.  aides  of  Patagonia ;  Caps  St  Francisco,  W.  of  Ecuador ;  Blanno 
and  AgnJB  Point,  N.W,  of  Pom  ;  Froward,  the  most  S.  point  of 
the  American  continent ;  Horn,  the  Bouthemmoat  extremity  of  the 
Kbw  World,  S.  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  ;  Corrientea  and  St  Atitonio,  E. 
of  Buenos  Ayree ;  Sta  Uaria,  E.  of  Uruguay;  Frio,  St  Thom^,  and 
St  Boque,  E.  of  Brazil ;  Branco,  the  most  eaaterly  point  of  America ; 
Do  Norte,  N.  of  Brazil ;  Point  Gallinas,  N.E.  of  Hew  Granada,  the 
northemmoat  point  of  South  America. 

5.  IsJaudB.— The  Galapagos,  W.  of  Ecuador  ;  Chineha  Island^ 
W.  of  Peru  ;  Juan  Fernandez,  W.  of  Chili ;  Chiloe,  WenSngton, 
and  Madie  de  Dios  Archipelago,  W.  of  Patagonia  ;  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
S.  of  Patagonia  ;  Falkland  Mea  and  South  Geo^^  S.E.  of  Fata- 
gociia  ;  Margarita,  Tortuga,  Buen  Ayre,  and  Curafoa,  N.  of  Yenez- 

Tlie  Galapagos— so  calle'I  by  the  Spaniants  liecansa  thev  abound  in 
tmloUet-  are  a  group  if  islands  situated  under  the  equator,  760  ni.  W.  of 
Ecuador.  They  are  thirteen  in  number,  are  all  volcanic,  generally  sterile, 
and  uninliahited.  Tlie  flora  and  fanns  are  to  a  large  extent  peculiar, 
e.^ecially  the  birds  and  reptiles.  The  Chlnoha  Islands,  wth  their  rich 
deposits  of  excellent  guano,  oonatitnte  a  nniie  of  wealth  to  the  Peruvian 
Government.  Juan  lemandez  is  famous  as  having  been  the  residonra 
of  Alexander  Selkirk,  whose  adventnraa  suggested  the  well-known  tale  of 
'  Robinson  Cruaoe.'  Tierra  del  Tuego  ("  laud  of  hre"),  so  named  from 
the  volcanoes  with  which  it  abou:ids,  cnnsists  of  a  cluster  of  islands  off 
the  S.  coast  of  Patagonia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of 
Mn^Uan.     Some  of  the  islands  are  level  and  pcatty  wen  wooded,  pro- 

lating,  are  among  tl 

a  group  of  about  ti 

Britain,  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  .  _  .  _ 

Fueao;  area,  4741  aq.  m. ;  pop.  662,  consisting  chiefly  ol 

istafrom  Buenos  A  yres.     Vessala  paaaii ■'  " —  ^^ 

ing-sliips  frequenting  the  Sonth  Seas,  a  . 

and  fresh  water.  South  Georgia,  about  1000  m.  E.  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
is  a  hXeolk  anil  barren  region  traversed  by  lofty  mountains  which  are 
conitontly  covered  with  snow — the  heat  of  summer  being  enfficient  only 
to  melt  the  snow  on  the  toiv  grounds  of  the  N.  £.  side,  fhe  neighbour- 
ing seas  abound  with  seals,  and  aea-fowl  in  great  numbers  frequent  the 

7.  Bas'i  Ovlti,  and  Btialts. — Bay  of  Panaioi  and  Gulf  of  Guaya- 
quil, W.  of  Colombia  ;  Strait  of  Magellan,  between  PataB;onia  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego  ;  Gulfs  of  3t  George  and  Sau  Mafias,  E  of  Pata- 
gonia ;  Estuary  of  Rio  rle  In  Plata,  between  Bnenoa  Avrea  and  Uru- 
guay ;  Al!  Sftiiits'  Bay,  E.  of  Brazil ;  Rio  Pari  and  Estuary  of  the 

3  o 


570  POLITICAL   GEOORAPHY. 

Amazon,   N.£.  of  Brazil;   Gulfs  of  Venezuela  and  Darien,  N.  of 
Colombia. 

8.  Moontain-Systems. — This  continent  is  traversed  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  greatest  length  by  the  Andes  (Span.,  Cordillera  de  loa 
Andes),  in  some  respects  the  most  magnificent  chain  of  mountains 
on  the  earth's  surface. 

Commencing  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panami  and  the  Ouibbean  Sea,  it  ex- 
tends along  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  continent  to  its  southern  extremity, 
being  a  total  length  of  about  4500  m.,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  40  to 
400  m.  Though  greatly  inferior  in  elevation  to  the  Himalaya,  it  far  sur- 
passes the  latter  in  length  and  in  the  extent  of  surface  which  it  occupies, 
in  some  places  the  chain  forms  only  one  ridge,  as  between  Cape  Horn 
and  the  20th  degree  of  S.  latitude,  while  in  others  there  are  two  or  more 

Parallel  ridges,  supporting  between  them  highly -elevated  table-lands, 
n  general  they  present  a  very  steep  slope  towaids  the  Pacific  coast,  to 
which  they  maintain  a  parallel  direction  at  an  average  distance  of  firom 
20  to  160  m.  No  other  chain  on  the  earth's  surface  can  vie  with  tiie 
Andes  in  the  number  and  grandeur  of  its  volcanoes.  The  number  of 
active  craters  is  reckoned  at  24,  and  of  dormant  ones,  32.  Proceeding 
from  N.  to  S.  the  following  are  the  loftiest  summits — those  distinguished 
by  an  asterisk  being  active  volcanoes : — 1.  Thb  Andes  op  Quito,  ex- 
tending in  three  parallel  ranges  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  te  the  5th  degree 
of  S.  latitude.  They  embrace  the  table-land  of  Quito,  9600  ft.  in  eleva- 
tion, and  fianked  by  some  of  the  most  majestic  volcanoes  in  existence. 
*Tolima,  in  central  chain,  lat.  5"  N.,  18,020  ft. ;  *Pichincha,  on  the 
equator,  15,936  ft. ;  ♦Antisana,  S.E.  of  Quito,  19,137  ft ;  ♦Cotopaxi, 
S.S.E.  of  Quito,  18,875  ft. ;  Chimborazo,  21,424  ft  Height  of  snow-line, 
15,800  ft.  2.  Andes  op  Peru,  extendiug  in  three  parallel  ranges  from 
lat.  5"  to  14"  S. — the  western  range  being  the  loftiest:  Knot  of  Huanuco, 
11,800  ft. ;  Nevada  de  Sasaguanca,  N.E.  of  Lima,  17,904  ft.  3.  Andes 
of  Bolivia,  forming  the  central  and  most  elevated  portion  of  the  system, 
extend  in  two  gigantic  longitudinal  ridges  from  lat.  14"  to  21"  S. :  Sorata 
or  lUampu  (lat.  15"  30'  S.),  21,286  ft.  high,  till  recently  considered  the 
loftiest  summit  of  the  Andes  ;  Chiiquibamba,  15  m.  N.W.  Arequipa, 
21,000  ft. ;  Illimani,  21,181  ft.  ;  Cochabamba,  17,073  ft.  ;  Cerro  de 
Potosi,  16,152  ft  Height  of  snow-line,  18,000  ft  4.  Andes  of  Chile, 
extending  in  one  mighty  ridge  from  lat  21"  to  42"  S.,  though  of  inferior 
average  elevation  to  the  Andes  of  Bolivia,  contain  Aconcagua,  22,276  ft, 
now  generally  regarded  as  the  culminating-point  of  the  entire  chain; 
•Volcano  of  Chilian,  16,000  ft.  Height  of  snow-line  in  the  S.,  8600  ft. 
For  the  other  mountain-ranges  of  South  America,  see  under  "Colombia," 
"  Guiana,"  and  "  BraziL" 

9.  Rlver-BaslnB  and  Capitals. — With  exception  of  the  Desagaa- 
dero,  which  flows  from  Lake  Titicaca,  in  the  Basin  of  Continental 
Streams,  all  the  rivers  of  South  America  belong  to  one  or  other  (rf 
three  oceanic  basins — those  of  the  Pacific,  Atluitic,  and  Cuibbean 
Sea.  The  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific  are  mere  mountain  torrents; 
the  Magdalena  is  the  only  one  of  importance  that  finds  its  way  to 
the  Caribbean  Sea ;  but  those  inclining  to  the  Atlantic  comprise  the 
most  gigantic  rivers  on  the  earth's  surface.  Of  these,  by  far  the 
largest  is  the  Amazon  or  Maranon,  whose  direct  length  is  2100  m.* 
and  including  ite  windings,  nearly  4000  m.  •  It  is  nayigable  for 


SOUTH    AMERICA,  571 

■  iwge  vessels  from  its  mouth  to  the  influx  of  the  Ucayali,  and  toi 
[  Wnall  craft  to  tha  very  foot  of  the  mountains,  while  twenty  great 
rivers,  all  navigaljle  to  their  soarcea,  discharge  their  contents  into  ita 
itream — thus  affordinf!  an  immense  inland  navigation  of  about 
iO,ODI)  m.,  and  draining  on  area  Torionslj  estimated  from  1,500,000 
;o  2,000,000  sq,  m. 


......... 

"i-r 

Orinoco., 

TocantlrB, 

I'flraaihybo,... 

Paiand, 

lOM 

72,000 
!6a,M0 

i.MaloM 

204,180 
116,300 

asfl.MO 

BooOTA'  (U.   SUI«i  of  Colonn.l»\  Me- 

DBLtlH,     TOKJ*     CBOVKCS),     PoFiTHH 

Maoaos  or  Bam  (Rio  Neera),  Lb  P«, 
EiilUcion  (Beui),  S»nta  Cnu,  Cocha- 
bunbi. 

Macayo  (ilagoM^    Semipe.  Onro-Pteto 

UoBii  ViDKi  (tniRoW),  Bncoe  Avbm, 
Pab«k»'  (Bntre  Bioi),  Banta  Fe-,  Cob- 

LUIB,  CUKDOIA,  BiHTisno,  Tdcitmab, 
C.TAKABCA      SaLTA,    JcJDV,    CHCUDI- 

s.c.  (Bolivia),  Tarsia,  Potaal,  Cnyabs 
(MoUo  GroBso). 

■0  very  fnw  P' 


10.  Lakes.— There  ai 
in  South  America,  and 
with  the  larger  river-basins. 

On  the  table-laud  of  Bolivia,  at  a 
MtiMCll,  nest  to  Sir-i-Kol,  in  Cent.  .' 


D  elevation  of  12,546  ft.,  is  Lake 
laia.  the  highest  lake  in  theworld, 
wivu  lui  uica  ui  uearij  »uvii  84.  m.  It  la  drained  by  the  JJeaagnadero, 
wliich  carries  its  surplus  waters  to  Lake  Uroi,  a  Bmaller  sheet  of  salt 
H-ater  about  200  m,  to  the  8.E.  Lake  Maraoaybo,  in  the  N.W.  of  Venei- 
uela,  has  an  area  of  about  5000  sq.  m.,  and  is  connected  nith  the  sea  by 
a  narrow  channel  12  m.  long.  Lake  Dob  FatOB,  in  the  S.E,  of  Brazil. 
5000  sq.  m.,  diaohai^es  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic  bv  a  channel  naraeil 
Bio  Grande  do  gul.  There  are  nameroDs  lakes  in  La  Plata,  between  the 
Andes  and  the  river  FaranA,  the  chief  of  which  are  Onuiacaclie  and  J 
Silverio. 

11.  Climate.— With  two-tbirda  of  its  area  situated  hetween  thft  J 
tropica,  the  climate  of  Soutb  America  ia  necessarily  very  hot^  3 
Though  yielding  in  this  respect  to  Afrira,  the  corresponding  coattl'1 
cent  of  the  Old  World,  the  temperature  is  coasideiably  higher  tbaiM 
that  of  North  America;  for  while  the  latter  has  its  maniuum  breadt^P 
in  the  arctic  rcgioni,  South  America  attains  its  greatest  width  ii 


572  POLITICAL   OEOGRAPUY. 

owing  to  the  low  temperature  of  the  Antarctic  Drift  CuTrent,  which,  set- 
ting oat  ftt)ni  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  flows  north-eastward  against  the 
shores  of  Chil^,  then  northward  along  the  coast  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
equator.  The  highest  mean  annual  temperature  occurs  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Guiana  and  Venezuela,  where  it  amounts  to  81°  Fah.  South 
America  is  also  characterised  by  great  moisture,  which  attains 'its  maxi- 
mum in  the  extreme  north,  where  the  temperature  is  highest,  but  which 
is  everywhere  more  copious  on  the  eastern  than  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Andes.  Within  the  tropics  the  wide  plains  on  the  east  are  deluged 
by  the  heavy  periodical  rains  from  November  to  May,  while  the  narrow 
margin  between  the  Cordilleras  and  the  Pacific  is  almost  entirely  rainless. 
In  some  places  the  deposition  of  moisture  is  surprisingly  great :  on  the 
north  coast  of  Dutch  Guiana  229  in.  fall  annuallv,  and  in  certain  localities 
on  the  east  coast  of  Brazil  no  less  than  276  in.  have  been  observed.  As 
the  rainy  season,  however,  is  confined  to  a  brief  period,  the  number  of 
clear  days  is  much  more  considerable  than  in  onr  temperate  climates ; 
while  during  the  long-continued  drought  that  precedes  it,  the  ground  is 
parched,  the  sun  glares  with  intense  radiance,  and  the  wild  animals,  tor« 
niented  alike  by  hunger  and  thirst,  perish  in  great  numbers. 

12.  Geology.— The  geological  struettire  of  South  America  is  still 
less  known  than  that  of  the  noi*them  continent. 

It  is  understood,  however,  that  Crystalline  and  Granitoid  rocks  prevail 
throughout  the  entire  range  of  the  Andes  from  Panam^  to  Cape  Horn,  as 
also  in  Colombia,  Guiana,  and  the  whole  of  central  and  southern  Bnizil, 
from  the  river  Paraguay  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  10th  degree  of 
south  latitude  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata ;  that  the  Palaeozoic  and  Transition 
series  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  table-land  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  around 
Lake  Titicaca,  together  with  a  long  narrow  belt  along  the  eastern  flank  of 
the  Andes,  from  the  source  of  the  Pilcomaya  to  the  northern  frontier  of 
Patagonia,  as  also  a  broader  tract  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  San  Fran- 
Cisco ;  that  the  Secondary  formations  are  very  moderately  developed, 
being  confined  chiefly  to  small  areas  in  the  central  basin  of  the  Orinoco, 
and  along  its  affluent,  the  Apur6,  to  similar  patches  on  both  sides  of  LaJce 
Maracaybo,  with  a  still  smaller  one  in  Peru,  north  of  lima ;  that  Ter- 
tiarv  strata  extend  in  a  broad  continuous  belt  Iving  between  the  eastern 
flank  of  the  Andes  and  the  western  frontier  of  Bn^il,  and  from  the  5th 
parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the  50th  degree  of  south  latitude ;  and  that 
alluvium  and  modem  detritus  cover  the  territory  of  Buenos  Ayres,  to- 
gether with  a  large  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Amazon. 

13.  Minerals. — South  America  has,  ever  since  its  discovery,  been 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  wealth,  and  more  especially  for  the  abun- 
dance of  its  precious  metals. 

It  was  this  that  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards,  and  that  lad  to 
the  conquest  of  Peru  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  sixteenth  centmy.    JBfW 
since  that  period  till  the  recent  discoveries  of  gold  in  CaUfoniia  and  Au- 
tralia,  a  great  part  of  the  precious  metals  used  in  the  iraild  hkrt  ben 
brought  from  America ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  HexleMi  nitns%, 
almost  all  from  the  southern  continent.    The  chain  of  the  Amine  Ir  -■-^*^ 
metalliferous,  more  especially  in  the  countries  of  Pern,  P**""***  -"*■ 
while  Brazil,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  continent^  yir^' 
on  the  globe  in  regard  to  the  variety  and  richness  » 
cious  stones.     Oold  is  found  in  New  Granada,  F 


BOUTH    AMERICA.  573 

Cliiie,  La  Plnla.  Silver  in  Pent  Bolivia,  Kew  Granada,  CliilS,  and  La 
Plata.  TVn,  in  Peru,  Chile,  and  Brazil.  Lead,  in  Ecuador  and  Srazil. 
Copper,  in  Cliil^,  Fera,  and  Brazil,  jfarury,  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  and 
Braal.  7n>B,  in  Hew  Granada,  Bolivia,  Chile,  La  Plata,  and  very  abun- 
dantly ia  Brazil.  Antimaity,  in  BraziL  Coat,  in  Chile,  Brazil,  and  New 
Qranada.  SitlpAtir,  in  Brazil,  Pern,  and  Ecuador.  Sail,  in  La  Plata, 
Brazil,  Peru,  and  Bolivia.  Diamimda  are  very  abundant  in  Brazil,  espe- 
cially in  the  provinca  Minaa  Geraes  ;  and  otker  pndoia  arena  in  Brazil, 
CUle,  Peru,  New  Granada,  and  Guiana. 

14.  Botajiy.— South  America  is  diBtingniahed  from  the  other  con- 
tinents of  the  globe  bj  its  pre-eniiiiently  varied  and  luxuriant  voge- 
tfttion,  cauaed  by  its  tropical  heat  and  abundant  moisture,  as  also  by 
the  great  number  of  plants  of  commercial  valne  indigenous  to  it,  as 
the  cassava  or  mandioc,  from  which  we  obtain  tapioca;  the  cinchona, 
which  yields  Pemvian  bark  |  the  caoutchouc  or  india-rubber  plant ; 
the  mai^  or  Faraway  tea  plant ;  the  cacao  or  chocolate  plant,  which 
is  also  a  native  of  Central  America  ;  and  the  coca-leafplant^  a  nar- 
cotic naed  by  the  native  Indiana  of  Bolivia  and  Peru.  The  continent 
embraces  no  fewer  than  six  of  the  twenty-five  hotanical  regions  of 
modern  botanists— viz.,  the  ISth,  17th,  ISth,  2Dth,  Slst,  and  22d 
(see  p.  6B). 

Tlie  Erst  of  these  ia  the  "Maiican  region,"  comprising  Meiico,  Central 
America,  Colombia,  Gniana,  and  Peru,  and  extending  to  the  altitade  of 
COOfl  ft.    The  natural  orders  Cactaceee  and  Piperacem  are  specially  ahan- 
dant;  bnt  other  tropical  orders  are  less  frequent  than  in  corresponding 
h   latitudes  of  the  Did  World.     Among  the  nnmerous  cultivated  plants  of 
■  Ihis  region  may  be  mentioned  maize,  Guinea-corn,  cassava,  yams,  batatas, 
Jsrrowroot,  plantain,  mango,  custard-apples,  guavi,  papaw,  pine-apple, 
rCashew,  tamarind,  vine,  Indian  fig,  chocolate,  vanilla,  capsicum,  sugar, 
f   ooflee,  cottou,  and  tobacco.      The  neit  region,  called  "  Humboldt's 
Mgion,"  or  the  region  of  "  Medicinal  Herbs,"  embraces  the  loftier  belt  of 
the  Andes,  betnceu  the  altitudes  of  5O0O  and  9000  tL     Here  the  medi- 
cinal barla  of  commerce,  especially  Peruvian  bark,  are  very  abundant; 
the  cultivated  plants  of  the  lower  grounds  almost  entirely  disappear, 
with  the  exception  of  maize  and  coffee ;  but  potatoee,  European  truits, 
and  cereals  supply  their  place.     Above  this  is  the  "  region  of  Etecdloniai 
and  OiJfai/arui,    embracing  the  highest  elevations  of  the  loEt-mentioued 
range,  up  lo  18,000  ft.,  or  the  llnut  of  perennial  snow.     Here  tropical 
forms  almost  wholly  vanish,  their  place  being  supplied  by  the  Alpine 
genera  of  saxifrages,  genUims,  mosses,  lichens,  Ac     Tlie  fourth,  or 
^  "Brazilian  region,    embrace*  all  South  America  between  the  Andes  and 
he  Atlantic,  extending  southward  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,     ThiM  is 
iTdbalily  the  portion  of  the  globe  in  which  the  vegetable  Itingdnm  attains 
'■  greotert  profusion  and  variety,  whether  regard  bo  had  to  the  abun- 

-'■genera  .inii  pppcies,  fb«  raapnituJe  of  individual  forms,  the  vast 

■.!.,. — :,.  ._,1  r,-,..,   „-.!..   — .n:  climbing  and  parasitical 

■I'-  which  cover  the  tnmtis 

\f  E^maUest  branches  with 
'  'its  are  the  same  as  in  the 
At  Hilaire'a  region,"  em- 
[  wuen  the  tropic  of  Capr;. 
I "  the  flora  approaches  Id 


574  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

a  remarkable  manner  to  that  of  Europe,  while  it  differs  entirely,  except 
in  Chilly  from  the  floras  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  Airica  and 
Australia.  The  last  botanical  region  is  the  ''Patagoniai^"  or  "Antarc- 
tic," embracing  Patagonia,  the  Fuegian  Archipelago^  and  the  Falkland 
Isles.  The  vegetation  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  Central 
Europe,  while  tnere  is  a  slight  approximation  to  the  floras  of  Southern 
Africa  and  Australia. 

15.  Zoology. — This  continent  forms,  with  Mexico,  Central  Ajnerica, 
and  the  West  Indies,  one  of  the  six  zoological  kingdoms  of  modem 
naturalists.  It  embraces  two  provinces  of  very  unequal  dimensions 
—viz..  Tropical  America,  embracing  all  the  countries  situated  within 
the  tropics,  and  Austral  America,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the 
continent. 

Of  the  1967  existing  Mammals,  there  are  518  found  in  this  zoological 
kingdom,  and  of  these  no  fewer  than  491  species  are  peculiar  to  it.  The 
QuADBUHANA,  7i  in  number,  are  all  peculiar,  and  are  distinguished  from 
those  of  the  Old  World  bv  having  prehensile  tails,  which  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  a  fifth  hand.  Tne  Cabntvoba,  of  which  there  are  about  188 
species,  are  nearly  all  peculiar,  and  are  mostly  of  small  size  and  fearful  of 
man ;  the  largest  of  tnem  are  the  puma  and  jaguar,  the  latter  being  a 
very  formidable  animal;  but  the  whole  list  of  savage  quadrupeds,  so 
common  in  Africa  and  India,  is  entirely  unknown  in  this  continent. 
Cats,  dogs,  otters,  and  skunks  are  numerous,  as  also  bears,  racoons, 
coatis,  and  gluttons ;  while  bats  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  Mabsufialia  are  represented  by  the  single 
family  of  opossums,  which  contains  28  species,  27  of  which  are  found 
here.  Of  Rodentia  there  are  95  species  in  Brazil  alone.  The  capybara, 
the  largest  of  the  order,  inhabits  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Paraguay  :  the  utia 
is  found  in  Cuba ;  the  coypu  in  Chil^;  the  chinchilla  in  C^^  and  Peru; 
the  blscacha  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  Paraguay ;  the  li^otis,  viscacha,  dusky 
paca,  agouti,  acoucha,  and  cavy,  in  many  places.  The  Edentata  are  re- 
presented by  the  sloth,  hairy  ant-eater,  armadillo,  all  of  which  are  pecu- 
liar to  this  continent,  and  by  the  extinct  megatherium  and  mylodon. 
The  Pachydebmata,  once  so  numerous  in  this  continent,  as  is  evidenced 
by  their  fossil  remains,  are  now  represented  by  only  4  species — ^viz.,  two 
tapirs  and  two  peccaries.  Of  the  13  species  of  Ruminants  found  in  this 
continent,  no  fewer  than  12  are  peculiar  to  it,  the  most  interesting  species 
being  the  guanaco  (which  in  its  tame  state  is  named  the  llama),  the  amaca, 
the  taniga,  and  the  vicufia.  When  the  Spaniards  invaded  Peru  and  Chile 
thev  found  the  llama  domesticated  and  used  as  a  beast  of  burden ;  its 
flesh  was  eaten,  its  skin  prepared  into  leather,  and  its  wool  spun  and 
woven  into  cloth.  The  Ornithology  of  Tropical  America  exceeds  in 
splendour  that  of  any  other  region  of  the  globe,  comprising  no  fewer  than 
624  species,  or  one- tenth  of  all  known  biras.  It  is  the  chosen  metropolis 
of  the  humming-birds,  parrots,  toucans,  and  tanagers.  Of  rapacious  birds 
the  chief  is  the  famous  condor  of  the  Andes,  one  of  the  most  formidable 
existing  species.  Huge  serpents  and  other  Reptiles  abound  in  the  moist 
and  annually  inundated  plains,  the  total  number  in  the  tropical  province 
being  62.  The  principal  species  are  the  alligator  or  cayman,  ooa-con- 
stricter,  and  rattlesnake,  all  of  which  are  {)eculiar  to  America.  The  seas, 
lakes,  and  rivers  abound  with  Fish  of  various  kinds,  which  in  Brazil  and 
some  of  the  other  countries  form  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of 
wealth.    The  varieties  of  the  Insect  tribes  are  endless— immense  centi- 


r 


COLOMBIA.  570 

ita,  termites,  IocubIh,  TnoBquItoes,  aad  chigoes, 


COLOMBIA. 

(U.  S.  OF  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Vekezdela.) 

Bonndaries.— K.,  the  Caribbean  Sea;  W.,  Costa  Eica  ond 
the  pBcitic  Ocean  ;  S.,  Pern  and  Bnizil  ;  E,,  BiitiBh.  Guiana. 
Lat  12°  28'  N.— 5°  40*  S. ;  Ion.  60°— 83°  W. 

ColomtiB  wan  the  name  fonnerly  given  to  those  countriea  in  the  north- 
west angle  of  South  America  which,  under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  fonned 
tlie  Vioeroyaity  of  Now  Orannda,  the  Captain-geneniioy  of  the  Caracas, 
and  the  ProTince  of  Quito.  They  continued  in  connection  with  Spain  till 
1821,  when  they  achieved  their  ludependauce  by  the  battle  of  Cuabobo, 
■ai]  formed  tiiaiuselvea  into  the  fiejmblic  of  Colombia.  After  a  brief 
hlsCoiy  of  10  yeaiB  this  state  was  dismembered,  and  constituted  into 
three  distinct  repiibilts— New  Qranada,  Ecuador,  and  Venezuela— which 
maintained  their  inteBrity  till  1868,  when  New  Granada  was  broken  up 
Into  the  nine  federal  republics  wldch  now  constitute  the  United  States  of 
Colombia.  Ecuador,  or  Equator,  wai  founded  in  1831,  wheu  the  Bepub- 
llo  nC  Colorahitt  wae  divided  into  three  jwctione.  It  was  formerly  divided 
into  three  departmenta  (G>usyB({Uli,  Quito,  and  Assuay),  but  more  recently 
into  10  provinces.  The  Republic  of  Venezuela,  cousiating  of  13  provinces, 
was  eatablished  at  the  same  time  as  Ecuador.  Since  1847  it  has  bean  the 
■cene  of  continual  iiitestinD  dissensions.  In  1SB3  it  became  a  federal 
republic  of  seven  slateii,  of  which  five  seceded  in  1864,  and  declared 
themtieives  indepeodent.  We  iihall  adhere,  however,  to  the  former  ar- 
rangement. Bog[)f!,  the  cap.  of  Cundinamarca,  and  forniorlf  of  New 
Granada,  aftuateil  near  the  central  parallel,  has  the  same  latitude  as 
Cayenne  in  French  Guiana,  Capes  Palmaa  and  Formosa  in  the  Qulf  ot 
Gidnea,  Magadoio  in  Eastern  Afi'ica,  and  Peuaug  In  Further  India. 

Atbb  and  Fopnlatlon.  — The  combined  area  is  estimated  at  1, 1 60,037 
sq.  m.,  and  the  a^gre^te  population  at  6,S92,27S.  With  ten  times 
tbe  area  of  the  iJritUli  Isles,  Columbia  contiuiia  only  one-aiith  of 
tbeir  population.  For  the  area  and  population  of  the  dlfTerent  states. 
Bee  the  table  at  p.  fiSS. 

Political  DiTlalottB.— The  U.  S.  of  Colombia  conBiata  of  B  small 
stateB  ;  Ecuador,  of  S  dejartmenti,  or  10  proTinces  ;  and  Venezuela, 
of  13  proviucea,  recently  aubdivlded  into  21. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA. 

Pahaua.— Pouam^  18  (C.  of  Fanami),  Aspinwall  (Caribbean  Sea). 


576  POUTIOAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Magdalena. — Santa  Marta  4  (Caribbean  Sea),  Mompoz  10  (Mag- 
dalena). 

CuNDiNAMARCA. — BOGOTA  50  n.,  Honda  6  (Magdalena). 

Cauca. — Popayan  16  (Canca),  Pasto  7  (Patia). 

BoYACA. — Tunja  7,  Socorro  12  n.  (Sogamozo,  affl,  Magdalena). 

Antioquia.— Medellln  30  (Canca),  Antioqnia  20. 

BoLiYAR. — Cartagena  8  (Caribbean  Sea). 

Santander. — Socorro  20  n.  (Sogamozo,  aff,,  Magdalena). 

ToLiMA. — Quamas  7  (Magdalena). 

ECUADOR. 

Quito.— Quito  76  (Esmeraldas),  Riobamba20  (Pastaza). 
Guayaquil. — Guayaquil  22  n.,  Puerto  Viejo  n.  (G.  of  Guayaquil). 
AssuAY. — Cuenja  20  (Paut6,  affl,  Amazon),  Loja  6  (Tapotillo). 

VENEZUELA. 

Maracaybo. — Maracaybo  22  (G.  of  Venezuela). 

CoRO. — Coro  8  (G.  of  Venezuela). 

Carabobo. — Valencia  29  n.,  San  Carlos  10  (Meta). 

Caracas. — Caracas  50  n.,  La  Guayra  6  (coast). 

Barcelona. — Barcelona  7  (coast). 

CuMANA. — Cumand  9,  Cariaco  7  (coast),  MaturinlS  n.  (G.of  Paria). 

Guiana. — Angostura  or  Ciudad  Bolivar  8  (Orinoco). 

Apure.— San  Fernando  8,  Achaguas  2  n.  (Apur^  affl,  Orinoco). 

Varinas. — ^Varinas  4  n.  (Apur^). 

Merida. — Merida  10  (Chama,  ajji,  L.  Maracaybo). 

Tbuxillo. — Truxillo  4  n.  (L.  Maracaybo),  Guanar^  4  (Guanai^). 

Barquisimeto. — Barquisimeto  26  (Portuguesa,  affi,  Apur^). 

Margarita. — Asuncion  (Island  Margarita). 

Descriptive  Notes. — Panama,  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  isthmus,  and 
at  the  southern  terminus  of  the  railway  to  Aspinwall,  has  an  excellent 
harbour  and  a  rapidly-increasing  trade.  Aspinwall,  situated  in  a  marsh, 
on  the  island  Manzanilla,  and  at  the  northern  terminus  of  the  railway 
which  spans  the  isthmus,  is  very  unhealthy.  Santa  Marta  has  a  fine 
cathedral,  and  a  harbour  defended  by  batteries.  Bogota',  cap.  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  is  a  large  and  handsome  city,  with  a  univer- 
sity and  a  fine  cathedral,  and  is  surrounded  by  ma^ficent  scenery. 
Popavan,  the  first  city  built  by  Europeans  in  this  region  of  America,  is 
deughtfully  situated  between  two  ridges  of  the  Andes,  and  is  a  laige, 
handsome  city.  Tunja,  at  one  time  cap.  of  the  Indian  kingdom  of  Qui- 
dinamarca,  situated  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  is  a  flourishing 
place.  Near  it  was  fought,  in  1819,  the  battle  of  Boyaca,  in  which  the 
Spaniards  were  routed  by  Bolivar.  Cartagena,  a  strongly-fortified  oitf 
and  seaport,  and  the  chief  naval  arsenal  in  the  confederation,  contains  a 
magnificent  cathedral  and  several  other  fine  public  buildings.  Pam^plOUy 
cap.  of  Santander ;  near  it  are  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 


r 


EcniDOB,  — ftulto  (SS-to),  cap.  of  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  ia  a  large 
Eity  situfltal  in  a  ravinu  ou  the  East  side  of  theTolcano  of  Pichineha,954a 
ft.  above  the  sea.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  aD  OBrthqaake  in  1869, 
when  6000  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  Uvea.  Tliongh  sitnated  almoat 
under  the  equator,  it  enjoys  b  oonliuual  apring,  owing  to  its  great  eleva- 
tion and  its  pronimity  to  lofty  mountains  crowned  witb  perennial  snow. 
Gnayaqnfl,  the  principal  commercial  and  aeaport  town  nt  Ecuador,  pos- 
seaies  one  of  the  finest  harbonis  nn  the  Pacific.  It  ia  defended  by  three 
forts,  but  is  extreme!;  unhealthy.  Ciieufa  is  cbieBy  noted  for  its 
cathedral  and  nniversity.  Lqja  or  Loxa,  famous  for  the  cinchona  foreatB 
inita  vicinity,  from  whith  is  derived  "  Peruvian  hark. " 

Venezhkla.— MarfcMrbo,  a  fortified  seaport,  with  a  college,  and  an 
active  trade  with  the  iaterior.  Cora,  once  the  cap.  of  Venezuela,  is 
»ituated  near  the  G.  of  Manicaybo,  Vulenoift  is  finely  aitnatfld,  and  has 
an  actire  commerce  with  Caracas  and  Pnerto  Cabello.  CaTa«a«,  cap,  of 
the  republic  ot  Veneiuela,  is  noted  as  the  birthplace,  in  1780,  of  General 

city,  and  has  frec^uBntly  suffered  from  earthqu^es.  Xa  dntyn,  the  sea- 
port of  Caracas.  Barceiono,  founded  in  1S34,  eipiorta  horses  and  cattle. 
Cnmana,  with  a  magniflcent  harbour,  is  the  principal  seanort  of  the 
republic,  and  is  the  oldest  Spanish  settlement  on  this  coast. 


the  chief  place  of  trade  in  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco.  Uerida, 
richly-adorned  cathedral,  waa,  before  its  destruction  by  an  earibquai 
ISI'2,  the  largest  city  in  Venezuela,  and  is  again  flourishing.  Inu 
named  after  the  birthplace  of  Piiarro,  in  Spain.  BarquBsiiieto  ia 
but  a  wreck  of  what  it  was  previous  to  the  great  earthquake  of  1S12. 


— The  surface  of  the  three  states  fomiing 
Colombia  is  highly  diversified,  having,  in  the  west,  the  three  nearly 
parallel  ranges  of  the  Andes  (embracing  CotD;iaiii,  Antisana,  Picbin- 
cha,  and  Tolima,  the  moat  tretnendous  volcanoaa  on  the  esrtli'B  mv- 
face,  with  elevationa  varying  from  18,000  to  19,000  ft.,  and  the  hnga 
dome- shaped  Chimbomzo,  21,124  ft.);  in  the  east  ths  greatly  lower 
moQntains  of  Farim^,  the  highest  aiimmit  of  which,  Maravaca,  attains 
an  elevation  of  10,E0O  ft. ;  and  in  the  centre  the  magnificent  tlatita 
of  the  Orinoco,  consisting  of  in]mense  flats,  covered  with  vaat  forests 
and  savannahs  (p.  fiSS). 

Climate  and  ITstnnkl  Products. —The  climate  in  the  lower  );rouuds 
is  characterised  bj  great  heat,  moisture,  and  insalubrity:  but  the 
elevated  table-landa  enjoy  a  iierpetual  spriof;.  Hence  nearly  all  the 
towns  in  this  redon  are  situated  on  the  higher  grounds.  ThcH: 
Uy  Ecuador  and  the  U.  S.  of  Cnlorabiit,  are  highly 
their  mineral  and  v^table  wealth. 

I'UiuhI  ;  but  ftom  leCBot  te- 


J  in  the  sixteenth  c 


578  POLITICAL   OEOORAPHY. 

quality  abounds  on  the  coast ;  and  inexhaustible  supplies  of  fine  rock-salt 
occur  at  Anya.  Few  mines,  however,  are  wrought  anywhere,  the  re^ 
■onrcee  of  the  country  having  been  exhausted  by  the  recent  civil  wars. 
The  forests  afford  inexhaustible  supplies  of  timber,  dye-woods,  cedar, 
mahogany,  ebony,  and  other  ornamental  woods,  together  with  Peruvian 
bark,  caoutchouc,  resins,  and  other  gums.  The  principal  cultivated 
plants  are  cacao,  cinnamon,  coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  tobacco, 
maize,  and  other  grains ;  but  the  plantain  supplies  the  staple  food  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  people.  Numerous  heias  of  cattle  and  horses  are 
reared  in  the  llanos,  and  their  hides  form  a  valuable  article  of  export. 
Agriculture  is  conducted  in  the  most  indolent  and  slovenly  manner,  as  is 
usual  where  the  climate  is  tropical,  the  soil  highly  fertile,  the  land  cheap, 
the  roads  bad,  the  seaports  few,  and  the  markets  distant.  For  want  of 
communication  with  the  seaboard,  the  vast  natural  resources  of  Ecuador 
are  at  present  lying  waste — ^the  Brazilian  and  Peruvian  governments  pre- 
venting free  access  to  the  Amazon ;  while  the  vastlv  shorter  distance  to 
the  Pacific  across  the  Andes  is,  in  most  places,  all  but  impracticable. 
For  the  fauna,  see  under  "South  America. 

Ethnograpliy. — The  whole  of  Colombia  formerly  belonged  to  Spain 
(p.  575) ;  and  the  population,  as  in  the  other  Spanish-Amencan 
states,  is  composed  of  three  different  races — Spaniards,  Indians,  and 
Negroes,  with  their  mixed  progeny,  distinguished  into  five  or  six 
different  classes,  which,  collectively,  outnumber  the  pure  races. 

The  Wliites  or  Creoles,  though  numerically  fewer,  still  maintain  a  lead- 
ing position,  owing  to  tJieir  superior  education  and  intellectual  endow- 
ments. The  Indians,  who  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  Quichua  and 
Guarani  nations,  are  described  as  industrious  and  docile ;  they  are  usually 
the  miners,  agriculturists,  herdsmen,  and  manufacturers  of  the  different 
states.  The  Quichua  or  Peruvian,  once  the  predominant  language  of 
Peru,  still  prevails  in  the  plateau  of  the  Andes ;  while  the  Guarani  ooea- 
pies  the  eastern  half  of  Venezuela,  together  with  the  whole  of  BraziL 
The  Negroes  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  all  free — the  different 
governments  having  abolished  slavery  in  their  respective  dominions.  In 
religion  and  education  the  inhabitants  resemble  those  of  the  mother  coun- 
try. In  regard  to  literary  and  intellectual  culture,  the  people  of  the  U. 
S.  of  Colombia  rank  first  among  the  whites  of  South  America.  Manu- 
factures are  limited  to  coarse  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  for  home  con- 
sumption; but  in  no  case  does  the  native  industry  satisfy  the  home 
demand.  The  great  staples  of  the  country  are  cacao,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sugar,  coffee,  indigo ;  and  these  articles,  with  hides.  Brazil-wood,  Peru- 
vian bark,  gums,  and  the  precious  metals,  together  with  some  lace,  con- 
stitute the  chief  exports.  The  larger  portion  of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried 
on  with  Great  Britain,  to  which  the  three  states  exported,  in  1878,  goods 
to  the  value  of  £1,493,166,  and  from  which  they  imported  to  the  value 
of  £3,704,217.  Internal  commerce  is  greatly  impeded  for  want  of  roads, 
canals,  and  railways.  In  1869  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  re- 
public of  Colombia  and  the  United  States  of  America,  giving  to  the  latter 
a  right  to  construct  a  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  with  6  m. 
of  land  on  each  side,  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  purchasers,  but  to  be 
open  to  all  nations  in  tune  of  peace.  The  short  line  of  railway  between 
Panama  and  Aspinwall,  49  m.  long,  was  completed  in  1856  it  a  ooiit  of 
£1,600,000.    Another  in  Bolivar  is  16  m.  long. 


GUIANA. 

Boundaries. — N.  and  N.E.,  the  Atlantic ;  W.,  Venezuela  and 
Brazil ;  8.,  Brazil,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Sierra 
Acarai  Mountains.    Lat.  1°  43"— 9=  ao"  n!;  Ion.  01°  27'— fil"  W. 

The  Dsme  Guiana  is  applied  in  ita  widest  aenee  to  the  vart  tract  trouaded 
in  the  inturior  b;  the  Amazon,  the  Bio  Masn),  &e  Datarsl  canal  of  the 
CassiquiarS,  aud  the  Orinoco  {  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  thia  area  in 
now  inclndad  within  the  temtoriea  of  Brazil  and  VenezUBlo — the  Sierra 
Acaiai  now  formiag  the  southern  frontier  of  colonial  Oulaua.  Paramiuibo, 
cap.  of  Dutcb  Guiana,  is  nearly  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitade  as  BogotS, 
Polo  Penang,  and  Monrovia ;  and  ou  Ihu  same  meildiaji  oa  Newfound- 
land, Santarem,  and  Monte  Video. 

ATM,  Popnlattou,  and  Political  UvIeIoiib. — The  area  is  estimated 
at  197,S5S  sq.  m.,  being  one  and  a  half  times  greater  than  that  of 
tlie  British  Isles ;  while  the  population  is  310,171,  or  less  than  that 
of  Mid-Lothian.  It  is  divided  into  British  Guiana,  in  the  west, 
consiating  of  the  three  settlements,  Betbice,  Demerara,  and  Esae- 
qnibo ;  Datth  Guiana,  iu  the  centre ;  nnd  French  Guiana,  in  the 
eaat,  whose  respective  areaa  and  population  will  be  found  at  p.  56S. 

Beitisk  GniAK a.— George  Town  29  (Demerara),  New  Amsterdam 


bridges,  kc. 


laacriptive  ITotes. — Qeorge  Town,  the  cap.  of  the  British  colony, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Demerara,  and  defended  by  Fort  William, 
is  built  of  wood,  with  broad  atreeta  intersecting  at  right  anglea,  sad  tra- 
versed by  canals  which  are  crossed  by  a  multitude  of  bridges.  Foor- 
flfthe  of  the  population  are  people  of  colour.  Paramariba,  cap.  of  Suri.- 
nam.  cousiderablT  resembles  George  Town  in  it<  wide  atreots,  canals, 
streets  are  lined  with  orange,  lemon,  and  tamarind 
of  eirtensivB  trade,  Cayenoe,  now  a  penal  aottloraent 
A  offenders,  is  a,  mean-lookhig,  wretched  place,  and  extremely 
anhcaltliy. 
Sniftiea  and  CUmate. — The  maiitime  region  is  low  and  level,  but 
Eceedingly  fertile,  consisting  of  a  rich  alluvial  soil  which  extends 
ito  the  interior  for  about  lifty  niilea-  The  country  then  a»ea  in 
ten-aces  to  the  Sierras  of  Facarainjs  (TSOD  ft.)  and  Acarai, 
the  latter  of  which  separates  it  trrni  Brarillan  Guiana.  These  ter- 
races traversB  the  eonntiy  from  east  to  west,  and  have  wide  volleys 
between  them,  covered  with  dease  forests.  The  climate  is  tropical, 
but  more  genial  than  that  of  most  places  in  Ilie  torrid  zone,  owing  to 
the  trade-winda  from  the  Atlantic,  the  sea  and  land  breezes,  and  the 
ent  rains.  It  has  two  dry  and  tuo  wet  seasons  on  the  coast. 
continning  for  three  months.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
it  George  Ton's  ii  Sl°.     Violmt  thiuuletitonna  occur  at  the 


IE, 

■thel 


580  POUTICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

change  of  the  seasons,  and  the  annual  fall  of  rain  is  prodigious, 
amounting  in  some  places  to  229  inches. 

Natural  Frodnets. — Guiana  is  not  remarkable  for  its  minerals; 
but  rock-crystals  and  red  agates  are  found  in  the  mountains,  and  a 
very  fine  variety  of  white  clay  near  Essequibo.  The  v^^tation  is 
extremely  luxuriant,  especially  in  the  lower  grounds,  extensive  dis- 
tricts of  which  are  under  water  during  the  principal  rainy  season. 
Here  the  soil  is  so  fertile  that  thirty  crops  of  rice  have  been  obtained 
in  succession  without  manure.  The  forest- trees  are  of  the  most  magni- 
ficent description,  especially  the  Mira-tree,  admirably  adapted  for 
shipbuilding,  its  wood  being  equal  to  that  of  the  teak-tree  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  its  height  often  reaching  150  ft  Fruit-tree-s  em- 
brace the  pine-apple,  guava,  cabbage-tree,  and  several  varieties  of 
palm,  and  medicinal  plants  abound.  Amon^  cultivated  plants  the 
sugar-cane  holds  the  highest  rank,  its  cultivation  having  laigely 
superseded  the  cotton  and  coffee  formerly  grown,  but  tlie  latter  is 
still  extensively  raised  in  the  uplands.  The  fauna  resembles  that  of 
other  parts  of  tropical  America,  including  jaguars,  tapirs,  sloths, 
monkeys,  alligators,  parrots,  humming-birds,  and  flamingoes ;  rep- 
tiles and  insects  are  also  very  numerous  (see  p.  574). 

Etlinograpliy. — The  interior  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  various  tribes 
of  Indians,  who  are  allied  to  the  now  almost  extinct  aborigines  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  coasts  and  settled  districts  are  occupied  by  Euro- 
pean settlers,  by  emancipated  negroes  who  are  very  numerous,  and  by 
mixed  races. 

Ouiana  was  discovered  by  Vasco  Nufiez,  a  Spaniard,  in  1504;  the  Dutch 
took  possession  of  the  countrv  in  1580 ;  the  French  established  a  colony 
on  the  Sinnamary  river  in  1626,  and  the  British  on  the  Surinam  in  1688. 
The  latter  were  compelled  to  retire  by  the  Dutch  in  1667.  In  1796  Great 
Britain  seized  the  Dutch  possessions,  which  she  restored  at  the  Peace  of 
Amiens  in  1802 ;  but  what  is  now  known  as  British  Guiana  became  an 
English  colony  by  the  Peace  of  Paris  in  1814.  In  1831  the  three  settle- 
ments of  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice  were  united  into  one  colony. 
It  is  governed  by  a  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  assisted  by  a 
Colonial  Assembly.  The  total  exports  in  1873  amounted  to  £1,839,714, 
and  the  total  imports  to  £1,618,189.  Many  labourers  have  of  late  years 
been  brought  to  British  Guiana  from  the  East  Indies,  Madeira,  and  other 
hot  countries,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  in  the  cultivation  of  the  planta- 
tions. The  great  staple  of  the  various  colonies  of  Guiana  are  sugar,  rum, 
molasses,  conee,  Cayenne  pepper  and  other  spices,  cotton,  and  meoidnal 
plants,  which  are  exported  m  considerable  quantities.  Internal  oom- 
munication  is  very  detective,  the  usual  mode  of  travelling  being  by  boats 
on  the  rivers. 


BRAZIL. 

Boundaries.— E.  and  N.E.,  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  K.  Guiana, 
Venezuela,  and  the  United  States  of  Colombia ;  W^  Ecuador* 


J 


It  thus  embraces  about  38  degieea  Iratli  of  latitude  and  longitude  ;  ibe 
greatest  length  from  K  to  W.,  along  the  Sth  parallel  of  9.  latitude,  is 
S60O  m. ;  and  the  greatest  breadth,  olon^  the  Blit  raeridisn,  2t4D  in. 
Such,  indeed,  is  the  vast  extent  of  the  empire,  both  in  latitude  and  longi- 
tude, that,  with  the  eiceptlon  of  Chllfe,  it  comes  into  contact  with  erery 
other  state  on  the  southern  continent.  The  city  Bahia,  ni'ar  the  central 
parallel,  is  in  the  oame  latitude  as  Lima,  the  cap,  of  Peru,  San  Felipe  da 
Benguela,  Mozambique,  Capes  Londonderry  aiid  Melville  ia  Nonhem 
Australia. 

Area  and  Population.— The  probable  area  of  this  gigantic  empire 

estimated  at  3,23i,000  sij.  m.,  or  more  than  twenty-iive  times  the 
_ze  of  the  British  Isles,  or  nearly  eqnal  to  the  area  of  the  United 
Btatea,  including  Alaska.  In  point  of  size  Brazil  is  the  fifth  state  on 
■the  surface  of  the  globe,  being  excelled  only  bv  the  British,  Kussian, 
and  Chinese  empires,  and  the  United  States  of  America.  According 
to  an  oQIdal  estimate,  made  in  1872,  the  population  amounted  tn 
9,700,187,  or  little  more  than  twios  tha  population  of  Ireland,  being 
less  than  four  persons  to  the  sij.  m. 

PolltlaBl  DlvlaloiiB. — The  empire  is  divided'  into  twenty-oi 
vinces,  which  have  an  aven^  area  of  nearly  one  and  a  third 
that  of  the  British  Isles,     They  may  be  conveniently  arranged 


lird  times 


NORTHEBK   PROVINt 


Para.— Para  o 


Belon 


i  (Rio  Nagro),  Olivenfa  (Amazon), 
lameta  £0  (Tocanlins),  Sautarem   5 


I 


H(iraiiliii&. — Maranhoo  3D  (MaranhaQ),  Cazias  10  (Itapicuru). 
PiaoM.  — Oeiraa  5  n.,  Panuiahyba  10  (Paranahyba). 
Ceara. — Araeati  2,  San  Joa&  do  Principe  IQ  (Jaguaribe). 
Bio  Oranile  Oo  Norte.— Natal  10  (B.  coast). 
Parabrba— Parahyba  15  (£.  coast). 

Eastbhic  pBovracBs. 
Penuuttbnoo. — B«eife  116,  Goyana  IS  n,  (coiisi). 
JUaeoaB.— Porto  Cslvo  E  n.  (coast),  Pciiedo  14  (San  Fmncispo). 
SergliM.  —  Sergipe  or  San  Chriatovfili  2  n.  (E,  cuaat). 
BaMa.  — Bahia  130,  Caxoeira  15  { All  Saints'  Bny). 
Porto  BeKDTD.— Porto  Seguro  3  (coa«t). 
Eapirlta  Banto. —Victoria  6  (coast). 
Bio  do  Janeiro.— Sio  v%  JuNRtito  '215,  Famti  10  (oonet). 
I   Bab  Paolo.— Siio  Paulo  23,  Porto  Felix  10,  Sorocaba  IS  (Anhernhf). 


582  POLITICAL   GB06RAPUY. 

Santa  OatTiarlna. — Desterro  6  (I.  Santa  Catharina). 
Bio  Grande  do  Sul. — Porto  Alegre  12  (L.  Patos). 

Inland  Provinces, 

Parana. — Curitiba,  12  (Coritiba,  affl,  Paran^). 

Blinas  Geraes. — Ouro  Preto  9  n.,  Piranga  15  n.  (Doce),  Barbaceua 
12  n.  (Pari). 

Goyaz. — Goyaz  or  Villa  Boa  8  (Vermelho,  affi,  Araguay). 

Hatto  GrOBSO. — Cuyaba  10  (Cuyaba,  affl.  Paraguay),  Matto  Grosso 
15  (Guapar^). 

Descriptive  ITotes.— Hanaos  or  Barra  do  Rio  Negro,  is  a  small  but 
ancient  town  on  the  Rio  Negro,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Amazon, 
possessing  some  manufactures  of  cordage,  cotton  cloth,  and  tiles.  Para, 
a  well-built,  handsome  town,  defended  by  forts,  and  exporting  india- 
rubber,  isinglass,  rice,  drugs,  and  cotton.  Caxnelk,  engaged  in  cultivat- 
ing cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  &c.  Maranhao,  on  an  island  in  the 
mouth  of  tne  river  of  same  name,  is  an  important  seaport  and  commercial 
town,  exporting  cotton,  rice,  sarsaparilla,  and  rum.  ITatal,  noted  for  its 
exportation  of  Brazil-wood.  Parsmyba  has  considerable  commerce,  and 
contains  a  military  arsenal  Recife,  including  Sao  Antonio,  Boa  Vista, 
and  Olinda,  one  of  the  most  important  seaports  in  Brazil,  and  the  third 
largest  in  the  empire,  has  a  fine  narbour  defended  by  a  coral-reef,  called  a 
recifcy  which  serves  as  a  breakwater.  Bahia  or  San  Salvador,  a  great 
commercial  city  and  seaport,  and,  next  to  the  capital,  the  largest  in  the 
empire,  finely  situated  on  a  long  tongue  of  land ;  was  till  1763  the  cap. 
of  the  empire ;  it  has  a  most  imposing  appearance,  especially  as  seen  from 
the  sea.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  cap.  of  Brazil,  and  the  largest  and  most  com- 
mercial city  in  South  America,  lies  on  tiie  western  side  of  a  noble  bay, 
deep  enough  for  vessels  of  the  largest  size,  and  so  capacious  that  all  the 
navies  in  the  world  might  ride  in  it  without  jostling  one  another.  The 
new  part  of  the  town  is  well  built,  much  in  the  European  style,  with 
houses  of  granite  four  or  five  stories  high,  and  is  surrounded  with  the 
most  enchanting  scenery.  Porto  Alegre  was  founded  in  1743  by  a  colony 
from  the  Azores.  Curitiba,  cap.  of  new  province  of  Parana,  has  some 
manufactures  of  coarse  woollens.  Onro  l^eto  or  Villa  Rica,  so  named 
from  the  rich  gold  mines  found  in  its  vicinity,  is  the  cap.  of  Minas  Geraes, 
the  richest  mining  province  in  the  empire,  and  carries  on  an  active  com- 
merce with  Rio.  Cuyaba  carries  on  an  active  commerce  with  the  metro- 
polis in  diamonds,  gold-dust,  hides,  and  ipecacuanha.  The  diamond  mines 
have  been  worked  since  1719. 

Surface  and  Climate. — The  surface  is  about  equally  divided  be- 
tween lowlands  and  uplands,  the  former  consisting  of  the  immense 
level  plains  in  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  Parand,  which  occupy 
the  entire  north  and  west  of  the  empire  ;  and  the  latter  consisting  of 
a  vast  isolated  plateau  enclosed  by  the  Amazon,  Madeira,  Paraguay, 
and  Parand. 

Several  parallel  mountain-ranges  traverse  this  plateau  from  north  to 
south,  separated  from  each  other  by  affluents  of  the  Amazon,  and  by  the 
San  Francisco.  The  principal  ranges,  commencing  at  the  east  side,  are 
Sierra  do  Espinha^,  Sierra  da  Tabatinga,  and  Cordillera  Grande,  the 
greatest  height  of  which  is  in  the  first-named  range,  where  two  summits 


..is  cliaraoterised  by  great  heat  and  rai  .  .     .,         „     . 

nowbere  bo  opprBsafve  as  in  corresponding  latitudes  of  thB  African  ci 
tinent    At  Maranhao  no  lesa  than  27S  inches  of  rain  fall  annually,    i 
the  higher  gnmnds  of  the  centre  and  east  the  temperatore  ia  consicleral 
lower,  and  the  fall  of  rain  greatly  less.     Here,  indeed,  extensive  tractn 
Dccncwhero  scarcely  any  rain  falls,  while  frosty  nights  are  not  unconiTnon. 
The  mean  temperature  ot  the  year  at  Rio  ia  7*°.  1 ;  the  mean  winter, 
eS'.2 ;  and  the  mean  summer,  78°.2  ;  but  in  the  valley  of  the  Amaion  thr 
t«mp.  in  the  hottest  season  rises  to  above  10D°  Fah.    In  Braiil,  as  in  al' 
other  regions  south  of  the  equator,  the  order  of  the  seasons  is  the  revem 
of  ours— December,  January,  and  February  being  the  hottest  months  o 
the  year. 

natural  Froilactlcins. — Brazil  is  celebrated  for  its  valuable  mine 
rala.  Next  to  Peru  and  Mexico  it  has,  until  recently,  furuisliedmori 
gold  than  any  other  country. 

"nie  gold  is  obtained  from  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  and  h  specially  abnn 
dsDt  in  the  bed  of  the  San  Francisco.  Silver,  copper,  iron,  plstinimi 
azes,  and  beautiful  amethysts,  are  also  abundant ;  ^vhile  the  diainoni. 
linafl  of  the  inland  provinces  surpass  all  others  in  the  world.  The  rich- 
est province  in  both  gold  and  diamonds  is  that  of  Minaa  Geracs.  An 
extensife  TOal-fleld,  ottheutnjoetiniportanuetothefuturoof  the  country, 
has  recently  been  diacovered  in  the  S.E.  of  the  emph^,  in  province  Santa 
Catherina.  Tbevegetable  products  are  still  more  abundant  and  valuable, 
all  the  tropical  plants  of  the  New  World  being  found  here  in  the  greatest 
Iniuriance.  The  forests  are  the  most  magniScent  on  the  earth's  surface, 
the  lelau  of  the  Amaien  alone  covering  an  area  ten  times  larger  than  that 
of  the  British  Isles,  and  tumisbing  every  variety  of  useful  and  ornamental 
timber,  ^ms,  medicinal  plants,  and  dyewoods.  The  country,  indeed, 
reeeived  its  present  name  Irom  the  valuable  wood  called  Biuia,  which  the 
Portuguese  fonud  on  its  shores.  Cacao  and  canutchouc  are  indigenous ; 
while  maize,  wheat,  rice,  beans,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  have 
Ijeen  introduced  by  EuropeauB.  The  root  of  the  cassava  plant,  which  is 
eitenslvely  cultivated,  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  humbler  classes  ;  while 
maU  or  Paraguay  tea,  prepared  from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  BrariUao 
holly,  grows  spontaneously,  and  forms  the  almost  eiclusice  drink  of  tha 
Bonthem  BrazUiana.  Agriculture  is  still  in  ite  infancy  ;  there  is  not  mors 
than  one  150th  part  of  the  anrfaoo  under  cultivation,  and  this  portion  is 
entirely  limited  to  the  coasts,  the  banks  of  some  of  the  rivers,  and  the 
mining  regions  of  Mines  Geraes  and  Matto  Greaso.    The  pasturea  are  ol 

^V>st  extent,  and  prodigious  herds  of  wild  cattle  roam  over  the  pampaj  or 
tteeleiB  plains  of  the  Le,  Plata,  valuable  merely  for  their  hides  and  horns, 
Which  are  exported  in  great  nnmbers,  their  flesh  being  left  to  the  jaguar, 
J^mna,  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  The  country  also  sustains  an  Immense 
anmber  of  domestic  animals,  principally  homed  cattle  and  horses.  The 
fauna  is  described  under  *' South  America,"  p.  574. 

Ethnosraplt;. — The  population  of  Brazil  is  composed  of  an  ogglO' 
meration  of  many  racaa.  While  Brazil  remained  a  Furtugnese  colony 
but  few  women  emigrated  to  it ;  consequently  the  EuroneaD  aettlen 
Urgely  intisnnarried  with  Indian  women ;  and  afterwards  an  exten- 
sire  intermixture  of  race  ooou  rred  witli  the  Africans,  who  were  intro- 
daced  into  the  country  as  slaves.     At  present  the  whites  are  esd- 


584  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

mated  at  about  1,000,000;  the  independent  Indians  at  500,000; 
1,400,000  negro  slaves  ;  while  free  blacks  and  mixed  races  make  up 
the  remainder.  The  importation  of  slaves  is  no  longer  allowed  in 
Brazil,  having  been  declared  illegal  in  1854 ;  and  almough  slavery 
still  exists  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  of  a  less  vigorous  form  than  in  the 
Spanish  colonies  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  while  public  opinion  is 
strongly  and  increasingly  opposed  to  its  continuance.  The  emperor 
has  set  a  fine  example  to  his  subjects  by  manumitting  his  own  slaves  ; 
and  one  of  the  best  means  of  becoming  popular  in  the  country  is  for 
a  slave-owner  to  liberate  one  or  more  of  his  slaves. 

The  Brazilians  or  whites  being  almost  exclusively  of  Portugese  origin, 
the  Portuguese  language  is  everywhere  prevalent ;  but  the  independent 
tribes  of  Indians  continue  to  employ  the  oialects  of  their  ancestors.  These 
belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  great  Guarani  branch  of  the  American 
family  of  tongues  (p.  515).  The  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  is  pro- 
fessed by  the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  is  the  only  one  recognised  by 
the  state ;  but  Protestantism  enjoys  full  toleration,  save  that  its  churches 
must  have  the  appearance  of  private  dwellings.  Many  of  the  Indians 
have  nominally  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  the  remainder 
continue  in  the  lowest  stage  of  barbarism.  Popular  education  is  at  a  very 
low  ebb,  notwithstanding  vigorous  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  legislature  to 
promote  it.  Primary  education  is  gratuitous,  and  few  of  the  teachers  are 
ecclesiastics.  There  is  no  university  in  the  country,  but  a  lyceum  or 
upper-school  exists  in  almost  every  large  town,  and  an  elementary  school 
in  every  parish.  In  1868  there  were  only  107,483  pupils  attending  school. 
The  morals  of  the  people  exhibit  a  very  dark  j)icture,  while  the  elements 
required  to  effect  a  regeneration  seem  to  be  entirely  wanting. 

Goyemment  and  Finance. — Brazil  was  accidentally  discovered  by 
Alvarez  de  Cabral  in  a.d.  1500,  who  called  it  Santa  Cruz,  and  was 
first  colonised  by  the  Portuguese  in  1531.  In  1808  King  John  VI. 
of  Portugal  took  up  his  residence  in  Brazil,  and  in  1815  constituted 
it  a  kingdom.  In  1822  it  declared  itself  an  independent  empire, 
under  Don  Pedro,  who  framed  a  constitution,  vesting  the  govern- 
ment in  a  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies,  both  of  which  are  elected 
either  directly  or  indirectly  by  every  free  male  possessed  of  an  annual 
income  of  100  milreis,  or  £10  sterling.  The  reigning  monarch,  Don 
Pedro  II.,  is  a  strictly  constitutional  sovereign.  The  army  in  time 
of  peace  consists  of  25,000  men,  but  during  the  late  war  with  Paraguay 
it  amounted  to  74, 000.  In  1 874,  the  navy  consisted  of  60  ships  of  war, 
including  17  ironclads.  The  revenue  in  the  same  year  amounted  to 
£18,510,250,  the  expenditure  to  £17,644,000,  and  the  public  debt  to 
£68,398,000. 

Mamif«.ctnreB  and  Commerce. — Manufactures  are  in  their  infancy, 
being  confined  chiefly  to  articles  of  primaiy  necessity.  The  whites 
are  cniefly  engaged  in  commerce  and  trade  ;  the  negroes  in  mining 
and  agriculture ;  while  the  artisans  are  from  all  classes  in  the  com- 
munify. 

^  The  great  wealth  of  the  country  arises  from  its  raw  produce  and  exten- 
sive trade,  for  which  its  long  line  of  coast,  spacious  harbours,  and  mag- 
nificent rivers,  afford  singular  facilities.    About  one-half  the  commerce  of 


585 


I  Brazil  ia  with  Great  Britain,  the  remaining  half  heiug  divided  between 
I'  Fnncii,  the  United titat«3,  the  Arientiiie  Republic,  PortugaJ,  ajid  Prussia, 
f  ThBtotalralueofthBlniports,inl873, amounted toupwarilBOf£lB.000,000 
I  cterling  ;  aud  of  theezports,toa1)out£22,500,l>01).  The  principai  eiporta 
)  ooDBiat  of  coffefl,  sugar,  cotton,  rum,  tapioca,  tides,  boms,  tobscco,  anil 
b  dJosiOQds.  In  1873,  the  value  of  the  eiparts  to  Britain,  which  maiidy 
t  oonaisted  of  raw  i»)ttoii  and  unrefined  it^iar,  amounted  to  £7,31^494, 
T  irbilethe  imports  from  Britain,  consistiii^  of  Dumofactored  cotton,  linen 
f  and  woollen  ID  annfacturea,  and  wrought  iron,  amounted  to  £7.544.000. 
L  BcazQ  DOW  poss^eses  eix  lines  of  railway  of  a  total  length  ol  714  m.,  and 
■'five  telegtsphlc  lines  ot837Ei  m. 


it  of  North 

does  not  exceed  610,091  sq.  m,, 
area  of  tlie  Britigli  Isles  ;  while 
the  latest_cenBU3(1876),  amouiited  to 


P   E   B   TJ. 

Eoimdaries.— N.,  Ecuador ;  W.,  the  South  Pacific  Ocean ; 
S.,  Bolivia  ;  E^  Bolivia  and  BraaiL  Lat.  3°  Stf— 22°  28'  S.; 
Ion.  67"  45'— aril' W, 

The  ei:treme  length  Is  1300  m.,  and  the  greaUst  breadth  aleng  the  10th 
par.  7S0  m.      Lima,  the  cap„  on  the  central  parnUel,  is  nearly  "   '^^ 

same  latitude  aa  Eahia,  San  Felipe  de  Benguela,  and  the '  -' 

Australia. 

Area  and  Population.— Thi 
or  rather  mure  than  four  timi 
the  population,  according 
2,700,000,  of  whom  1,600, 

PDlttleal  DlviBloaa.— Peru  in  now  diviiled  into  19  departmeata 
and  two  littoral  provinces,  which,  with  their  principal  towns,  ace 
as  follows : — 

PlciiA.— Piura  12,  Tumbez  (N.W.  coast). 

Ahazonah. — Chachapayas  4  (Utenbamha,  affl,  Amazoo). 

LOBETO. — Moyobamba  7  ",,  Tarapoto  5  n.  (Hnallaga). 

LiBEBTAD  abdLambatbqob.— Traiillol4,Lanibnyenue8{ooQat). 

CajAmarca.— C^amsrca  S  n.  (Amazon). 

Anoacbb, — Huaniz  S  n.  (Santa),  Hnari  7  (Aniazan]. 

Jdntn.— Pasco  14  n.  (Hualla^^),  Tarma  7  (Teiene). 

HnANDCo. — Huanuco  10  (Huallaga). 

LiHA  AND  Callao.— Lima  100  n.,  Callao  38  (coast). 

Huancavelica  S  (Jauja,  qfi.  Ucayali). 

Ayaoooho. — Ayaouoho  or  Haamanga,  16  n,  (Apunmac). 

" AKD  Apdbimao.— Caico  45  n.  (Ueayali),  Abancay  20  u. 

-loa  8  n.,  Pisco  (coaat). 
Aaaaiiii'A. — Arequlpa  40  (Chili). 
pDNc— pHno]0(LakeTitiMOQl. 
MoQUKGiTA  AKn  Tacma. — Moquegua  B  n.,  Tncna  11  n.,  Arica  S 

Tarapaca.— Tarapticn  ii.  (const), 


Ahazonah. — CI 

^^t  LiBEBTAD  A»D  . 

^^H  Cajamarca.— < 

^^M  Anoacbb, — Hu 

^^M  Jdntn. — Pasco 

^^M  HnANDCo. — Hi: 

^H  Lima  and  Cali 

^^P        AYAOtJDBO. — A, 
^■^        CUZOU  AKS  AP 

^    (Apurimac), 

ICA.— Icafln., 


586  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Descriptive  ITotes. — Tnudllo,  a  seaport  on  the  N.W.  coast,  founded 
in  1535  oy  Pizarro,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  his  native  town  in  Spain. 
Cazaxnarca  contains  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  palace  of  Atahualpa,  tiie 
last  emperor  of  Peru,  who  was  assassinated  here  by  the  Spaniards. 
Pasco,  tne  most  elevated  city  in  the  world,  being  13,720  ft.  above  the 
sea,  is  noted  for  its  rich  silver  mines,  which  are  more  extensively  worked 
than  any  other  in  Peru.  Lima,  cap.  of  Peru,  is  a  regular,  well-built  city 
about  10  m.  in  circumference.  Owing  to  the  frequency  of  earthquakes, 
the  houses  are  rarely  more  than  one  story  high,  with  flat  roofs  and  un- 
glazed  windows.  It  was  founded  by  Pizarro  in  1534,  and  the  cathedral, 
which  is  splendidly  decorated,  contains  his  remains.  Lima  was  long  the 
commercial  entrep8t  for  all  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  and  it  still 
carries  on  a  large  trade  through  its  port,  Callao.  Lima  is  the  seat  of  the 
oldest  university  in  America.  Huancavelica,  at  an  elevation  of  11,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  is  noted  for  its  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  especially 
mercury.  Ayacucho,  on  the  route  from  Lima  to  Cuzco,  contains  a  uni- 
versity and  a  splendid  cathedral.  Near  it  is  the  plain  of  Ayacucho, 
where,  in  1824,  the  troops  of  Bolivar,  under  General  Sucr^,  defeated  the 
Spanish  army,  and  thus  terminated  the  dominion  of  Spain  in  South 
America.  Cuzco,  the  famous  cap.  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas,  and  the 
most  ancient  of -their  cities,  was,  according  to  tradition,  foimded  a.d. 
1043  by  Manco  Capac,  the  founder  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  civilisation. 
In  1534  it  was  taken  by  Pizarro,  who  felt  greatly  surprised  at  its  magni- 
ficence. The  streets  were  wide  and  imposing,  tne  palaces  superb  in  the 
extreme,  and  the  temples  richly  adorned  with  ornaments  of  gold  and 
silver.  Areqtiipa  is  a  large  well-built  town,  possessing  a  considerable 
trade  and  numerous  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  stuns.  Arica  is  the 
principal  seaport  of  southern  Peru,  and  of  Bolivia,  which  possesses  no 
good  seaport  within  its  own  limits.  Tacna  is  the  depot  of  European 
nierchandise  for  the  greater  part  of  Bolivia.  Pnno,  on  the  N.W.  snore 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  at  an  elevation  of  12,847  ft.,  is,  next  to  Pasco  and 

;^  Potosi,  the  highest  town  in  the  world :  the  numerous  mines  in  its  vicinity 

are  now  mostly  abandoned.    Pinra  or  San  Mig^nel  de  Pinra,  foimded  by 

*^  Pizarro,  was  the  first  Spanish  colony  established  in  Peru.    Callao,  6  m. 

from  Lima,  of  which  it  is  the  port,  is  a  strongly-fortified  town,  possess- 
ing the  best  roadstead  on  the  Peruvian  coast. 

SurfiEice  and  Climate. — Peru  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  hy  the  lofty  chain  of  the  Andes,  running  from  N.W.  to  S.E., 
and  forming  two  grand  ridges,  which  divides  tne  country  into  three 
widely-different  physical  regions — viz.,  the  Coast,  the  Central,  and 
the  Eastern  Regions. 

The  Western  or  Coast  Region,  which  is  rarely  more  than  60  m.  wide, 
consists  of  an  arid,  rainless,  and  barren  district,  covered  with  sand,  and 
intersected  by  chains  of  hillocks  that  cross  it  from  E.  to  W.  In  some 
parts  of  this  district  no  rain  has  fallen  in  the  memory  of  man ;  but 
above  the  level  of  400  ft.,  slight  showers  occasionally  occur.  The  absence 
of  rain,  however,  is  in  some  measure  compensated  for  by  the  garua,  a 
peculiar  fog  which  supplies  a  little  moisture  to  the  soil.  The  Central 
Ke^on  consists  of  a  lofty  plateau  of  about  12,000  ft.  of  average  elevation, 
which,  though  difficult  of  access  from  the  coast,  contains  numerous  cities, 
towns,  and  villages,  owin^  to  the  coolness  and  humidity  of  the  climate. 
The  Eastern  Region  consists  of  immense  plains,  traversed  by  the  head- 
waters of  the  Amazon,  and  covered  with  gigantic  forests  which  extend  up 


IT 


PERU. 


587 


I 


..._  in-BlcIei  to  npwanls  of  6500  ft.     The  cUmata  here  is  very 

humid,  the  crests  of  the  Andes  intercepting  the  equaWrial  winds,  which 
come  iBden  with  muiature  from  the  diatant  Atlantic.     The  temperature 
jes  in  satnmer  between  S0°  and  S4°,  but  during  the  preraleace 
of  the  garua  it  is  reduced  to  62°.  (For  the  elerationof  theAudeaof  Peru, 


le  gania  i- 
?.  §70.) 


natural  Fr[>ductlODi.^ — Peru  was  formerly  more  celebrated  for  It! 
mineral  wealth  than  any  other  country  ot  Sontli  America.  Tbo 
sQver  mines  of  Cerro  Fasco,  and  the  qnicksilver  mines  of  Huanca- 
velica,  are  amongst  the  richest  in  the  woriiL  Gold  also  occors  in 
limitfld  quantities  in  Cuzco,  and  in  the  varioua  silver  mines. 

Nearly  all  the  mines  of  the  precious  metals  are  situated  in  the  elevated 
T^iona  of  the  Andes,  above  the  line  to  which  cultivation  extenda—a  cir- 
cnmehince  which  renileis  the  working  of  them  Terr  di9lct\lt  and  eipen- 
siva.  The  number  of  mines  that  have  been  worked  is  above  a  thoneand, 
bnt  most  of  tham  are  now  exhausted,  or  &om  other  causes  abandoned. 
Besides  the  precious  metals,  the  country  yields  ircm,  copper,  tin,  coal, 
sulphur,  saltpetre,  and  rock-salt.  The  flora  and  fauna  are  deacribed  in 
the  general  article  on  "  South  America."  The  best  guano  is  obtained 
from  the  Chincba  Islands,  S.  of  Lima,  and  from  the  Lobos  Islands,  3.  of 
Payta.  Pei-uvian  guano  is  now  extensively  exported  to  this  country  for 
manure,  and  is  worth  about  £13  per  ton.  The  guano  was  known  to  the 
Bboriginea  of  Pern,  and  used  by  them  in  manuring  the  land,  before  the 
arriTol  of  the  Spmiards.  The  llama,  alpaca,  guanaco,  and  vicuUa,  are 
natives  of  the  country.    The  llama  has  been  used  as  a  benst  of  burden 

from  its  egge. 

EUmography.— Kearly  three -fourths  of  the  entire  population  of 
Peru  consist  of  aboriginal  Indiana  ;  about  one-fourth  are  Creoles  and 
mestizaes  ;  and  the  remainder  negroes,  who  number  about  40,000. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  Indian  population  belong  to  the  Quichna  or 
Peruvian  nation,  who  are  for  the  moat  part  confined  to  the  ^at  plateau, 
many  of  the  smaller  towns  of  which  are  eicluaively  inhabited  by  them, 
wbilH  the  eastern  plains  are  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  independent 
and  neuaUy  heathen  tribes.  Quichna  waa  the  predominant  language  of 
thie  conntry  under  the  Incas,  and  is  still  spoken  by  nearly  a  million  and 
a  half  of  people.  It  is  said  to  be  as  copious  and  artificial  as  the  Greek, 
bnt  as  yet  no  portion  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  printed  in  it.  The  re- 
found  in  Peru,  sufHciently  attest  that,  when  the  country  fell  a  prey  to 
Pizarro  and  his  sanguinary  companions,  the  inhabitants  had  made  con- 
siderable progress  in  civilisation.  Under  the  infinence  of  the  Spaniards, 
the  character  of  the  natives  has  greatly  deteriorated ;  agriculture  and 
pastoral  employments  form  now  their  favourite  nceupation ;  while  not  a 
few  are  engaged  inmlningand  other  mechanical  Diierations.  The  Creoles, 
or  whites,  sre  tall,  slender,  and  feeble,  and  are  characterised  by  levity, 
fickleness,  and  incapacity  of  mental  toil.  By  the  terma  of  the  oonstitii- 
tion  of  1SS7i  there  exists  absolute  political  freedom  In  Peru,  slavery 

„  abolished  ;  but  the  same  charter  prohibits  the  public  eierciae  oi 

any  other  religion  than  the  Roman  Catholfo,  which  Is  declared  the  reli- 
Eion  of  the  state.  Edncalion  is  lamentably  deficient,  and  that  of  the 
bnver  orders  is  wholly  neglected- 


588  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

GoYenunent  and  Finance. — The  form  of  goyemment  is  republican 
— the  constitution  closely  resembling  that  of  the  United  States. 
The  legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  36  members  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  in  the  proportion  of  one  deputy  to  20,000  inhabitants,  and 
two  senators  to  each  province.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
president  popularly  chosen  for  a  period  of  five  years,  who  is  assisted 
by  a  ministry  chosen  by  himself.  The  army,  in  1874,  consisted  of 
18,200  men  ;  and  the  navy  of  12  vessels,  carrying  106  guns ;  the 
revenue  amounted  to  5,960,000,  the  expenditure  to  £6,751,000, 
and  the  public  debt  to  £89,000,000. 

Commerce  and  ManufactnreB. — The  internal  commerce  is  much 
impeded  by  want  of  good  roads,  but  a  considerable  amount  of  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Brazil  by  way  of  the  Huallaga.  The  maritime 
trade  is  chiefly  with  the  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  that  with 
Europe  is  considerable — the  exports  thither  consisting  of  bullion, 
Peruvian  bark,  chinchilla-skins,  cochineal,  cotton,  copper  ore,  alpaca 
wool,  and  especially  guano. 

The  exports  do  not  exceed  £6,000,000  annually,  of  which  the  govem- 
meut  monopoly  of  guano  yiel(^  a  fall  half.  Peru  sent  to  Great  Britain, 
in  1869,  to  the  value  of  £4,500,000,  more  than  a  half  of  which  consisted 
of  guano,  the  other  items  being  alpaca  wool  and  nitre.  We  sent  in  return 
goods  to  the  value  of  £1,830,000,  the  principal  articles  being  cotton  and 
woollen  manufactures.  The  produce  of  the  silver  mines  has  fallen  off 
very  materially  since  the  end  of  last  century,  when  it  amounted  to 
5,500,000  dels,  per  year,  while  in  1855  it  only  amounted  to  3,000,000 
dols.  Thus  the  far-famed  riches  of  Peru  are  now  like  the  legends  of  the 
past.  The  manufactures  are  not  important,  consisting  chieny  of  coarse 
cotton  and  woollen  cloths  made  by  the  Indians,  leather  cloaks,  and 
jewellery.  A  system  of  railways,  designed  to  develop  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  country,  has  been  in  course  of  construction  for  several  years. 
There  is  one  line  completed  from  Lima  to  Callao ;  another,  from  Tacua 
to  Arica  :  total  m.  completed  in  1875,  about  1000. 


BOLIVIA. 

Boundaxies. — ^E.  and  N.,  Brazil ;  W.,  Peru  and  the  Pacific  ; 
S.,  Chil6  and  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Lat.  10°  30' — 
23°  S.;  Ion.  57°— 70°  40'  W. 

The  extreme  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  870  m.;  the  greatest  breadth 
about  700  m.  Chuquisaca,  the  cap.,  near  the  centre,  is  nearly  on  the 
same  parallel  as  Victoria  in  Brazil,  L.  Ngami  and  Sofala  in  Africa ;  and  on 
same  meridian  as  Point  Gasp^  in  Canada,  St  Thomas  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  Barcelona  in  Venezuela. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimated  at  374,480  sq.  m., 
or  three  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles ;  but  no  regular  survey  of 
the  country  has  ever  been  made.     According  to  the  latest  official 


estimato,  taken  in   1866,   the  iKip  lat 


I 


ofS    tknd 


,t  d  t    1    S7  3S2, 


being  two-thirds  the  popnlatiai 

Political  DlvfiiOM,— The  republ  p  ntly  n  t  f  nine 
departmonta,  all  of  which  are  named  aft      tli  sp    t  pitala, 

exi:ept  in  the  case  of  the  two  dcpartm  nt     B  n  and  At      m 

B cur. —Trinidad  i,  Exaltacion  (Mamorf,  tub.-affl.  Madeira). 

Li  Paz.— La  Paz  76  n.  [L.  Titicacia). 

Santa  Ckuz.- SantaCruz  10  n.  (Mamot^. 

CocHABAUBA.— Cochabamba  41  n.  (Mainort),  Tapacarl  (Mamorf). 

Chuqiiisaca. — CaoqniSAOA  or  Scosil  2*  n.  (Piloomayo,  afi. 
Pan^uay), 

Potosi.— Potosi  23  n.  (Pilcomnjo). 

OacKO, — Oruro  8  (Desaguadero). 

Ataoama. — Cobija  3  (Pacilie),  Atacama  (Loa). 

TiBlJA.— Tarija  6  (Tarija,  a£l.  Vermejo}. 

DeacrtptlTa  Hotes.— Tiinidud,  cap,  of  the  departmeDt  Beni  cr  llojoa, 
contains  4000  iubabitanta.  La  Paz,  near  tli«  eastern  sham  of  L.  Titicoca, 
and  near  the  base  of  the  snow-capped  mountain  Jlliniani,  is  the  com- 


rita-growing  at 

lai^  cathedral  and  a  magnificent  palace.  Chnqnlsaoa  or  Snne  i"  plate 
of  gold"),  cap.  of  Bolivia,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes,  and  at  an 
elevation  of  S343  feet  above  the  eea,  has  a  university  and  a  fine  cathedral, 
bat  faBE  neittier  trade  nor  manufactures,  and  owes  all  its  prospority  to  its 
being  the  seat  of  the  legislature.  Potosi,  at  the  foot  of  the  far-famed 
silver  mountain  of  Cerro  de  Potosi,  at  an  elevation  of  13,330  ft  above  the 
sea.  The  mountain  ia  perforated  in  all  direetions  by  the  mines,  only  28 
of  which  are  now  worked,  while  1800  are  standing  idle.  The  silver  here 
■was  aecidentaUy  discovered  by  an  Indian,  upwards  of  300  jeara  ago. 
Oruro,  another  miulng  town,  where  11  silrer  mines  are  still  worked. 
Cotrija.  the  only  seaport  of  Bolivia ;  merchants  prefer  it  to  Arica,  where 
thay  have  to  pay  a  high  duty  to  the  Peruvian  Government. 

Bnr&cs  and  dlmata.  —  The  centre  and  west  are  covered  with 
,  latnificatioiis  of  the  Andes,  which  here,  as  in  Pern,  divide  into  two 
L  eordilleras,  enclosing  an  elevated  plateau  in  whi(di  ia  the  Lake  of 
[  Titicaca,  12,857  ft,  above  the  sea  (p.  E71).     The  narrow  region  be- 
tween the  Pacific  and  the  Andes  is  barren,  jiearly  rainless,  and 
Itnown  aa  the  desert  of  Atacama.     The  region  east  of  the  Andes  con- 
aista  of  ininienae  plains  watered  hy  tjie  head-streams  of  the  Amazon 
and  Parana,  which  have  their  origin  in  the  eastern  cordillera,  and  is 
covered  with  immenae  forests.   The  towns  are  for  the  most  part  situ- 
ated in  the  plateaa  ref^ou,  many  parts  of  which  are  fertile  and  well 
1  cultivated.     The  climate  resembles  that  of  Peru,  but  varies  much  in 
different  parti  of  tlie  coantry,  according  to  the  elevation  aud  the  dis' 


590  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

tance  from  the  equator.  On  the  plateau  it  is  cold,  and  in  some  places 
even  rigorous,  while  in  the  low-lyin^  plain  of  the  east  it  is  insup- 
portably  hot,  humid,  and  pestilential. 

Natural  Productions. — Bolivia  is  now  the  most  important  mining 
country  in  South  America,  but  many  of  the  mines  have  become  ex- 
hausted or  filled  with  water,  and  comparatively  few  of  them  are  now 
worked  with  advantage,  a  result  mainly  owing  to  their  distance  fi*om 
the  coast  and  the  want  of  roads. 

The  precious  metals  are  found  chiefly  in  Silurian  strata,  where  these 
approach  the  igneous  rocks.  Gold-dust  occurs  in  many  of  the  streams 
that  flow  down  the  sides  of  the  eastern  cordillera  of  the  Andes.  The 
silver  mines  of  Potosi  are,  next  to  those  of  Pasco,  the  most  valuable  in 
the  world,  but  being  worked  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  10,000 
feet,  the  expense  is  enormous.  Copper  is  everywhere  abundant,  while 
iron,  tin,  lead,  antimony,  nitre,  and  sulphur,  are  found  in  the  department 
Oruro,  south-east  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  tin  mines  in  this  department  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world ;  and  rock-salt,  in  large  veins,  occurs  in 
the  Cerro  de  Potosi.  The  botany  of  Bolivia  is  as  various  as  its  climate, 
which  ranges  from  tropical  heat  to  perpetual  winter.  Forests  of  bound- 
less extent  cover  the  eastern  plains,  and  the  lower  zones  of  the  Cordil- 
leras. These  yield  timber  fit  for  every  purpose,  fruits  of  every  variety, 
ornamental  and  dye  woods,  Peruvian  bark,  and  many  other  valuable 
drugs.  Paraguay  tea  abounds  in  the  department  Beni ;  and  coca,  a  plant 
which  the  aborigines  masticate  as  the  Malays  do  tie  betel-nut,  and  with- 
out which  they  pine  and  die,  grows  spontaneously  in  the  hot  plains  of 
the  interior.  Cultivated  plants  embrace  cacao,  vanilla,  caoutchouc,  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  indigo,  rice,  barley,  oats,  maize,  sugar-cane,  and  potatoes. 
The  wild  animals  include  the  tapir,  jaguar,  leopaiS,  monkey,  amphibious 
reptiles,  birds,  and  fishes  in  great  numbers. 

Ethnography. — About  one-third  of  the  population  are  whites,  of 
Spanish  origin,  who  are  most  numerous  in  the  mining  districts  and 
in  the  valleys  of  the  eastern  cordilleras.  The  remainder  are  Indians, 
of  the  Aymara  and  Quichua  nations  ;  of  negroes  and  mulattoes,  who 
are  chiefly  fugitives  from  Bi*azil;  and  of  Cnoloes,  who  have  sprung 
from  the  union  of  the  European  with  the  Indian  population. 

The  Aymara  Indians  were  among  the  nations  formerly  subject  to  the 
Incas  of  Peru,  and  now  dwell  on  the  plateau  of  Titicaca,  within  the  limits 
of  that  ancient  empire.  They  number  about  372,000,  and  are  probably 
descended  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Quichua  Indians,  whom  they  re- 
semble in  language,  disposition,  manners,  and  customs.  They  are  an 
intelligent,  industrious  race,  and  ai^e  largely  engaged  in  agriculture,  min- 
ing, various  branches  of  manufacture,  and  in  pastoral  occupations.  A 
small  number  of  them  have  been  gained  to  Christianity  by  tne  eflbrts  of 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Bolivia,  under  the  name  of  Upper  Peru, 
formed  part  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  till,  on  the  subversion  of 
Spanish  authority,  it  achieved,  with  Peru  proper,  its  independence.  Soon 
afterwards  it  separated  from  the  latter  country,  and  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  assuming  the  name  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  its  illustrious 
liberator.  General  Bolivar,  who  in  1826  drew  up  its  first  constitution. 

Oovemment,  Commerce,  and  Finance.— The  executive  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  president,  who  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  : 


CHILE.  591 

the  legislative  fuuc^tians  ate  ejieruiBeJ  I>y  a  bndy  consisting  of  two 
chambera— B  aanate  and  a  house  of  teprB$ciiCatives,  botli  elected  by 
nniveraal  Bnflrnj^.  The  oonstitntion  makes  ample  provision  for  per- 
Bonal  and  political  liberty — aecuring  religions  taUrstion,  the  freedom 
of  tha  press,  and  the  independence  of  the  tribunals- 
Raman  Catlioliclsm  is  alone  professed  liy  the  white  inhabitants,  but  the 
Church  ia  not  endowed  by  the  State.  Tha  atnndine  avmy  ainonnts  to  3000 
men  ;  the  receipts  and  expenditure  to  nearly  £500,000  nach.  Cominerce 
in  greatly  restricted  by  the  phyeical  character  of  the  country— atupend 


-.^^ sect  separating  the  productive  portion 

the  coontry  from  the  Paoilic,  and  2000  m.  of  river  nnvigntion  ' —  ' 
Atlantic,  seaboard.     Tlie  republic  has  but  one  seaport,  the  toi 


tbe 


MJa,  BUd  the  greater  part  of  il 

Tha  foreign  trade  is  consequently  very  limited,  coufiisluig  chiefly  in  tliu 

oiport  of  the  precious  metals,  Peruvian  bark,  skins,  soap,  tobacco,  ami 

alpaca  wool  to  Europe,  and  of  grain  and  cacao  to  Peru;  while  the  imports 

ore  mostly  confined  to  iron,  hardware,  silk,  and  a  few  other  articles.   The 

total  exports,  in  1875,  amounted  to  £1,340,000,  the  imports  to  £1,288,000, 

BDd  the  public  debt  to  £3,200,000.    Till  within  the  last  few  yeara  tlie 

■pricultural  and  mineral  resources  of  the  conntry  lay  dormant,  nearly  all 

I    tte  internal  trade  being  carried  onbypttck-horaeaand  mules;  but  recently 

U  good  roads  bave  been  constructed  by  English  capitalists  and  engineers, 

■  and  concosaions  have  been  granted  for  a  line  of  railway  between  Cobija 

fAai  Potosi,  which  is  lo  lie  nuited  to  the  Peruyian  railway  from  Arcquipa 

o  Pono.    This  line  is  about  400  m.  long,  hut  is  not  yet  commenced. 


Bonndaries.— N.,  Bolivia ;  W.,  the  South  Paciflo  Ocean 
'Patogooia;  E.,  La  Plata,  or  thu  Argentine  Confederation, 
—'     --1"  2(V  S.;  Ion.  68°— 74°  W. 


Lat. 


ChOS,  however,  claims  the  whole  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fnego, 
L  bat  the  claim  is  diaputed  by  the  Argentioe  Confederation.  Inclndmg 
'■CbilOo,  the  lengtli  is  UOO  m. ;  while  the  breadth,  between  the  crest  of 
the  Andes  and  the  Pacific,  does  not  on  an  average  eiceed  100  m.  Few 
other  countries  of  equal  dimensions  enjoy  so  large  an  eitent  of  seaboani. 
Santiago  de  ChilJ,  the  cip.  of  the  republic,  situated  near  the  centre,  ia 
nearly  on  the  same  parallel  as  Bnenos  Ayres,  Cape  Town,  Sydney,  and 

the  northern  Bitremity  of  New  Zealand ;  and  nearly  on  "■    ^"~ 

a«  San  Domingo,  in  the  W.  Indiea,  and  Lake  Titicaca. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  is  estimated  at  116,043  sq.  i 
rather  iiwi  than  the  British  Isles ;  the  population,  ticcordinK  t( 

censns  of  1875,  amonnted  to  2,n'i8,447,  beinj       

population  of  Scotland. 


592  POLITICAL  OEOGRAPHT. 

Atacaua.— Copiapo  ll,Caldera  (N.W.  coast). 

CoQUiMBO. — Coquimbo,  or  La  Serena  12,  Huasco  (coast). 

Aconcagua.— San  Felipe  9,  Quillota  11  (Aconcagua). 

Yalparaiso. — Valparaiso  98  (coast). 

Santiago. — Santiago  db  Chile  148  n.  (Maypu), 

CoLCHAGTJA. — San  Fernando  (Rapel). 

CuRioo. — Curico  9  (Mataquito). 

Talca.— Talca  18  (Manle). 

Mauls  and  Linares. — La  Gonstitncion  6,  Linares  6  n.  (Manle). 

NuBLE.— Chilian  19  (Itata). 

CoNCEPCiON.— Concepcion  18  (coast). 

Abauco. — Arauco  1  (coast). 

Valdivia. — Valdivia  5  (coast). 

Chiloe.— San  Carlos  2,  Castro  4  (island  Chiloe). 

Llanquihub.— Puerto  Montt  16  (coast). 

MAGELLAN.—Punta  Arenas  (str.  of  Magellan). 

Notes  on  Towns.— Copiapo,  the  most  northern  town  in  Chil^,  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  principal  mining  district,  exports  various  mineral  pro- 
ducts. Caldera,  a  seaport  town,  40  m.  north  of  Copiapo,  with  which  it 
is  now  connected  by  a  railway,  which,  in  some  places,  is  carried  to  a 
height  of  6000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Coquimbo,  one  of  the  chief 
seaport  towns  of  the  rej^ublic,  has  extensive  copper-smelting  works.  San 
Feupe  has  valuable  mines  of  copper  in  its  vicinity.  Valparaiso,  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  Chil€,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a  large  and  flourish- 
ing city,  and  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  trade  on  the  whole  west  coast  of 
America.  Its  harbour  is  defended  by  several  foi-ts.  Its  markets  are 
well  supplied  with  European  manufactures,  and  it  exports  wheat  to 
Callao  and  Panama,  with  large  quantities  of  bides,  tallow,  gold,  silver, 
copper,  indigo,  wool,  and  drugs.  Santiago  de  Chile,  cap.  of  the  Chilian 
republic,  contains  a  university :  here,  on  Dec.  8,  1863,  in  the  Church  of 
La  Comp&nia,  occurred  the  most  terrific  conflagration  ever  witnessed  in 
South  America,  when  2100  females  perished  in  the  flames.  The  town 
is  situated  amid  the  sublimest  scenery,  near  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  It 
is  handsomely  laid  out,  but  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes,  the 
houses  have  only  one  storey.  Santiago  is  connected  with  Valparaiso  by 
a  railway  111  m.  long.  Concepcion  contains  a  college,  and  possesses  an 
excellent  roadstead.  Valdivia,  the  penal  settlement  of  Chil6  and  Peru. 
Puerto  Montt,  cap.  of  the  new  province  Llanquihue,  established  in  1853, 
is  named  after  Don  Manuel  Montt,  the  president  of  the  Chilian  republic 
when  the  town  was  founded. 

Surfiace  and  Climate.  ~Chil^  consists  of  a  long,  narrow  territory, 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  the  majestic  chain  of  the 
Andes,  which  here  form  a  single  ridge,  with  an  average  elevation  of 
12,000  ft. 

Near  the  centre  of  the  chain  stands  the  stupendous  Aconcagua,  the 
giant  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  23,301  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Sorata,  in  Bolivia,  by  far  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  New  World. 
Aconcagua  is  not  a  volcano,  but  no  fewer  than  14  volcanic  peaks  are 


enumerated  among  lie  Chilian  Andes,  among  the  loftiest  of  which  are 
Chilian  and  VillanuB,  each  of  which  attains  to  a  height  of  16,000  ft.  Five 
of  these  volcanoes  srenowiti  a  state  of  activity  ;  whQe  eaithquahes  are  of 
common  occurrence,  and  frequently  cause  tremendous  devaatation.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  country  is  rainless  and  barren,  hut  the  central 
pnrtion  is  luinriantly  fertile,  and.  has  a  delicious  climate,  the  heat  being 

tempered  ^  JtB  greater  eleyation  and  by  the  n — ' "    "" 

breeies.     Here  the  rainy  Beoson  occurs  between 

■verage  anmmer  temperature  on  the  plains  is  : 

winter  being  from  40  to  50°.     The  months  of  Jannary  and  February  are 

the  hottest  in  the  year,  the  thermometer  then  freyuently  rising  to  95° 

Fah.  in  the  shade.    In  the  central  parts  of  the  country  storms  of  hall. 


thunder,  and  IJ 


n  thew 


I 


its  of  the  Chilian  Andes  throughout  the  year,  the  lower 

limit  of  the  snow-line  being,  in  the  N.,  17,000  ft.,  and  in  the  S.  830O  ft 

Batund  ProductloiLB.— Chile  is  by  far  the  most  flourishing  of  the 
Spanish  American  republics — the  salubrity  of  her  climate,  the  fer- 
tility  of  her  soil,  the  abundance  of  her  uahiral  resources,  and,  above 
all,  the  great  extent  of  her  sea-coast,  giving  her  a  decided  superior' 
ity  over  the  other  coimtriea  on  the  western  aide  of  the  continent. 

Her  mineral  resources  are  especially  great,  embracing  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  iron,  zinc,  mercury,  antimony,  manganese,  arsenic,  tin, 
sulphur,  nitre,  salt,  coal,  and  lignite.  The  extraction  and  exportation  of 
copper  has  of  late  years  rapidly  increased,  and  this  coDimodity  now 
forma  the  grand  staple  of  the  country.  The  ailrer  mines  occur  in  the 
])ighest  part  of  the  Andes,  which  also  contain  precious  stones,  as  the 
iffiile,  jasper,  rook-crystal,  &c.  The  working  of  the  coal-mines  is  grailu- 
ally  eitsndlng,  and  though  the  cool  la  inferior  in  healing  power  to  ordi- 
nary English  coal,  it  is  extensively  used  for  steam  and  smelting  purposes. 
The  north  is  almost  wholly  barren,  but  maize,  wheat,  barley,  and  other 
Euroiieau  grains  are  grown  eitensivety  in  the  centre  and  south.  Here 
vegetation  is  very  abundant;  agriculture  is  well  understood,  and  the  im- 
plements of  husbandry  are  of  the  best  deacriptioiL  ChilS  is  the  native 
region  of  the  potuto,  which  Is  found  wild  on  the  elopes  of  the  mountains, 
as  also  of  the  Araucaria  imbricato,  now  so  common  In  our  shrubberies. 
Froita  are  so  numerous  and  abundant  that  in  many  places  they  may  be 
had  without  money ;  the  figs  and  olives  ore  of  the  best  quality,  and  the 
grape  is  cultivated  with  success.  Among  the  animals  of  prey  the  chief 
place  must  be  assigned  to  the  puma  or  American  lion,  and  to  we  condor, 
a  munificent  species  of  vulture  peculiar  to  the  Andes,  but  most  common 
in  Peru  and  Chil€.    (See  under  '■  Argentine  Confederation. ") 

EUmogtapby. — lu  the  northern  and  central  provinces  the  popula- 
tion consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  descendants  of  the  Spamards  ; 
hut  to  the  south  of  the  Biobio  the  country  is  inhabited  almost  ex- 
clusively bj  Indians,  who  belong  tu  the  Araucaniaii  nation,  and 
number  about  70,000  persons. 

'lliough  nominally  subject  to  the  Chihan  sway,  the  Indians  have  hither- 
to stoutly  maintained  their  independence— a  privilege  wliich  they  are 
likely  soon  to  lose,  now  that  the  Chileflos  have  formed  Llauquihue  into  a 

riT — .., 1  i,  _:_;t;,.^-,^  ([j^^  (Jjj  wandering 

a  the 


land ;  bnt  they  ai 


of 


594  POUTICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

dieted  to  habits  of  intemperance.  The  whites,  or  Chilefios,  are  de- 
scribed as  contrasting  favourably  with  those  of  the  same  race  in  other 
parts  of  Spanish  America,  especially  in  activity  and  industry.  The  ad- 
vance of  civilisation  among  them  is  rapid,  and  more  has  been  done  by  the 
Gk)vemment  in  diffusing  the  benefits  of  education  than  in  any  of  the 
neighbouring  republics.  There  are  a  university  and  a  lyceum  at  Santiago, 
and  schools  and  seminaries  in  several  other  places.  The  religion  of  me 
state  is  the  Roman  Catliolic,  and  the  public  exercise  of  any  other  form  of 
worship  is  excluded  by  law.  Yet  there  are  in  Valparaiso  two  Protestant 
places  of  worship,  whose  existence  is  not  unknown  to  the  Government. 
The  great  mass  oi  the  people  remain  in  the  grossest  ignorance,  and  moral- 
ity is  at  a  very  low  ebb.  Illegitimacy  is  fewrfully  prevalent  among  the 
humbler  classes  of  society.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  from  27  to  30 
per  cent  of  the  population  are  said  to  nave  a  stain  on  their  birth.  Closely 
connected  with  tnis  is  the  extraordinary  rate  of  moitality  among  the 
young. 

Oovemment,  Army  and  Navy. — The  struggle  of  the  colonists  for 
independence  began  in  1810,  and  terminated  successfully  in  1818,  by 
the  battle  of  Maypu  and  the  formation  of  a  republic.  According  to 
the  constitution  of  1833,  the  government  is  vested  in  a  president 
elected  for  five  years,  a  senate  of  20  members  who  hold  office  for  nine 
years,  and  a  chamber  of  deputies  chosen  for  a  period  of  three  years, 
consisting  of  one  member  for  every  20,000  inhabitants.  The  array 
in  1869  amounted  to  3750  men,  but  during  the  war  with  Spain,  in 
1866,  it  numbered  6300,  together  with  29,698  militia.  The  navy 
consists  of  twelve  steam-vessels,  manned  by  400  men,  and  carrjing 
about  30  guns.  The  Chilian  navy  incurred  great  losses  during  the 
late  struggle  with  Spain.  The  Revenue  for  1874  amount^  to 
£3,614,000,  the  Expenditure  to  £8,822,000,  and  the  Public  Debt  to 
£9,629,000. 

Crommerce  and  Mannfactnres. — The  foreign  commerce  of  the 
Chilian  republic  is  considerable,  and  is  mainly  carried  on  with  Great 
Britain,  to  which  nearly  three- fourths  of  the  exports  are  sent.  These 
consist  chiefly  of  copper  and  silver  ore,  wheat,  flour,  hides,  and 
tallow.  Total  exports  in  1874,  £7,308,384,  of  which  £4,452,000 
were  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom.  The  exports  of  that  year  also 
included  for  the  first  time  a  considerable  quantity  of  raw  cotton. 
The  principal  imports  consist  of  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures 
and  hardware  from  England  ;  silks  from  France ;  and  linen  from 
Germany  :  total  amount,  in  1874,  £7,683,899,  of  which  £3,450,695 
came  from  Great  Britain.  The  commercial  navy,  in  1874,  consisted 
of  259  vessels,  of  67,111  tons  burden.  As  compared  with  the  other 
South  American  republics,  Chil6  has  made  rapid  progress  in  almost 
every  department  of  natural  industry.  Her  manufactures  consist  of 
earthen  and  copper  wares,  cordage,  linens,  soap,  brandy,  and  other 
articles  of  home  consumption. 

Internal  Communication. — Chil^  was  among  the  first  states  in 
South  America  that  engaged  in  the  construction  of  railways.  In 
1876  there  were  615  ra.  open  for  traffic,  and  a  good  many  more  in 
course  of  construction.    The  principal  lines  already  completed  are 


K 


^m 


THE    iRGENTIKB   OOKFEDEKATIOK,    OB   LA   PLATA.       595 

Hut  from  Valpsmiao  to  Santiago  ;  from  Santiago  to  Taka, ;  from 
Sun  Antonio  to  Calderai  aud  frum  TalcoJiuanD  to  Chilian  Curico. 

Fata^nla  and  Tiarra  del  Fnego. — Thia  extensive  coontry,  coniprisliig 
the  entire  BOiilhern  extreniity  of  South  America,  ia  bonndtJ  on  tie  N.  by 
la  Plata  and  Chilfi  ;  on  the  W,  by  tlifl  Pacific  ;  on  the  R  br  tho  Antarctic 
Ocean ;  and  on  the  E.  by  the  Atlantic.  Eitending  from  Int.  38°  to  5"° 
65"  S,,  it  iaabont  1100  ra.lonB,hT  550  m,  wide  at  its  broadest  part.  The 
una.  ie  roughly  estimBtcd  at  400,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  popnlatioit  nt  30,0O(i. 
The  northern  aitremity  is  nearly  on  tlie  samfl  parallel  aa  Cajie  Egmont  iii 
Mew  Zealand,  Cape  WilBon  in  AnfltraUa,  and  ia  2tlO  m.  S.  of  Cape  Agalhns, 
the  Boutheiii  extremity  of  A&ica.  The  whole  of  Patagonia,  north  of 
TlBira  del  Fnego,  is  now  claimed  as  a  colonial  poasesaion  of  Chilfi,  which 
luu  given  it  the  name  of  the  Temtoriol  Colony  of  Magellan  |p.  S91).  I'be 
wcatem  ahors  ia  deeply  indented  by  the  ocean,  and  lined  ny  nnmeroua 
inlunds  and  bold  projecting  headlands.  The  Andes  extend  in  one  Immense 
unbroken  chain  along  the  woatem  aide,  having  an  elevation  ranging  &oni 
8000  fL  in  the  north,  to  leaa  than  3000  fi.  in  the  eoiith,  aud  containing 
Bumerons  volcanio  peaka.  Their  anmniit!  are  covered  with  perennial 
HDow,  whence  glaciera  descend  almoattb'ths  seashore.  The  mountainnns 
region  is  densely  clothed  with  forests,  the  cliitiata  being  excesaively  moiEit, 
.  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winila.  The  eastern  part  of  ths  oouu- 
tr\',  on  tbe  other  hand,  ia  arid  and  sterile,  the  snrface  consisting  of  a  series 
ol'  temcBS  interspersed  with  lakes  awl  moraaaes.  Wheat,  maii^e,  and 
pulae,  are  raised  in  small  quantities  in  the  north.  Large  llocltB  of  wild 
cattle  and  horses  roam  over  the  conntry,  hot  the  gnanaco  is  the  charae- 
twistic  quadruped.  The  Fatagooian  Indiaos,  described  by  the  early 
voyagers  as  a  race  ot  giants,  are  a  tall  muscular  race,  generally  averaging 
aliont  six  feet  In  height,  leading  a  nomadic  life,  and  subsisting  by  the 
produce  ot  the  chaee  and  by  fiahing.  The  shorbieaa  of  their  limba,  and 
the  disproportionate  length  of  the  upper  port  of  the  body,  make  them 

I  appear  remarkably  tall  on  horseback,  as  they  almost  always  are  when  ont 
id  doois ;  but  the  natives  of  the  mountain  region,  and  of  the  Fuegiau 
Archipelago,  are  a  stant«d  race,  anuk  in  the  deepest  degradation. 


■  the  argentine  confederation,  OB  LA  PLATA, 


Boundaries.— K,  Bolivia;  W.,  OhiU;  S.,  Patagcnia;  S.E., 
the  Atlantic;  E.,  Umpiay,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay.  Lat,  21° — 
41'  S, ;  Ion.  54"— 70°  W. 

The  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  ia  1350  ni.,  and  the  average 

liiHwlth  about  700  m.     Buonoa  Ayrea,  the  federal  cap,  (lat.  34°  39'),  ia  in 

I   tiie  aome  latitude  as  Santiago  de  Chil£,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 

peydney;  and  in  the  same  longitude  as  Cape  Breton,  George  Town  in 

I  nrtish  Oalana,  Asnnclun  in  Patagnay,  and  the  Falkland  Isles, 

Area  and  Fopnlatton, — The  area  is  estimated  at  Sa6,800s(|,  tn., 
br  more  than  seven  tiniea  the  area  of  the  British  Isica ;  vrbiU  tlie 
nopnlation.  in  1B69,  amounted  to  1,840,000,  or  lesa  thao  two  penona 
%  each  aq.  m. 


596  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Political  DlvlsloxiB. — The  Confederation  embraces  fourteen  inde- 
pendent states,  which  are  under  the  authority  of  a  military  governor, 
called  the  Director  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 

Buenos  Ayres.  —  Buenos  Ayres  178  (Rio  Plata),  Rosario  80 
(Parana). 

Entre  Rios. — Parand  6  (Paran&). 

Santa  Fe.— Santa  F^  10  (Salado,  affl,  Paranfi). 

Corrientes. — Corrientes  11  (Parang),  La  Cruz  (Uruguay). 

JuJUY. — Jujuy  3  n.  (Vermejo,  affl.  Parang). 

Salta.— Salta  12  (Salado). 

TucuMAN. — Tucuman  17  n.  (Medanos,  affl.  Dulce). 

Catamarca. — Catamarca  6  n.  (Medanos). 

Santiago  del  Estero. — Santiago  8  (Dulce). 

RioJA. — Rioja  4  n.  (Bermejo,  affl^  Lake  Guanacache). 

Cordova. — Cordova  29  {affl  Lake  Salado). 

San  Juan. — San  Juan  de  la  Frontera8  (Patos,  affl.  L.  Guanacache). 

Mendoza. — Mendoza  8  (Lake  Mendoza). 

San  Luis. — San  Luis  4  (on  a  river  which  loses  itself  in  the  sand). 

Descriptive  ITotes. — Buenos  Ayres,  so  called  on  account  of  its  salub- 
rity, cap.  of  state  of  same  name,  and  now  again  of  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation, is  a  large,  handsome  city,  situatea  on  the  south  side  of  the 
estuary  of  La  Plata,  150  m.  from  its  mouth :  it  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
Confederation,  and  one  of  the  principal  commercial  cities  in  South 
America.  It  is  noted  for  its  jerked  lieef :  the  saladeros  or  slaughter- 
houses here  are  on  a  very  large  scale.  Hosario,  on  the  right  bank  of  tlie 
Parang  190  m.  above  Buenos  Ayres,  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Chilian 
railway  across  the  Andes,  now  completed  as  far  as  Mendosa,  a  distance  of 
747  m.  Parand,  cap.  of  state  of  same  name,  and  formerly  of  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  is  an  active  bustling  town.  Corrientes  is  admirably 
situated  for  becoming  the  emporium  of  an  extensive  district  of  country. 
Salta  is  noted  for  its  trade  in  hides  and  mules.  Tucuman,  cap.  of  the 
finest  and  richest  state  in  the  Confederation,  with  the  exception  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  Here,  in  1816,  the  lirst  congress  of  deputies  from  the  several  pro- 
vinces of  the  Confederation  proclaimed  their  independence.  Cordova,  on 
the  main  road  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Potosi,  on  the  line  of  the  inter- 
national railway  across  the  Andes,  has  some  manufactures  ci  cloth  and  a 
trade  in  wine.  It  was  at  one  time  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the 
Confederation.  Here,  in  March  1871,  was  held  a  grand  International 
Exhibition.  Mendoza,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  is  a  main  en- 
trepdt  for  the  trade  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Child. 

Surface  and  Climate. — Excepting  the  portion  of  the  country  form* 
ing  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  drained  by  the  Salado,  Colorado* 
and  Rio  N^o,  and  a  detached  ridge  of  high  ground  between  the 
Parang  and  Uruguay,  nearly  the  whole  surface  of  the  Confederation 
is  embraced  within  the  basin  of  the  Paran&,  and  forms  two  immense 
plains  of  only  a  few  feet  in  elevation  above  the  sea. 

The  southern  plain,  named  the  PoMpat,  is  a  dead  level,  destitute  of 
trees,  but  covered  with  luxuriant  pasturage,  and  interspersed  with  a  mul- 


» 


IHE  ABGENTINE  CONFEDERATION,  OB  LA  PLATA.    59T 

...  le  of  salt  lakes,  some  of  ivliich  (as  Guanacache  and  Bevederu)  ais  of 
biga  aize.  The  chEumel  of  tlie  Paranli,  at  a  distauce  of  401)  lu.  from  its 
month,  is  raid  to  be  oaly  one  foot  in  elevation  above  the  sea.  The  nor- 
tliem  part  of  the  connt^  belongs  to  the  plain  of  Grait  CTuto,  or  great 
desert,  which  extends  ftom  the  2Sth  to  the  16th  south  parallel,  andtroni 
lonritude  58°  to  63°  W.  The  northern  portion  is  covered  with  tall  grasa 
tuuf  tfaistlea,  while  the  soathein,  consisting  of  an  arid  and  desert  plain,  is 
inhabited  by  roving  Indians.  The  eUmats  is  cliatactoriaed  bj  great 
diveraitj,  but  is  in  general  hot  and  very  dr>-— the  Andes  on  the  one  side 
■nd  the  monutains  of  Bnuil  on  the  other.  Intercepting  the  rain-beariug 
winds  bom  the  two  great  oeeann ;  but  in  tbe  eitsteni  pampas  rain  is 
■bnndant.  The  mean  annual  t*mp.  at  Buenoa  Ayraa  is  82"Fah.,  Bum- 
mec  72",  and  winter  62°.  The  high  plateaai  oitiblt  every  variety  of 
climate,  but  in  general  the  heat  is  not  escessive,  and  the  climate  is  more 
fialubriouH  than  that  of  other  countries  equally  near  the  tropics. 

Hatural  ProCtuotlonB.— The  miueral  resoarees  of  the  Can  federation 
are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  the  other  South  American  republics, 
^ongh,  owing  to  the  want  of  good  natural  outlets,  and  other  means 
of  transport,  they  have  remained  hitherto  of  little  commercial  im- 

Ootd  mines,  said  to  be  of  great  richness,  are  being  worked  by  the  Anslo- 
Ai^Butine  Company;  while  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal,  alum,  and  sulphur 
OEcar  in  various  loooUtiea,  and  salt  ufflorescea  in  large  quantities  on  the 
■ucface  of  the  plains  in  the  salinasof  the  west.  Except  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  towns  but  little  of  the  soil  is  cultivated,  the  remainder  being 
given  up  to  the  vest  herds  of  horses  and  cattle  which  roam  in  an  almost 
wild  state.  Wheat,  maize,  barley,  and  other  grains,  and  numerous  fruits, 
ore  grown  in  the  southern  states ;  and  in  some  of  the  northern,  tobacco, 
sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  rice,  and  other  tropical  productions,  are  cultivated. 
The  cocoa-tree,  Paraguay  tea,  cochineal-cactus,  and  the  aloe  are  largely 
cultivated,  as  also  the  vine  in  the  western  provinces.  Most  of  the  Soulii 
American  wild  animals  are  found  in  La  Piata,  as  the  puma,  jaguar,  arma- 
dillo, tapir,  tajassOD,  biscocho  (a  kind  of  rabbit  which  is  very  numerous, 
the  skins  of  which  are  now  brought  to  England  for  furs),  deer,  and  some 
kinds  of  monkeys.  The  guanaco  is  found  m  the  plains  and  on  the  mouu- 
tains,  but  the  wild  llamas,  vicujlas,  and  alpacas,  only  in  the  cold  regiooq 
on  the  elevated  table-lands.  The  watflr-hog  or  earpincho,  the  largest 
known  rodent,  is  very  common  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana.  The  moat 
common  birds  are  the  emu,  condor,  green  parrot,  wild-duck,  pigeon, 
quail,  the  carrion- vulture,  and  several  other  rapacions  birds. 

EUmosrapUy.— The  whitaa  are  mora  numerous  in  the  Argentine 
Kepublie  than  in  any  other  state  in  South  America.  The  bulk  of  tlie 
population  are  of  Spanish  descent,  and  are  named  Creoles.  Of  other 
European  nations  the  Italians  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  amount- 
inic  in  liuenos  Ayres  atone  to  70,(tOO;  British,  who  are  chieSy  eO' 
gaged  in  sheep-Farming,  number  32,0(11} ;  while  there  are  about  the 
■ame  number  of  Spaniards  and  French.  The  Indiana  number  about 
40,000,  and  nru  cbieUy  located  in  the  Gran  Chaco  and  on  the  Rio 
Ifegro.  The  Creoles  do  not  lead  the  same  indolent  and  voluptuous 
life  a*  in  the  neighbouring  Spanish  republics,  but  busy  tbeniseivos 
\Sa  pastoral  and  ogricnltural  operations.  The  Koman  Catholio  is 
'~^most  ejcduaivelj  lUe  religion  of  the  nhite  population,  as  in  all  tliu 


598  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

Spanisli  American  republics  ;  but  other  denominations  are  tolerated. 
Primary  schools  of  a  very  inefficient  character  exist  in  some  of  the 
towns,  but  are  unknown  in  the  rural  districts,  and  the  education  of 
the  people  is  sadly  neglected. 

Government  and  Finance. — The  estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
was  discovered  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  in  1514,  the  knowledge  of 
which  was  further  extended  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1527.  The  coun- 
try was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1553,  under  whom  it  was  erected 
into  a  viceroyalty.  In  1 811  it  joined  the  insurrection  against  Spain, 
and  in  1816  became  independent.  In  1835,  De  Rosas  was  elected  to 
the  dictatorship  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which  he  exercised  with  almost 
absolute  rule  till  he  was  defeated  by  Urquiza,  the  governor  of  Entre 
Rios.  The  present  constitution  bears  date  from  1853,  and  provides 
that  the  executive  power  of  the  Confederation  shall  be  vested  in  a 
president,  and  the  legislative  po?ver  in  a  national  congress  consist- 
ing of  78  deputies.  Each  of  the  provinces  has  a  governor  of  its  own, 
and  retains  the  management  of  its  own  internal  affairs.  The  army, 
in  1875,  consisted  of  10,700  men,  besides  the  national  guard  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  numbers  19,867  men.  The  navy  comprises  28  small 
steamers,  including  2  ironclads.  The  Revenue  in  the  same  year 
amounted  to  £4,860,000  ;  the  Expenditure  to  £4,000,000;  and  the 
Public  Debt  to  £16,000,000. 

Commerce  and  MannfiBOtareB. — The  wealth  of  the  country  consists 
mainly  of  its  animal  productions — wool  alone  constituting  about  one- 
half  of  the  exports,  and  the  remainder  consisting  of  hides,  tallow, 
jerked  beef,  horns,  horse-hair,  and  ostrich-feathers.  In  1873,  the 
total  value  of  the  exports  amounted  to  £6,600,000,  of  which  £2, 604, 000 
were  sent  to  the  United  Elingdom,  and  the  remainder  to  North  Ger- 
many, France,  and  the  United  States.  The  imports  consist  chiefly 
of  manufactured  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  machinery,  coal,  and 
iron.  In  1873,  the  total  imports  amounted  to  £11,600,000,  of  which 
Great  Britain  sent  £3,729,221.  The  manufactures  are  unimportant, 
with  the  exception  of  coarse  woollen  stuffs,  turned  articles,  and^ 
morocco  leather  at  Cordova.  A  network  of  railways  has  been  in 
progress  for  several  years,  and  in  1875  there  were  1000  m.  open  for 
traffic.  Among  the  principal  lines  may  be  mentioned  that  fh)m 
Rosario  to  Cordova,  247  m. ;  and  that  from  Villa  Nueva  to  Mendoza, 
400  m.  In  the  same  year  there  were  8000  m.  of  telegraph  lines  in 
operation.  A  good  deal  of  internal  traffic  is  carried  on  between  the 
different  provinces,  the  roads  being  good,  and  the  rivers  affording 
boundless  scope  for  internal  communication. 


PAEAGUAY  AND  URUGUAY. 

Boundaiies. — Paraguay  is  bounded  on  the  NJB.  by  Biazil, 
N.W.  by  Bolivia,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  La  Plata,  from 


^^mi 


PAKAGDAY   AKD   DBCBDAY.  699 

which  it  is  separated  by  the  Puxanli.  Paraguay,  and  Pilpomayo. 
I  Lat.  21°  — 27°  Sff  S.  Urngnay,  or  Eanda  Oriental,  has 
[  Brazil  on  the  N.  and  E.  j  the  Argentine  Confederation  on  the 
"  ;  the  Eio  de  la  Plata  on  the  S.  ;  end  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on 
L  the  SJl     Lat.  30°— 34°  53'  S.  ;  Ion.  63°  30'— 58°  23'  W. 

Aaoncinn,  the  cap.  of  the  fonner  state,  is  in  the  aame  latitude  as  C. 
[ ,  Corrientee,  in  East  Africa,  and  the  rentre  of  Australia;  while  Monto 
k  Video,  the  cap.  of  the  latter,  is  nearly  an  the  same  imruUel  as  Buenos 
r  Ap«s,  Santiago  de  Chil^,  Capa  of  Good  Hope,  and  Sydney. 

Ares  and  Fopnlallon. — The  area  of  Faragnay  is  vny  uncertain,  as 
the  bouitJaiies  have  not  heen  settled  ;  bnt  it  is  usually  estimated  nt 
76,000  sq.  ro.,  or  five-sixtlia  that  of  Great  Btitaiu  ;  while  Bands 
Oiiental  has  an  area  of  fiS.SOO  eq,  m.,  or  somewhat  less  than  Para- 
gnay.     The  population  of  the  former  state,  in  1B74,  or  immediately 

I  after  the  war  with  Biiiail,  was  estimated  at  103,000,  including  Indians; 

I-  while  that  o£  the  latter,  in  1873,  was  450,000,  or  only  ono-tliird  that 

I' of  Wales. 

Political  DlTiitonB  — The  first -mentioned  republic  is  suhdivided 
into  -25,  and  the  other  into  13  departments.     The  towns  are  ftw  in 
[   number,  and  are  chiefly  as  foliowa  ; — 

Pabaguat. — .^Buncion  8,  Villa  Hioa,  n.,  Concepcion  B  (Paniguay). 
UnnGUAY. — Monte  Video  126,  Maldonado  2,  San  Jos^,  Colonia  3 
(Itio  de  la  Plata),  Faysandu  (Uruguay). 

SescriptlTe  Kotea.— Aanndon  or  Assnmptin],  at  the  confluence  of  Uie 
Faragnay  and  Pilcomayo,  possesses  considerable  trade  in  tobacco,  sugar, 
hides,  timber,  and  espeaially  yerba  or  taragnay  t«a.  Concepcian,  tlie 
depot  to  which  the  Paraguay  tea  is  brought  trom  the  forests  on  its  way 
"     ■ Monte  Video,  so  named  from  a  mounlain  OTeriookinR  it 


Gousiderable  trade. 

SnitltM  and.  OUmate,— The  stuTacB  of  FaraKuay  is  hilty  on  the 
Brazihan  frontier,  where  the  Sieirvi  Amambahy  forms  the  walar- 
parting  hetweea  the  Farani  and  Paraguay,  flat  in  the  centre,  and 
marshy  in  the  S.W.  ;  while  the  dimate,  tboQgh  tropical,  is  greatly 
modified  by  the  inequaKdes  of  the  surface.  The  mean  temp,  of 
Asuncion  is  S5°  Fah.,  with  an  occasional  rise  to  100°.  Urn^iay  is 
level  along  the  coast,  and  destitute  of  wood,  hut  the  interioi'  is  full 
of  ravines  and  heights  clothed  with  tbrests,  and  abounding  vrith  wUd 
animals.  The  cllinate,  tllough  damp,  ia  generally  temperate  and 
healthy  ;  io  winter,  cold  winds  and  heavy  rains  are  prevalent,  but 
ice  is  unknown,  except  on  the  higber  elevations. 

Hatnnl  ProdnotlonB.— These  are,  in  eenvral,  the  same  as  in  the 
Argentine  Confederation,  to  which,  in&ed,  both  countries  phyu- 


600  POLITICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 

cally  belong.  The  pi*ecioas  metals  and  other  minerals  common  to 
the  other  countries  of  South  America  have  not,  as  yet,  been  found 
in  Paraguay ;  but,  in  1864,  valuable  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  and  sulphur  have  been  discovered  in  Uruguay,  in  the  depart- 
ment Minas.  In  the  forests  of  Paraguay  are  found  at  least  60  vaiie- 
ties  of  timber,  including  the  caoutchouc  or  india-rubber  tree  and 
many  dye-woods.  Many  of  the  hills  are  literally  covered  with  yerba 
or  Paraguay  tea,  which  is  largely  exported  to  most  parts  of  South 
America,  and  which  is  no  contemptible  substitute  for  the  tea  of 
China.  At  every  meal,  and  at  every  hour  of  the  day,  it  is  drunk. 
Hot  water  is  poured  on  the  powdered  leaf,  then  a  lump  of  burned 
sugar,  and  sometimes  a  few  drops  of  lemon-juice,  are  added,  and  the 
inSision  is  drunk  off  quickly.  Cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  form  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  population  in  Uruguay,  their  produce,  con- 
sisting of  wool,  hides,  horns,  jerked  beef,  ana  tallow,  forming  the 
main  articles  of  export.  Jerked  or  Monte  Video  beef  is  now  largely 
exported  to  Britain,  and  sold  at  less  than  one-half  the  price  of  ordi- 
nary meat.  In  1868,  the  exports  of  Paraguay  amounted  to  £520,000, 
and  of  Uruguay  to  £2,679,273. 

Ethnography. — In  Paraguay  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  con- 
sists  of  Indians  of  the  Guarani  nation,  who  here  approach  nearer  the 
whites  than  any  other  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  America.  Spain 
took  possession  of  Paraguay  in  1536,  but  in  1811  it  recovered  its 
independence.  From  1814  to  1840  it  was  ruled  by  Dr  Francia, 
under  whose  despotic  sway  all  foreigners  were  excluded.  Its  inde- 
pendence as  a  separate  state  was  recognised  by  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation in  1852.  In  1862  Don  Francisco  Lopez  succeeded  his 
father  as  Dictator.  In  1865  he  quarrelled  with  the  three  neighbour- 
ing states— Brazil,  La  Plata,  and  Uruguay.  After  a  desperate 
struggle  of  seven  years,  during  which  he  manifested  extraordinary 
courage  and  military  skill,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Aqui  Daban,  March  1870,  a  full  half  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  Para- 
guay having  already  perished.  The  country  now  enjoys  peace,  but 
is  practically  ruined.  Urugpay,  formerly  a  province  of  Brazil,  de- 
cUu^  its  independence  in  1825,  and  was  recognised  as  a  free  state  by 
the  treaty  of  Monte  Video  in  1828.  Civil  war  and  misrule  have 
since  seriously  impeded  its  prosperity,  while  more  recently  the 
country  has  had  to  contend  unceasin^y  against  the  intrigues  and 
hostility  of  Buenos  Ayres.  A  colony  of  Protestant  Vaudois  has  re- 
cently been  establish^  in  the  countay,  from  whose  superior  culture 
and  activity  much  good  may  be  augured.  In  the  suppression  of  the 
revolution  in  Paraguay  in  1874,  the  Brazilian  troops  took  an  active 
part,  and  Brazil  has  thus  assumed  a  virtual  protectorate  over  it. 

Blver-System  of  Soutli  America.— The  rivers  of  South  America 
belong  to  four  great  basins— \'iz.,  those  of  the  Pacific,  Atlantic, 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  continental  basin  of  I^e  Titicaca. 


fahaguay  and  ukuguay. 


601 


Lcuiins  inclinmp  to  the  CarlMtean  Sea. 
Toicwt. 

Moin])oz.  Honda,  Bo- 
gota, n 
.  Aktioquia,   Medel- 

li5,  popatax. 
.  BocoRBO,  n  ,  TrKJA. 
Chagres,     A<>pniwnll, 
Caktageka,     Bta. 
Marta. 
G.  of  Vonezntila,..liarac>ayl»o,  Coro. 


Jiirent. 
Uttgdaieiia, . . . 

CaucA,  I ... 

Bngomnzn, . 
Cariitbeau  B<a,  ..< 


lliveip  Toicns» 

L.  MaracayVio, Troxillci.  c. 

Ziilia, Faufloka,  il 

Cliama, Merida. 

Co.  Venezuela, ...  Pnerto  Cabello.  "Va- 
lencia, n. ,  La  Gur. V- 
nu  Cakacar.  BaV- 
oelona,  Cumniuu 
Cariaco. 


Orinoco.. . . 
A]mr6, 1. 


Bcutiwi  iiiclininfi  to  tlie  J  tlantie. 
.AngoBtnra.  ,K  Co.  Brazil, ....Natal,  Parahylia,  Re- 


Portugnesa.  I 

Guannre, 

Co.  GniauB, 


Ban  Fernando,  Atdia- 
gnas,  Variiiafi,  u. 

BarqniHimeto. 

Gnanarg. 

Groroe  Town,  Para- 
maribo. Cayekke 


Amazon.. 


Madeira,. . . 
Guapar^, 
Maiuore,. 


Rife,    Goyana,     u., 
Porto    CalTo,    Ser- 

Ban  FranciRco, . . .  Penedo. 

All  HuintK'  Bay. . .  Bahia,  Caxncira,  n 

E.  Co.  Begun), . . .  Porto  Bcpuro. 

Olivenga,  Coxaniarea,  j  Done, Ouro  Prelo,  n.,  Pir- 

Guamaubuco,       u. ,  j  anga.  u. 

HuarL  ,  S.  £.  Co.  Brazil, . .  Victoria.  Bio  d  e  .1  a- 

Balaazno.  i  keiro,  Parati. 

Matto  Gn)RR0.  '  Lake  PatoR, Porto-Alopre. 

Exaltacion,  Trinidad,    Parana Hnldonado,      Moktf 


Rio  Negro.  I  . 

L'PByali 

A]iuriiua(t,  I. 

.lan.ia,  I. . . 

Huullapt, 


PaRtaz;t.  I .... 

l*autc.  I 

TiicantiuR, 

Araguay.  I... 
VermellM*, . 

Maranhao, 

Itapicura. 

Pamnahyba, . . . 
Jaguarilie, 


Video,  Buenob  Av- 
HKB,  Colonia,  Rih 
sario,  P  a  i:  a  k  a, 
&AKTA    Fe,    Cf»Ri:i- 

EKTEB. 

Uruguay,  I Paysandu. 

Quarto, Bak  Lris. 

Balado, Bakta  Fe,  Balta. 

Paraguay, Corrienteb,     Abuk- 

ciOK,  Concepcion. 

Vermesjo Jujuy,  n. 

Tarlja,  /...Tarija. 
Pilconiayo, . .  Abdkciok,     Ch  tqui- 
BACA.  PotoBi,  n. 

Cnyabli,  2 Cuyal>a,  n. 

Curitiba,  I Cnritiba,  n. 

Anliemby, 8.  Panlo,  P.  Felix. 

Par4y Barbacena,  u. 


Ktr.  of  Magellan, 
Cu.  Chile, 


Maule 

Il.'ijiel 

Maypu 


Co.  Bolivia, . . , 


Lake  Titicacn,. 


Bta.  Cruz,  n. ,  Cocha- 

bamlKL 
.  .Monnofi  or  Barra. 
.Cuzco,  n. 

.Ayacucho,  Aliaiicoy. 
.  Huancaveliea. 
.Moyobaniba.  n.,  Taru- 

pnto,  n.,  IIuanuc4i,j 

PaHc,(».  n.  j 

.RiolMinilia. 
.  Cuenga. 
.Paril,  Canieta. 
.  .Ko  towns. 
.Goyaz  or  Villa  Boa. 
. .  Maranhao. 
.Caxias. 

, .  Paraualiy>>n,  OeiraR.n. 
,.Aracati,'Ban  Joa5  do 

Princii)e.  ' 

Battint  inclining  to  th€  Pacific. 

.Ptnta  Arekas.  '  Loa, Atacamn. 

.  Valdivia,         Aranca,  |  Co.  Pern, Arica.   Islay,    Piaco, 

Concepcion,  Valpa-  Tacna,  n.,  Moque- 

raiao,      Cuqnimbo,  gna. 

Huaaco,      Caldera,  Quilca, Arequipa. 

Copiapo.  {  Rimac Callao,  Lima. 

.Cauquenes,  Talca.        I  N.W.  Co.  Peru,  ..Hnaari,         TruxiUo, 
.Chilian.  i  Lambayeqtie,      Fl- 

.Ban  Fumando.  I  ura,  Fayta. 

.Baktiaqo  de  Chile,   G.  orGna7aqnll,..Tumbez,  Guayaquil. 

n.  I  fianieraldAH, Quira 

Cobijo.  Patia, Fasto. 

'  O.  of  Panama Favaxa. 

Bonn  t\f  Ctmtin&!HUU  Streams. 

Lb  Paz.  PmiD,  Chn- 1  DcMgmdero Omro. 

quitu.  I 

2  g 


602  POLITICAL  OEOGRAPUT. 


OCEANIA. 

Oceania  is  the  name  given  by  modern  geographers  to  a  sixth 
division  of  the  globe,  comprising  all  the  islands  and  archipela- 
gos in  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  the  Bonin  Islands,  S.  of  Japan 
(lat.  27°  40'  N.),  to  Macquarie  Island,  S.W.  of  New  Zealand 
(lat.  54°  50'  S.),  and  from  Sumatra  Qon.  95'  25'  E.)  to  Easter 
Island,  about  2000  m.  off  the  coast  of  Chil^  (Ion.  110  W.) 

It  thus  embraces  82*"  of  latitude  and  160"  of  longitude.  Its  extreme 
length,  from  Achen  Head  in  Sumatra  to  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  Cape  San  Lucas  in  Old  California,  is  upwards  of  11,000  m.; 
while  the  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  is  more  than  half  that  distance. 
The  aggregate  area  and  population  are  extremely  uncertain,  as  many  of 
the  islands  have  been  but  recently  discovered,  while  all  of  them  are  as 
yet  very  imperfectly  explored.  Probably,  however,  the  former  does  not 
fall  short  of  4,500,000  sq.  m.,  or  one-fifth  larger  than  the  continent  of 
Europe  ;  while  the  latter  is  generally  estimated  at  about  30,000,000,  or 
less  tnan  the  population  of  Great  Britain  at  the  last  census. 

Divisions. — Oceania  is  now  usually  divided  into  four  ^eat  sections, 
which  are  tolerably  well  defined,  not.  only  by  geographical  position, 
but  also  by  various  physical  characteristics ;  for  example,  tneir  geo- 
logical formation,  their  botanical  character,  and  the  animals  and  races 
of  man  which  inhabit  them.  These  large  divisions  are — 1.  Austral- 
asia or  Melanesia,  in  the  south-west,  embracing  the  continent  of 
Australia,  Papua,  New  Zealand,  and  numerous  smaller  islands  con- 
tiguous to  them ;  2.  Malaysia,  also  called  the  Eastern  or  Indian 
Archipelago,  in  the  north-west,  embracing  the  numerous  islands  and 
archipelagos  that  extend  from  the  north-western  shores  of  Australia 
and  New  Guinea  to  Further  India  and  China;  3.  Micronesia,  for- 
merly reckoned  a  part  of  Polynesia,  in  the  north-east,  and  consisting 
of  the  numerous  small  islands  lyin^  north  of  the  equator  and  east  of 
the  Malay  Archipelago  ;  4.  Polynesia,  or  the  South  Sea  Islands,  com- 
prising the  numerous  archipelagos  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  east  of 
Australasia.  (See  Johnston's  Map  of  Oceania  in  his  '  School  Atlas  of 
General  Geography.*) 

L  AUSTRALASIA. 

The  first  of  the  above-named  divisions,  termed  Australasia 
from  its  southern  position  in  relation  to  Asia,  and  Melanesia 
from  the  dark  complexion  of  its  inhabitants,  lies  about  midway 
between  Africa  and  South  America,  having  Malaysia  on  the 
N.W.,  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  W.  and  S.,  and  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  K  and  N.E.  It  extends  from  the  equator  to  lat, 
54''  50'  S.,  and  from  Ion.  113°  to  180°  E.  The  total  area  is  sup- 
posed to  amount  to  about  3,428,000  sq.  m.~that  is,  to  the  area 
of  Europe  without  the  islands ;  and  the  population  to  about 
2,600,000. 


OCliAM 


603 


This  area  enibrauts  the  coutiiieat  of  Australia,  1 
man'i  Idnd,  New  Zealuid,  Aucklaad  Isles,  Antipodes  lalsj 

IbIbs,  Norfolk  Islaud,  New  CaledoDia,  New  Hebrides,  QueL 

Isles,  Salomon  Isles,  the  Louisiade  Archipelago,  New  Britain,  New  Ire- 
laad,  Adiniralt;  lalea,  Papua  or  New  Guinea,  Arroo  Isles,  and  Timor- 
•     .      ..„-.....■.  .  .1  .t     -■--—----    -J  i)  oiiiraoterised  by » 

I  precouderatics 
J. — ._^,^  p^ 


laut  ■'  Viewed  as  a  whole,  this  exteiiidve  regioa  it  characterise 
Tery  spare  population,  by  a  paucity  of  rivers,  by  a  great  prepom 
of  sandy  deserts,  and  by  the  siugularity  of  Its  animal  and  vegetab 


iii» 


I 


many  iiistances,  no  parallt 
FiiL-  ^L^_j^:.|gg  consist  of  three 

_.,  _. ...  are  probably  Tiir- 

•aisra  (p.  eil) ;  S.  The  Papuans,  in  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  New  Ira- 
land,  Salomon  Islands,  Now  Hebrides,  the  Loaisiade  Archipelago,  and 
How  Caledonia,  forming,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  a  distinct  variety  of  the 
Jjuman  race,  whose  numerous  dialects  have  Utile  affinity  with  any  other 
language ;  and,  3,  The  Maories,  in  New  Zealand,  a  Malay  o-Folynesian  race. 

ADSTEALIA. 

Oftogxapliieal  F(»ltlciti.~Au3ti'a1ia,  the  mnaHest  of  the  mx  conti- 
neots,  has  Papua  and  Malaysia  on  the  N.,  From  which  it  is  separated 
by  Torres  Strait  and  the  Timor  Sea  ;  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Baas 
Strait  (the  latter  separating  it  from  Taamania)  on  the  W.  and  3.; 
and  the  Pacifio  Ocean  on  theK  Lat.  10°  40'— 39°  ll'S.;  Ion.  113°-- 
163°  IT  E. 

Inform,  it  is  of  an  irregidar  onion  shape,  having  its  greatest  extansion 
troa  K  to  W.,  in  wliich  direction  it  measures  about  ^00  m.,  while  it3 
Bitreme  hreadtli  from  N.  to  S.  does  not  esceed  1980  m.  Sydney,  tlie 
cap.  of  New  South  Wales  (lat.  33°  S4'  S.),  is  neariy  on  the  same  parallel 
as  Cape  Town,  Santiago  de  Child,  and  Buenos  Ayres, 

Area,  Fopnliitton,  uid  PollUoal  SlTlBlons, — The  area  is  esti- 
mated at  2,963,325  sq.  m.,  or  ahont  five-sixths  of  the  area  of 
Europe,  and  the  population  in  1879  at  2,079,619'  (including  60,000 
aborigines).  The  entire  continent  is  a  possession  of  Great  Britain, 
which,  daring  the  last  ninety-two  years,  has  established  five  highly 
prosperous  calonies  on  its  eastern  and  southern  shores,  viz.: — 


o„.™. 

a™  in  Eng. 
sniiare  miles. 

P.ipnlntlop 

T«rwben 

IfBwaonth  Wales,    .        . 

SouOi  Ans'tralia,       '. 
Wert  AustralU,         .         . 

323,«7 
88,198 
903,890 
978,000 
670,000 

712,019 
887,«* 
262,000 
28.166 
200,000 

178B 
1851 
1834 
1820 
1859 

I  New  South  Wales.— Sydney  200,  Paramatta  6  (Port  Jackson), 
k  Gonlbum  5  n,  (Hawkesbnry),  Newca^ttle  8,  Maitknd  8  (Hunter), 
I  Bathurat  6  (Macquaiie),  Grafton  7  (Clarence),  Alburj'  3  (Murray). 


60-i  POLITICAL   GEOGRArHY.  , 

Victoria. — Melbourne  200  n.,  Sandridge  8,  WiUiamstown  8, 
Geelong  23  (Port  Philip),  Belfast  3,  Portland  3  (Portland  Bay), 
Sandhurst  26,  Castlemaine  8  (Loddon),  Ballarat  47  (Nurriwillan), 

South  Australia. — Adelaide  50  n.,  Port  Adelaide  3,  Glenelg 
2  n.  (G.  of  St  Vincent),  Kooringa  2  (Burra  Creek),  Wallaroo  2, 
Moonta  5,  Kadina  4  n.  (Spencer  Gulf),  Palmerston  (N.  coast).  , 

West  Australia. — Perth  6,  Freemantle  5  (Swan  River),  Gerald- 
ton  1,  Bunbury  (W.  coast),  Albany  2  (King  George's  Sound). 

Queensland. — Brisbane  32  (Brisbane),  Ipswich  8  (Bremer),  Too- 
woomba  5  n.  (Condamine),  Maryborough  8,  Gympie  6  (Mary),  Rock- 
hampton  8  (Fitzroy),  Cooktown  8  (Endeavour). 

Notes  on  Towns. — Sydney,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  magnificent 
harbour  of  Port  Jackson,  is  a  large,  elegant,  commercial  city,  containing 
numerous  public  buildings.  Sydney  was  founded  in  1788  as  a  penal  settle- 
ment, the  inlet  of  Port  Jackson  being  better  adapted  for  that  purpose 
than  Botany  Bay,  to  which  the  convicts  had  been  transported.  At  the 
uigent  request  of  the  Australian  colonists,  the  penal  settlement  has  been 
abolished.  The  commerce  and  importance  of  the  city  have  greatly  in- 
creased since  the  discovery  of  gold  at  Bathurst  in  1851.  The  Botanic 
Garden,  the  finest  in  Australia,  occupies  thirty-eight  acres  of  ground,  and 
contains  an  immense  collection  of  exotic  plants  from  all  countries.  Para- 
matta, next  to  Sydney  the  oldest  town  in  the  colony,  is  noted  for  its 
orchards  and  vineries.  Ooulbnrn,  134  m.  from  Sydney,  is  an  import- 
ant town  on  the  Great  Soutliem  Railway,  and  an  episcopal  city.  New- 
castle, at  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter,  and  the  principal  shipping  port  north 
of  Sydney,  which  it  nearly  equals  in  the  extent  of  its  tonnage,  is  chiefly 
not^  for  its  valuable  coal-mines,  which  give  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  workmen.  Upwards  of  1000  tons  of  coal  are  exported  daily. 
Uaitland,  equal  in  size  to  Newcastle,  and  in  an  extremely  fertile  district 
termed  the  "Granary  of  New  South  Wales."  Here  the  grape  is  widely 
cultivated,  the  other  crops  being  maize,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes. 
Coal  of  an  excellent  quality  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  Bathurst, 
the  principal  town  in  the  recently-discovered  gold  region.  Uelboume, 
cap.  of  Victoria,  on  the  Yarra  Yarra,  three  miles  from  its  mouth  in  Port 
Philip,  is  the  great  emporium  for  ail  foreign  goods  intended  for  the  colony. 
Since  the  discovery  of  the  gold-diggings  its  commerce  has  been  enormously 
developed.  The  exports  in  1878  were  valued  at  £14,925,000,-'  about 
£3,895,190  of  which  represented  gold.  Sandridge,  now  the  port  of  Mel- 
bourne, is  situated  on  Hobson's  Bay,  about  three  miles  from  the  cap., 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway.  WiUiamstown,  the  former  port 
of  Melbourne,  situated  on  Hobson's  Bay,  opposite  Sandridge,  and  eight 
miles  from  the  cap.,  has  a  patent  slip,  graving-docks,  and  all  conveniences 
for  repairing  vessels.  Ooelong,  the  most  important  town  in  Victoria  next 
to  Melbourne,  which  it  surpasses  in  the  convenience  of  its  situation  and 
the  salubrity  of  its  climate.  It  is  the  chief  port  for  the  wool  of  the  colony. 
Sandhurst,  a  mining  town  in  the  Bendigo  district,  and  a  place  of  great 
trade,  with  a  railway  to  the  capital.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  rich 
auriferous  countij.  Castlemaine,  a  place  of  great  importance  in  the  early 
days  of  the  gold-fields,  has  for  some  time  past  been  retrograding,  the  yield 
of  gold  having  greatly  declined.    Ballarat,  the  second  most  important 


OCEANIA.  605 

.,._._  .... ,, t  position  to  its  Wng  the  centre  of 

perhaps  the  richest  goM-yieldinf!  district  in  the  world.  The  precbua 
iiiL'tal  waa  disuoTcred  h«re  in  ISfil-  Adelaide,  cap.  of  South  Australiu, 
on  the  Toirens,  and  about  eight  miles  from  Fort  Adelaide,  its  seaporli, 
is  a  thriving  couiiiiercial  town,  husily  engi^ed  in  the  exportation  of  wool 
»iid  copper.  Pertli,  on  the  Swan  River,  twelve  railaa  above  its  moutli,  is 
tlie  eap.  of  Westem  Australia,  but  otherwise  a  ploue  of  little  importance. 
rraemantU,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Swan  River,  is  the  port  of  Perth,  aui 
was.  till  1B6S,  a  convict  station.  Brisbane,  cap.  of  Queensland,  a  colony 
established  in  13d9,  and  uovr  attracting  nuiuerons  eniigiants,  ie  a  rapidly 
iiicreaaidg  town.  Ipewieli.thB  seiaind  town  in  the  colonj',  twenty-flia 
miles  west  of  Brisbane,  which  it  rivals  in  the  extent  of  ita  commerce. 
Kwdibampton,  on  the  FiUtroy,  420  m.  north  of  Brisbane,  may  be  regarded 
£S  the  can.  of  nnithem  Queensland.  It  is  the  port  of  shipment  for  the  pro- 
duce of  the  Peak  Downs  copper  and  gold  mines.  loowoomba,  the  prin- 
cipal town  of  the  Darling  Downs  Dlstriet,  102  m.  W.  of  Brieljane,  ex- 
lioita  wool,  wheat,  maize,  and  wine.  Karyborougli,  on  the  Mary,  25 
ni,  from  its  month,  is  the  iwrt  of  shipment  for  roost  of  the  produce  of 
the  Burnett  District,  of  the  gold  from  Gympie,  and  copper  from  Mt. 
Perry.  Gympie,  54  m.  8.  of  Marj'borough,  with  valuable  gold-mines, 
■which  liave  already  yielded  nearly  £2,000,000  of  gold.  CooWdwh, 
1050  m.  N.W.  of  Brisbane,  is  one  ol  the  most  important  seaporta  of  the 
colony.  PalnerBioii,  on  the  coast  of  North  Australia  Iwhicli  was  au- 
neifldto  the  oolony  of  South  Australia  in  ISrtS),  and  on  tlie  Arafura  Sea, 
baa  a  splendid  bai  bour,  suitable  to  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage,  with  a 
comparatively  healthy  eliinate.  guod  snil,  and  plenty  of  water  and  grass ; 
l)ut  the  only  prai^ticable  communication  with  Adelaidcj  its  mother  city. 
is  by  aea,  a  journey  of  several  thousands  of  miles. 

Sni&oe  and  Hountftlni. — Australia  ia  the  smalUst  and  least  known 
of  all  the  continents,  with  the  exception  of  the  south  clrcnm-palar. 
Jt  ia  also,  with  the  eame  eiceptiuii,  the  only  one  lying  entirely  in 
the  UDUtbcm  hemiapfaeve.  It  lios  S.E.  of  the  great  eontiuent  of  the 
Old  World,  in  the  Bauie  way  that  South  America  Kes  S.E.  of  the 
,  great  coutinout  of  the  New ;  bat  while  the  latter  is  joined  to  the 
northern  coutinent  by  a  long  contiauoua  isthmus,  the  former  is  more 
loosely  connected  with  Asia  by  a  double  row  of  immense  islands. 
Like  both  the  other  southern  continents,  Australia  terminates  in  n 
point  at  the  south,  to  the  east  of  which  Ue  large  islands  ;  but  New 
Zealand  is  niorc  distant  from  Australia  than  Madagascar  ia  froui 
Afiica,  or  the  Falkland  Islaniia  from  South  America.  It' is  essenttnllf 
a,  level  continent,  aud  of  very  moderate  elevation,  conaiBling  of  an 
extensive  low.lyinf;  interior,  encircled  hj  a  border  of  more  eieyatei! 
lind  traversed  hy  chaina  of  mountains  which  rarely  rise  more  than 
firjoo  fL  above  saa-Ievel.  Another  peculiarity  of  this  continent  ia, 
that  along  its  north-eaateni  coxst,  at  a  distncm  of  from  20  to  60  ni. 
from  the  shore,  is  a  broad  wall  of  ooral  reef,  some  1200  m.  long,  from 
a  few  hundred  yards  to  a  mile  in  width,  and  id  depth  reaching  from 
the  bed  of  the  ocean  to  the  surface.  Between  this  reef  and  the  coast 
ships  can  safely  narigate,  while  the  wave«  of  the  Pacific  break  against 
.  the  outer  side  in  long  lines  of  white  foam.  The  principal  monntiuii- 
I  rmt^  lios  along  the  eastuvu  shore,  M  a  dutance  varying  from  CO  le 
Its  BV011UCO  clovBtiou  is  about  iStlQ  ft.,  its  loftiest  summits 


606  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPnY. 

'being  in  the  Australian  Alps,  between  New  Sonth  "Wales  and  Vic- 
toria, where  Mount  EoscinsKo  rises  to  an  elevation  of  7308  ft.,  and 
Hotham  and  Latrobe  in  the  same  range  to  nearly  an  equal  altitude. 
All  the  loftier  summits  of  this  range  are  covered  with  snow  in  winter 
and  spring.  Farther  north  are  the  Blue  Mountains,  in  the  same  lat. 
as  Sydney,  reaching  a  height  of  3600  ft.,  and  the  Liverpool  Range, 
4000  ft.  On  the  frontier  of  Queensland  is  Mount  Lindesay,  which 
has  an  altitude  of  5700  ft,  but  beyond  this,  to  the  northward,  the 
mountains  rarely  exceed  5000  ft.  in  height,  and  decrease  to  less  than 
1000  ft  as  they  approach  Cape  York.  Proceeding  westwards,  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Cai'pentaria  are  low  and  flat,  and  interspersed 
with  clumps  of  gum -trees.  Amhem  Land,  as  the  great  north-cen- 
tral peninsula  is  called,  is  a  plateau  of  from  2000  to  8000  ft.  in  ele- 
vation.  The  more  northerly  part  of  the  N.W.  coast  is  bold,  with 
granitic  and  basaltic  headlands ;  but  here  the  interior  remains  wholly 
unknown.  A  chain  of  low  hills  lines  the  coast  of  the  whole  of  West- 
em  Australia,  generally  at  a  distance  from  the  sea  of  about  250  m., 
some  of  the  summits  attaining  an  elevation  of  about  3500  ft  Near 
the  S.  W.  angle  of  the  continent  the  Darling  and  Roe  ranges  approach 
much  nearer  to  the  ocean,  and  rarely  exceed  1500  ft  in  height. 
Proceeding  eastward  along  the  southern  coast  of  the  continent,  the 
country  is  an  arid  desert.  The  entire  coast  of  the  great  Australian 
Bight,  extending  from  Cape  Arid  to  Cape  Catastrophe,  is  bold  and 
lofty,  rising  from  300  to  600  ft.  above  the  sea.  Here  no  rivers  enter 
the  ocean,  and  the  interior  consists  of  cheerless  desert  The  Gawlor 
Range,  in  South  Australia,  does  not  exceed  2000  ft.  in  elevation  ; 
but  the  Flindei*s  Range,  between  Lakes  Torrens  and  Frome,  and  run- 
ning north  and  south,  ascends  to  a  height  of  about  3000  ft.  Lastly, 
we  enter  the  colony  of  Victoria,  where  we  meet  the  Grampians,  at- 
taining, in  Mount  William,  an  elevation  of  6600  ft,  the  Pyrenees, 
and  the  Australian  Alps. 

Though  much  of  the  interior  remains  unexplored,  the  continent  has 
now  been  traversed  in  almost  all  directions.  The  greatest  feat  in  recent 
Australian  discovery  was  performed  by  M'Douall  Stuart  in  1862  ;  starting 
from  Adelaide,  he  travelled  across  the  continent,  emerging  at  Port  Dar- 
win in  the  extreme  north.  Ten  years  later,  and  along  this  route,  the 
great  Overland  Telegraph,  connecting  the  Australian  colonies  with  Eng- 
land, has  been  conslructed,  and  the  exploration  of  the  interior  has  there- 
by been  greatly  facilitated.  Thus  Col.  Warburton  in  1873,  leaving  the 
Overland  Telegraph  near  lat.  21%  and  proceeding  N.W.  and  W.,  reached 
Nickol  Bay  in  Western  Australia.  In  1874,  Mr  Forrest  achieved  a  still 
greater  feat,  by  starting  from  Champion  Bay  on  the  W.  coast,  and 
travelling  eastward  nearly  along  the  par.  of  26°  till  he  reached  Peake 
station,  on  the  great  telegraph  line.  '*It  may  be  reasonably  assumed 
that  the  whole  interior  region  west  of  the  140th  degree  of  east  longitude 
and  north  of  the  30th  degree  of  south  latitude  is  of  the  most  unpromising 
kind—that  it  is  without  rivers  and  without  mountains — and  that  it  forms 
an  inhospitable  and  dreary  desert  similar  to  that  traversed  by  Stuart, 
Sturt,  Burke,  Wills,  and  Forrest— and  that  beyond  the  desirability  of 
simply  determining  the  fact,  there  is  little  to  tempt  or  repay  an  explorer 
in  the  desolate  region  included  within  the  limits  now  mentioned.    Pop* 


OCEASEA.  607 

tUrahle  tmcts— of  a  more  attractive  chir- 
i  cosBt,  and  estendinc  to  a  few  niilea  InlBod 
ra  aliorea  ;  but  in  all  probability  these  irill 
lurrounding  u  wiilttspreail  Sahara."  * 
lame  relative  positinii  in  the  sontbern  hctnl- 
'  Africa  does  lii  the  DOtthem— the  tropic  ot 
.  . .  itre  of  the  one,  and  that  of  Capricorn  thxongb 
This  interior  deaert  has  been  supposed  hy  Borne 
date  ;  aQd  a  great  district  of  lakea  in  the 
lutthis  coujacture.  Lake  ETra^  the  largest 
npy  lake  of  variable  eitent,  and  with  ealt- 
ibove  the  Bea-level  hai  been  found  tu  be 
only  70  ft,  and  its  area  ia  estimated  at  HOD  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  three  times 
that  of  Oreat  Salt  Lake  in  Utah  ;  while  Lake  Torreus,  which  ia  perhaps 
at  a  leas  heigiit  above  the  sea,  ia  not  properly  a  lake,  but  an  extensive 

depression,  with  CTeat  shallow  ealt  pools  aurronndcd  by  Bandhilla  r' 

with  bouWers.    Though  only  BepBiated  i— "- ' 

liles  in  breadth  from  tlie  head  of  Spenci 


tions — possibly  indeed  consi 
acter  may  be  found  along  th( 
■long  the  northern  and  waste 
constitute  but  a  mere  fringe  e 
This  region  occnpiea  the  e 
aiihtre  BS  the  great  Sahara  ol 
Cancer  posses  through  tlie  een 
the  centra  of  the  othi  ™ 
to  be  the  bed  of  a  sea  of  recen 
south  of  it  would  seem  to  bear 
of  these,  ia  a  great  shallow  awa 
encriisted  shores.     Its  height 


s  of  twelve 
n  Weatem 


,  and  none  of  the  lakes  in  this  region,  i 
Australia,  have  any  oiittetf 

Capes  uid  PenliiBnlaB. — Citpe  Yorh  in  Queensland,  tbe  most 
northern  point  of  the  coutinent ;  Poiut  Dale  and  Cobnrg  Peninanla, 
in  North  Australia  ;  Capes  Londonderry  aud  Leveque,  on  the  N.W. 
coast  i  Steep  Point,  the  weBtem  extremity  of  the  contiaent ;  Cape 
Leeuwin,  the  S.W.  extremity;  Cajtc  Spencer,  in  South  Australia; 
York  Peninsula,  Letwoen  Spencer  Gulf  and  Oulf  of  St  Vincent ; 
Capes  Otway  and  Wilson,  S.  of  Victoria;  Cajie  Howe,  the  S.E. 
extremity  of  the  continent;  Cape  Byron,  the  eastern  extremity; 
Sandy  Cape  and  Cape  Melville,  on  the  N.E.  coast. 

GuUB  and  Sttsita.— Australia  is  but  little  indented  by  arms  of  the 
ocean,  and  the  coasts  are  g;eDerBllj'  dclicieut  in  good  harbours,  though 
Port  Jackson  in  New  South  Wales,  and  Port  Denison  in  Queensland, 
are  among  the  beat  in  the  world.  Torres  Strait,  hetwcen  Australia 
and  Papua ;  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  between  Cape  York  and  Point 
Dale  ;  Admiralty  Gnlf  and  Exmouth  Gulf  on  the  N.W.  cosat;  Shark 
Bay  and  Giographo  Bay  on  tha  W.  coast ;  Great  Australian  Bight, 
Spencer  Gulf,  St  Vincent  Gulf,  Encounter  Bay,  and  Port  Philip,  all 
(in  the  sonthern  coast ;  Bass  Strait,  between  victoria  and  Tasmania  ; 
Comer  Inlet,  Botany  Bay,  Port  Jackson,  Port  Stephen,  and  Moreton 
Bay,  all  on  the  cd^  aoBst. 

RtTBTB  and  Lakea. — Auatralia  is  more  delicient  in  its  inlitnd  waters 
then  any  of  the  other  continents  ;  while,  with  one  important  excep- 
tion, the  rivers  that  exist  are  not  navigable  to  any  coudderable  extent. 

The  only  great  river  hitherto  explored  is  tha  Murray,  which,  with  its 
main  affluents,  the  DarUugand  the  M  urmmbidjee,  haa  I U  sources  in  the 
m  declirity  of  the  range  ol  mountains  that  runs  along  the  eastern 


■oBst.    Following  its  principal  tinnosities,  tha  Unrmy  is  nearly  liOOO 
D  length,  while  the  area  of  Its  basia  is  upwards  of  500,000  sq.m.     It 
*  Sir  CUtrles  Slchelaon,  But. ,  In  '  tVuieei1i>ig>  at  Rojal  Oeogriplilciil  S(idety, 
rkeUai  Johiistofl,  luiL,  In  hit '  aaiilD«ok  of  Phyiloal  Uengn]>Ii]r,'  p.  II. 


6P8  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPlir. 

a  general  south-westerly  course,  and  enters  the  Indian  Ocean  at  Encounter 
Bay,  in  the  south-eastern  angle  of  South  Australia.  The  Murray  is 
navigable  up  to  Albury,  878  m.  S.  W.  of  Sydney ;  whUe  its  affluent,  the 
Murrumbidjee,  is  navigable  to  Gundagai,  240  m.  from  Sydney.  The 
Brisbane,  falling  into  Moreton  Bay,  is  navigable  for  76  m.  North  of  it 
are  the  Fitzroy  and  the  Burdekin,  flowing  to  the  east  coast.  On  the 
north  coast  may  be  mentioned  the  Mitchell,  the  Flinders,  the  Albert,  and 
the  Roper,  all  flowing  into  the  G.  of  Carpentaria.  In  the  west  of  North 
Australia,  the  Victoria  runs  northward  mto  Queen's  Channel ;  while  in 
Western  Australia  are  the  Fortescue,  Gascoyne,  Murchison,  and  Swan, 
all  flowing  westward  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  principal  lakes,  as 
already  indicated,  occur  in  South  and  West  Australia,  as  Lakes  Torrens, 
Eyre,  Frome,  Gregory,  and  Gairdner,  in  the  former  colony  ;  Lakes  Austin 
and  Moore  in  the  latter,  and  Amadeus  in  Alexandra  Land. 

Climate. — As  the  northern  third  of  Australia  is  situated  in  the 
torrid  zone,  the  climate  of  that  portion  is  necessarily  subject  to 
periodical  rains  and  a  high  temperature.  In  general,  the  climate  of 
the  Australian  colonies  may  be  considered  as  very  dry — the  amount 
of  moisture  not  exceeding  that  of  Cape  Colony  and  the  southern  parts 
of  South  America,  which  places  they  also  resemble  in  their  mean 
annual  temperature.  The  Sydney  summer  is  described  as  very  de- 
lightfal,  and  resembling  that  of  Avignon  or  Constantinople ;  while 
its  winter  is  compared  with  that  of  Cairo  and  Cape  Town.  Mean 
annual  temperature  62^.7,  mean  sunmier  69^6,  and  mean  winter  54^ 
It  is  remarked  that  along  the  S.E.  coast  there  is  a  constant  variation 
in  the  climate  of  each  season  through  a  cycle  of  twelve  years ;  for 
six  years  there  is  a  constant  increase  of  drought,  the  sixth  being 
entirely  rainless ;  for  the  next  six  years  there  is  a  regular  increase  of 
humidity,  the  last  being  a  year  of  almost  incessant  rain.  Mean 
annual  temperature  at  Melbourne  57^.6,  spring  57**.  5,  summer  65".  2, 
autumn  58^  6,  winter  49^  The  average  rainfall  at  Sydney  is  58  in., 
at  Melbourne  32  in.,  and  at  Brisbane  55i  in.  In  the  interior  plains 
Sturt  experienced  a  heat  of  1 81**  in  the  shade  at  mid-day  in  summer, 
but  at  night  the  temperature  became  cool,  and  even  cold.  The 
moisture  brought  by  the  northern  monsoons,  which  are  drawn 
towards  this  continent  in  summer  by  the  ascending  current  caused 
by  the  heat  of  a  vertical  sun,  is  expended  on  the  northern  margin  of 
the  continent  in  the  summer  rains  ;  but  these  do  not  usually  pene- 
trate  farther  than  from  200  to  300  m.  from  the  coast  A  rainless 
summer  characterises  the  rest  of  the  continent ;  and  the  winter  rains 
from  the  south  do  not  seem  to  be  experienced  beyond  the  30th 
parallel  of  latitude. 

Minerals. — The  geological  structure  of  this  continent  is  character- 
ised by  great  uniformity,  the  mountain-ranges  of  the  coast  consisting 
of  primary  and  palttozoic  rocks  ;  while  the  whole  of  the  interior,  so 
far  as  yet  known,  is  of  tertiary  formation. 

The  finest  practical  result  on  record  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  geology 
deserves  to  be  stated  in  connection  with  these  mountain-ranges,  l^'e 
close  resemblance  of  their  structure  to  that  of  the  Ural  Mountains  led 
Sir  Roderick  L  Murchison,  in  1845,  to  predict  that  they  would  be  found 


r 


oci:ama.  609 

to  hs  Kurifemus;  snil,  sLt  years  aftencarda,  Mr  HargravES  liiscovered 
eiteaaice  depoaita  of  the  girecions  metal  at  Batliurst  and  Wellington,  ia 
Kevt  South  Wales ;  while  since  that  time  the  most  vaJuahU  and  eiteuiivs 
gald-Gelda  in  the  world  have  beeo  found  in  various  and  widespread  locall- 
tiea,  especially  in  the  province  of  Victoria.  At  the  International  Ex- 
hibition, held  in  London  in  1882,  a  gilded  pyramid  was  eihibited  reprc- 
— "ingthe  quantity  of  gold  aiported  from  Vict— '-  " »o=i.-iCpi 


It  was  16  ft,  high,  10  fL  Eq,  at  ita  base,  and  contained  liSi  cabic  ft. 
total  weight  of  the  gold  thus  represented  was  1,793,995  lb.,  B<»ii! 
^£104,649,723  sterling.    Very  little  gold  fa^  aa  yet  been  found  i 


.r  West  Australia;  but  the  former  contains  ineihanstibla  deposits 
copper  of  the  tinest  quality.  Coal  ia  abundant  in  Nevr  South  Wales 
(BspBcially  on  the  river  Hunter),  together  with  iron  ore,  which  will  pro- 
Iiably,  ere  long,  be  turned  to  good  accoont ;  coal  is  also  found  on  the 
Swan  I^ver,  in  West  Australia,  a  re^on  which  also  abounde  in  mercury, 
tine,  lead,  copper,  iron,  and  other  ores.  Coal  ia  scarce,  but  iron  [ilauti- 
ful,  in  South  Australia ;  while  gold,  cnpper,  and  coal  ore  plentiful  in 
Queensland.  On  the  whole,  tlie  rainei'al  productions  of  Aus^lia  equal, 
if  they  do  not  surpass,  in  value  those  of  any  other  continent. 

Botany  anil  Agilcnltara.— The  native  flora  of  Australia  and  Tas- 

ifnaiiia  compriseB  Schouw'a  24th  Botanic  Begion,  named  by  hiiti 
•■Brown's  Begion,"  in  honour  of  the  late  Bobert  Brown,  justly 
Mjled.  by  Humboldt  "the  prince  of  botanista." 
^  Thia  r^on  embraces  one  of  the  most  peculiar  floras  ou  the  earth's 
jiBTfacs,  The  native  trees  are  all  sveigreens,  and  the  forests  consist  priu- 
(dpally  of  gum-trees,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of  100  ei>ec!es,  acacias, 
and  shrubs  or  small  trees  allied  to  the  heath  tribe.  Of  6710  plantj 
hitherto  discovered  in  this  continant,  no  fewer  than  5440  are  peculiar  to 
it.    Bobert  Brown  alone,  iu  I30S,  carried  to  this  country  4000  species, 

bults  capable  of  being  uaed  an  food,  excepting  a  few  beiries  and'a  kind  of 
cbestnut ;  hut  along  the  Murchison  River,  in  Western  Aunlralii,  are  found 
wild  tobacco,  and  an  esculent  tuber  resembling  the  potato.  All  the  prin- 
cipal food-plants,  however,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  cultivated  with 
great  eucceaa  in  the  different  settlements ;  while  the  vine,  flg,  orange, 
peuch,  and  nunierouH  other  fruits,  Sourish  in  the  greate^C  luxuriance 
wherever  they  have  Vaen  tried.  In  some  places,  esjiecially  in  Queens- 
land, the  sT^ar-cane,  indigo,  and  cotton  plant  are  successfnlly  cultivated. 
Zi>ol<^. — This  eoatinent,  with  the  adjacent  groups  of  ialanda  which, 
with  it,  oonatitute  Melanesia,  forois  one  of  the  tivo  jirovinces  into 
whicb  naturalists  have  divided  the  Oceanic  Zoological  Kingdom. 
'I'he  faans  of  this  kin^luni  ia  the  most  jiecnliar  and  remarkable  in 
the  world — nearly  all  its  150  spsuies  of  mainmalB  being  peculiar  to 
it ;  the  quadruiuana,  pachydennBta,  and  niininautia  are  wholly 
wonting ;  the  marsiipialia,  oompminff  105  species,  and  the  edentol^ 
S  apecies,  are  all  peculidr  to  it ;  while  of  the  21  rodents,  no  fewer 
tlioii  IS  apBCiBB  are  nnknown  in  any  other  (mrt  of  the  world.  The 
kannroo,  wombat,  opoasum,  hn,Ddicoot,  porcupine  ant-eater,  onii- 
tharbyn<has  oi  water-mol^  uid  many  other  maiviipial  animals,  are 
I  kIL  pccnllaT  to  thia  continent  and  the  islands  in  its  ImDiedinta 
koFKinity.  Of  thi-se  animals,  the  largest  and  nioat  characteristic  are 
e  kangaroos,  of  whioh  theiv  am  4vveral  ^puciati  while  the  most 


612 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Commerce  and  Industry. — Fifty  years  ago  Australia  scarcely  ap« 
peai-ed  in  the  commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  three  of  its  five 
colonies  had  then  no  existence.  They  now  collectively  contain  more 
than  two  millions  of  British  colonists,  and  in  wealth  and  civilisa« 
tion  occupy  the  foremost  rank  among  European  colonial  possessions. 
In  1878  their  aggregate  Exports  amounted  to  £36,863,491,  and  their 
Imports  to  £40,465,000.  Including  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  the 
following  tables  show  the  conrmercial  and  financial  condition  of  each 
of  the  seven  Australasian  colonies  for  the  year  ending  31st  December 
1878 :— 


Colony. 

Total 
Exports. 

Total 
Impoits. 

Exports  to 

United 
Kingdom. 

Imports 

from  United 

Kingdom. 

N.  S.  Wales,    . 
Victoria,      .    . 
S.  Australia,     . 
W.  Australia,  . 
Queensland, 
Tasmania,    .     . 
Ni  Zealand, .     . 

£ 

12,965,000 

14,925,000 

5,355,000 

428,491 

3,190,000 

1,315,695 

6,015,525 

£ 

14,768,000 

16,161,000 

5,720,000 

380,000 

3,436,000 

1,324,812 

8,755,663 

£ 

5,516,000 

7,561,000 

3,079,218 

204,061 

999,261 

501,113 

4,017,525 

£ 

6,658,000 

5,859,750 

8,079,666 

141,360 

916,757 

262,953 

*  4,314,004 

44,194,711 

50,545,475 

21,878,178 

21,232,490 

Colony. 

Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Public  Debt. 

N.  S.  Wales, 

Victoria,       .... 

S.  Australia, 

W.  Australia, 

Queensland,  .... 

Tasmania,     .... 

N.  Zealand 

£ 
4,915,000 
4,485,000 
1,501,411 

163,344 
1,561,545 

386,060 
3,915,000 

£ 
4,940,000 
4,634,000 
1,353,582 

198,243 
1,543,820 

376,000 
4,365,000 

£ 

11,688,000 

17,022,000 

6,622,000 

161,000 

10,192,086 

1,738,500 

22,608,000 

16,927,360 

17,410,645 

70,031,586 

The  chief  articles  of  Australian  produce  are  gold,  copper,  and  wool. 
Victoria  is  the  colony  most  remarkable  for  its  gold.  From  the  discoveJrr 
of  that  metal  in  1851  to  1878,  the  gross  produce  of  the  Victoria  gold* 
fields  amounted  to  £192,050,682.  Of  its  other  exports  wool  now  tanks 
above  gold,  the  total  value  exported  in  1878  having  been  £5,81(V14S> 
the  greater  part  of  which  was  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom;  aad#^ 
follow  leather,  flour,  tallow,  and  bark.    The  staple  ortide  of  expocfcal 


OCEANIA, 


613 


from  Xew  Sonth  Wales  is  wool,  n-hkh  in  1678  amonnlpd  in  valne  to 
jf5,723,316  ;  and  next  come  Koici,  Uve-slock,  and  coal.  The  coal-nunea 
of  this  colony  are  of  great  extent,  snd  practically  ineibiiUstilile.  Wool, 
corn,  and  copper  are  the  principal  articles  eiported  from  South  Anstralia, 
the  fint. mentioned  alone  umonntfng  to  about  £1,834,000  per  annum. 
From  Western  Australia  we  derive  oonaMerabie  quantities  of  wool,  with 
copper  and  lead  ores :  and  from  Qneeniland,  wool,  gold,  tin,  copper, 
hides,  and  tallow.  The  articles  imported  by  the  Australian  colonir^ 
consist  mainly  of  British  teiMle  maiinfactiires,  metallio  goods,  machinery, 
timber,  tea.  grain,  spirits,  and  tobacco.  The  principal  occnpations  of  the 
peo|ile  in  the  various  colonies  are  thoHe  of  agriculture ,  stock'r&ising,  and 


.  barley,  and  oats  are  largely 
and  tobacco  succeed  admirably,  and  uf 
been  given  to  the  production  of 
■  '         large  fraction  of  the 


I 


mimng.    In  New  South  Wi 

onitivated  ;  while  sugar,  co 

late  jeaii  couBiderable  atl 

■wins.     Mining  operations  give  employment 

people  in  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales.     Sonth  Auxtralii 

the  granary  of  ttis  continent,  and  the  wheat  and  flour  are  objects  of  jn<^t 

pride  to  the  settlers,  while  the  cultnre  of  the  vine  is  a  recoEnised  branch 

of  industry.    At  the  International  Eihibition  of  1S62.  the  wheat  of  Snuth 

Australia  gained  the  Hrst  prize,  and  the  cotton  of  Queensland  was  prn- 

ronnced  superior  to  that  from  any  other  part  of  the  world.     The  Onega     . 

Plains  in  Queensland  aSbnl  pnstnrage  ol  the  richest  description:  here 

conntleBS  nuiii Iters  of  horses,  cattle,  and  nheep,  roam  in  a  half-wild  state. 

Intemil  CommniilaaUoii.^Iii  1679  there  were  2926  ni.  of  railway 
open  for  traffic  in  Australia,  of  which  Victoria  had  1174  m..  New 
South  Wsks  718,  South  Australia  ibS,  and  Queensland  500. 

Prograsa  of  Dlaoovety. — On  the  evidence  of  a  chart  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum,  the  earliest  discovery  of  Australia  must  be 
attribtlMd  to  the  Portuguese ;  hut  the  firaC  recorded  visit  waa  that  nf 
the  Dstch,  who,  in  1606,  discovered  a  portion  of  the  north  coast,  and 
gave  the  country  the  name  of  New  HoDand.  Cape  York,  its  N.E. 
ertremity,  wail  seen  by  the  Spanish  comiusjider,  Luia  Vaea  de  Torres, 
a  few  months  afterwards,  thoueh  little  was  kaowa  of  the  country 
until  after  Dam]iier,  Wallia,  and  afterwards  Cook,  explored  ita  vari- 
ous coasts.  Captain  Cook  landed,  in  Botany  Bay  in  1770,  now  pre- 
cisely 100  years  a^ ;  and  82  years  ago — the  iflere  span  of  a  hnman 
life — the  first  British  settlement  was  formed  at  Port  Jackson.  Fort 
Philip,  and  the  whole  extent  of  coast  lyin;;  westward  of  it,  was  not 
discovered  tilt  1802  ;  while  the  district  of  that  name,  which  whs 
formerly  a  dependency  of  New  South  Wales,  and  now  called  Vii;toria, 
was  not  colouised  tifl  1S35.  The  colony  of  Westera  AuatniUa,  nr 
Swan  River,  was  estahliahed  in  1829,  and,  aftsr  the  ceEsation  uf 
transportation  to  Tssmanin,  vms  m.nl'^  "  prTinl  spftlmnmif,  rt  fhn 
rennest  of  the  colonifto.     P.mdi   1..-11-.1 .,...>,Kni,»/i  u.  i.-.i   .m. 

Ionised  in  1856 : 


portion  of  New  80111 
16S9.    The  fomoos  k' 


614  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHr. 


TASMANIA. 

Tasmania,  formerly  Van  Diemen's  Land,  a  colonial  possession  of 
Great  Britain,  lies  S.  E.  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  separated  bj 
Bass  Strait,  160  m.  wide.  Lat.  40'  40'— 43°  38'  S.;  Ion.  144**  37'— 
148**  25'  E. 

In  form  this  island  is  heart^haped ;  its  greatest  length,  which  is  nearly 
the  same  as  the  breadth,  is  180  m.  The  area  is  estimated  at  26,215  sq. 
m.,  or  about  one-fourth  of  that  of  Great  Britain ;  while  the  population,  in 
1878,  was  110,000,  being  4  persons  to  each  sq.  m. 

Chief  Towns. — Hobart  Town  20  (Derwent),  Launceston  11  (Tamar), 
Westbury  2  (Quamby's  Creek). 

Hobart  Town,  the  capital,  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  south  of  Chil^, 
and  Christchurch  in  New  Zealand,  is  a  well-built  town  on  the  Denvent, 
about  20  m.  from  its  mouth  in  Storm  Bay.  The  estuary  of  the  river  is 
navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  up  to  the  town,  which  possesses  a  fine 
whaif,  a  college,  and  an  extensive  foreign  commerce,  tiannceston,  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  island,  120  m.  from  Hobart  Town^  is  the  second 
town  in  impoi*tance  in  the  colony,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  traffic 
with  Victoria  and  South  Australia. 

Surface  and  Climate.  —  The  surface  is  mountainous  and  highly 
diversified,  consisting  of  mountain-ranges,  lofty  table-lands,  isolated 
peaks,  and  fertile  valleys  and  plains,  generally  clothed  with  forests. 
The  mountains  of  Tasmania,  instead  of  being  arranged  into  distinct 
chains,  as  in  most  other  countries,  are  dispei*sed  in  irregular  groups 
and  isolated  peaks  over  the  greater  portion  of  the  surface.  The 
loftiest  summits  in  the  western  half  of  the  island  are,  Cradle  Moun- 
tain, 5069  ft.,  and  Dry's  Bluff,  4340  ft.;  while  on  the  eastern  side 
are,  Ben  Lomond,  6010  ft.,  and  Mt.  Wellington,  near  Hobart  Town, 
4257  ft.  These  are  covered  with  snow  for  about  eight  months  in  the 
year.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  country  are  the  Dei-went,  flowing 
southward  into  Storm  Bay,  and  the  Tamar,  northward  into  Bass 
Strait.  The  table-land  of  the  interior  is  bestrewed  with  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  Great  Lake,  covering  28,000  acres,  and  Lnke 
Sorell,  17,000  acres.  The  climate  is  delightful  and  highly  salubri- 
ous, resembling  that  of  the  S.  and  S.W.  of  England.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  capital  is  54j**,  mean  summer  62®,  and 
mean  winter  47*  Fah.  The  average  fall  of  rain  over  the  island  is  23 
inches.  The  soil  is  in  most  places  highly  fertile  ;  but  being  usually- 
covered  with  dense  forests,  only  a  limited  portion  of  the  country  is 
yet  under  cultivation. 

Natural  Prodnctions. — The  mineral  treasures  of  Tasmania  com- 
prise gold,  iron  ore,  galena,  copper  ore,  manganese,  coal,  and  salt ; 
nut  these  have  hitherto  been  out  little  developed.  The  principal 
mineral  districts  are  situated  in  the  N.E.  of  the  island.  Gold  is 
found  in  small  quantities,  and  at  Fingal,  near  the  E.  coast,  mining  is 
regularly  carried  on.  Indeed,  the  mountains  of  Tasmania  may  be 
re^^arded  as  forming  a  continuation  of  the  eastern  or  auriferous  ooir- 
dillera  of  the  continent.     Iron  ore  of  very  pure  quidity,  and  some  of 


I 


GI3 


I  it  highly  miiiiietic,  is  of  general  occurrence.  Coal  of  goo  J  quality  ia 
worked  on  tiie  BBst  coast,  and  ia  knovrn  to  aiiat  Tery  generally 
throughout  the  island  ;  and  aalt  is  abtajned  in  the  inteiior.     The 

[  Tegetation  strongly  resembles  that  of  Victoria,  and  ia  charscteiised 
by  its  Eucalypti,  acacias,  mimosas,  pines,  and  mvrtlea.  The  blue 
gnm-tres  is  often  found  attaining  a  height  of  S50  ft,,  and  100  ft. 
Toand  the  hasa.  The  trees  are  all  evergreen,  the  timber  being  highly 
valnable,  and  many  of  them  yielding  pims  and  resioa.  The  leading 
crops  are  wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoea,  peas,  and  beans.  Fruits  of 
nil  kinds  crow  Iniuriantly,  and  ths  preservation  of  fruit  forma  an 
important  branch  of  industir.  Hops  and  tobacco  are  also  extensively 
cultivBted.  The  fauna  also  is  almost  identical  with  thst  of  Australia, 
consisting  of  kangaroos,  vrombats,  0]>03sums,  bandicoots,  and  omi- 
thorhynciii.  The  native  tiger  or  hyena-opoBsum,  and  dasguru^  or 
native  "devil,"  are  peculiar  to  Tasmania,  snd  perhaps  also  the  wild- 
cat. The  birds  are  numerous,  embraciug  the  emu,  cockatoo,  parrot, 
eagle,  black  swan,  pelican,  duck,  <Stc.  lliere  are  several  varieties  of 
snakes,  two  of  which  are  venomous ;  and  iish  are  said  to  b«  more 
numerous  than  on  the  coasts  of  Australia.  Black  whalea  abound  in 
■dl  the  surrounding  seas,  spermaceti  whales  in  Bass  Strait,  and  a 
lucrative  whale-Sahery  is  carried  on  along  the  southera  eoast. 

EtlmogmplLy. — The  ahoiiginea,  who  appear  to  have  belonged  to 
the  same  race  as  the  nativea  of  the  continent  (though  some  regard 
them  aa  more  allied  to  the  natives  of  New  Guinea),  have  now  cntii'ely 
died  out. 

The  islanii  was  first  diauovered  by  the  Dutch  navigator,  Tasman,  and 
named  by  him  Van  Diemen'a  Land,  in  honour  of  hia  patron,  the  then 
fpveruor  of  the  Dutch  poasossione  in  ludia.  In  1798  ita  inantarity  waa 
established  by  Mr  Bass,  and  the  strait  separating  it  from  the  mainland 
waa  named  after  him.  In  1803  Lieulflnant  Bowon  was  despatched  from 
Sydney  with  convicts  of  the  moat  abandoned  character  to  form  a  penal 
settlement  at  Hobart  Town.     Tt  continued  to  be  a  place  for  tranapartn- 

[tion  of  Erimmala  till  1863.  Formerly  a  dependency  of  New  South  Wales, 
]t  becan^e  an  independent  eolony  in  1825,  with  pohtical  inatitutlans 
Tesembling  the  Australian  colonies.  On  account  of  the  ill-repute  attach- 
ing to  the  arigjnal  designation,  ita  name  was  changed,  in  1S53,  to  Tas- 
mania, The  diacovery  of  gold  in  Australia  has  had  a  most  untowuii 
influence  on  this  colony,  leading  to  a  great  eicdns  of  ita  population. 
Sheep.farming  ia  eitanslvely  foUowcd,  and  wool,  wliich  commands  a  high 
pries  in  the  English  market,  torms  the  chlDf  export  Its  wlieat,  butter, 
and  chefse  ore  largely  exported  to  tlie  adjacsnt  colonies,  Victoria  being 
ita  best  customer.  For  its  Kevenue,  ExpeuditDra,  &c,,  see  table  at 
p,  612. 

NEW     ZEALAND 

New  Zealand,  a  colonial  poitesaion  of  Great  Britain,  coniistinjc  of 
•  chain  of  three  large  and  Mintral  Binaller  islaniia,  is  situated  in  tiie 
p  fiouth  PaciliR  Ocean,  about  SOO  m.  E,  nf  Tamnaiiia.  1S50  S.  E.  of  Vic 
I.  and  8000  m.  W.  of  Palagonia,     Lat,  31'  2?'— 47°  SO'  S. ;  lun. 

Bfl8°80'— irrstfE. 


616  POLITICAL  GBOGEAPHY. 

Wellington,  the  new  capital  (lat.  41°  14')»  situated  near  the  south  ex- 
tremity of  North  Island,  is  on  the  same  parallel  as  Launceston  in  Tas- 
mania and  the  southern  part  of  the  Argentine  Confederation.  The 
extreme  length,  extending  m  a  curved  line  through  the  centre,  measures 
upwards  of  1100  m.  The  North  Island  is  550  m.  long,  with  an  extreme 
breadth  of  200  m.  South  Island  is  580  m.  long,  and  from  160  to  200  m. 
wide.  These  two  islands  are  separated  from  each  other  by  Cook's  Strait, 
16  m.  wide;  while  South  Island  is  separated  from  Stewart  Island  by 
Foveaux  Strait,  about  10  m.  wide.     The  latter  is  uninhabited. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  the  group  is  estimated  at 
105,342  sq.  m.,  or  considerably  more  than  the  area  of  Great  Britain. 
Stewart  Island  has  an  area  of  only  1300  sq.  m.,  while  South  Island 
is  nearly  one  and  a  half  times  the  size  of  North  Island.  The  popu- 
lation, which  in  1858  numbered  only  117,000,  amounted  in  1878  to 
458,007,  of  whom  43,595  were  aborigines,  and  the  remainder  British 
settlers.  The  colony  has  quadrupled  its  population  during  the  last 
twenty  years. 

Political  Divisions.  —  New  Zealand  is  now  divided  into  nine 
Provincial  Districts — viz.,  Auckland,  Taranaki,  "Wellington,  and 
Hawkes  Bay,  in  North  Island ;  and  Marlborough,  Nelson,  Canter- 
bury, Westland,  and  Otago,  in  South  Island.  In  1870,  the  province 
Southland,  opposite  Stewart  Island,  was  amalgamated  afresh  with 
Otago. 

Wellington. — Wellington  21  (Port  Nicholson),  Wanganui  3  (W. 
coast). 

Taranaki. — Taranaki,  or  New  Plymouth  2  (W.  coast). 

Auckland. — Auckland  30  (Hauraki  Gulf),  Grahamstown  10  (F. 
of  Thames). 

Hawkes  Bay.— Napier  6  (E.  coast). 

Marlborough. — Blenheim  1  (Cloudy  Bay),  Picton  1  (Waitoki 
Bay). 

Nelson.— Nelson  9  (Blind  Bay): 

Canterbury. — Christchurch  29  (Avon),  Lyttleton  3  (PortLyttle- 
ton),  Timaru  3  (E.  coast). 

Westland. — Hokitiki  4  (W.  coast). 

Otago. — Dunedin  35,  Port  Chalmers  2  (Otago  Harbour),  Oaraaru 
5  (E.  coast),  Invercargill  4  (Red  River). 

Bescriptive  Votes. — Wellington,  on  the  splendid  harbour  of  Port 
Nicholson,  an  inlet  of  Cook's  Strait,  has  been  the  cap.  of  New  Zealanil 
since  1865.  It  was  the  first  and  principal  settlement  of  the  New  Zealand 
Company,  which  was  established  in  1838,  and,  from  its  central  position, 
is  far  better  adapted  than  Auckland  for  being  the  seat  of  government. 
Taranaki  was  founded  in  1840  by  emigrants  from  Devon  and  Cornwall. 
Auckland,  the  second  town  in  New  Zealand,  and  for  some  time  the  seat 
of  government.  It  has  steam  communication  with  Melbourne,  Sydney,  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  San  Francisco.  Nelson,  on  the  N.  coast  of  South 
Island,  is  a  thriving  town,  with  some  manufactures  of  cloth  and  leather. 
Christchurch,  a  very  thriving  settlement,  established  in  1850.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Lyttleton,  its  seaport,  9  m.  distant,  by  a  railway,  tunnelled 
at  great  expense.    Hokitiki,  cap.  of  the  new  i)rovince  of  Westland,  for- 


I 


OCEANIA.  6!7 

mariy  part  of  provinca  Caulerbnry,  owes  its  eitraoiilinarF  rapid  rise  to 
tlio  discovery  of  rery  prmiuctive  gold-liBlds  in  iti  vitiiiity  iii  loBB.  Dim- 
edin,  tbe  Lugest  ci^  in  New  Zealand,  was  founded  in  ISiB  by  a  tody  of 
Scotch  BioigraiiiCs  in  connection  with  the  Free  ChnTch.  Its  prosperity 
dates  fi^ra  1S61,  when  eit«iisiva  ^Id-fields  were  diEcovered  in  its  ueigh- 
bonrhood.  laTBTCdMlll,  formerly  the  cap.  of  the  small  province  Sonth- 
land,  is  named  after  Captain  Cargill,  one  of  the  principal  foonders  of  the 
colony  of  OUgp. 

Snrface  and  dlmate.— A  chain  of  snow-clad  mountains  traverses 
the  two  larger  islands  in  the  direction  of  their  greatest  length,  throw- 
ing ofT,  in  North  Island,  sereml  lateral  ranges  containing  lofly  vol- 
canic pealts,  amongst  irhich  are  Mount  Egmont  (now  extinct),  8270 
ft.,  and  Tongariro,  7000  ft.  The  culminating  point  of  the  monntaiii 
system  of  Hew  Zealand  is  Mount  Cook,  in  South  laland,  13,200  1^. 
high.  The  climate  ts  universally  described  as  remarkably  salubrious 
aud  agreeable,  initder  and  more  equatjle  than  our  own,  the  tdnters 
beintj  warmer,  while  cool  refreshing  sea-breezes  prevent  ojipresaivc 
heat  in  summer.  Heavy  rains  and  high  gales  are  frequent,  but  there 
is  no  rainy  season.  Mean  annual  temperature  of  Auckland,  60°  3'; 
mean  summer;  68°  7',  and  mean  winter,  53°  S'.  Mean  annnal  tem- 
-  peratnre  at  Danedin,  GO°i  hottest  month,  GS":  coldest  month,  42°; 
annual  fall  of  rain,  SO  inches  ;  bnt  for  South  Island,  in  general,  the 
rainfoU  is  32  inches,  and  for  North  Itdand  60  inches.  The  raoge  of 
the  thermometer  is  much  less  than  in  England.  Snow  seldom  tails, 
except  in  the  sontli,  where  the  elevation  of  the  snow-line  is  6000  fL 

Hatnial  Products-— The  islands  consist,  in  general,  of  trap  and 
volcanic  formation,  but  tnany  of  the  roots  are  cryaSalline,  while  the 
■odimentary  formations  are  of  shale  and  grey  sandstone.  These  con- 
tain remarkable  fossil  birds,  the  most  extraordinary  of  which  is  the 
gigantic  moa,  which  must  have  been  from  10  to  IS  ft.  high.  The 
mmeral  prodncta  are  valuable  and  extensive,  and  in  no  respect  in- 
ferior to  those  of  the  other  Australian  colonies.  Gold  was  discovere'l 
in  province  Otaga  in  1861,  and  in  18S5  very  rich  deposits  were 
fonnd  at  Hokitiki,  vhere  mining  operations  are  still  carried  on  on  a 
large  si»le.  Irnn-sand  abounds  in  largo  quantities  on  the  various 
»«a-eoftsls,  and  is  found  to  melt  into  a  metal  equal  to  the  beiit 
Staffordshire  iron.  Copper  eii.'ts  in  several  places,  but  not  in  sufli- 
cient  qnantities  to  pay  for  working.  Silver,  lead,  tin,  manganese, 
alum,  and  sulphur,  occur  in  particnmr  localities.  Coal-scams  of  con- 
Btderable  thickness  and  of  excellent  quality  are  wrought  at  Nelson 
and  in  province  Auckland. 

The  Bora  of  this  country  forms  a  botanical  centre  called  Forster's 
Region,  whicb  forms  a  coimecting-llnk  between  the  ftoras  of  South  Arne- 
rica,  Australia,  and  Cape  Colony.  Already  650  species  are  Imown  to 
botanists- a  very  large  proportion  of  which  are  plants  peculiar  to  this 
le^n.  The  latter  include  New  Zealand  flu.  from  the  tibrea  of  which  it 
cordage  of  singnlar  tenacity  and  strength  is  formed.  Ferns  cover  larBo 
'  It  of  the  conntrr,  often  attaiaing  enormous  dimensions.     The  tree- 

■      '      "  The  Kauri  pice  is  the  most 


618  POLITICAL   GEOGKAPIIY. 

famous  of  New  Zealand  trees,  bat  it  is  confined  to  the  province  of  Auck- 
land. Its  timber  is  highly  prized  for  building  purposes,  and  is  largdy 
exported  to  the  English  dockyards  for  spars  to  the  xxiyal  navy,  aao- 
pean  grains  of  all  kinds,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  grow  luxuriantly  on  the 
cleared  surface,  and  admirable  pasture  for  cattle  is  produced  by  sowing 
the  English  grasses.  When  first  visited  by  Europeans,  New  Zealand  was 
found  to  contain  no  indigenous  land  quadrupeds ;  but  when  the  first 
colonists  arrived  in  the  country,  they  found  hogs,  dogs,  and  a  few  rats 
and  mice,  probably  introduced  by  runaway  convicts  from  Australia.  The 
geology  of  the  country  presents  a  like  absence  of  the  remains  of  any 
mammaliferous  animal ;  but  a  prodigious  number  of  well-pre^rved  fossil 
birds,  of  the  struthious  order,  are  found  in  the  post-pliocene  and  pleisto- 
cene deposits.  The  Bijiomis  and  PtUapteryx  were  of  gigantic  size,  vary- 
ing in  height  from  4  to  11  ft.  A  wingless  bird  {ApUryx),  the  smallest 
living  representative  of  the  ostrich  family,  still  abounds  in  these  islands, 
which,  however,  do  not  contain  many  species  of  the  feathered  tribe. 
There  are  no  serpents  or  other  venomous  reptiles ;  but  fish  swarm  on  the 
coasts  and  in  the  rivers.  Whales  and  seals,  once  very  abundant,  have 
been  greatly  reduced  in  number  by  the  ruthless  modes  of  capture  long 
practised ;  but  the  whale-fishery  is  still  carried  on  with  success. 

EtlmogFapliy. — ^The  aborigines,  who  are  known  as  Maories,  belong 
to  the  Malayo-Pol}'ne8ian  race,  and  difier  very  widely  from  the 
natives  of  the  Australian  continent. 

They  are  a  tall,  well-built,  active,  and  intelligent  people,  with  curling 
glossy  black  hair  and  copper  complexion.  Many  of  them  have  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  and  in  some  districts  they  have  considerable  tracts 
of  land  under  cultivation.  They  are  very  courageous  in  war,  and  have  at 
different  times  been  very  troublesome  to  the  colonists.  Hie  race  is  rapidly 
on  the  decline,  their  number  in  1878  not  exceeding  43,000,  of  whom 
31,000  inhabited  North  Island.  For  many  years  they  have  been  engaged 
in  an  intermittent  war  with  the  colonists,  and  it  seems  almost  impossible 
for  the  two  races  to  live  peaceably  and  permanently  beside  each  other. 
The  unscrupulous  mode  in  which  their  huntii^-grounds  have  been  taken 
possession  of  by  the  settlers  has  given  them,  ui^ppily,  sufficient  cause 
for  the  bitter  hostility  which  they  nave  evinced.  According  to  their  own 
tradition,  the  Maories  migrated  to  New  Zealand,  about  500  years  ago, 
from  a  place  which  they  denominate  Havniihi,  Probably  this  signifies 
Hawai,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  as  the  Maori  language  is  evidently  a 
dialect  of  the  Malayan,  and  so  closely  resembUng  the  Hawaian  and  Ti^- 
tian  that  the  natives  of  New  Zealand  readily  understand  the  natives  of 
the  Sandwich  and  Society  Islands,  though  these  are  situated  at  a  vast 
distance  from  New  Zealand.  The  emigrants  are  mostly  persons  of  the 
middle  ranks  of  life,  who,  attracted  by  the  climate  and  fertility  of  the 
country,  have  gone  out  in  companies  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  prosper- 
ous nation  at  the  antipodes.  New  Zealand  was  discovered  by  Tasman  in 
1642,  and  was  visited  repeatedly  by  Captain  Cook  between  1769  and  1778. 
After  that  it  became  a  ^quent  resort  for  whalers  and  others.  The  first 
settlement  of  Europeans  took  place  as  early  as  1814,  but  the  colonisation 
of  the  country  did  not  commence  in  earnest  till  1838,  when  the  New 
Zealand  Company  was  formed,  and  commenced  operations  at  Wellington. 
New  Zealand  was  formed  into  a  colony  in  1840.  A  &ee  constitution, 
consisting  of  a  House  of  Representatives  and  a  L^siative  Council,  came 
into  force  in  1853.     In  regard  to  religious  statistics,  the  Chnzoh  of  Ecg- 


lltnd  iias  7I,4D0  BdiieTeDls;  Scottish  PreAlivtBrinnE.  38,000;  tbe  niurcli 
i  Rome,  li,i>if<:  uud  Weslcyui  HetLodkU.,  I^SUO.  ^ncstimi  i>  well 
Bleudinl  lo  ill  uU  tlie  jjrovmi^es. 

CmunBToe  anil  ladnnry. — "Witl)  the  eiceiition  of  gold  and  gold 
nisi,  wool  iti  more  lsrgel3'  eipart»d  tliui  auj"  other  Qommodily.     ]  n 

f  1S76,  the  poIdq;  aant  to  Great  Brituti  nnol  to  tLe  ndaG  of  £3,238.000, 

Ed  of  gold,  i£],lT5,66S.     The  gmn  kDuwn  hb  "Esnii  guin"  fomii 
importsnt  article  in  the  ei]>orts  feani  Aaukland.    It  ie  found  at  n 
K^nanderabie  deu^  beneiLth  the  snrbce.  and  gKDerallj  in  tertiur; 
Btmciated  with  ciiaL     SMpliaildiiig  and  the  trade  in  tiiulwr 
:  lu  miaiiig  aud  wool-gruwiiin,  tht  ciliief  iie]iartiueule  of  the 
T  of  tiie  uoloDT  (p.  612). 


Anbklaad  Ides.— These 
■meral  aiuall  islandE,  aboi 
|.Uaad  is  about  Si>  m.  loug  and  IS  broad,  lute 
Tfl3;ptAtiaiL,     Thtrj 


'olcanic  giouii  nf  one  la 


Ifcn.  17B°<^  K.),  le  Ilie  Is 


.  ,^ ,.  _  _;  larm  and 

K  Zealand.      The  laigesl 

_.   „ , -  c--d  harboujB,  and  is 

■  iorered  with  liuh  vejetation,  Thrj  were  dieoorarad  in  1806  by  CapUuii 
v^rinioe,  one  of  the  ngent)^  of  Ur  Enderby,  to  whom  the  Eoctish  Guvern- 
Kipeut  have  granted  tlisui  ax  a  ceutiiLl  whaliug  stotim.  When  discoTcred 
m  Ae.v  were  uoinhabitBd,  and  conLaiued  nu  laud  auiiaals.  Since  ISlti  IhL-v 
I  jiave  beun  occnpied  by  ai 

8,E  of  Sew  Zealand  (lai  tSf  32"  B., 
e  eoutliero  iaeraiqrhBre  moal  iiBarlj- 
r  4*i>poBil£  to  Great  Britain. 

rai».t:h»ni  lain,  3g0  n>.  E.  of  Ken  Zeolniid,  form  a  amuU  Dluster  of 
iatanda,  the  two  hugest  of  wliicli  an  named  f^Jitl^m  and  Pitt  lalaud. 
Ther  wbte  discirvered  by  LieDUmaut  Uron^too  in  1761,  and  vere  iu- 
hahited  by  a  hannleas  raoe  of  1200  BaTugus,  vho  iu  1B30  were  reduced  to 
■laverf  by  a  liand  of  New  Zcaianden.  and  are  now  nearly  eitinol.  The 
jiroducta  are  similar  to  thoBC  of  Kew  Zealand,  to  nbich  they  belong. 

XarOak  Island.  475  m.  K.W.  of  Ke«  ZEalaiid  and  ISOO  E.K.K  of 
Sydney,  ie  a  siuidt  bat  buautiful  ialand  beloupnE  to  Gnat  Britain.  It 
baa  an  area  of  19  aq.  m.,  is  well  watered  and  fertik,  but  bai  neither  har- 
henr  nor  roadBtead.  It  was  orlgiuully  approunatad  lor  a  penal  colony  of 
•1,..  unrst  daas,  but  after  being  cleared  of  felonc  it  was  culunimd  bv  ib* 
.  :.n.^  J —  :.  n  n:a    ^^^  p„^  undfiT  the  Goiemnient  of  Kaw  Bontli 


Fitcaini  islanders  ii 


Vales.     lt£  oi 


d  for  their  siae  and  beauty.    Pop.  *B1. 

}  miles  K  of  QueeuElaud, 

^   , ., ,  in  1863.  toDlL  jiossesFiou  of 

\   ftam  together  with  the  Isles  of  Pinas  ;  area  12,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  14,000, 
'       '      "  inoB  are  a  robust  race  of  Papuan  nemjes,  who  speak  a  lauRUitgc 
mthatofl^neighbounngislandG,  The  surface  is  niountuuou^ 


.w  Bebiides.  a  sroup  of  about  twenty  large  and  a  much  gjeatar  nuni- 
it  smaUer  islands,  N.  E.  of  Kew  Caledonia,  fiam  nhiuh  Esjiirltu  Suito. 
t  ut  tlieiu.  is  about  373  m.  diatant.  The  area  is  estiuiatBd  it 
1..  aud  the  I>ap..  who  are  of  the  Papuan  laoe,  at  about  15D.UO0. 
le  poup  it  of  volesuit  ongiu.  and  in  Tanna  is  a  volcano  of  great  sc*""— 
TSl^tlie  Islando  ri-— ■"-'■•'—" '"■"      "'  -i.  — .i  — .j-.  . 

it  water,  aud  fuew 


w  South 


620  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

tions  are  figs,  nutmegs,  oranges,  cocoa-nuts,  bananas,  bread-fruit,  cotton, 
and  the  sugar-cane.  Erromanga,  north  of  Tanna,  has  acquired  a  melan- 
choly celebrity  as  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  the  devoted  missionary 
Williams  in  1839.  Though  Christianity  has  spread  widely  through  bis 
labours,  the  great  bulk  of  the  natives  still  continue  cannibals  of  the 
most  savage  type.     In  Tanna  all  the  whites  were  butchered  in  1875. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  a  group  of  volcanic  islands,  between  the  New 
Hebrides  and  the  Salomon  Islands,  comprising  Santa  Cruz,  Nitendi,  and 
Manicolo.  They  are  populous  and  well  wooded,  the  natural  productions 
being  similar  to  those  of  the  New  Hebrides.  Manicolo  was  the  scene  of 
La  Perouse's  disastrous  shipwreck  in  1788. 

Salomon  Isles. — This  archipelago,  lying  E.  of  New  Guinea,  from  which 
it  is  about  275  m.  distant,  consists  of  eight  principal  with  numerous 
minor  islands,  and  extends  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  for  nearly  600  m.  They 
have  not  been  carefully  surveyed,  but  they  are  said  to  be  mountainous^ 
fertUe,  well  wooded,  and  of  volcanic  origin.  The  population  consists 
partly  of  Malays,  and  partly  of  Papuan  negroes.  The  largest  islands  ai-e 
Bougainville,  Choiseuil,  Isabel,  Malayta,  Guadalcanar,  and  San  Christoval. 

Lonisiade  Archipelago,  a  group  of  about  80  islands,  situated  about  60 
m.  E.S.  E.  of  New  Guinea ;  they  are  covered  with  dense  forests,  and  are  but 
thinly  inhabited  by  negroes  of  the  Papuan  race.  The  shores  are  protected 
by  coral  reefs,  while  the  channels  between  the  islands  are  very  aeep. 

New  Britain  consists  mainly  of  two  large,  mountainous,  and  populous 
islands,  the  most  westerly  of  which  is  about  50  m.  E.  of  the  shores  of 
New  Guinea.  The  larger  island  is  supposed  to  have  an  area  of  11,000  sq. 
m.  In  the  most  northerly  is  a  volcano  in  active  operation.  Extensive 
plains  of  great  fertility  stretch  along  the  shores  of  both  islands.  The 
natives  are  of  the  Papuan  race.  They  were  discovered  by  Dampier  in 
1700 ;  cocoa-nuts,  sago,  bread-fruit  trees,  yams,  and  ginger,  are  among  their 
principal  products. 

New  Ireland,  N.K  of  New  Britain,  is  about  200  m.  long,  by  12  broad. 
It  was  discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767.  The  surface  is  fertile,  and  the 
hills  covered  with  forests.  The  inhabitants  resemble  the  aborigines  of 
Australia,  are  black  and  woolly-haired,  and  extremely  savage.  The  only 
articles  of  commercial  value  which  the  island  produces  are  fancy  wood 
and  tortoise-shell.    Area  4360  sq.  m. 

Admiralty  Isles,  a  group  of  one  large  and  numerous  small  islands^  150 
m.  N.  of  New  Guinea,  which  they  strongly  resemble  in  natural  products. 
The  natives  are  a  Mday  race,  of  lar^e  suture,  well  formed,  ana  differing 
but  little  from  Europeans,  except  m  the  colour  of  their  skin,  which  i« 
black,  but  not  of  the  deepest  shade. 

Fapna,  generally  called  New  Guinea,  the  largest  island  in  the  world, 
is  situated  N.  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Arafura  Sea 
and  Torres  Strait  It  extends  from  the  equator  to  lat.  11"  S.,  and  from 
Ion.  131°  to  151°  E.  This  vast  island  must,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as 
forming  a  portion  of  Australasia  (as  above  defined)  rather  than  of  Mai* 
aysia,  notwithstanding  that  it  forms  the  great  easternmost  section  of 
that  huge  archipelago.  At  the  present  moment,  however,  there  is  prob- 
ably no  country  of  equal  extent  on  the  earth's  surface  about  which  so 
little  is  kno'wn,  not  excepting  the  interior  of  Australia  and  Africa.  Tt 
was  discovered  by  Torres,  the  well-known  Portuguese  navigator,  in  ld06| 


UCEAN'IA.  G'll 

iteil  Ijy  Boil  goinville  ill  1763,  by  CapUiu  Edwards  of  tLe  Pujiiinra  i  n 
1791,  by  Captuiu  Beklier  in  1840,  by  Captsiu  Blackwood  iu  the  Fly  in  184u, 
■Jrho  Burveyad  tlie  portion  of  the  islaud  opposite  Capa  York,  anil  finally 
by  Captaia  Qirea  Stauley  iii  Uib  Ratlleiiiiuit  in  1350,  who  carefully  ei- 
aiuinea  tbo  entire  8.W.  coast.  The  Dutch  eatabliahed  a  colony  oa  tliis 
coast  In  1(J28,  but  eooa  abaadaned  it,  owing  to  tlie  pestileutial  cbaracter 
^i-*L^  _i..^_.^  __j  -.Yg  hoatiUty  of  tbe  nattve"      ^~  " "--  ^-' — -■  -- 


semblei  a  crocodile,  baring  ita  back  turned  towards  tbe  equator  and  its 
head  directed  towaida  Borneo  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Its  eitreina 
lanfrtbialSOOni.;  breadth,  300  m.;  sopposed  area,  about  SG(l,(IOO  sq.  iii.^ 
and  tbe  population  abont  1,000,000.  The  climate  is  eicsssively  wet  and 
insalubrious.  Tbe  interior  is  very  mauntaiiiaus — several  summits  iu  tbe 
western  portion  of  the  island  rising  to  about  9500  ft.;  while  in  the  other 
citremity  Mt,  Owen  Stanley  attains  an  alei-ation  of  upwards  of  13,000  ft. 
The  forests,  whiub  cover  a  lai^e  portion  of  the  whole  area,  and  line  the 
mountain-sides  to  a  great  lieight,  abound  in  gigantic  trees,  among  which 
are  tbe  camphor -tree  and  sago  palm.  Papua  is  tbe  native  region  of  tbe 
true  aromatic  nutmeg,  aud  otiier  spices  are  found  in  tbe  woods.    Both 

Suns  and  cocoa-nuts  are  plentiful,  as  nl.^o  rice,  maize,  and  tlii.'  sugar-cane, 
old  is  said  to  occur  in  cifluy  parts  of  the  island,  Tbe  only  quadrupeds 
known  to  eiist  are  dogs,  ratK.  wild  bogs,  and  several  epecies  of  marsupial 
■ntmals.  Theia  are  upwards  of  20U0  birds,  including  hinls  of  paradise, 
of  which  this  is  tbe  native  tcgioi^  and  a  gigantic  pigeon,  nearly  as  large 
-a  turkey.    Tbe  inhabitants,  who  are  of  tbe  same  race  as  those  of  New 


ne^  race,  resembling  in  some  respects  the  negroes  of  AiMca ;  but  the 
hair,  instaad  of  being  woolly,  like  tna  latter,  grows  in  tufts  which  stretch 
out  to  an  enormous  len^h  ;  while,  both  intellectually  and  socially,  tliey 
are  imnieasnrably  behind  the  natives  of  Africa.  Tbey  are  hideously  ugly, 
with  large  eyes,  toraed-up  noses,  very  prominent  lips,  and  a  sooty-col- 
tiiired  skm.  Their  natunQ  deformity  is  increased  by  their  passing  bone.i 
and  pieces  of  wood  through  the  cartil^e  of  the  nose.    The  languages 

known  of  any  of  tbem  that  no  classification  is  as  yet  possible ;  but  they 
are  probably  mon  allied  to  the  dialects  of  Australia  and  S,  India  than  to 
tlie  notay-Polynesian  langu^es  of  other  paiia  of  Oceania  (p.  611).  Thu 
Dutch  alaim  possession  of  the  whole  western  halt  of  the  island,  but  at 


present  have  no  settlement  on  any  part  of  it,  eieept  oi 
GeelTlnk  Bay,  on  tha  N-W,  coast,  wliere  they  maintain  ■  bii:«i)  muhi- 
lishment.  This  is  the  only  place  where  the  natives  oome  in  contact  with 
Europao-DS,  aud  there  is  an  active  and  MoJusive  trade  carried  on  between 
it  and  the  Moluccas,  under  the  Dutch  Bag,  consisting  of  birds  of  paradise, 
featliers,  nutmeg,  pearls,  gold,  flTie  wooiU,  raisins,  bsjnhoos,  ^■ 

AtrOO  Islei,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  ArafuruSea,  south  of  New  Guinea, 
lieloiigingto  tbe  Dutch;  they  extend  from  N.  to 8,  about  127 ni.:  thetbi-ce 
latgeat  are  named  Cobror.  Trana,  and  Vorcay.  Dobbo,  a  town  on  the 
island  Wammo,  inhabited  by  Dutch  and  Chiuest  merchants,  la  at  present 
the  greatest  mart  in  the  North  of  Australasia,  The  products  comprise 
L  Jiflail,  tortoise-sbell,  birds  of  paradise,  and  trepang  or  sea-cucuuiber  {au 
"  tdible  animal  of  the  Holothuriu  family).  The  inhabitants,  60,000  iu 
nimber,  are  a  miitnre  of  the  Malay  and  Australasian  negro  races, 

Ttmorlkllt,  about  midway  between  the  Arrito  tales  and  Timor,  is  about 
lis  m,  !oug  by  ii  lu.  broad.  The  surtaM  is  mountainons  and  woii>lc  1. 
iud  the  coasts  areguirounded  bj  rttfs  and  luud-hanks. 


622  POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


II.  MALAYSIA. 

Malaysia,  also  called  the  Eastern,  Indian,  or  Asiatic  Archipelago, 
forms  the  N.W.  division  of  Oceania,  and  is  the  largest  collection  of 
islands  on  the  globe.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  equator, 
between  Further  India  and  China  on  the  one  side,  and  the  continent 
of  Australia  and  New  Guinea  on  the  other,  having  the  China  Sea  and 
Strait  of  Malacca  on  the  N.W.,  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  W.,  the 
Arafura  Sea  on  the  S.,  separating  it  from  Australia  and  New  Guinea, 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  N.  K 

Extending  fix)m  the  Bashee  Islands,  lat.  21"  N.,  to  Sandalwood,  11°  S., 
and  from  Achin  in  Sumatra,  Ion.  95**  25',  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Ceram, 
131"  W  E.,  it  extends  over  22  degrees  of  latitude  and  36  of  longitude. 
The  area  of  the  entire  archipelago  is  estimated  by  the  latest  authorities  at 
784,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  nearly  29,000,000,  or  less  than  the 
population  of  the  British  Isles,  with  upwards  of  six  times  their  area. 
More  than  a  third  of  the  whole  area  belongs  to  Borneo,  which  is  very 
thinly  peopled^  and  more  than  a  half  of  the  population  to  Java,  the 
most  ffounshing  island  in  Malaysia,  and  reganled  by  the  late  learned 
John  Crawford  as  the  centre  of  its  civilisation.  Malaysia  is  subdivided 
into  seven  principal  groups — 1.  The  Sunda  Islands,  in  the  W.  and  S. ;  2. 
Borneo ;  3.  The  Celebes ;  4.  The  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands ;  6.  The  San- 
guir  group ;  6.  The  Sooloo  Archipelago ;  7.  The  Philippine  Isles.  All  these 
groups  are  more  or  less  of  volcanic  origin,  and  exhibit  at  the  present  time 
active  volcanoes  in  numerous  localities.  "  Their  entire  area  is  traversed 
by  a  part  of  the  great  belt  of  volcanic  disturbance  which  surrounds  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  indeed  contains  the  most  active  and  terrible  part  of 
this  circle.  The  line  of  this  belt  passes  from  Mt  Erebus  in  Antarctica, 
through  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand  and  Papua,  to  meet  the  cir- 
cular line  of  greatest  disturbance,  a  branch  of  the  main  belt  which  winds 
through  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  from  Sumatra  and  Java 
to  the  chain  of  smaller  islands  east  of  these,  across  the  Banda  Sea  to 
Ceram  and  Gilolo,  and  thence  with  the  main  belt  through  the  Philippine 
Isles,  round  the  E.  coast  of  Asia. "  *  The  volcanic  mountains  are  mostly 
of  trachyte ;  but  basalt  and  granite  occur  in  Java,  and  obsidian  in  Bali ; 
while  chalk  and  tertiary  formations  are  widely  extended.  Amon^  the 
loftiest  summits  in  the  archipelago  may  be  mentioned  Mt.  C^hnr  in 
Sumatra,  13,840  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  probably  the  loftiest  mountain  in. 
Malaysia;  Mt.  Semeroe  in  Java,  12,235  ft ;  and  Kini  Balu,  in  Borneo, 
13,698  ft.  Gold  is  generally  diffused  throughout  the  islands,  and  seve- 
ral of  them  contain  silver,  tin,  copper,  coal,  and  iron.  The  climate^ 
though  tropical  and  moist,  is  moderated  by  the  surrounding  seas.  TIm. 
mean  annual  teniperature  at  Bencoolen  la  Sumatra  is  82".5 ;  in  Java, 
78° ;  and  in  the  Philippines,  81".  The  rainy  season  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  archipelago,  according  as  they  are  exposed  to  the  S.GL 
or  the  N.E.  monsoon.  The  luxuriant  vegetation,  combhied  "with  tht 
great  heat  and  moisture,  render  the  climate  unhealthy  to  Europeaiis, 
especially  on  the  low  grounds.  The  vegetable  products  are  exoeeoinglj 
varied.  The  hills  are  clothed  with  forests  of  the  most  valuable  ^ 
and  the  plains  yield  the  richest  plants  and  spices  in  s]*ontaiieoii8  r^ 
ance.    Palms,  bamboos,  rattans,  teak,  ebony,  sandalwood,  and  n 

*  Keith  Johnston,  Jnn., '  Hand-Book  of  Physical  6oogiiq;iii|'. 


r 


OCEAfilA.  623 

Bcd  Eum-bearing  treei,  tpgetlier  with  cloi-es,  nutmegs,  aromatin  tiws, 
pepper,  giDger,  eotUin,  tobacco,  sugar,  sweet  potato,  and  numerona 
fmita,  are  Terr  plenliful.  The  gr^a  cuitivated  in  the  larger  and  more 
civilised  islands  are  maize,  millet,  pulses,  and  rira;  but  in  the  others, 
sago  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants.  The  fauna  embraces  the 
■lephsnt,  hippopotamus,  tiger,  panther,  deer,  vild  hog,  rhinoceros,  and 
many  species  of  the  monkey  and  orang-outang.  Tlie  ox  and  buffalo  are 
nsed  for  aericnltural  purposes.  Birds  of  nnnierous  kinds  and  beautiful 
plumage  lUl  the  woods.  Crocodiles  are  found  in  the  western,  and  tor- 
toises are  numeroue  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  archipelago;  while  Hsh, 


ra  distmct  races  of 
population,  especially  i 


.repang,  o^st^rs,  and  other  shelifisk  are  common.     The  al      „ 
"       1- •■    •  '      n— the  Malays,  who  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 

le  west ;  and  the  Papuan  or  black  race,  who  ara 
luudL  uummuiin  iji  luv  «jiAt.  The  former  are  characterised  by  a  light- 
bmwn  or  olive  coiupkxion,  long  straight  hair,  short  stature,  aud.  rohuet 
body,  strong  and  active  in  their  habits,  in  some  localities  considerably 
advanced  in  civilisation,  in  others  roving  piiates.  Bverfwhere  migratiODS 
are  by  water.  Their  boats  and  canoes  are  to  these  inlanders  what  the 
camel,  the  horse,  and  the  oi  are  to  the  wandering  Arab  and  the  Tartar ; 
and  the  eea  is  to  them  what  the  atrppei  are  to  the  latter.  The  Malayaa 
language  is  widcspreud,  extending  not  only  over  the  Malaysiaa  archi- 
iwlago,  but  also  throughout  New  Zealand,  Polynesia,  and  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula. It  is  soft  and  harmonious  in  pronunciation,  simple  and  easy  in 
its  grammatical  system,  plain  and  natural  in  the  eoustructioii  of  seu- 
tencea,  and  there  are  fovf,  if  any,  of  its  aoutids  which  cannot  be  readily 
articalated  by  Europeans.  Though  possessing  some  distinctive  charac' 
teristics  of  its  own,  a  considerable  portion  of  zts  vocabulary  is  borrowed 
from  the  Sanscrit,  while  it  has  been  to  some  extent  inHuenced  by  the 
Arable.  It  possesses  a  written  literature,  w.hicb,  however,  is  greatly 
inferior  to  tMt  of  either  the  Hindoos  or  Chinese.  The  Papuans  have 
negro  features  and  cnrly  hair,  are  generally  of  small  stature  and  a  spare 
puny  form,  and  are  less  civilised  than  the  Malays.  Uohammcdanism  is 
the  prevailing  religion  among  the  Malay  race ;  the  Hindoo  faith  is  pro- 
fessed by  a  portion  of  the  natives;  while  Christianity  has  been  intmduced 
into  the  European  settlements.  Politically,  the  archipelairo  is  held  by 
a  number  of  independent  native  chiefs,  and  by  the  Dutch,  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  and  Britisli. 

The  Sunda  Islajids,  in  the  W.  and  S.  of  Malaysia,  separate  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  Seas  of  Ohina  and  Jam,  and  emhraoe  3iiiii- 
Btra,  Java.  Bali,  Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Sandalwood,  Floris,  Solor, 
Wetter.  Timor,  and  numeroniS  smaller  islands  on  both  sides  of  Snm- 

0  Borneo,  tito 


Sumatra,  the  n 


'esterl/  of  tbe  group 
1  Malaysia,  i»  titnatsd  tr  ■' 


y  llie  S:™ 


L  a,600,l.n«., 
I  DftheF^.:" 
I  lenBlh  b'.  :. 


.1  Ihs  most  part 
of  its  givatest 

I  Mount  Ophir 
fi-rtlle,  Jimflb* 


t>24  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

dense  forests,  whicli  contain  an  inexhaustible  store  of  tim1)er  and  fruit- 
trees.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are  pepper,  ginger,  rice,  sago, 
millet,  cocoa-nuts,  betel-nuts,  gold-oust,  sulphur,  camphor,  and  ^tta- 
percha.  In  the  N.  there  are  seyeral  petty  native  states,  the  cmef  of 
which  is  Achin  or  Atchin  ;  but  the  Dutch,  who  effected  a  settlement  here 
in  1649,  are  now  the  masters  of  nearly  all  the  territory  south  of  lat.  b^ 
20'  N.,  their  princiual  settlements  being  Padang  and  Bencoolen,  on  the 
W.  coast.  In  1874,  the  portion  of  the  pop.  subject  to  them  numbered 
1,621,000.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  considerably  advanced  in  civilisa- 
tion, manufacture  gold  and  silver  filigree  work,  silk  and  cotton  fabrics, 
earthenware,  arms,  and  many  other  wticles ;  while  the  European  colo- 
nists successfully  cultivate  the  vine. 

Java,  the  most  important  and  populous  island  in  Malaysia,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  Dutch  power  in  the  East,  is  situated  S.E.  of  Sumatra,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  Sunda  Strait.  Area,  including  Madura,  52,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  17,298,0()0,  of  whom  about  17,000  are  Europeans.  It  is 
traversea,  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  length,  by  a  mountain-chain, 
which  ha.s  a  mean  elevation  of  1000  ft.  ;  but  many  volcanic  cones 
rise  to  10,000  ft.  Volcanoes  are,  indeed,  more  numerous  in  Java 
than  in  any  other  country  of  equal  extent  in  the  world,  and  volcanic 
phenomena  are  often  displayed  on  the  grandest  and  most  terrific 
scale.  The  climate  is  characterised  by  great  heat  in  the  plains,  and 
by  numerous  earthquakes  and  thunderstorms.  The  rainy  season  extends 
from  October  tiU  March.  Minerals  comprise  iron,  tin,  salt,  sulphur, 
and  nitre.  The  range  of  vegetation  is  very  great,  embracing  the  palms  of 
the  tropics  and  the  mosses  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  far-famed  upat 
tree  flourishes  in  the  woods,  and  speedily  destroys  life  if  its  juices  gain 
access  to  the  animal  system,  but  it  neither  poisons  the  air  nor  injures  the 
surrounding  vegetation.  This  is  the  only  island  of  the  great  archipelago 
of  which  the  teak-tree  is  a  native.  Java  is  the  granary  of  the  Asiatic 
Archipelago,  and  is  supposed  to  be  capable  of  supporting  many  times  its 
present  amount  of  population,  only  about  one-thira  of  the  surface  being 
under  culture.  Rice  is  the  principal  grain,  and  is  cultivated  all  along  the 
coast ;  coffee  is  the  great  staple  of  export ;  while  indigo,  tobacco,  cotton, 
cinnamon,  ginger,  cubebs,  maize,  pulses,  vegetable  oils,  cocoa,  and  sago, 
are  other  principal  products.  The  fauna  resembles  that  of  Sumatra, 
embracing  tigers,  tiger-cats,  leopards,  jackalls,  rhinoceroses,  buffaloes, 
crocodiles,  and  serpents.  The  Javanese  are  of  the  Malay  family,  and 
profess  Mohammedanism  mixed  with  Buddhism.  They  possess  a  national 
literature,  and  translations  from  the  Sanscrit  and  Arabic,  and  are  superior 
in  civilisation  to  the  inhabitants  of  Malaysia  generally.  The  whole  of 
Java  belongs  to  the  Dutch,  whose  first  settlement  here  was  formed  in  1575. 
Batavia,  on  the  N.W.  coast,  is  the  capital  of  their  possessions,  not  only 
in  Java,  but  in  the  East  Indies  generally ;  it  is  a  highly-important  com- 
mei*cial  town,  with  65,000  inhabitants.  SamarangT50,000),  and  Soura- 
baya  (90,000),  both  on  the  N.  coast,  are  fortified  seaports,  and  are 
highly-flourishing  cities.  Nearly  all  the  exports  of  Java  consist  of  vege- 
table produce,  the  principal  articles  being  coffee,  sugar,  indigo,  and  rice. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  Netherlands, 
by  means  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company.  The  total  exports,  in 
1873,  amounted  to  £9,089,900 ;  imports,  £6,726,000. 

Bali,  Lombok,  Timor,  and  the  other  islands  of  the  Sunda  group,  stretch- 
ing in  a  long  chain  to  the  E.  of  Java,  and  separated  from  it  and  from  each 
otber  by  narrow  channels,  though  containing  numerous  native  slates,  are 


r 


I 


iitliject  to  tlia  Dutch,  Eicept  DOrtheca  Timor,  in  whioli  tLc  Pottuguet^ 
have  eatabUahed  Bettlements.  Belli  or  Dellj.  the  Portuguese  citp.  ot 
Timor,  is  situaifld  on  the  N.W,  coast;  while  Coopang,  ou  the  ? '  '- 

11,21! 
907,(H 

Tbe  Borneo  Group,  compriaing  the  Urge  inlanil  nl  Borneo,  in  the 
centra  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  with  Labnun  off  the  H.W.  const, 
and  Natum  and  An»mbaa  between  it  and  the  Malay  peninsula. 

Borneo,  N.  of  Java  and  E.  of  Cape  Komaota,  is,  next  to  New  Guinea, 
the  largest  Island  on  the  globe,  having  a  froliabla  area  of  'lSI),mO  sq.  m., 
sr  nearly  four  times  the  size  of  Qreat  Bntain  ;  the  pop.  is  estimated  at 
1,760,000,  of  whom  abont  l,S35,6O0  are  subject  to  the  Dutch.  The  E.,  S., 
and  W.  coasts,  with  the  eitception  of  a  few  spota,  remain  qnite  nnioiowu, 
B3  also  nearly  the  wboie  of  the  interior.  It  is  traversed  by  two  ranf^a 
of  nioontaiiis,  whioh  have  a  general  directiou  of  S.W.  and  N.E.  The 
lofdeat  of  these,  Iteing  that  nearest  the  Asiatic  continent,  attains  itx 
highest  elevation  in  Kini  Balu,  13,698  ft.  above  the  sea.  Borneo  is  noted 
for  the  abundance  of  its  valuable  minerals,  especially  for  its  diamond 
mines  near  Pontianak.  EKcellent  coal,  said  to  be  superior  to  that  of 
Neweastie,  k  wrought  in  Borneo  Proper,  Banjnrmiisni,  and  Sarawak. 
Valuable  mines  of  antiinoiiy  occur  iu  the  province  Sarawak  ;  while  iron, 
tin,  capper,  and  platina  are  found  in  numerous  localities.  The  flora  ami 
fauna  are  of  the  most  varied  and  goigeous  deaoription.  The  forests  fur- 
nish valuable  timber  and  the  gutta-percha  tree.  The  jirincipal  cultivated 
plants  are  sago  (here  the  chief  food  of  the  natives),  maize,  rice,  cucoa-uut, 
ajid  the  plant  from  which  the  resinous  gum  iwozoiu  is  produced.  The 
orang-otitang  is  peculiar  to  this  island  ^id  Sumatra.  Another  peculiar 
animal  is  the  ^aniD^iViu  barbaitu,  a  carnivorous  mammal  I'esenibling 
at  once  the  otter  and  omithorhyncbus.  The  iuhabitanta  belong  to  four 
races — the  aborigiues,  Malays,  Chinese,  and  Europeans.  The  aborigiues, 
who  are  named  Dyaks,  considerably  resemble  the  natives  of  the  Cflleliei 
and  of  the  Anstralion  continent,  while  tlieir  dialects  form  a  linli  in  tlie 

The  Malays  have  tstab- 

J, afits  and  navigable  rivein, 

where  they  occnpy  themeelves  in  commei'ciai,  but  tn'queutly  abio  iu 
piratical,  pursuits.  The  Chmeee  are  very  industrious,  and  conduct  ex- 
clnaivety  the  mining  business  of  the  country ;  while  the  Europeans  are 
for  the  most  part  Dutch  and  English  traders.  Abont  two-thirds  ot  tlie 
ulaod,  composing  the  entire  centre  and  south,  are  tributary  to  the 
Dntch,  who  have  here  two  settlements,  Banjanaaaain  and  Pontianak. 
Tlie  province  of  Sarawak  was  purchased  from  the  native  chiefs  by  Sir 
James  Brooke,  In  1842,  who,  with  his  heirs,  bear  the  title  of  Bajnhs 
of  Sarawak.  Borneo  or  Bruni,  formerly  the  metropolis  of  a  large  iu- 
dependeut  kingdom,  contains  a  pop.  of  about  22,000.  It  was  taken  by 
the  British  in  181B,  and  the  sniall  island,  Labnftn,  30  m.  farther  N.,  a 
few  mcntha  aftei-wards.  llis  latter  contains  a  colony  at  Tictoria,  has  a 
harbour,  and  extensive  mines  of  excellent  coal. 

The  CsletaM  Qrouii,  including  the  large  island  Celebes,  together 
wtth  Bouton,  .XtiUa,  Ac,  is  situated  E.  of  Borneo,  from  wjiicli  it  is 
teparated  by  the  Strait  of  Macassar. 

CxLERBS,  Hie  only  really  important  island  of  the  gi'nup,  lia£  an  area  of 
I  about  73,000  sq.  m.,  aud  a  nnp.  of  abont  3,500,000.  The  shape  k  ex- 
I   tremely  irregular,  the  island  being  broken  up  into  s  series  of  peniusulai. 


626  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  surface  is  greatly  diversified,  and  in  the  sublimity  of  its  scenery  is 
said  to  surpass  any  other  island  in  Malaysia.  The  climate  is  healtliy 
and  agreeaole,  though  hot  in  the  low  grounds.  Minerals  comprise  dia^ 
monds,  gold,  copper,  iron,  salt,  and  ftulphur.  The  forests,  though  not 
extensive,  contam  a  great  variety  of  trees,  from  one  of  which  the  well- 
known  Macassar-oil  is  extracted.  The  anoa,  a  fierce  kind  of  antelope 
about  the  size  of  a  sheep,  is  peculiar  to  this  ^up.  The  trepang-fishing 
and  the  catching  of  turtle  occupy  thousands  of  the  natives,  who  consist 
of  several  races — viz.,  the  Horaforas,  in  the  centre ;  the  Bugis,  on  the 
coasts,  a  maritime  commercial  people  more  resembling  the  Polynesians 
than  the  Malays ;  and  the  Badjus,  or  sea-gipsies,  who  constantly  reside 
in  their  ships,  and  carry  on  extensive  commerce  with  China,  to  which 
they  export  cotton,  edible  birds'  nests,  tortoise-shell,  and  pearls.  Celebes 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1512 ;  but  in  1660  the^  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  Dutch,  who  continue  to  control  the  island.  Their  principal 
establishments  are  Menado,  in  the  N.E.,  and  Macassar,  near  the  S.  W« 
extremity.     Area  of  Dutch  portion  45,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  356,000. 

The  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  comprising  Bouro,  Amboyna, 
Cemm,  Banda,  Gilolo,  &c.,  form  a  widely-scattered  group,  lying  be- 
tween Celebes  and  New  Guinea.    Area,  43,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  376,000. 

The  Moluccas  are  mountainous,  volcanic,  subject  to  earthquakes,  and 
very  fertile,  producing  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  other  spices,  fine  woods,  and 
a  great  variety  of  fruits.  On  the  coast  are  numerous  pearl  and  trepang 
fisheries.  These  islands  are,  for  the  most  part,  subject  to  the  Dutch, 
whose  chief  seat  of  power  is  at  Axnboyna,  which,  next  to  Batavia,  is  the 
principal  station  of  Dutch  commerce  in  Oceania.  The  people  consist  of 
Malays,  Papuans,  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  some  Europeans. 

The  Sangolr  or  Sanglr  Group,  consisting  of  an  archipelago  of  46 
small  islets,  is  situated  in  the  Celebes  Sea,  north-west  of  Gilolo. 
Pop.  12,000. 

The  Sooloo  Archipelago,  m  the  Celebes  Sea,  between  Borneo  and 
the  Philippine  Isles,  consists  of  a  group  of  above  60  islands,  the 
principal  of  which  is  Cagayan,  in  the  centre  ;  area,  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
200,000. 

The  PhUlppine  Isles,  an  extensive  archipelago  in  the  north-east 
of  Malaysia,  separated  from  Further  India  by  the  China  Sea,  and 
from  Borneo  and  Celebes  bv  the  Celebes  Sea.  Lat.  5"  32'— 19"  38 
N. ;  Ion.  117"— 126''  E. 

The  group  consists  of  about  1200  islands,  of  which  Luzon,  Mindanao, 
Palawan,  and  Mindoro,  are  the  largest.  The  area  and  population  are 
variously  estimated;  but  probably  the  former  is  about  114,000  sq.  m., 
and  the  latter  about  6,000,000.  The  area  of  the  Spanish  portion  amounts 
to  52,148  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  to  4,320,000.  The  islands  are  of  volcanic 
formation,  and  numeious  active  volcanoes  exist  in  the  mountainous 
regions.  Being  situated  within  the  range  of  the  monsoons,  the  climate 
is  moist,  and  hurricanes  are  frequent.  The  high  temperature  and  abun- 
dant moisture  produce  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  character  of  which  is 
not  very  different  from  that  of  Malaysia  generally.  The  tobacco  raised 
here  is  of  the  finest  description,  and  the  cigars  of  Manilla  have  obtained 
a  wide  celebrity,  while  sugar  and  rice  are  extensively  exported.  The 
mineral  products  ai-e  abundant,  comprising  coal,  sulphur,  alum,  mag- 


I 


62  7 

iiesia,  aT:il  Ttinrtile ;  and  the  fiiinn,  ivliich  in  general  resembles  IhaX  df 
the  ether  islaiula  of  Mnlayeio,  embraces  foies,  gazelles,  mnnkeya,  and 
crocodiles.  The  aboriirines  sre  of  divor«  origin,  but  are,  for  tlieinoBt 
part,  Malays  fuiil  Oceanic  Neoroes,  The  Tagaia  and  eleven  other  dia- 
lects are  spoken,  while  the  relieion  is  partly  Mohammedan  and  partly 
CfarifltJan.  Next  to  Cnba,  the  Philippines  form  the  most  valuable  of  the 
Spaaiah  foreign  poBuessions.  They  were  dlacovered  by  the  illnatrious  Por- 
tuguese navigator  Magellan,  lailingniiderthellagDf  Spain,  in  1521,  in  ths 
coune  of  the  Hrat  circnmuav^tion  of  the  globe.  It  was  iJit  itarch  fer 
ipica  that  led  to  this  discovery,  as  well  as  to  the  more  splendid  achieve- 
loeiits  of  Columbus  and  de  Gania  ;  and  yet,  fortunately  for  themselTes, 
they  produce  ve  apices.  The  flrst  land  that  Magellan  made,  after  gnitting 
the  ■western  shores  of  AniBrien,  was  the  port  of  Batnan,  in  the  ialniid 
Mindanao.  From  this  he  sailed  to  Zehu,  where  he  planted  the  tenuis, 
sprinkled  a  little  water  on  its  king,  and  thus  imagined  himself  u  hiving 
e.itablished  the  Christian  religion.    Hartng  accepted  ■  ohallenge  from  Uie 

Stty  prince  of  Mactan,  Marian,  wiUi  Utty  other  Spaniards,  entered  the 
IR  with  a  host  of  the  natives,  when,  being  deroyed  into  a  marsh,  the 
great  navigator,  with  six  of  his  companions,  lost  their  lives.  The  rest 
escaped,  and,  sailing  in  a  S.K  direction,  discovered  the  Moluccas.* 
Manilla,  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Luzon,  is  the  capital  of  the  Spanish 
possessions  in  the  East.  Its  population  amonnts  to  15,01)0,  and  its  coni- 
marce  witb  JurliA,  Oiina,  America,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain,  is  extensive. 


111.  MICHONBSIA. 

Micronesia,  formerly  reckoned  a  part  of  Polynesia,  comprises  the 
X.K  section  of  Oceania,  coneiatinK  of  ^^b  numerons  groups  of 
small  iatnnds  which  stud  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  from  the  equator 
to  lat.  28°  N.,  and  from  the  Philippine  Isles  oa  the  wast  to  the 
Sandwich  Isles  on  the  east     Area,  10,000  si^.  m.  ;  pop.  250,000. 

Except  Hawaii,  in  the  Sandwich  gronp,  they  are  of  very  small  dimen- 
sions, of  moderale  elevotion,  and  either  of  coralline  construction  or  sur- 
rounded  by  coral  reefs.  The  climate  is  salnbrtous  and  agreeable,  being 
tempered  hy  cool  breezes  from  the  ocean,  while  the  vegetation  is  gor- 
Reoua  in  the  ortrenie.  The  natural  prodnctions  comptiaa  the  bread-fruit 
tree,  cocoa-nut  palm,  banana,  plantain,  sugar-cane,  taro-root,  sod  nume- 
roos  other  edible  root*  and  fruits.  When  fint  visited  by  Europeans, 
these  islands,  in  common  with  those  of  Polynesia  Proper,  contained  no 
qnadru[ieds  except  hogs,  dogs,  and  rats;  but  the  sea  teems  with  Ash, 
which,  in  nome  of  the  groups,  conatitote  the  main  food  of  the  people. 
The  inhabitants  belong  ilmoat  exclusively  to  the  Malay  race,  are  of  a 
liark-brown  colour,  use  little  ctothing,  practise  tatooing,  and  are  aversa 
to  tegular  industry.  Their  religion  was  formerly  Polytheism,  embracing 
a  belief  in  a  future  state  ;  and  their  priests,  who  also  acted  as  physicians, 
possessed  an  immense  influence  among  tliem,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  sin- 
golar  institution  of  "Taboo."  Whenever  a  priest  chose  to  utter  this 
word  over  any  object,  the  owner  was  obliged  to  renounce  all  further  claim 
to  it ;  if  his  hoUBe,  for  instance,  was  /ahoord,  he  durst  not  again  enter  it. 
The  numerous  languages  spoken  in  all  the  uplands  of  Polynesia  and  Miero- 
neiia  are  dialects  of  the  Malayan.  Till  European  missionaries  introduced 
■  Ciawfotd'i '  Rlntoty  lit  the  Indtnu  Arr* 


628  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Gospel  the  grossest  barbarism,  licentiousness,  infanticide^  and  canni- 
balism prevail^  throughout  all  Micronesia  and  the  South  Sea  Islands ; 
but  now  myriads  of  the  inhabitants  are  found  "  sitting  at  the  feet  of 
Jesus,  clothed,  and  in  their  right  mind." 

Divisions. — Micronesia  embraces  the  following  principal  groups  : 
— The  Bonin  Islands,  S.E.  of  Japan  ;  Ladrone  or  Marianne  Islands, 
E.  of  the  Philippines  ;  Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands,  N.K  of  Papua , 
the  Marshall  or  Iklulgrave  Archipelago,  E.  of  the  Caroline  Group ; 
and  the  Sandwicli  Islands. 

The  Bonin  Isles,  in  the  N.W.  of  Micronesia,  and  about  500  m.  S.W. 
of  Yeddo,  in  Japan,  consist  of  a  group  of  89  small  islands,  the  largest  ot 
which  are  Peal  and  Kater  Islands,  at.  the  former  of  which  English  and 
other  Europeans,  engaged  in  the  whale-tishery,  are  settled.  The  northern 
islands  are  inhabited  by  a  Japanese  colony. 

The  Ladrone  or  Marianne  Isles,  a  group  of  17  large  and  numerous 
small  islands  belonging  to  Spain,  are  situated  a1x)ut  1400  m.  east  of  the 
Philippines.  Only  6  of  them  are  inhabited,  which  contain  a  pop.  of 
about  5600.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin ;  their  general  aspect  is  beau- 
tiful and  picturesque,  the  soil  very  fertile,  and  the  productions  are  cotton, 
indigo,  nee,  sugar,  and  the  plantain.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of 
Spanish  descent,  the  native  races  having  almost  disappeared.  The  lai^est 
island,  named  Gnahan,  is  forty  leagues  in  circuit,  and  contains  the  town 
Agaena,  which  is  the  cap.,  with  a  pop.  of  3000.  They  were  discovered 
by  Magalhaens  in  1521,  and  called  oy  him  Ladrones,  signifying  robbers^ 
owing  to  the  thievish  propensities  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands,  also  termed  the  New  Philippines, 
commence  with  the  Pelew  Islands,  550  m.  east  of  Mindanao  in  the  Philip- 
pines, and  extend  eastward  over  a  space  of  about  2000  m.  They  were 
discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1543,  and  named  in  honour  of  Charles  II. 
of  Spain.  The  Carolines  contain  several  smidl  groups,  as  the  Pelew, 
Yap,  Mortlock,  and  Duperry  Isles.  They  are  all  of  coralline  formation, 
except  the  Yap  group,  which  is  mountainous,  and  abounds  in  the  pre- 
cious metals.  The  climate  is  mild  and  agreeable,  while  the  productions 
resemble  those  of  Micronesia  generally.  The  pop.,  29,000,  are  chiefly 
Malays,  skilful  navigators,  and  subsist  chiefly  on  fish  and  cocoa-nuts. 
They  belong  nominally  to  Spain,  but  contain  no  Spanish  settlement. 

The  MazBhall  or  Midgraye  Archipelago,  considerably  to  the  £.  of 
the  Caroline  group,  consists  of  several  distinct  groups  of  low  coral  islets, 
about  midway  between  Papua  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  principal 
clusters  are  named  the  Gilbert  Islands,  Radack  Island,  Ralick  Island, 
Piscadoras,  Mulgrave  Island,  and  the  Marshall  Islands.  The  climate, 
productions,  and  inhabitante,  do  not  differ  from  the  rest  of  Micronesia. 
The  Gilbert  Islands  contain  about  60,000  inhabitants. 

Sandwich  Islands,  the  most  important  group  between  Malaysia  and 
the  American  continent,  are  situated  about  3000  m.  W.  of  Mexico,  and 
about  the  same  distance  N.E.  of  Papua.  The  islands  are  fifteen  in  num- 
ber, but  only  eight  are  inhabited,  the  chief  of  which  are  Hawaii  or 
Owyhee,  Maui,  Oahu,  and  Kauai.  The  area  is  estimated  at  7630  sq.  m., 
and  the  population,  69,800.  WTien  Captain  Cook  discovered  the  islands, 
in  1778,  he  estimated  the  population  at  400,000.  The  Sandwich  Islands 
are  all  high,  steep,  mountainous,  and  of  volcanic  formation.    Hawaii,  the 


I 

I 


OCEANIA.  629 

largest  of  ihe  group,  contains  two  atiipeDiloiis  aummitH— vii.,  Moiveq 
Kea.  ]3,aW  ft.,  anil  Jlonna  Loa,  13,650  It.  The  Ibrmur  ie  the  loftiest 
niinmit  la  Oceania,  and  tiie  latt«r  tbe  higbeat  active  volcnno.  Tha 
elimata  is  mild  and  ialubrious ;  mean  temperature,  76°  Fah.  Tht 
range  of  tlie  thenmimeteT  is  very  email,  the  raiaa  are  tdodernte,  and  in 

Seneral  the  conntry  is  one  of  tlie  healthiest  on  the  globe.  Gold  has  been 
iacovered  in  Hawaii,  and  salt  in  Oaha.  Wheat  ia  raised  in  tJie  uplunda; 
and  in  the  valleys,  coflbe,  sugar,  cotton,  taro-root,  arrowroot,  cocoa, 
bi«ad-Iniit,  and  variDnB  Enropeon  and  West  Indian  Iruits.  The  natives, 
iiho  belong  to  the  ligh^coluured  Malay  stock,  are  a  mild,  docile,  im- 
provable race,  who  have  very  readily  adopted  the  manners  and  cnstoms 
of  civilised  life.  Their  language  veiv  cloaely  resenihlea  thosa  of  TatiitJ  and 
New  Zealand;  it  was  iltst  reduceil  tosiviitten  foi'tn  liy  the  Atuerican 
roissionaries,  and  contains  only  twelve  letters— viz.,  five  vowels  and  seven 
conaonante.  In  1819  the  king  publicly  abaliahed  idolatry,  and  embraced 
the  Christian  faith.  Since  then  the  Scriptures  have  been  printed  in  the 
native  tongue,  churches  and  schools  have  been  hnilt,  and  conatitntional 
^oremment  eatahlished.  The  islands  are  well  aituated  for  trade,  being 
in  the  route  between  America  and  China,  and  conatant  communication  ie 
maintained  with  San  Francisco  and  New  Zealand.  A  treaty  of  friendabip, 
commerce,  and  navigation  between  her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  King  of  tlie  Sandwich  Islands  waa  signed  at  Honolulu  in  1861, 
Honolnln,  in  the  island  Oahu,  is  the  capital  and  principal  port ;  popula- 


IV,  POLTNESLY,  oit  SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDS. 

Polynesia  forms  the  S.E.  part  of  Ocennia,  embracing  the  n 
■rchipela^oa  and  ialands  aouth  of  the  equator,  and  lying  between 
AnertwIaaiB  and  the  110th  degree  of  W.  longitude.  Area  estimated 
at  13,000  an.  m. ;  population,  300,000. 

For  on  account  of  its  general  features,  natural  productiona.  rare  of 
people,  reh'gion,  and  languages,  aeo  under  "Micronesia,"  the  cbaracter- 
iatlca  of  which  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  Polynesia, 

DiTiRroNB.— Beginning  at  the  W.  eitremity,  the  following  am 
the  prineipal  groupa  ;  —  the  Fiji  lalanda  ;  Samoa  or  Navigators 
Islanda ;  Tonga  or  Friendly  lalanda  ;  Hervej  or  Cook's  Islanda ; 
Society  Islands ;  Aastral  Islands;  Low  Archipelago;  the  Marquesas; 
and  Easter  Island. 

riji  or  Titi  Islands,-  A  yrnnp  of  about  500  aniall  ialands,  1900  m. 
N,E.  of  Sydney.  The  area  is  estimated  at  803*  sq.  m.,  and  the  popula- 
tion at  148,000.  Some  of  the  islands  are  mountainous,  and  all  of  them 
are  suppoaed  to  be  of  volcanic  origin.  Tha  natives  are  Papuans,  a  race 
which  does  not  extend  farther  east,  and  liencs  the  islauda  might  with 
greater  propriety  be  classed  under  Melanesia.  Many  of  the  natives  have 
been  converted  to  Christianity  through  the  labours  of  Weeleyan  mission- 
tries,  but  the  remainder  piactiae  cannibalism  and  human  sacrifices. 
They  were  annexed  to  the  British  Crown  in  October  1871,  The  climate  la 
"  opical  and  moiat.   They  produce  nandalwood,  together  with  fruits  of 

uiona  kinds,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  anowrobti  while  the  sugar-cane,  cotton. 


630  POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

and  tobacco  have  been  introduced  iivith  advantage  by  English  and  Ameri« 
can  settlers.    Capital  Suva,  formerly  Levuka. 

Samoa,  or  Navigators  Islands,  are  situated  about  450  m.  N.E.  of  the 
Fiji  group :  area  estimated  at  1162  sq.  m. ;  population,  35,000.  They  are 
mountainous  and  of  volcanic  formation,  but  surrounded  by  coral-reefs. 
The  soil  is  rich,  the  surface  densely  wooded,  and  the  productions  similar 
to  those  of  the  neighbouring  groups.  The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  and 
were  very  ferocious  till  Williams,  the  missionary,  visited  them  in  1830, 
when  many  of  them  embraced  Christianity.  They  are  now  fast  advancing 
in  civilisation. 

Tonga,  or  Friendly  Isles,  S.E.  of  the  Fiji  Isles,  consist  of  three 
clusters,  of  which  the  Tongataboo  group  is  the  largest ;  area,  190  sq.  m., 
pop.  25,000.  They  were  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643,  but  received 
their  collective  name  from  Cook,  on  account  of  the  hospitality  shown  him 
by  the  natives,  who,  however,  are  now  known  to  be  deceitful  and  treach- 
erous. The  first  missionaries  sent  here  were  massacred,  but  of  late  years 
others  have  met  with  considerable  success.  Cocoa-nut  oil  is  almost  the 
only  important  export. 

Harvey  or  Cook  Islands,  E.  of  the  Friendly  Islands,  embrace  the  scat- 
tered islands  of  Raroton^a,  Atiu,  Maugeia,  and  several  others,  nearly  all 
of  them  lofty  and  volcanic.  They  were  discovei-ed  by  Cook  in  1773 ;  but 
Rarotonga  was  first  made  known  by  the  missionary  Williams,  who 
laboured  here  with  singular  success.  The  population,  who  are  estimated 
at  10,000,  are  of  the  Malay  race. 

Society  Islands,  N.E.  of  the  Hervey  group,  consist  of  about  10  con- 
spicuous  isles,  all  of  them  lofty,  volcanic,  fertile,  and  surrounded  by  coral 
reefs,  against  which  the  vast  waves  of  the  Pacific  break  with  terrific  gran- 
deur. Area,  705  sc^.  m. ;  pop.,  14,000.  Tahiti,  the  '*  gem  of  the  Pacific," 
is  extremely  beautiful,  contains  moimtains  7000  ft.  high,  and  clothed  to 
the  summits  with  a  rich  and  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  exports  consist 
of  pearls,  pearl  shell,  cocoa-nut  oil,  sugar,  and  arrowroot  Tahiti  was 
forcibly  taken  possession  of  by  the  French  in  1843,  who  now  claim  a 
protectorate  over  this  group,  together  with  the  Gambler  and  Wallia 
Islands.  They  were  discovered  by  Quiros  in  1606,  but  received  their  name 
from  Cook,  in  honour  of  the  Boyal  Society,  by  whom  he  was  sent  out  in 
1769  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  It  was  to  the  Society  Islands  tiiat 
the  first  messengers  of  the  Gospel  to  Polynesia  were  sent,  and  from  their 
shores  numerous  missionaries  have  sailed  to  the  neighbouring  archi- 
pelagos. 

The  Austral  Isles,  so  called  from  their  position  S.  of  Tahiti,  are  lofty, 
fertile,  and  beautiful,  and  contain  about  1000  inhabitants,  who  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  Society  Isles. 

The  Tonamoton  or  Low  Archipelago,  E.  of  the  Society  group,  consists 
of  a  number  of  coral  islands,  slightly  raised  above  tho  siuface  of  the 
ocean,  rendering  the  navigation  intricate  and  perilous.  The  Gambier 
Islands,  however,  in  the  S.  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Pitcaim  Idand,  f^ 
ther  eastward,  are  high  and  volcanic,  very  few  of  them  tie  inhabited,* 
the  population  of  the  whole  prol^bly  not  exceeding  10.000.  The  entire 
group  IS  now  a  French  possession.  Pitcaim  Ifde  is  of  intereit  as  fhe  re« 
fugo  of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty  in  1789.' 

The  Marquesas  lie  900  m.  N.E.  of  Tahiti,  and  2000m.  S.B.  of  Hawaii. 
Area,  746  sq.  m.;  pop.  4200.  They  are  of  volcanic  fbnnation,  with 
mountains  rising  to  a  height  of  5000  ft. ;  while  the  interior  is  fntHe^  jfto* 


ANTARCTICA.  63 1 

ducing  yams,  pulse,  cocoa-nuts,  sugar-cane,  and  wild  cotton.  Tlie  in- 
Labitauts  are  Malays,  and  are  the  least  civilised  of  all  the  natives  of  Poly- 
nesia. They  carry  on  war  with  the  most  savage  ferocity,  and  practise 
caimibalism.  The  French,  since  1842,  have  occupied  the  two  largest 
inlands,  and  claim  the  whole  group  as  a  colonial  teiTitory. 

Easter  Island,  the  most  eastern  of  all  the  countless  islands  of  tlie 
Pacific,  is  situated  in  lat.  2T  S.,  and  Ion.  110°  W.,  far  to  tlie  S.E.  of  the 
Gambier  Archipelago,  and  upwards  of  2(X)0  m.  W.  of  the  coast  of  South 
America.  Though  only  1 2  m.  long  and  4  broad,  this  island  has  of  late 
excited  much  interest  among  geographers,  on  account  of  the  numerous 
relics  of  a  former  civilisation  found  on  it,  consisting  of  huge  sculptured 
stones  bearing  inscriptions  now  unintelligible,  and  well-executed  statues 
of  immense  size,  immeasurably  beyond  the  artistic  skiU  of  the  existing 
natives,  who  do  not  differ  from  the  generality  of  eastern  PoljTiesians. 
Similar  traces  of  a  superior  race  are  found  in  other  islands  farther  west, 
and  not  remotely  resembling  the  works  of  art  found  in  Mexico  and  Peru, 
especially  on  the  islands  of  Lake  Titicaca.  Is  it  possible  that  Manco 
Cdpac  and  his  fellows  crossed  the  Pacific  through  the  islands  of  Poly- 
nesia, Easter  Island  being  the  last  stepping-stone  across  the  boundless 
world  of  waters  ?  The  natives  of  Easter  Island  have  a  tradition  that  their 
fathers,  many  hundred  years  ago,  arrived  here  from  Oparo  in  the  Gam- 
bler archipelago,  1900  m.  distant ;  and  though  tlieir  present  language 
bears  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  ancient  Peruvians,  but  is  closely 
allied  to  that  of  New  Zealand  and  the  Sandwich  Isles,  we  know  that 
nations  sometimes  change  their  language,  and  we  undei'stand  that  the 
word  "Titicaca"  itself  is  pure  Malayo-Polynesian. 


ANTARCTICA. 

Such  is  the  name  given  to  those  extensive  tracts  of  land,  recently 
discovered  within  the  Antarctic  Circle,  by  British,  French,  and 
American  navigators,  and  supposed  to  form  portions  of  a  great  con- 
tinent roimd  the  South  Pole.  As  the  leading  features  of  this  inhos- 
Sitable  region  have  been  described  in  our  remarks  on  the  "Antarctic 
)cean"  (p.  26),  we  here  merely  remark,  that  should  the  explored 
tracts  be  found  to  be  continuous,  and  the  existence  of  a  Southern 
Continent  put  beyond  doubt,  we  shall  then  have  seven  continents — 
viz.,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  North  America,  South  America,  Australia, 
and  Antarctica ;  and  seven  corresponding  oceans — viz.,  the  Arctic, 
North  Atlantic,  South  Atlantic,  Indian,  ^orth  Pacific,  South  Pacific, 
and  Antarctic  Oceans.  If  the  world  we  inhabit  was  indeed  created 
and  moulded  by  the  divine  hand,  this  remarkable  fact  is  precisely 
what  we  might  have  expected.  Seven  is  ever^^where  the  number 
denoting  perfection.  It  is  God's  signature,  stamped  on  the  works  of 
His  hands,  signifying  that  the  work  is  His,  and  that  man  must 
neither  add  nor  diminish.  Scripture  is  full  of  it  in  its  every  section, 
and  Nature  evinces  innumerable  traces  of  it.  Thus  we  have  seven 
days'  work  of  creation,  seven  days  in  the  week,  seven  colours  in  the 
sunbeam,  seven  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale,  seven  petitions  in  the  one 
perfect  prayer,  and  all  founded  on  the  seven  attributes  of  the  Eternal ! 


INDEX. 


ABBEEVIATIOSS. 
^refc.  AiTJiar«lSB";  B.Siy:  C.  Cope;  Ck.  Cliinoel;  Eit.  ErtmuT;  J-r,  Pridi;  K, 
Fort;  G.amii  CI.  Glacier;  CI.  Greit ;  Hd.  Head  ;  Sr.  HarbOQr; /.  Islimd; 
It.  laluidB ;  lith.  lEtlimoi ;  L.  Lake  ot  Lodi ;  I/r.  Lowsi ;  JT.  Umutaia ;  Utt. 
UonBtaiDB  ;  P™,  PonlnBula  ^  Ft  Point;  iL  Rlrer;  Bd.  Bound;  Sir.  BUail; 
Tj.  Tipper ;  S.  Bonth  ;  E.  East ;  JT.  Kortb ;  W.  WmL 


1,  son   Agneds  R.,  ie 


AwiR.ais 

Adrianoipla,      'suT, 

AgojaPV.'W 

AUlKttg,    7B,    S30,     .l!.i-wilim.  nS.45B 

SOe.  312 

{prsi"' 

2M                               *«-,i,iiln,5r,7 

Aar,  Lr..  Gl.,  rs       A^-^ii.ulvi.,  ir.l.  M! 

7a,  m.  sdi!  'isi 

Am  E,.  m,  77.  SOS       A<=n™a.,]a.;W» 

Aarau,  SOS.  27i           Arcm,  477 

Aidin'.  SW.  861,  SSO 

Aareao,  BT2                  Acnrinrton,  ILT.  138 
Asrfiuiui,  BSD,  !U       Actmi,  2S2,  :B8 

ieean  Baa.  07,310. 

Aigi  a..  427 

AieneB  a,  a07 

Abaco  I.,  Ml                Acljncnmt,  .',78.  SOI 

£giiia  G.,  MB,  BOl 

Ain,  196 

Abtia-Jamt     M.,    Admid. 'J»9 

i^l.,231 

Ain  R,  S07 

440,  *»                      Acihil  ad.,  JOB 

£tollvl»B 

Aiiu^  SOS.  sit 

Aintab.  SOU 

AblBvllle,  196,  SOO,    Achraj,  L,  IJO 

«7i 

Air.  (67 

mS                               A<.itei;i<=.  UBS 

AlbuR,  ISB 

AfrtPQtat.ieB 

AhbeyfealB,  ITS          Achlrt  I„  601 

AfonUwjrda.lSB 

Alnlrie,   14B,    1», 

Al.(*rleli,  IM,  17!  .  Aconcsgnn.  STO.ME 

AMo,  ii,  fl,  04. 

100^     ^ 

AlitiUts  -   Oiuu,    ^<'aiii.  saa,  390 

4a7-Eiii>t.  4B6- 

Aire,  IM,  SOT,  208, 

W^SM 

AcrtDrAtk^MO, 

Sonth,  «4  -  R 

MB 

Abdinu  C.  W 

C«it~l,  4BB,  wo 

Al™  R.  141 

AiMnToii,ia» 

Aftim  R.,  380 

Aire    (Haws)    B., 

Agablf,  408 

Abmd«n,l«,IlilI. 

Adujir.,  MO,  ml 

SSd^   407,  4M 

Alans,  1»9 

Ae«giiA.aas 

AisoB  R,  ax 

Agd«,  197.  M7 

All,  IBS,  202,  Mg 

IM.  140,  ISl.  US 

Agai.,  197.  Ml,  i07 

All-  U  -  ctiapalla. 

AbBTlaldj,  IM,  IH 

Agarahana,  SJ7 

SM^iSB,  Ui 

Aghrini.  lU 

wb""      ''■ 

AKincoiut.  19^  IDD 

Abvs<i^  iig,  ui, 

idjiuci,  lies.  MS 

AgDoR.Ml 

An^iiai.  son,  sen 

lU 

Ad.li.IDb.,  479 

A«DtU.S6S 

Akab*.  SOO,  BS4 

AtmuaOir.  IM,  IH 

AdmirMt)'  0  ,  BOT 

AgmtR,  307 

AkabaQ..SIU 

AdiulmltyJs.HD 

Agi«,«S5,88B.*)0 
A^'?^M7,'m9, 

Akamai.,  ssi.  324. 

in,lM 

SIS 

Ahii«dini,U«.J*0, 

AdonrK..76,MT 

Ab.talMl»L..B7« 

AdraT  I7B,  IM 

Agiia.tw) 

Ssr/j?-'" 

AdnR,  IbS 

Agaw     Callentu, 

Alniy>T,4T^«n 

AdmufU  G.,  sot 

»1,  Ul          ^ 

Ak«i.lM.*« 

AluDU.  iSl 
Aluaa  R.,  11^ 


,    ALIB,    89,  2(H,  !», 

ira,  S68 
,    Alps,  Rhsetlui,  980 


Amlwch,  119,  1S3, 

138 
Aiuiner  Bee  L.,  SSI 

AniDo'rB,,421,  ^^S 


AluoD  R.,  SJg 
Alba,  181.  KM 
Altuuieu,  i;«.  186 
Altaai*,  to,  7S,  »1. 

AlbiDO,  £83,  S30 


Al^™,  178 
AlgeriB,    91. 

ATglete.  *02.  i 

,    Alea4B.,43» 

AlFuna.  1T6. 1 


Alba^ds  B.,  1S« 
Alb«n.o«Pt.,M 
Albert  Ntuzi,  440,    . 


nstardsm,  74,211, 


AnagnL.  283,  283 
■    ahliac   M.,  6M, 


Allnhabad,  £82,384, 


AJala  de  toi  a 

nlea,  17S.  IM 
Alula  la  It«l,l 


Alcoy  R.,  Igft 
Aldan  Uts.,  S60 
Aldboroogb,  141 
Aide  R..  141 


...  jnR,  138,140 
AUmdals,  143 
'   AUer  R.,  SOI 


Almsrift    O., 


inuD  U.,  U 

'i'tH..3oe 

R9UU.,31,MS, 

iiToranto,(« 

iTsr,  lis,  12S, 

werra.BlM* 

.    AsdroB  (W.  IIIdlH) 

AuditJar,  1T8, 1U 
3    Andnn,  107,  KIT 
Azidoie  B,,  lOT 
Auuab,  SOB 

AngenDaui  R.,  73 

Anglta  R.,  311 

1   AngltMk  L,M,B1, 

'       "■  '"0,  lie,  ISl, 


I    AniMbiUT,  110, 140 
AmherS  I,.  6M 


^^ 

IKDES.                                                   635                   J 

ApuM.  570,  Ml 

ArgI>hR.3S4,3ia    AjI^Q,aJ..  320,  33»                        ■ 

■   Ang™.lKI,18i 

Arurt  R.  eul 

Argolis,  299 

Asaph  (at).  luT 

Anlinlt  -  Bsraborg, 

AqnilB,    !S2,    SST, 

Acgolis  a.,  301 

Asben, 487 

T3,  24! 

iM 

Aigoa,  290,  300 

Anbidt-Qeuigu,  ^42 

AqnU^ia.  Ml 

Argun  R.,  421 

AMbGir,  SOB 

Ascbatrenberg,  2S0 

Anh8mbjrR.,flul 

Aisbia,  3B7 

A^^ruoo.  1*6,152 

Asbantee,  473 

Arabto  Sffl,  84S 

Argyro-KiutrQ,ao7, 

Ani™tHM..4ia 

ArablMan,  359,  SM, 

311 

Ashbortou.  116.140 

Arb.110.  882.589 

Aihbj-de-la-Zaiiuh, 

Aracati.  iSt,  aoi 

AUCB.  385,  636 

lis,  149 

Ankobu/tSP 

AritgB,  19* 

Aabrord,  115 

Arlspo.  631,  662 

Arafnn  Bei,  620 

Arimaa.  536 

Arkalg  U,  16» 

117, 196, 138 

AuMflsl*.  ISB 

Araktun,  3K,  387 

Arkansas,  638 

Asia,  68.  62,  345 

Annaloe  R.,  lU 

Anibluui  MU.,  BJ», 

Asia  MLdor,  90,  01 

Ad  pan,  145, 180 

4M 

Arkat,  382.  am.  404 

AakeatDD,166, 172 

Aral  Sen  L-.  352 

Atkli^ngrt.  63.  67. 

Askrigg,  115 

AntiapoliB.eSB,  Ml 

Aralsk  (Fort),  J  89, 

72,  76,  73 

Asps,  173,  13S 

430 

ArkiliO,  469 

AspinnniJl,  676,676. 

AnaeflfV  IflS,  209. 

Aranyos  E.,  9S4 

Arklow,  164,  172 

301 

MS 

Ararat  Mt.,34fl 

ArbUadDR,185 

Aspropotamo     B., 

AnowyL.,  TT 

809 

Annj.,  7* 

ArloD,  71.'2I6' 

AnaoiikK.IIII) 
Annomy,  IBf,  20T 

Artd'sMSof 

Armagli,  103.  163. 

A^?i,°7}''3S9,  921 

AnapMh,  350,  Ma 

Atmenfa,    SS,  SSO, 

A..infe,  478 

ai.^ 

ABSoasn,  461,  453, 

Almenli  Uta.,  649 

Ant  B„  141 

Arbroath,  14a,  isa, 

AriBentitroa,    lOfl, 

Anlalii,««AnHoch 

Asuncion,  576 

AdtalD.  Hi.  U9 

Are  a,  90S 

Amhaim,   74,  222, 

Aerar.451.  462,461 

A^rotm  (Odeui), 

AreadlB,  299 
ArchidonB,  179,  ISA 

AnioR,T6.  289 

an."...,- 

Anl^otlc.  631 

AiChipetego.   W- 

Amabctg,  2S0.  963 

Aatrsbaa,  871,  S711, 

Ante  R.,  sue 

AmBtadt,  242,  269 

Antequim,  178 

^&hSo 

AwlMU,     73,     949, 

ABtrakton,  76,  321, 

Aiiti™tlI.,BOS 

— iiijriBTi,  B7,  aeo 

An^Snii..  Ml 

ArooDHlL.SBS 

AaW™.  983 

Atcns,  i7B,  186 

AnUocli.  BM.  m 

Arctic  (Ooean),  24 

An)»iui,468 

AntloquK  £TS 

ArparR.sas 

Aannirtoa.  609,  691 

ADtipndfla  I„  «1B 

ArifchB,  107 

Arpino,  283;  230 

Atacama,  589,  692, 

AnliauisM..  6711 

Ardtche  R,  907 

ArttneaR.2U5 

690,  601 

Anti-I»uni5M..3411 

Arra  B,.  173 

AbbuaB..481 

aE^°95'is"i66 

Ateasa,  982,  290 

AulKm.'lSa 

Anllla  r',  135 

AlBsb.  461 

AntWMp.  74.   SIS, 

Ar»Dnio»I..S5 

Ath,  215.  226 

^Kmseo 

Arra..  74,  108,  900, 

Atbabaicali.,  509 

225 

Atbanry.  165, 171 

^^^^3B3,  ISO 

Arre  R.  907 

AtbeiH,  63,  298,10J 

ArrlteeR,207 

^BBuinM,'    Uta, 

An™ia..li81 

Athlone,  164,  167. 

^^pKSSS 

AnqulpC  B95,  536. 

Ar™iiR,306 

171 

670   ^ 

M       Allogbony 

Arelio,     2S2,    285. 

Athy,  164,  167,  17« 

Ana    0,   BPd    R, 

Atiul.,6iri 

Ap|:SDUll,  iBS,  173, 

ArgeDSe  R,  20! 

AtUinion,  636 

m               '       ' 

ArgonUm.  1B6,  406 

ARoli,  74 

Atlanu,  BSi,  641 

^^^«by,  liT,  IS8, 

ArgmUnB..906 
ArgBntMO,  0,,  !»S 

ArtabJ  R,  208 

Atlanllo     (Oi:«aD) 

^^CDimnoK      R. 

AnnraClne  CooMe- 

Atlai  M,.44i),4M 

^^Hl 

taUoD,  M8,  605 

Amiidel,  116.  140 

^^Eb*roD.C.^ 

A>8li>b,  iU 

Arv8L,,93l 

Altab,  478,  481 

■l 

4rg*b.m..S4a 

Ant  a.  aos           Aiiec  a«  U,v»                ^ 

Aactalnlecli,! 

161,  m  "' 
Auobtennnchtj, 


Ane  R.  sez 
Augsburg.  SSO.iEl, 


Auatnilia,  M,  SOS— 
N.,  603,  804— a., 
M3,(01— W.,fl03, 

AuBtraliut      Alpa, 


Avellino,  SSi,  ! 


Ajleabuiy,)18,130, 

Aylesbam.  116, 141 

Ajr,146,'u»,  160 
Ayr  R,  ISO 
Ayrablre,  100,  145, 


dEn-Baden,  160, 
tiDii,  ITB,  i«e 


>n  (Lui&rk),  K  , 
,n  (Linlithgow) 


Bagunaro,  £01 
Bagbdod,  aso, 
3«3,  3B1 

B^mas '  Is., 

'  .Bahiad'Avein 


Jl-Merdj  L. 


Baireut^  £50,  S 
,  Baja.  aS7,  iU 

Bakileliati,  ' 
I     4fll,  m 

Bikchi-Seral, 


BalbriggM.lMilJl 
[eB..  4SllBaIilo^,  119 
ISO,  3S0       BAle  or  Bul«,  9T2, 


Babel'mude 


'BMe-Campagne,?r 
.    Bale4rei&,,  67,17 
la  Mt«.,  68 


■  Balfron,  I_. 
BalfrnSi,  871,  171, 

BabjlonTsM-'sei,  '  BtliL,  AM 

3m  BiU™  K.,  IM 

BtcehlgUane      B.,    Btakali    llta.,    », 


BaIljiiuloe,16S,] 
BallinfloiTTB.,  1 


BallycMtle'B..  ijl 
Ballymataon,     16^ 


Dollmaliinoll,  IM, 

Balliahann™,  KB, 

186, 171 
Balinoral,  IM,  1U, 

Balaamo,  flOl 
Balta,  9S1,  3U 
Baltic  Sen.  or,  M7 
Baltinoro,  535,  5S8 
BaltinEltiBB,164,172 

BaiDberg,'2!)0,'ltli, 


Buibmy.  Hf  IH^ 
HI 

Banolioiy^l«  IM 


BasdaB,  IH,  m 

Buff,  lU,  US,  U> 
BiolIUfli&  ML  IH 
^ofc  Ml,  4H 


^^ 

INDEX.                                                     637                  1 

f &iik-aL<ndl..SOS 

Buingatoke,     lie. 

Bedfoid,  ua.  130. 'Bengal,    3B2,    3S3,                  ■ 

Bunock  R.,  15S 

Basle,  m.  S72,  273 

BedfotdLoTel.  121 

Beagalflr,  333,  387, 

Bmbookbum,  HB, 

Baaa  8tr.,  607 

Bedford,  How,  63S, 

4M 

181,  IM 

Baasmo,  2S2,  334, 

Bengali,  (62 

BMtrr,  184, 1T2 

m    '              ' 

Badfo'tdshiro,    IIB, 

&:&■•■■"• 

KaSL'S"' 

Bas9efn,4!l4 

Buse  Terre,  BBS 

Bent<a°uBf,    4S1, 

Barbawmmsa,  601 

^Sar.S82,M3,S84, 

BubldoH  I.,  »1. 

141 

Benlcarlo.lTa 

B^ai.le<,*3fl, 

Basaes  Alpts,  1C3 
Basses     tyria^es, 

Behriiig  Btr.,  S02, 

Benin,  478,  481 
Benin,  Bight  of,  143 

Bs^^'e» 

Barbutro,  ITS.  ISS 

BasBorah,  3W,  SS3 

BarbiUR.,  IBS 

Beilan'Past.  850 

Be™r,'!8a 

B«-b.ta  R.  188 

Batarfa,  104.  624 

Beist,  807,  311 

BubDdaL  lies 

Batli,  llfl.  124,  ia» 

Buby,  SSB 

B.th(Al.;»r.),'S3t 

Beirout,   9Sll!    362, 

Bei^r.  451,  452 

Bum  41S.4S3 

Baths  R,  416 

Berbers,  IM.  197 

Buceloim,  176,179, 

Bathang,  418.  421 

Be\llAha{Bethte- 

Bathgate,  145,  150, 

hmH,  360,  S63 

BerdllciieT,  S2§ 

Birrelonii    rVenc!- 

Beith.U,^160 

Batettjo  a,  sei 

Mia),    S7S,    677, 

Bathonit(Afr.),430. 

BersilnaB.asa 

470. 181 

Budlmn,  SS2. 40t 

Bnthnrst    (Aoatr.), 

BemmD,  282,  2B4, 

ItanlMT  L.  1S4 

601.  eoe 

Bela.a7S.a79,  381 

Bunmr.  SSa.  334, 

Bathuret  C.  606 

Beibo  R,  290 

Df°nt09R    186 

sai»,4afi 

Baton  Honga.  636. 

Beled-el-Jered,  M! 

Becgen.asi,  B.is.aio 

Bufleu  C,  S6,  SOI 

S^hTsso 

Batoiun,  4S6,  476 

BelfMt,''"63,    166, 

^^'^^\^^^^' 

B«lrins,  116, 110 

Battle,' 116 

Belfast  (iu5t«lla). 

Hatkol.  41 S 

Berguei,  126,  205 

B«k<.lL,4ia.4E8 

BauJ.  iV,  206 

Belfiat  OJ.  States), 

BerJB,  178,  lee 

B*r-la^BO,  199,  we 

Bantien,  212,  213. 

Berkeley,  118,  ISO. 

Buletta.  m  287. 

Belfast,  r».  189,  m 

Ml 

Bavaria,  2SD 

Be  fort,  19S,  207 

Berkeley  Avon  R.. 

BinneD,    MB,  SIS, 

Ba,  I8,;  65a 

Belgi  A  211 

103 

Bin»n9CuUe,liS. 

BaJtrfS;  S2S 

Belgrade,   75,    281, 

Il»,  140 

Bayeui,  196,  206 

308.  sin 

Berks,  lie,  123 

B«n«il,  iO,  m. 

BaToimB,  197,  Ml, 

Berlin,  238,240,202 

4S8 

207 

Benandas  It.,  S(I5, 

Binuler,  lis,  121. 

BsyflB  R.,  WT 

BellB  ial^SOl 

KM!,,. 

Bernard,  St,  Oreat, 

Barnstaple,       IK, 

BeliliSi«o'''  "l", 

M.,  273,  274 

m,]W 

Ba»da,B8B,»a7.4M 

BBlIIil*oii*,2Ta.2» 

BeSbuVg.sia.Sfli 

B^™;.,^..,, 

Bear  (Qt)I,., SOS 
Bear  1.,  160 

Bellot  Stt..  S02 
Ballnoo.  JS2.  2ltt 

Bern    (Swlt^),    74, 

£S5!^^"' 

BeauciUe.lM.  SOI, 

Boli«r.llT.137.142 
Ball,  Great,  SSI 

Benie    (O'enniinyJ, 

Barrliead,  US,  IflO 

swr- 

Belt,  LltUi;  281 

Berne  R.,  102 

Birriar  -  BeeT    of 

Beltnrbet.  18S,  in 

neniue  Alp»,  174 

AuMralla,  MB 

BmuIj  firlli,  IM 

D>.-t,    I,,i„on^   «.. 

Barni.  Pt„  SOS 

Beaiiic,.:'    -■■  ■  - 

Berm,  473 

B.m«mr'.."os 

bA"m.. 

Barton,  US,  141 

Benie.  Ui,  isa 

BtTlidh  B.,  201 

Ger>lea.,ISfl 

a.an.eoi 

B«.-|.- 

Dortn-Jk.       North. 

^^H  BbiD.  1S8 

US,  H3.1S9 

^Knnt<R..390 

lti'r««k-.m-Tw««rt, 

^K«  1$.  mi 

tl 

B 

B 

Ilr,  "  iokillli^   m, 

638 


INDEX. 


Besanfon,  198,  202, 

207 
Besos  R,  186 
Dessarabia,  321 
Bethany     (Africa), 

488 
Uetimne,  196,  208 
BetUs,  859,  361 
Uetwa  R ,  405 
Beurre  R.,  208 
Beveland,    N.,    I., 

223 
Beveland,8.,I.,  223 
Beverley,  115,  121, 

141 
Bewdley,  118,  139 
Beyerland  I.,  223 
Beziers,    197,    201, 

207 
fihamo,  401 
Bhawalpur,       383, 

387,  404 
Bhopal,  383,  405 
Bhotan,  383 
Bhi^J,  383,  387,  404 
Bhurtpur,  383,  384, 

387,  405 
Biafra,  478,  481 
Biafra,  Bight  of,  443 
Biala  R,  261 
Bialystok,  261,  321 
Bias  R,  404 
Bicester,  118 
Bidar,  383,  387 
BidassoaR,185 
Bideford,  116,  139 
BidefordB.,  135 
Biel — see  Bienne 
Bielefeld,  239,  262 
Bielev,  320,  329 
Bielitz,  261 
Biella,  282 
Bielopol,  321,  328 
Bielozersk,  329 
Bielukha  M.,  350 
Bienne,  272 
Bienne  L.,  276 
Biese  R,  262 
Bifemo  R,  290 
Biggar,  145, 159 
Biggar  R,  159 
Biggleswade,     118, 

130, 141 
Bighorn  M.,  506 
Bihe,  481 
Bijisk,  429,  433 
Bikanir,  383 
Bilbao,     176,    177, 

180,  185 
Bilma.  467 
Bilston,    118,    128, 

139 
Biluchistan,      346, 

878 
Bimah  R.  404 
Jiinaaco,  282 


Binche,  215,  225 
Bingham,  117.  142 
Bingley,  115,  141 
BiobioR,592 
Biomeborg,319,327 
Birkenhead,      117, 

125, 138 
Binna,  346,  401 
Birma,  British,  382, 

887 
Birmingham,     118, 

128,  142 
Bimi,     New,    473, 

481 
Biroutchd,  320 
Birr,  164,  167,  172 
Biscarosse  L.,  208 
Biscay  Bay,  67,  204 
Biscaya,  176, 177 
Bischwlller,  198 
BisenzioR,  289 
Biserta,  462,  463 
Bishnmati  R,  404 
Bishop  -  Auckland, 

115. 120.  142 
Bishop  -  Stortford, 

118 
Bishop's  Castle,  117 
Bishop's  Waltham, 

116, 140 
Bisley,  118 
Bissao,  470,  481 
BissaoL,470 
Bistrica  R,  328 
Bistritz,  257,  2t?4 
Bistritza  R.,  261 
Bitolia,307,309,312 
Biting,  328 
Black    Forest   M., 

252 
BUckMts.,506 
Black  Sea,  67,  310, 

326,  348,  365 
Blackadder  R.,  158 
Blackburn,  117, 126, 

138 
BlackfoTd,l46 
Blacksod  B.,  169 
Blackstairs     Mts., 

170 
Blackwall,  131 
Blackwater  R 

(Eng.),  141 
Blackwater         R 

(Ire.),  172 
Blagoveschensk, 

421   429 
BlainI  197,  206 
Blair-Atholl,    146, 

159 
Blairgowrie,      146, 

159 
Blaise  R,  205 
Blanc,  Le,  199,  206 
Blanc,    Mont,    69, 

204,  273 


Blanco  C,  440,  505, 

569 
Blandford,  116, 140 
Blanes,  179,  186 
Blantyre,  145,  160 
Blasket  I.,  169 
Blavet  R,  206 
Bleibach,  256,  264 
Blenheim,  616 
Bleone  R.,  207 
Blewfields,  657 
Blithe  R,  142 
Bloenifontein,  439, 

485 
Blois.  199,  203,  206 
Bloody  Foreland  C, 

169 
Blue  Mts.,  564 
Blyth,  114,  142 
Blyth  R,  142 
Boavista  I.,  441 
Bober  R,  261 
Bobrinetz,  321 
Bobrov,  328 
Bobruisk,  321,  328 
Bochnia,  256,  261 
Bodarg  R ,  172 
Bode  R,  262 
Boden  See  L.,  77, 

276 
Bodmin,  116,    124, 

139 
Bodrog  R,  264 
Boffin  L.,  172 
Boglipur,  404 
Bognor,  116, 140 
Bogola  Pass,  418 
Pogotd,    568,    571, 

576,  601 
Bogragh  M.,  170 
Bohemia,  256 
Bohmerwald   Mts., 

69,  252 
Bohou,  478 
Boi86  City,  507, 536, 

541 
Bois-le-Duc,    221, 

223,  225 
BojadorC,  440 
Bojana  R,  75,  211 
Bokhara,  425,  427 
Bolan  Pass,  350 
Bolbec,  196,  205 
Bolbec  R,  205 
Bolgrad,  808,  812 
Bolivar,  576 
Bolivia,  568,  688 
Bolkhov,  320, 829 
BollinR,188 
Bologna,  282,  286, 

29U 
Bolor  Tag^   Uts., 

348,849 
Bol8ena,288,  280 
Bulsena  L.,  291 
Bolton,  117, 120, 188 


Bombay,  382,  38S, 

386,  390,  404 
Bombay  I.,  888 
Bona,  462 
Bonacca  I.,  558 
Bo'ne8s,145,150,159 
Bonga,  496 
Bongo,  478,  481 
Bonhill,  146 
Bonifacio  Str.,  67, 

288 
Bonillo,  178,  186 
Boninls.,  628 
Bonn,  239,  242,  263 
Bonn  C,  440 
Bonnet  R,  171 
Bonny,  478,  481 
Boom,  215,  225 
Boothia  Felix,  502 
Boothia G..  502,505 
Boothia  I.,  505 
Bordeaux,  74,  197, 

201.  207 
Borghetta,  282 
Borgo  Pass,  261 
Borgo-San-Donino, 

282,  290 
Borgu,473 
Borisocane,  165 
Borkum  I.,  223 
Bormida  R.,  290 
Borneo  I.,  229,  622, 

625 
Borneo  R,  625 
Bomesga  R,  185 
Bomholm  I.,  66, 231 
Bomu,  473 
Borodino,  320,  323, 

329 
Boroughl>Tidge,115, 

141 
Borovitchi,  820, 827 
Borovsk,  820,  329 
Bosa,282 
BOse  R,  262 
Bosna  R,  264,  812 
Bosna-Serai,75,807, 

308.  312 
Bosnia,  807 
Bosporus,  67,  810, 

880 
BosqR,  306 
Boston,  115. 121,141 
Boston  (n.&),  534, 

587,540 
BoBworth,  118 
BoBEormeny,  264 
Botany  B.,  607 
Bothnia  0.,  67, 326, 

888 
Bothwell,  145, 160 
Botsohetye  M.,  001 

260 
BotaohanT,  806, 814 
BotMaTwOb    My 

891 


H                                                     IKDBA-.                                              63!)                1 

■  Brniches^m-Rhniie, 

BmTal,,44l            |Briti5liGuIiiM,B88,  ]Bnanim,  380                           fl 

Budweia,  260,  MS 

BtiiipUivlHal.eail 

BrBy'a,  172 
Bruil.  03,  6SB.  5S0 

aSN'i^irics, 

Bnen  Ajtb  I„  561 

BooU^,  isi" 

bt^l  m 

BnenoBAyrai,  668, 

Bonlogne,  MB,  SM, 

Bteohln,  148,   IBS, 

671,  S9S:001 

906 

96— lDdlt,03,3e2, 

Biitruio,    635,    538. 

Brecknocli.  110. 134 

Bourbon  -  Viuidae, 

BrockBock  Beaoup 

Bub  a..  328 

M.,13fl 

Bdien,  S9l' 

Uiiik  B..  338 

Bnihjim,  llfl,  140 

alSk^Fiordlass'^ 

BoBE^,  IM,  20T 

Bred™  321, 's  as,' 225 

Broad  lL«  M„  ISB 

B»y».  »,  «., 

Bredon  Hill-.  13fl 
BreBlBB.,488 

Brodick.  143 

BulKUia,  SD8 

■^nroe,  115,  l« 

Bnllu,  178, 18S 

^KuTD.  R,  i4U 

Ui*men,7S,'23r,S43, 

Bulllsti™,  41B 

^HraraL.filD 

Bromley,  US 

Biunm,  371 

^■Sauiu,   173,    474, 

Brent  R,  140 

Brom»gii..B,lia 

Bmiu  R,  406 

■     iBlT 

BrsDla  R.,  291 

Bromyard,  117,  138 

Bundl,  383,  485 

,     Bontom.6R.m7 

Brentford,  110, 132. 

Broutlyn,  636,  687, 

BunBaV,li6.141 

BooaHie  B.,  307 

SSSi.'lt.Z 

B^^ea'n'  'sob 

BnJBrtoy,  117,  135, 

BucilHB,  238' 
Bundl  R.seO 

a0WD10rt,14»_ 

l^^ESDi,^  as3,  m, 

BroSnsR,  172 

Bnrieklnk.dOS 

BroBna,LOHer,  a., 

Bun.  R,  HI 

J     b^h"^'' 

BroBlau,T3,338,!lO, 

Bnrg,  ssb,  262 

k.  BailB.  l«t,  m 

Btotbock  B„  159 

Burgaa,  BOB,  311 

|,SSfS,.» 

Bret  B.,  141 

Br™ghtyFerrj,146 

BniBaaG.,310 
BiuglieHd,  140, 15^ 

fBc^i^sei,  ait 

"ZtK'sw.''yis 

BiirSen,271 

■^saS,.,,;, 

Brown    wEuj   M., 

■"?,%"■•  ■»■ 

ssa^'d" 

r1dBB.,17a 

Burkelon,  A04.  605 

Bmclisal,'260,  2e3 

Bm«UmoU,»l 

140  "' 

Br.,=  B.,13s' 

BBr^tngton.5a4,536. 

B«ch-y-PwU    C„ 

H.idBeorA«»n,140, 

Braff,  1»6 

HBCklny,  ue.  111 

Bridgo  Town,  602. 

Bnul— (M'Bomeu 

BMlej.  117,  136. 

BmdMott.aW 

663 

Bnmo,  76,  366,  267, 

Bndiwka  R,  euB 

BnmtialBDd,     145, 

Bnidfocd,  llti,  121, 

12S,  ISB^ 

Braoswick,  336,342, 

Brtdgoport.  035 

Bnulfom,  Qt,  llfl. 

Bruniwick,     Kew, 

Burrow  Hd..  150 

m,  1S9 

124,  138 

60S,  518.  618 

Bmea,  76,  IBO,  182, 

BrldUnston,      IIS, 

Barton-™ -Trent, 

IM 

Bngsno.,  »,  180. 

Brld|«rt,  lie,  124, 

310.  225 

BurtoE'i  Dl«co».  Id 

ia.  IBS 

140 

ACrtcB,  4«Q 

B«h6R,3«l 

afSK. 

BiuKi     LiUwikl, 

Bury.  117. 13S,  138 

BniilOY,  204,  308, 

^K\.  JSl  ^^^  ^ 

florJ'atRtonlld-, 

BrieML,  77,270 

116.  1J2,  141 

Brigiva  R    311 
BrigktoD,  llE,  133, 

BaarAao,'a»i.'i9V 

Bntcm  232,  201 

liai,SS2,  383,3811, 

BoBtin.  371,  372, 

406 

140 

Buohirut,  n.  m. 

m 

^BBIn-lB.Cooitf, 

ssawK* 

SO3.SI0 

BiuhiniUB,  163. 171 

BH..fcsbius,  7i  2«. 

DuHto-Awao,  1IB2. 

^■flhlDtree.  lis,  141 

BrlslHuit,  em.  &<5 

SOS 

H^'^n  ?1 

BrteDiiiuiR.,(lll8 

Bn,>Jtla«eti.  145,168 

auiBUidAmin.140, 

Bri>t<il,Ila,lt(l,U(l 
Brli>Uiiai.S.XM6 

BrUtul     thllDflQl. 

BoekK,  140. 1113,10V 

Buddnsbuu.    118, 

^^^onburg.   m. 

130,1*1 

Butkowlnt.  Ssa 

nnlwrMit.  1*4,  lU 

^^EdOD,  116,  111 

IBS.  m 

BurJU,  118. 130 

B„wun.    117.   127, 

^^Kd..B.UL.i;u 

BfiWlD,    K™,    [,. 

UmiK  7S.  3M.  aw, 

^^Kmh«n,  m 

W 

g_. 

640 


INDEX. 


Byron  C,  607 
Bzura  R.,  261 

Gabenda,  478 
Gabes,  462,  478 
Gabes  O.,  443,  464 
Gabeza   del   Buey, 

177,  185 
Gabra,  178,  186 
Cabra  R.,  186 
Caceres,    176,    177, 

185 
Caceres  R. ,  185 
Gachao,  405 
Cader  IdrisM.,  136 
Cadiz,  178,  181,  186 
Cadiz  B.,  183 
Caen,  196,  200,  206 
Caermarthen;    119, 

133,  139 
Caermarthen      B. , 

135,  139 
Caernarvon,      119, 

182, 136,  188 
Caernarvon  B.,  136 
Cagayan  I.,  626 
Oagliari,  281,  284 
Gahir,  165,  172 
Cahirciveen,      164, 

172 
Cahors,    199,    204, 

207 
Cain  R.,  189 
Cairngorm  M.,  157 
CaimtoulM.,  167 
Cairo,  451,  461 
Caistor,  115, 141 
Caithness,  147,  155 
Calabar,  Old,  478 
Calabar  R.,  481 
Calabria,  282 
Calahorra,  179,  186 
Calais,  196,  200,  206 
Calamata,  299,  300 
Calami  R.,  208 
Calasparra,  178, 186 
Calataynd,  179, 186 
GalavonR,  207 
Calcutta,    93,    346, 

851,  382,  384,  404 
Calder  R.,  141 
Calder,  N.,  R,  160 
Calder,  8.,  R.,  ^60 
Calder,  W.,  R,  138 
Caldera,  592,  601 
Caldew  R.,  138 
Caledonia,  New,  I., 

603,  619 
California,  536 
California  G.,  505 
California,   Lower, 

551 
Callan,  164, 172 
Callan,  Mount,  170 
Callander,  146, 159 
CtHiao,  685,  586,  601 


Callen  R,  171 
Callington,  116, 139 
Calmina,  557 
Calne,  116, 140 
Caltagirone,  283 
Caltanisetta,  283 
Galuso,  282,  290 
Calvados,  196 
Calvo,  601 
Cam  R.,  141 
Camaroons     Mts., 

440 
Cambay,  404 
CambayG.,389,404 
Cambodia,  401 
Cambodia  C,  348 
Cambodia  Mts.,  349 
Camborne,  116, 124, 

139 
Cambrai,  196,  200, 

208 
Cambrian  Mts.,  68, 

136 
Cambridge,       118, 

129, 141 
Cambridge  (U.  8.), 

534,  537,  540 
Camden,  535,  540 
Camel  R.,  139 
Camelon,  146, 159 
Camerino,  282,  290 
Cameta,    581,    582, 

601 
CamUn  R,  172 
Campana,  178, 185 
Campbelton,      146, 

152,  160 
Garopeachy,      552, 

553 
Campobasso,     282, 

290 
Campsie  Fells,  157 
Canada,    Dominion 

of,  94,  518 
Canaries   Is.,    179, 

183,  441 
Canary   Grand    I., 

183 
Cancalle,  197,  206 
Cance  R,  207 
Candia  I.,  67,  808, 

310 
Cane  R.,  404 
Canea,  308 
Canicatti,  283 
Gann  R,  141 
Cannes,  198,  208 
Cannock,  118, 142 
Cannstadt,  250,  263 
Ganoles  R.,  186 
Canso  G.,  502 
Gantabrian  Mts.,  68 
Gantabuii,  401,  405 
Cantal,  199 
Canterbury,      115, 

122, 140 


Canterbury    (New 

Zeal.),  616 
Cantin  G.,  440 
Canton,    861,    407, 

414,  421 
Canton  R,  349 
Cantyre,  Mull,  156 
Capatillas,  559 
Cape  Breton  I.,  505, 

520 
Gape  Clear  I.,  169 
Cape  Coast  Castle, 

477,  478,  481 
Gape  Cod  Bay,  540 
Cape    Colony,    94, 

439,  484,  485 
Cape  Fear  R,  541 
Cape   Good  Hope, 

441 
Cape  Haitien,  562 
Cape    Town,    439, 

485 
Cape    Verde     Is., 

193,  441 
Cape  York,  607 
Cappadocia,  350 
Cappel,  276 
Cappoquin,  164, 172 
Capri  I.,  288 
Capua,  282,  286, 289 
Carabobo,  576 
Caraccas,  568,  576, 

577,  601 
CarapellaR,  290 
Caravaca,  178,  186 
Caravaca  R.,  186 
Caravaggio,  282, 290 
Carbonara,  307,  311 
Carbonara  G.,  288 
Carbones  R,  185 
Carcajente,  178, 186 
Garcans  L.,  208 
Carcassonne,     197, 

201,  207 
Cardiff,    119,    134, 

139 
Cardigan,  119, 188 
Cardigan  B.,  185 
Cardiganshire,  119 
Gardington,  130 
Carey  R,  139 
Gariaco,  601 
Caribbean  Sea,  505, 

509,601 
Garignano,  282, 290 
Garinthia,  256,  266 
Gaijooee,  425 
Carllngford,  171 
GarlingfordB.,169, 

171 
Carlisle,  117,    126, 

138 
Garlow,    164,    167, 

172 
Oarlserona,  887, 840 
Cirisbamik  840 


Carlsruhe,  74,  250^ 

251,  263 
Garlstad,  340 
Carluke,  145, 160 
Garmagnola,      281, 

290 
Garmona,  178, 185 
Gamick  Alps,  260 
Camiola,  256,  266 
Camsore    Pt.,    66, 

169 
Camtogher     Mts., 

170 
Carolina  (N.  and  8.  i 

535 
Caroline  Is.,  628 
Caronge,  272 
Carpathian      Mts., 

69, 260. 311 
Carpentaria  G.,  607 
Carpentras,  198, 207 
Carran  Tual,  170 
Carrara,  282,  289 
Garrickfeigus,  163, 

166,  171 
Carrickmacross, 

168, 171 
Garrick  -  on  -  Shan- 

non,  165, 168, 172 
Garrick  -  on  -  Suir, 

165,  168,  172 
Gamon  R,  185 
Cfarron,  146, 159 
Carron  L.,  156, 159 
Carron  R,  159 
Carson  City,  536 
CartR,  160 
Cart,  Black,  R,  160 
Cartagena  (Spain), 

178,  181,  186 
Cartagena  (Amer.), 

576,  601 
Cartage,  557,  558 
Cartago  M.,  558 
Cartmell,  188 
Carvio-B^inoy,  196, 

225 
Gasal  -   Haggiore, 

282,  290 
Gasale,  281, 288, 290 
Cascade  Mts.,  504, 

606 
Ga8CoR,640 
Gaserta,  211,  289 
Gashel,165,168,l72 
Gaspe,  179, 186 
Caspian    Sea,    67, 

826,  849,  362,  873 
Cassandra  O.,  810 
Gassano,  282,  290 
Ca8sel,289.841,268 
Gastel   Fi«n8&fliM>, 

262 
Caatol  Fuofi,  SSr 


I 


CutBHumite,    S&i, 


lulleton     (autb- 


Cutro     -111    Efti, 


^t'j^ii'-j'' 

CnidAbw  - 1«  >  ] 


Celijgin,  ITS,  II 


CIllUldnililEiir.  i! 


GoorgB-^  IS 


CeDtraJ  AraericI 
CentnlAitiBlvei 
Cson  B„  !WT  " 

Cerignoli.  282,  2W 
CoirgdoFotiwiU 

CBiTOllalhsfoD.lS 

CcrruB  &.,  aat 

OaiTin'M„"'2;( 
Carvo  R,  390 

Ccioiis  B.,  sea 

Cuinack  R.,  IM 
Oetigue,    BOB,   SOI 

>U 
Cette,  isr,  201,  20Y    ( 


i08,  MS    t 

Chiifd,"lfi.  138 

^hMTonw'     Infati- 

mmrEntoR.  ,20b,  KOI 

3baren  

,    Chltiki 
ClurlM 


iinniti  R,  201 
uuh  R,  4M 


C)i(asiie&keR,SO 
Chahlre,  IIT,  12S 


Cbiir] 


ChBriiulon  (B.  Cs- 


,    Cliatna      Thierry, 


Cluut(Ua,«0.4T(, 

481 
Ch>iereB(S 

CliAk'ii,  >g«  KegTo-   < 


Chlul,  362 
Cbiuco  R.  288 

GhiCBgo,'  MO,  is9. 

It,  lis,  is;. 

CWoliMlir       H»r- 

ChlGlins,  178, 1S8 
~  ■  in  Sbb  I...  2S3 
Chlcntl  K,  IM 
"MM,  2S2,  290 
Jhfgnecto  Iith.,604 
,    Cblbiulias,MI7,Ul, 


CluttjULMChfll 

oDt,  igs,  IDS  ( 


€bin)boniHiM..S70. 
1   CblBii8eB.34«.3J7, 

ua 

tiiich»Ia..5M 

uouiiiiiik.  ITS.  vm 


^IS^rt:™'^,  , 

".TB..~ 

a,L  R.1W 

ColnmWs     (U.   3.x 
668,670 

5«,*0i 

Chiiquito,  SB!,  AM 

&)lDrabo.   03.  Ml, 

Chin6B6plila,MT 

Chi,rorCol«,W3. 

0rd«  Ft..  16T 

Ching-tliig,       4*T, 

272,273 

CoaR.lBS 
CoahDlia.  Ul 

Colonla.  SOS,  301 

ColDonaCBOl 

Cii'ipg-^,!S1.*0T. 

ChnraR.ui' 
CliumetR.,142 

Couua  R,  lai 

Cnlomrto,  607,  5Sfl 

108,  in 

CobUa,fl89.fl01 

Colorado    R,   041. 

CUio-ng*!.,  40T,  121 

Chn»^  Arch.,  410 

Coblantt,  239,  24S, 

Chinon,  iM,  aoe 

Cieu.  178,  ise 

Colnrobl.,  Biitiali. 

Chin-yum,  «7.«1 

Ciiioim  sso 

Cobn.rt,<5l 

94,  51  a.  £23 

CUloggll.  282, 291 

CobuTg,M2,a4S,2e3 

ColunibtB.  Dlrtriot, 

cInciR.,  183' 

Cotnrg  Pan.,  807 

m,  i3» 

CiDCinimti,  63(1, 539, 

Cochatamba,    071, 

ColainW.R.Ml 

Chlppci'STim    Ft., 

Colombia     (town). 

siiVsss 

Clotat,  Ln,  198,  209 

633,638,641 

CTiipping-Bodbiuj, 

ClaoiQcaBln;  822 

Cochin.    8S2,    SW, 

CoTurabui    (Ohin), 

Chins- Pnnji,    B83, 

clttadelli,  282,291 

Cochin  China,  343. 

607,  630,  039.  641 

Clud»d   HMl,  179, 

Colytoo.  lie.  110 

ChiauigR,408 

Cochin   China, 

Coinaochio,!i32,2B0 

Chitt»gong,3ea,SS4. 

"^'r^r/r"- 

CockbsraL.OOO 

Connyagu.,       603, 

ChlttrsU,  104,  m 

Cindid     Rodrigc, 

Cnmino  L.  er.  588 

ChioM.  282 

Cocienacuth,  117, 

God  d,  SOU 

Camoinas.  196.  !0S 

CKdMR',  439,493 

CivtUVsochu,  283, 

ciioLsemiL.flai) 

SSr,  339 

CodtKcha,i4a 

C™o,  282,'  2M.  =90 

Chollet,  187,  am 

Codogno,  S8S,  290 

lai,  168 

CDgamnaR.SSO 

Coniorlnh.,S18,afla 

CI>m-KiugR.,SM, 

Cogge.hall.116,111 

Co)oorol9..41i;413 

421 

Cognac,  197, 201.«7 

Compass  Berg,  410 

Chor  ft.,  138 

Colmbra,    70,    ISO, 

Cninpitgne,  198,203 

Chorley,  117,   12(, 

Climeor!  199,208 

182,180            ^ 

Comhe.  14fi,  109 

C  us  R.,  340 

Coin.  ITS.  183 

ChotynorClioctini, 

Cl«rB,106 

Coin  or  Chor.  MS, 

321,  S21,  328 

CIsre  li.,  1«9 

874.278 

Choubir,  378, 8S1 

Clir«H..  179 

609,  Ml    ' 

Glioa-chow,  421 

Clare  R,m 

S67 

Cl«eirR,171 

Colberg.  Ml 

Connsptionc'ooo 

Chow-lilng,407,421 

Golberg  B.,  SSI 

Christ  Church  (New 

CUA"^.,6flS°'^° 

Colehigni,  S9a 

Caiii]o^,531,03T,0ia 

ZealaidX  «1fl 

ClRu.th»l,  239,  241, 

CoJcheiter,110,m, 

Condi  196,  JOB.  2!» 
Conegllsno,2B2.a91 

Chrialohurch,    H«, 

Clenr.  Cape.  86,  lfl9 

Coldatream.lto.ioe 

ChrisOiuui.  73,  BS7, 

CleriDonl,  74,  ISfl, 

Condon,  117, 138 

197,  Me,  207 

Coletord,  118, 139 

Cngo,  173 

ChrirtlMta    Kord, 

Cleraiont  FMimd, 
Cli^C'B^S"%V 

Colenine,  109,  ltd, 

Congo  B.,  189,444. 

Chriitimsuid.  3S7, 

SS!lS!S?if1SUkx 

Coni.  281.  290 

Cleveland,  iSfl,  039, 

ConnL.m 

lie,  142 

ConneeticDt.  03G 

Cl™i,I»9,2M 

Coiima.  Ul 

ClEw  B,,  l«g 

Colle,aBt.lSa 

C1,rist!iul«tidl,  033, 

sita'A 

Colmar    IW,   Wl, 

Conslano«,iOO,«S. 

ChriatlBMUd.  827 

H8,j«a 

ClirlBUphet,  St,I., 

aswai" 

ColmoR.W 

Colmanu^  178,  179, 

Oonslantina,  ITS 

as3ia,a,?„ 

Clo^D.  IM,  17« 

cio>;>>kuiy.iH.m 

CoIdi,  117,  !■■ 

Cliurtlelgh,  lia.  140 

Ctonea,  163,  m 

Oolng  (Bun)  R, 

ConstantlnoplB. 

CtindleiBhC.,604 

aonmel,  136,  isg, 

SOT.  MP.  812 

Chamleigh,  139 

OalaeDD,    It,    hti 

CK,nd,a,BlB 

OunJ^J" 

STO 

Ooj™,  i«,  in 

M1,M 

i^ — n 

^TcrmUDent,    Bmli- 1  O™.  C„  68 

Croirarly,  117,  154,    CuEcn.SSa.6B0.flni                ■ 

^      em,  Ml                   CotloiiB.  282 

C!F]ad»il>..87.8UI                   ■ 

ConllnecU,  Seven, 

CprnBa,   170,    177, 

Cromarty  Fr..  160 

CFdnaaB.,  3MI                       ■ 

181.165 

Cjraiiaila,  289                        ■ 

c™««j,  1«.  m 

Cos  0„  385 

Cipraa  I.,  318,  300,                 ■ 

Conmy  R..  188 

Cos  le..  3M 

Cromer.  US,  1« 

301                                      ■ 

Cook  ML,  «7 

Cronsladl  or  KolU- 

Czahs.  267.  281                           f 

Cook  Inlet,  toa 

Co<,f.L.eM 

CoaoMM    " 

c™^"m.^!?3^" 

C™M,  m,  204 

C0BMR.28B 

Crossen,  i38,  261 

CieiilocliDW,      261, 

C(nnuss<e,4tlV.»S, 

*S1 

Casta  Rlu,  £03,^57 

CnxmniollnB^     lOB, 

g=Ji-.?g,,„ 

C5te  d-Or,  OB,  JUB, 

CrostoloR..  WO 

Cildlloa  R.,  262 

Cootar  tf ,  m 

copeiuid  t,  laa 

Cotopml  IL.'lTO, 

C™wiril"li2*^ 

Dacca.  SSE,  384 

Oop«Ue,M» 

B77 

Croydoti,  118,  110 

Dadar,B60,STB,37», 

Copk^!S«,&M,601 

Cotrone,  282,  MO 

Cnmuq'ock    Water 

DnghertM,  3!2 

Coi)tapoa,,«ll 

Uago  I.,  320 
I)SB,'m4Sl 

Co^«r.,  iM 

Couqoeta,  »« 

Cubi  L,  m.  601, 

Ooqoettt.m 

Coutland.  819 

Dalioioey,  178 

CoQDlmbo  oga,  mi 

Goutancfs,  IW,  £08 

CuQkBeld,  118,  IM 

Dilibui'  317,  380 
DU.kel,:  64i:  644 

tn.in.wa"    ■* 

Cove  I..  ie» 

ISO 

Oorheil.  W9.  a^S 

Coi-entry,  lie,  138. 

Cu6n?s  (Anariai), 

iWkola,  530 

Oonlillen  de  Booon 

Dal  it,  78,  SM 

M.,  KM 

Coi^tiii.  ISO,  188 

Sale  Pt„  607 

CortOT^  178,  ISl, 

CoTlcglon.  830 

CueradflVar.,178, 

180 

Dalmatli,  267' 

GcrdoTXIdPlBtaX 

C™!!v.    iso,    2BS, 

Culebra  Port,  667, 

Co™Cs4T,3M,*lS. 

c^ia  M.,  an 

Cradock,  46B 

Callicin.  007.  041. 

Dairy,  146.  108 
Lalton.  117,  138 
Dai  nans,  102.  483 

Comi  atr..  BM 

Co'lliean    B.,    607, 

CoKU  Arch.,  418 

DamaBcus,Sab,yG3 

Corfu  ClL.Sig 

Colleo.  110, 163,188 

Corinth.  SW,  800 

Cranbrook,  116,  HO 

Cidle™.  178, 180 

Dsnitetlu,  452,  467. 

Cort,  1«*.  187. 17a 

Cnne  K,  lio 

Cullln,  Lough,  172 

Corfe,  Cove  ot-ai 

CnitlR,MD 

CollDmpton,  118 

oSJht.,  m 

Cr«leR.,HO 
Oiedfton.  Itft  110 

CURI»,SOO 

aTq^B*.  6TB,  on. 

Ca[leaiw,aES 

CKeR.IBO 

001 

Creefaiwn,  145, 100 

cSJISa!"ilS;  Sm 

Crerold,    MB,   S4I, 

Sudib      AnMpel. 

ConHihMl..,136 

Cnmborimd  (Am,), 

CorDO  H.,  «S,  288 

CnniB,  189,  200 

086,  088 

Cornwin.  lie,  IM 

Cremoiui,  3SS,   SB4, 

Caiab«rlatid  I..  606 

B3B,  310 

Cornwall!.  I-.SW 

DsuubB  K,.  76, 161. 

Core,  S7»,  677,  SOI 

CraBCentlno,  SOO 

cZl«'BEriild,'llO. 

Creaxy,  190.3<'0,!08 

160 

Crest,  ioa,!»T  ' 

Flaip'of,  71 

Crete  t,  808,  SID 

Cumbrian  Mb..,  88, 

.       GomaMlona,  SO!, 

c«B»,  m 

IBfl 

Danfig.asV.sio.aoi 

1          Mi 

Onuia  a,  WB 

Cumnock,  146, 100 

^4^°"  ^'^'   **"■ 

fa^lDTTtH.  1» 

CreuiC,  80.  193 

^Hni«HiR..»7 

Creyillente.ns.ise 

Cur«,  116,  ISO,  169 

Damlderd,  871 

^^Hmb  Lau«^.  179 

Cre»e,  117, 158, 138 

Cupar  ABgoi,  118. 

^^Kilb  K,  170. 171 

Crexkeme,  114, 139 

168 

lesponl,  07,  310, 

^^^ia.Um.S7l.sae, 

Cries.  14^  183.  m 

oorBp«i.,a»,SM, 

3U 

a<Hti.n,tMkiL. 

681^888,600 

Curi>ch.Bitr;Mi 

Darent.  110 

^H^«iM  a.  G09. 

Dartni.  173, 171 

Oi«tii,tST 

CuiitibiL6a2.8«i 

CitranlB  I..  280 

lUrtel,  388 

^^KTTi..m 

Crt»ti^      TwkBh, 

^■h4»  ]..  sj,  m. 

WT 

CuHiat.  lUH,  m 

H-iion  0.,  m" 

^H^^^^^^|^^|[jD»|^i.  goi 

l)aim.CM.,iW« 

644 


INDEX. 


Darling  R,  607 
Darlington,       115, 

120,  142 
Darm  R.,  263 
Dannstadt,  74,  251, 

252,  263 
Dametal,  196,  205 
Dare  C,  244 
Dart  R,  140 
Dartford,  115,  140 
Dartmoor,  136 
Dartmonth,  116, 140 
Darwen  R,  138 
Darwin  Port,  604, 

605 
DastiR,S81 
Datiya,  383,  405 
Davenport,  536 
Daventry,  118, 141 
Dans  Str.,  505 
Dax,  197,  207 
Dayton,    339,    636, 

Wl 
Dead  Sea,  852,  365 
Deal,  115, 122, 140 
Dean  R,  159 
Dearg,  Ben,  157 
Deame  R,  141 
Deben,  R,  141 
Debrecziu,  257,  279, 

264 
Deddington,  118 
Dee  R  (Scot.),  159, 

160 
Dee  R  (Eng.),  138 
Dee  R  (Ire.),  171 
Dee,  Estuary  of,  135 
Deel  R,  171,  172 
Deer  L.,  508 
Delaware  Ft.,  540 
Delaware  R ,  507, 

540 
Delaware,  535 
Delette  R,  206 
Delft,  221,  222,  224 
Delgado  C,  441 
Delhi,  351.  382,  885, 

390,  405 
Delly,  625 
Delow,  473 
Delta,  453 
Delvino,  307,    308, 

811 
Demayend  Mt.,  349 
DembeaL.,445,458 
Demer  R,  225 
Demerara,  568 
Dommin,  238 
Demotika,  308 
Denbigh,  119,  132, 

188 
Dender  R ,  225 
Dendermonde,  215, 

225 
Denison  Port,  607 
Denmark,  229 


I  Dennis  Head,  156 
Denny,  146. 159 
DentR,  138 
Denver  City,  536 
Deptford,  115,  122, 

140 
Deraieh,  368 
Derbend,  322,  325 
Derbend  Pass,  827 
Derby,  117. 127, 142 
Derby  Peak,  135 
Derbyshire,  117, 127 
Dereveragh  L.,  172 
DergL.,172 
Dema,  461 
Deropuli  R,  311 
Derr,  451,  452,  461 
Derwent      (Derby) 

R,  142 
Derwent      (Tasm.) 

R,614 
Derwent  (York),  R , 

141 
Derwentwater    L., 

142 
Desagnadero  R. ,  601 
Desert  (Great),  440 
Desertas  Is.,  183 
Desiradel,  562 
Des  Moines,  536, 541 
Des  Moines  R,  541 
Desna  R,  328 
Despoto  Dagh  M., 

311 
Dessau,    242,    243, 

262 
Desterro,  682 
Detmold,  242,  243, 

262 
Detroit,    518,    536, 

539,  540 
Deule,  R,208,  225 
Deux  Sevres,  197 
Deventer,  222,  224, 

263 
Deveron  R,  159 
Devis,  M.,  170 
Devizes,   116,    128, 

140 
Devon,  116,  124 
Devon  R,  142,  159 
Devon,  Black,  R, 

169 
Devon,  N.,I.,  505 
Devonian,    M.,  68, 

136 
Devonport,       116, 

124,  139 
Devrek  R,  380 
Dewas,  851 
Dewsbury,  115, 141 
Dhar,  851,  383,  405 
Dhawalagiri  M.,  849 
Dholpnr,  361 
Diemel  R,  262 
Diepholz  L.,  244       > 


Dieppe,    196,    200, 

205 
Diest,  215,  225 
Digne,  198,  207 
Dijon,  75,  199,  204, 

207 
Dilman,  371,  427 
Dilolo  L.,  444,  445 
Dinan,  197,  206 
Dinan  R,  172 
Dinant,  215,  225 
Dinario  Alps,  260, 

311 
Dingle,  164, 168, 172 
Dingle  B.,  169, 172 
Dingwall,  146,  154, 

159 
Dinkelsbuhl,     250 

265 
Disco  I. ,  234 
Disna  R,  327 
Diss,  115,  141 
Din  Head,  388 
Din  I.,  192 
Divale  R,  206 
Dive  R,  206 
Dives  R,  206 
DivetteR.207 
Dixcove,  477 
Diyaleh  R,  381 
Diyarbekr,  851,  381 
Dizful,  371,  380 
DizfulR,380 
Djabakan  R,  416 
DjimmaR,  461 
Dniitrov,  328 
Dnieper  R.,  76,  328 
Dniester  R,  76,328 
Do  Norte  C,  669 
Dobbo,  621     ■ 
Dobeln,  242,  262 
Doboi,  807,  312 
Doce,  601 
Dochart  h.,  160 
Dodabetta  M.,  889 
Dole,  198,  207 
Dolgelly,  119,  183, 

138 
Dollar,  146, 159 
Dollart  Zee,  67,  233 
Dolonnor,  421 
Domesnea  C,  826 
Dominica   L,   661, 

662 
Dommel  B.,  226 
Don  R,  169,  828 
Don,  Old,  B.,  143 
Don(York)R,Ul 
Don  Bennito,  177, 

185 
Donaghadee,  .  Ktt, 

171 
Doncftster,  llfi^  IJO. 

141 
Donegal,  16flf,  171 
Donegal  a,  169, IT 


Donegal  Mts.,  170 
Doneraile,  164 
Donets  R,  328 
Donga  R,  481 
DongeR,  225 
DoDgola,  New,  451, 

452,  461 
Doon,  B.,  160 
Doom  R,  486 
Doorshak,  376,  428 
Dora-Baltea  B.,  290 
Dora  -  Biparia    B., 

291 
Dorchester,       116, 

124, 140 
Dordogne,  197 
Dordogne  B.,  207 
Dore  B.,  2(>6 
Doreham  E.,  115 
Dorking,  116, 140 
Dornoch,  147,  154, 

159 
Dornoch  Fr.,  156 
Doro  C,  301 
Dorog,  264 
Dorogobusk,     820, 

328 
Dorpat,  819,  827 
Dorset.  116. 124 
Dort,  221,  223,  226 
Dortmund,  239, 241, 

263 
Dos  Patos  L.,  571 
Dosse  R,  262 
Donay,    196,     200, 

226 
Donbs,  198 
Doubs  R,  207 
Douglas,  145, 160 
Douglas  B.,  160 
Doune,  146, 169 
Douro,  180 
Donro  R,  76, 186 
Douve  R,  206 
Dove  R,  148 
Dover   (DelawaroX 

686,640 
Dover  (Biig.X  116^ 

138, 140 
Dover  (New  Hamp- 

BhireX  584, 640 
Dover  Bti^,  186, 140 
Dovey  R,  188 
DoindieldMti.,79, 

889 
DoiriLldS 
DowniMai  JbalBet, 

llA 
Dov^kMoI^   MI^ 

ueiin 

T 


^^ 

6i5              , 

y    DriketjlMtB    Mta, 

Dunaee,    148,   152, 

E»«l*r  I.,  502,631 

H-Kliargeli,      451, 

B^dm  Heed,  348, 

lago,  692 

El  KhadB,  380 

EaeUra  FeulDanla, 

E10bBid,461.463 

340             '       ' 

Bibs  1.,  67,  288 

Dnnedln.  816,  617 

Eastern  TnrkeaUn, 

ElbB  a,  73,  2S2 

rDnfennlliiB.    145, 

346,  422 

Elbe,  EsC  of,  244 

Dr^on&.EDT 

plil.lW 

Bbm'  R,   75,    184, 

Elberfeld,  289,  242. 

Dnnlhe.  KS 

DtMdBn,  73,  S43 

nf^    ' 

Ebwy  R.  130 

Blblng,  287,240,  261 

Dreoi,  1««.  sua 

Dnngarvan,  1 84, 1 72 

Eceleftuhsn.  IflO 

BlblngR,26l 

Driffield.  Qt,  115, 

BeclDBbaU.  118,  142 

BlhcoBl,    196,    200, 

Eohtemaeh.  «!4 

DriJi  G.,  BiO 

EcUi.,  178,  186 

Blbnra  M.,  TO,  328, 

DrtfR.  an,  312 

DuEkeld,  148, 169 

Ecuador,  668,  676 

349,  SSS,  373 

DriiuiB.,Sii4.313 

Dmikerqoe,       1B8, 

Bd-Dhamer,  431 

El„he,  its',  186 

DngfaidB,  164,  isg, 

Elohea.lSS 

m 

Eden  R  (Eng,),  1S5, 

Srohoblei,  !BS,  25S, 

Elepbant  R,  438 

BSS 

Dunniore  Hd.,  68, 

Eden  B  (Scot.  1,159 

Elepbanta  1.,  3BS 

Drollwlc*,  lia,  1S9 

Edendtrry,  164,  ITl 

Drome,  Ifla 

Dunnot  Heod,  66, 

Edfou,  461 

iS?''^''=^"" 

DromeR,.  SOe,  SOT 

Edinburgh,  144,147, 

DtoBioTft  183,171 

Dunnlns,  118,  160 

DroDflold,  117.  1" 

DannmB  R  ,  ISH 

Eecloo,  51 6 

Eltzabotgrad,    321, 

Scoathelm.asT.MD 

Eein  R.  29* 

Sr^'i  Bluff  M.,«U 

Dqnoun,    146. 'lS3, 

EBaR,lB6 

Eliail»tpol.S92,39g 

DiT8«.4sa 

Eger.  956,  257,  262 

Ellen  R.  138 

Dn  Bnqoe,  £36,  639, 

I>unse.l45,148,15a 

Eger  B„  233,  266 

BonBtabla.US,  130, 

Kgerflr  L.,  365 

Gltesmere  I..  606 

Dnbleii,   aS4.  80T. 

Eggi.  47S,  4S1 

Blliohpur,  389 

Esfsarab,  478 

DaWM,  H.,  327 

D  u  perry  l8,,  82S 

Eghsn.,  us 

Hmlna.    477,    478, 

Dublin,    194,    lee, 

DumEM  B..  %n 

Eglna,  BOl 

171   ■ 

Egq.™t  M.,  817 

Elmsbom,  239 

Dublin  B..  189 

EgOfUfcR,  S98 

Elom  R,  206 

DnlinlcM,  BUS 

Elphlo,  18i 

Diil>no,  311 

Durtan,'4Gfi 

DddK.  »» 

Dnrdu  R,  205 

£l!bjor4,  280 

DnddoB  K.,  138 

Duren.  m,  239 

ElHMr.   Black.  R, 

Durhsm,  114,  1!0, 

3SVf!i."* 

Dsdler.  lis.  133 

Elater,  White,  R, 

OumowB,  14*.  168 

Dii.h^,  3TS,  4SS 

Bhaingsn,  250,  28B 

269 

DuIibniB.  230.  MB 

DiBMiiiorf.      aso, 

BiPBtHidt,  »fiO,  265 

Elstow,  150 

242.  S8S 

Efel  Mil,  TO 

ElvuB.  leo,  162 

DSSG^rBfis"' 

Dntnh  Foreign  Po«- 

Bii  li.,  lee 

Elf,  118,  ]S><,  141 

DnlMR.eSK 

nusloni,  299 
Dutoh  Giiiim*,  S«S, 

BUrabinB,  !89.  S62 

Ely  R,  180 

DBlclgno,  307.  311 

Snibeoli,  230,  962 

BUR,  268 

Etowh  B„  2S1 

Emdai,  SS9,  S41 

OuDlbutnil,        143. 

Do" lie  R,  285 

ElMnadi,  S43,  243, 

EmmellO-,310 

161,  180 

DwiSB  R,  72,  397 

Euilueb-Dagb     U„ 

DnmfatTlUo       B„ 

DyleB,l!S6 

Elihjtrt  toob.  158 

311 

Dy.«t.  146, 158 

E»l!orJoj.l-,S21 

BmmenR.ies 

mm«  L,  244 

I^C^l*.  ilS 

Ktdehi!ii.la9.  «1. 

DumMe.,  145.  US, 

E,nj.L.e»,  ™,le  of 

^m     m 

^^IIUdsB,73    ''  - 

^^^■^'V  '■''■■'■ 

i;,,-^.Ni5i:w.,    aoo 

^^bn^dallc.  184,  1 

■■ 

646 


INDEX. 


Enfield,  119,  140 
Engelberg   Aa   B., 

263 
Enguera,  178,  186 
EcJchuizen,  221,  224 
EonelL.,  172 
EnDerdale  -  water, 

142 
Ennis,  165.  168, 172 
Enniscorthy,     164, 

167,  172 
EnniBkillen,      163, 

166,  171 
Enns  R.,  2^3 
Enos,  308,  312 
Ens  R.,  263 
Enschede,  222,  224, 

263 
Entre  Rios,  596 
Eperies,  257,  264 
Epernay,  198,  206 
Ephraim  Town,  481 
Epinal,  198,  208 
Epping,  115,  140 
Epsom,  116,  140 
Epte  R.,  205 
Epworth,  115 
Era  R.,  289 
Erekli,  808,  312 
Eresma  R,  185 
Erewash  R.,  142 
Erfurt,  239, 241,  262 
Ergent  or  Beratina 

(Apsus)  R.,  311 
Ergolz  R.,  263 
Eribol  Loch,  156 
Ericht  L.,  160 
ErichtR.,  159 
Erie  L.,  508, 521, 526 
ErigrI,  380 
Erlha  (Jericho),  860, 

380 
Erivan,  352 
Krkeneh  R,  312 
Eriangen,  250,  251, 

263 
Erlan,  264 
Erlau  R.,  264 
Erne  L.,  172 
Erne  R,  171,  173 
Em^e,  196,  206 
EmSeR.,  206 
Errigal  M.,  170 
Enrol,  146, 159 
Erromanga,  620 
Erzgebirge      Mts., 

252,  260 
Erziugan,  359,  381 
Erzroum,  328,  351, 

359,  361,  381 
EschatzR.,263 
Eschwege,  262 
Esh  Sham,  360,  880 
Esino  R.,  290 
Esk  (Eng.)  R.,  188 
Eak  k,  169 


Etiki-Sjaroa,     803, 

312 
Eski-Kavallo,  312 
Eski-Sagra,3u8,  312 
Esla  R.,  185 
Esmeraldas,      568, 

601 
Esneh,  451,  461 
Espeja,  178,  186 
Espichel  C,  183 
Espinhaco      Mts., 

582 
Espiritn,  562 
Espirita  Santo,  619 
Essek  or  Eszek,  75, 

257,  259,  264 
Essen,  239 
Ejsseqoibo,  580 
Essequibo  R.,  571 
Essex,  115,  122 
Esslingen,  250,  263  | 
Essonne  R.,  206 
Estaire,  196 
Este,  291 
Estella,  179,  186 
Estepa,  178,  185 
Estepona,  178,  186 
Esteron  R.,  203 
Esthonia,  319 
Estremadora,    176, 

180 
Estremoz,  180,  185 
Etanips,  199,  206 
Etang-de-Berre  L., 

208 
Ethiopia,  456 
Etive  L.,  160 
Etna  M.,  69.  70,  289 
Eton,  118,  130,  140 
Ettrick  Pen.,  158 
Ettrick  R,  159 
Eaboea    or   Negro- 

pont,  67,  299,  301 
EuhoR,42i 
Eapen,  239 
Euphrates  R,  349, 

351,  852,  380 
Eore,  196 
EureR,205 
Eure-et-Loir,  198 
Europa  Point,  183 
Europe,  62,  63 
Evansville,  536 
Evel  R.  206 
Evenlode  R,  141 
Everest  M.,  349 
Evesham,  118,  141 
Evora,  75,  180,  182, 

185 
Evreuz,    196,    200, 

205 
EweL.,  160 
Ex  R,  140 
Exaltacion,  671 
Exeter,  116, 124, 140 
Bxmoor,  189 


Exmouth,  116. 140    ' 
Exmouth  O.,  607 
Eyder  R,  234 
Eye,  115, 141 
Eye  R,  159 
Eyemouth,  145,  159 
Eyeo.  473,  478,  4«1 
Eyre  L.,  608 
Ezion-Geber,  864 

FAAijk.R,186 
Fabriano,  282 
Faenza,    282,    286, 

290 
Fahlun,    337,   338, 

340 
Fai-fo,  405 
Fair  Head,  66, 169 
Fair  I.,  156 
Fairweather     Ml, 

506 
Faizabad,  382,  384, 

885,404 
Falalse,  196,  206 
Falkirk,    146,    151, 

159 
Falkland,  145, 159 
Falkland   Is.,  569, 

605 
FaU  River,  535 
Falmouth,  116, 124, 

139 
Falmouth  Hr.,  135, 

139 
False  R,  485 
Falsterl.,  66,231 
Fane  R,  171 
Fannich  L.,  160 
Fano.  282,  290 
Farajghan,  425 
Fareham,  116, 140 
Farewell  C,  504 
Famham,  116, 140 
Faro,  180,  182, 185 
Faroe     Isles,     66, 

231 
Faroon  L.,  445 
Farringdon,      6t, 

116,  140 
Farmkhabad,    882, 

885,404 
Farsistan,  871,  878 
Fasa,  871 
Fatteconda,  481 
Faversham,  115, 140 
Favignana  I.,  288 
Feale  R,  172 
Fecamp,  196,  S05 
Fejee  u.,  629 
Felegy-Hasa,   S57, 

264 
Feltr6,  S82,  891 
Feiigufl  R.  ITS 
Fermanagn,  108 
Feziiio,^L»0 
VenooKtM 


Fennoy,    164,  168^ 

172 
Fernando  PoL,  441 
Feme  Is.,  134 
Ferrara,    282,    286, 

290 
Ferrol,  177, 181,  185 
Ferryden,  146 
Ferry  -  Port  -  on  • 

Cndg,  145 
Fez,  402,  463 
Fezzan,    439,    416, 

462,467 
FichtelgebiigeMts., 

252 
Fidari8R,802 
Fiddich  R,  159 
Fiel  L.,  231 
Pieran  R,  208 
Fife,  145,  150 
Fifeness  C,  156 
Figeac,  199,  207 
Figu^ra,  180, 185 
FigneiroR,  185 
Figueras,  179, 186 
FilsR,  263 
Findhom  R,  159 
Fingal,614 
FinM^,  197 
Finisterre    C,   66, 

183 
Finland,  319 
Finland  G.,  67,  326 
Finsbury,  119 
Fluster  -  aar  -  horn 

M.,  69,  274 
Pintona,  163, 171 
Fiord.  West,  67, 338 
Firth,  Fentland,  67, 

156 
Fish  R,  486 
Fishgua^  138 
Fittrd  L.,  445,  474 
Fitzroy  R,  608 
Fiame,257.259,265 
Finme  O.,  266 
Flamborough  Head, 

134 
Flanders  R,  815 
Flanders  W.,  815 
FlatteiyO.,  505 
Fltehe.  La,  199, 20« 
Fleet  R,  160 
Fleetwood,  117, 188 
Flensbnig,  239 
Flers,  196,  206 
FlesenL.,  244 
Fleams,  816 
Flinden  R,  606 
FlindezB  Baiun,  006 
Flin^  mim,  186 

Fm3i»  604^101 
FlaKjdaStr.,560 


INDEX. 


647 


Flashing,  221,  223, 

225 
FluWa  R,  186 
Fo  Eien  Ch.,  421 
Fochabers,  146, 159 
Foggia,    282,    287, 

290 
Foglia  R,  290 
Fogo  1 ,  441 
Foix,  74,  197,  207 
Foix  R,  186 
FoWen,  407 
Fo-kienCh.,421 
Foktchany,  264, 308 
Foldvar,  264,  857 
Foligno,  282,  289 
Folkstone,  115, 122, 

140 
Fondl,  282,  289 
Fonseca  B.,  558 
Font  du  Lac,  536 
Fontainebleau,  199, 

203,  205 
Fontenay,  197,  206 
Fontenoy,  215,  216 
Foo-chow,  407 
Fooladoo  Mts.,  469 
Foolah,  471 
Footiuallon,  444 
Fordingbridge,  116 
Foreland  N.,G.,  134 
Foreland  S.,  C,  66, 

134 
Forfar,  146, 152, 159 
Foig,  371 
Forli.  282,  290 
Forinentera  I.,  67, 

188 
Formosa  I.,  410 
Formosa  Pt.,  441 
Formosa  Str.,  348 
Foire8,146,153,159 
Fort    Aralsk,   428, 

429.  430 
Fort  Beaufort,  486 
Fort  Chippewayan, 

629 
Fort  FrankllD,  529 
Fort  George,   146, 

154, 159 
Fort  Ooree,  470 
Fort  Hope,  529 
Fort    Macpherson, 

629 
Fort  Norman,  689 
Fort  PeroTski,  430 
Fbrt  Bt  Loois,  481 
Fbit  Union,  641 
Fort  Wayne,  636 
Fort  WiUiun,  146 
Fort  York,  608,  629 
Fort  Turns,  641 
FoitescneR,  608 
Forth  R,  169 
Forth,  FT.,  166 
VoitzoH>U9 


Foss  R,  141 
Fossano,  281 
Fotheringay,     118, 

129 
Fougeray,  197,  206 
Fougferea,  197,  206 
Foveaux  Str.,  616 
Fowev,  116,  139 
Fox  Ch.,  505 
Poyle,  Lough,  169 
Foyle  R,  171,  172, 

173 
Fraga,  179, 186 
FramUngham,  115, 

141 
France,  65,  193 
FrancoliR,  186 
Franeker,  222,  224 
Frankenberg,    242, 

262 
Frankenstein,  238, 

262 
Frankfort  (U.   S.), 

507,  536 
Frankfttrt     (Main), 

239,  241,  263 
Frankfilrt     (Oder), 

238,  241,  261 
Franklin  Ch.,  502 
Franklin  Ft.,  529 
Fraserburgh,     146, 

159 
Fraserville,  626 
Fraubrunnen,  276 
Frauenfeld,       263, 

272  273 
Fraustodt,  237,  261 
Fnuser  R,  506,  507, 

627 
Fredericia,  230 
Fredericksburg,635 
Frederickshaab,  284 
Frederickshald, 

337,  888 
Fredexickstadt,337, 

340 
Frederlcton,  519 
Free  Town,  470, 481 
Freemantle,      604, 

605 
Freemont's    Peak, 

506 
Fregenal  de  la  Sier- 
ra, 177 
FresquelR,  207 
Freiburg,  242,  243, 

268,272 
Freislng.  260,  265 
French  Gaiaiia^  668, 

679 
Friendly  Is.,  680 
Friesland,  822 
Frigido  R,  889 
Frio  a,  689 
Friaohe  Haff,  844 
FkonM,  110k  184,189 


Frome  R.,  139 
Frome     R.     (Aus- 
tralia), 608 
Frome   Lower   R, 

139 
Frosinone,  2S3,  289 
FucinoL,  291 
Fuegian  Arch. ,  569 
Fuen  -  chow,     407, 

^408,  421 
Fuen-hoR,407,421 
Fuentarrabia,    177, 

185 
Fueute  Alamo,  178, 

186 
Fuente  Genii,  178 
Fuentes  de  la  Cam- 

paiia,  178,  185 
Fuerte  Ventura  I., 

183 
Fuga,  499 
Fuhne  R.,  262 
Fiihnen  I.,  66,  231 
Fulda,  239,  263 
FuldaR,263 
Fulgo  R,  404 
Fulham,    119,  132, 

140 
Funghal,  180, 183 
Puncheon  R,  172 
Fundah,  473 
Fundy  B.,505,  521 
Punf  kircheu,  256 
Fureedkote,  487 
Furens  R,  206 
Fumeaux  Is.,  606 
Ftirth,  250,  251,  263 
Further  India,  346, 

347,  353,  899 

Gabella,  265 
Gabon  R.  481 
Gaeta,  282,  286,  289 
Gaeta  G.,  288,  289 
Gaillac,  197,  207 
Gainsborough,  115, 

121 
Gairdner  L.,  608 
Qala,  R ,  159 
Qal&cz,  308, 310, 312 
Galapagos  Is.,  569 
Galashiels,  145, 150, 

159 
Galena,  536,  539 
Galicia,  256 
Galilee,  Sea  of,  365 
Gkdla,  country,  439, 

496 
Galle,  888,  887 
GhOlinas  Pt.,  569 
GallipoU,  808,  809, 

818 
GaUo  0.,  801 
Galloway,  Mull  of, 

06,166 
Galaton,  146, 160 


Galveston,  536.  539, 

541 
Galway,    165,    168, 

171 
Galway  B.,  169, 171 
Galwen,  496 
Gambia,  94 
Gambia  R,  439. 440, 

444,  469,  481 
Gambler  Is.,    214, 

631 
Gamla-Carleby,  327 
Gamtoos  R,  4r<6 
Gandia,  178,  186 
Gando,  473 
Ganges  Canal,  3P9 
Ganges  R.,  351, 388, 

390,  404 
Gannat,  199,  206 
Gap,  198,  207 
Gapeau  R ,  208 
Gara,  Lough,  172 
Card,  197 
Garda  L,  77,  291 
GardonR,  207 
GarganoC,  283 
GariepR,4St5 
Garigliano  R,  289, 

291 
Gamock  R.,  160 
Garomua  I.,  169 
Garonne  R,  74,  207 
Garressio,  282 
Garrobillas,177,186 
Gartempe  R.,  2u6 
Gartok,  418 
Garvogue  R.,  171 
Gascogne  R.,  608 
Gaspfi  Pt.,  520 
Gata,  de  (;.,  66,  183 
Gatehouse,  145, 160 
Gateshead,  115, 120, 

142 
Gatshina,  319.  327 
Gaudiana  R..  18ri 
Guadiana  Minor  B , 

186 
Gaurisankar  M. ,  349 
GauritzR,486 
Gave-de-Pau  R., 

207 
Gavi,  282,  290 
Gavora  R,  185 
Gaya,  382,  384.  404 
Gaza  (Ghuzzeh),360, 

862,  380 
Geelong,  604 
Geelvink  Bay,  621 
GceteR,22S 
Gefle,  837,  338,  810 
Gelderlaud,  222 
(Jellen  Str.,  244 
Gtommi  Pass,  274 
Genappe,  816 
GenargentOfMonta 

69,889 


648 


INDEX. 


Geneva,    207,   208, 

272,  273 
Geneva  L.,  77,  276 
GenevreM.,69,205, 

289 
Genii  R.,  185 
Genoa,  281, 283, 289 
Genoa  G.,  67,  288, 

289 
Geograph  B.,  607 
George  Town  (De- 

mer.),    668,    679, 

671 
George  Town  (Pen- 

ang),  382,  387 
George  Town  (Prin. 

Ed.  Isles),  619 
Georgetown    (Afr., 

486 
George,    St,     Ber- 
muda, 567 
George,  St,  G.,  569 
Georgia,  536 
Georgia  G.,  527,  6-28 
Georgia  S.  I.,  569, 
Georgian  B.,  626 
Georgievsk,  322 
Gera,  242,  262 
Gera  R,  262 
Gerardmer,  198 
Gergal,  178,  186 
German  Ocean,  or 

North  Sea,  67 
GemMtn       (North) 

Confederation,  236 
Germany,  234 
Germany,South,249 
Gerona,  176, 179,186 
Gers,  197 
Ger8R.,207 
Ghadames,  467,  468 
Ghagra  R.,  404 
Ghats  E.,  Mts.,  389 
Ghats  W.  Mts., 389, 

390 
Gheel,  215,  225 
Ghent,  74,  215 
Ghilan,  371 
Ghizeh — see  Jeezeh 
Ghnznee,  376,  404, 

428 
Ghnznee  R.,  428 
Giants*    Causeway, 

166 
Gibraltar,  93, 186 
Gibraltar  B.,  183 
Gibraltar  Str.,  67, 

183 
Gien,  199,  206 
GierR,207 
Giessbach  Fall,  276 
Giessen,    251,  252, 

263 
GignelaR.,185 
Gijon,  177 
Gilbert  Is.,  928 


Gilgit,  382,  387 
GUolo  I.,  622,  626 
Gimena,  178,  186 
Girgeh,  461,  461 
GironR.,207 
Gironde,  197 
Gironde  Est,  204 
Girvan,  145,149,160 
GirvanR,160 
Giurgevo,  264,  808, 

310,  313 
Givet,  198,  208,  225 
Glace,  Mer  de,  275 
Glamorgan,  119, 134 
GlanR.,  264 
Glaru8,263,272,273 
Glasgow,  145,  160, 

160 
Glass  L.,  160 
Glastonbury,     116, 

139 
Glatz,  238,  262 
GlanR.,  263 
Glauchau,  242 
Gleiwitz,  238,  262 
Glen  R.,  141 
Glenluce,  146 
Glogau,  238, 240,261 
GlommenR.,  340 
Gloucester,  118,129, 

139 
Gltickstadt,239,241, 

262 
Glums,  291 
Glutchov,  321,  328 
Clyde  R,  171 
Glynn  R.,  141 
Gmiind,  250,  263 
Gnesen,  237,  261 
Goa,  383,  388,  404 
Goascoran  R.,  658 
Gobi  or  Shamo,  415, 

422 
Gobi  Plateau,  847 
Godada  R.,  383,  406 
Godalming,  116, 140 
Godavery  Canal,  399 
GodaveryR.,351,404 
Goderich,  526 
Godhavn,  631 
Godmanchester, 

118, 141 
Goes,  221,  225 
GognaR.,  290 
Gktgra  R.—see  Gha- 
gra 
Golconda,  391 
Gold  Coast,  477 
Goldberg,  238,  261 
GoUnow,  238,  261 
Golspie,  147,154,159 
Golt8chR,262 
Gombroon,  368, 375, 

881 
Gomera  I.,  183 
Gomo  Pass,  600 


Gomorrha,  365 
Gondar,    439,    458, 

459,  461 
Oondokoro,  461 
Good   Hope,  Cape 

of,  441 
Good   Hope   Fort, 

629 
Goole,  115, 120.  141 
Goppingen,  250, 263 
Gorakhptlr,382,386, 

405 
Gordokh,  419 
Goree,  214,  470 
Gorey,  164, 172 
Gorknm,  221,  224, 

263 
G6rlitz,238,240,261 
Gort,  165,  171 
Gortop^,  418 
GHJrz  or  Goritz,  256, 

258,291 
Goslar,  239.  262 
Goteboi^-^cc  Go- 

thenborg 
Gotha,  73,  242,  243, 

262 
Gotha  R.,  73,  339, 

340 
Gothard,St,M.,274 
Gothenborg,73,836, 

337,  340 
GothlandL,66,  338 
GdUingen,  239, 241, 

262 
Gouda,  221,222,224 
Gouet  R,206 
Gtonlbum,  604 
Gounagh  L.,  172 
Gourdon,  199,  207 
Goorock,  145, 160 
Gova,  451,461 
Goyana,  581,  601 
Goyaz  or  ViUa  Boa, 

601 
GoytR,138 
Gozen  Zair,  R,481 
Gozol.,67,  93,  288 
Graaf  Reynet,  485 
Grabow,  242,  262 
Graci08-a-Di08    C, 

668 
Graham's  Town,  485 
Grain  Coast,  477 
GrammosM.,  311 
Grampian  Mts.,  157 
Grampians,      Aus- 
tralian, 606 
Gran,  267,  264 
GranR,  264 
Granada     (Spain), 

178, 181, 186 
Granada    (Cent. 

Amer.),  667 
Granadian  Confed., 

676 


Granard,  164, 172 
Grand-Lieu  L.,  £>8 
Grand  R,  640 
GraneorEtieit,S68, 

380 
Grangemonth,  146, 

159 
Grantham,  141 
Grantown,  146, 159 
Granville,  196,  206 
Grasse,  208 
Grassmere  L.,142 
Gratz,  76,  256,  258 

264 
Graudenz,  237,  261 
Graulhet,  197,  207 
Gravelines,  196,  205 
Gravesend,  115, 122, 

140 
Gravina,  282,  290 
Gravina  R. ,  290 
Gray,  198,  207 
Grazalema,  178, 186 
Great      Australian 

Bight.  607 
Great  Bear  L.,  608 
Great  Fish  R,  486 
Great  KeiR,  486 
Great    Lake,    Tas- 
mania, 614 
Great  Lakes,  regioD 

of.  439.  498 
Great  Salt  L.,  602; 

606,  608 
Great    Salt     Lake 

City,  536,  540,  542 
Great  Slave  L.,  602, 

508 
Greece,  65,  298 
Green    Mts.,    606, 

620 
Greenock,  145, 149, 

160 
Greenland,  603,  6C6, 

531 
Greenlaw,  146, 148, 

158 
Greenwich,  115, 122, 

140 
Gregory  L.,  608 
Greiffenbei^,     238, 

261 
Greinord,  Loch,  156 
Greitz.  73,  242,  262 
Grenada,    L,    661, 

662 
Grenade,  207 
Grenoble,   75,  198, 

207 
Gretna  Green,  138 
Grimma,  242,  262 
Grimsby,       Great, 

116, 121, 141 
Grimsel  M.,  274 
Grimstead,     Baal| 

116. 140 


^r     OrintlslI  LiiDd,  305  I  Gaben.  236,  SAl        ;  Hshinli.  4ns            1  T[an'difliic.4a7.4Sl             ^M 

^       GriqanQ.u,,i;i,4SH 

^rrs^/" 

Ual^arabad,      SS3, 

H«nd=k,  Fall.  275 
Hang-cljow,      407, 

GriaNesC,6fl,  2:4 

Gneret,  189,  206 

arisoDB,  S72.  i7« 

OoerDief  L.  134 
Guorrero,  661 

nSSSS 

Baiigi)    Fotnt,   et. 

a^nbilB,'?*^'^. 

Hainan  1,848,  410 

HanliBl  (Thai,  422 

^m            SiS,  224,  263 

GilBU-U-PBsa,  4!  8 

Hainanlt.  216 

^L    QttosULm 

H™i^?"i4l"'  '^^ 

^B     GrOMWtuila,     S42, 

"BriiiihfVm  "'""'^■■*^* 

Haioeoh,  M) 

Hannibal,  636 

^H        262 

Hidnickan,  342 

Hanover,  289,  241. 

^V     Onsuttl,  2B2,  289 

SB8,  5T9— Ftan^'hl 

Haiti  L,  661,  662, 

214.     S«B,     679- 

H«noTflr{n.  8.1.684 
HsntB,  116.  12S 

!)fl.aM'^      ' 

Haitian  C.  602 

Grlmbsrg  238.  881 

GuUdfbid,  116. 123, 

Hskoaadl,  m,  437 

Hap^27 

Hal,  216 

Goad^li  R,  18S 

hS^,  4si,  MB,  497 

Guadiiaviiir'B.,  76, 

HaJboraUdt.   '239. 

Hara3chR,2«4 

Guinea,  439,' IJfl 

Harbnig,  239  3S2 
HardanserFd.SSa 

HaldenslebeD,  239, 

QuadaUn™.     179, 

Guinea,  New, 'fl03, 

H.J..S,       »».. 

GuiDEamp,  197,  S08 

Haloswortli,      116, 

Haliaz,   lis,    120, 

HariJwar,  382,  384, 

^      Oniiialem  K.,  ISA 

386, 104 

^^    Ooadliata  R.  ISD 

HalWkip).  a.),B19, 

Haro,  179, 136 

^H    Giimd>ireoB.,lSS 

Gujarat,  SS2,   883, 

BarleBton,  116,  141 

^H    O>u>d>1]orce  B.,  I8« 

HalifaiHr.,621) 

Onldjll,  416,  428 

Hall.  ISO,  263 

Hanan,    360.   S64, 

Halle,  289,  241.  262 

HalBlead,  115,  129. 

HarriH  Bound.  156 

GoKdnlups  R. .  188 

GumU  R,  40S 

Gciduuiillo      R , 

Hsltwhiatlo,      111, 

HarrogaU,  116, 121, 

SsS™  "''lifl. 

Hamadan,  B72,  373, 

Hart  Fell,  168 

Gmdeloope  1..  214, 

381,  428 

Hartford,  507,  636, 

Hamah,    35»,   868. 

^K    «iiiidiu,  Lm  Ojoa 

880    ' 

Hnrtebeeat,GL,R, 

^B  G^iiuR,TG,1g9 

0(iMB„aM 

Hamble  B..  140 
Bsmburg,  73,  243, 

488 
Hartington, 117,143 

^^F  OnadluoB.,  ise 

l3*iH*4 

Hartland,  118,  139 

^K   .OiiidUUli.,18a 

Hameln,  239.  2«2 

Hartland  Point,  134 

Ga»lumL,S!8 

G"Sh'R,Vs* 

Hamilton,  l*i,  160, 

Hartlepool,       116, 

Oiulata,4eg 

Gnnthal.  418 

130,  142 

GuiUvii,  its 

Hamilton  (Bemm- 

Harwich,  116,  12^ 

BOl 

Giutrow,  242,  iel 

doa).  667 

Gwalior.   sai,  383. 

Hamilton  (Canada), 

Ha«  Mta„  69.  244, 

619,  626 

GniDsri,  (I7S,  N)l 

ean.lHDn  (Tasm.), 

QjDiBS    PaH,   :si, 

B»8lingden,117,1^9 

Hamlets,      Tower, 

GnapsrS  R  flOl 
GnmlBTiii  C,  441, 

Haiirlqi,  !21.  !!S. 

Han,n,;,  216,  225 

Hatberlelgh,  110 

HsomR.SW 

Hultla  I    BJSs 

GunflUiu,  aes,  290 

13adtili.Bt™,     14S. 

llaut  Hhln.  198 

aaatem.]|^       603, 

14B.160 

Hamio  L.,  876.  428 

608.  6W 

HadBrelElHn.  239 

Halite  Lo^e,"l99 

eadleigli,116,l*l 

606,684 

Haute  Mame,  193 

503,667 

HndraiuBQt,      Wi, 

Hampton,  119, 140 

Haute  SaOna.  108 

oimy«qim,sv(i,s7r. 

HsmptoD,      LltllB, 

HanW  Vienna,  199 

toi' 

HmnialM-.Sll 

lie,  140 

Hante.  Ali«s,  IBS, 

Hseae.    The,    Ml 

Han  R.  421 

"STmi"  °'  "'' 

2^2,  839 

Hai>KlangR,421 

Han  tea     Pn«D6ea 

^           BBb1)to,Ma.38t 

Hi«u<u»<i.  JUS,  SM 

H^.B,iiw.ati.m^  w      - ^m 

650 


IKDEX. 


Havana,   603,   562, 

563 
Havant,  116. 140 
Havel  R,  262 
Haverfurdwest, 

119, 138 
Haverhill,  115.  141 
Havre,  Le,  196,  200, 

205 
Hawaii  I.,  628 
Hawarden,  119, 188 
Hawes,  115, 141 
Haweswater  L.,  142 
Hawick,  145,  148 
Hawke'8  Bay,  616 
Hawkesbury  R  ,677 
Hay,  115,  139 
Hazebroack,      196, 

208  225 
Hebnde8ls,66,156 
Hebrides,  New,  Is., 

603,  619 
Hebron  or  EI  Ehaia, 

360,  363,  456 
Hebron  (Labrador), 

530 
Hechingen,  239,263 
Hecla  M.,  71,  281 
Hedjaz,    859.    360, 

370 
Heidelberg,       250, 

251,  263 
Heilbronn,  250,  263 
Heiligenstadt,  239 
Helder,221,222,224 
Helder  Point,  223 
HelderStr.,  224 
Helena,  507,  536 
Helena,  St,  99,  441 
Helensburgh,    146, 

151,  160 
Helens,  St.,  Mt. ,  506 
Helicon  M.,  301 
Heligoland  I.,  93 
Hellada  R.,  302 
Hellenic  Mts.,  311 
Helles  Boumu  C, 

810 
Hellespont  or  Dar- 
danelles, 67,  310, 

365 
Hellin,  178, 186 
Hehne  R.  262 
Helmsdale,  147, 159 
Helmsley,  115,  141 
Helmstadt,  242,  262 
Helmnnd   R,  852, 

428 
Helsingborg,  336 
Helsingfors,73,319, 

822,  327 
Helstone,  116, 139 
Helvellyn  M.,  136 
Helvetian  Alps,  274 
Hemel  Hempstead, 

119 


Hems,  360,  368 
Heng,  421 
Heng-chow,  407 
Henley,  118, 140 
Henley  -  in  -  Arden, 

118, 139 
Herat,  376,  427 
Herault,  197 
HeraultR,  207 
Hercynio-C^uTiathi- 

an  Mts.,  69,  260 
Hereford,  117, 125 
Herencia,  179, 185 
Herford,  289,  262 
Herirood   R,  352, 

427 
Herisau,  263,   272, 

273 
Hermaness  C,  156 
Hermanstadt,  257, 

259,264 
Hermon  Mt.,  349 
Hermopolis,     299, 

300 
HemadR,  264 
HemeR,  115, 140 
Hemosand,  73,  337 
Hermhnt,  531 
Hersfield,  239,  263 
Herstal,  215 
Hertford,  118,  131, 

140 
Herts  or  Hertford- 
shire, 118,  131 
Hervey's   Is.,   629, 

630 
Herzegovina,  307 
Hesbeiya,  880 
Hesperian  Mts.,  68, 

184 
Hesse-Cassel,  239 
Hesse  -  Darmstadt, 

251 
Hesse  -  Homborg, 

239 
Hexham,  114, 142 
Hidalgo,  551 
Hiego,  437 
Hi^res,  198,  208 
Hieres  Is.,  204 
Hiero  I.,  188 
Highworth,  116 
Hildboi^hausen, 

242,  262 
Hildesheim,      239, 

262 
Hillah,860,364,380 
Hillsborough,   163, 

171 
Himalaya  Mts. ,  849, 

350,  418,  670 
Hinares  R,  185 
Hinckley,  118, 128, 

142 
Hindu  Knsh  Mts., 

847,849 


Hindustan,  346,  381 
Hindustan     Plain, 

847 
Hingham,  116 
Hinojosa,  178, 185 
HirepoU,  308,  812 
Hir8chbeiig,238,261 
Hirsova,  264,  808 
Hit,  360,  380 
Hitchin,  118, 141 
Hitteren  I.,  338 
Hi2jL,141 
Hoai-king,  407,  421 
Hoang-Ho  R,  347, 

351,  852,  418,  419, 

421 
Hobart  Town,  614, 

615 
Ho-Chan  Mt.,  350 
Hoddesdon,118,140 
Hof,  250,  262 
HogsmiU  R,  140 
Hohenzollem,  239 
Hokitiki,  616,  617 
Holguin,  65,  562 
Holland,  65,  220 
Holland  N.,  221 
Hollands.,  221 
Holstein,  239 
Holt,  115,  141 
Holy  I.,  134 
Holyhead,  119, 133, 

138 
Holyhead  I.,  134 
HolyweU,  119, 132, 

138 
Holzemme  R,  262 
Holzemplotz  R. ,  262 
Homburg,  239,  263 
Homs,  880 
Ho-nan,  407 
Honda,  576.  601 
Honda  R,  559 
Honduras,  503.  557 
Honduras,  British, 

503,  557 
Honduras  O.,  558 
Honfleur,  196 
Hong-chow,  421 
Hong-Kong,  93, 410 
Hong-tseL.,  410 
Honlton,  116,  140 
Honolulu,  629 
Honor  R.,  172 
Hood  Mt.,  506 
Hook  of  Holland, 

223 
Hooker    Mt.,    506, 

527 
Hoo-nan,  407 
Hoo-Pe,  407 
Hoom,  221, 222, 224 
HoomDiepR,224, 

263 
Hopedale.  530 
HorebMt.849 


Horn  C,  569 
Horn  G.  (DenmarkX 

231 
Horn  L.,  77 
Homcastle,  115, 141 
Horsel  R,  263 
Horsens,  230 
Horsham,  115, 140 
Hottentot  Country, 

439,  482 
Howden,  115, 141 
Howe  C,  607 
Howth  Head,  169 
Hoy,  155 
Huamanga,  585 
Huancavelica,  585, 

586 
Huanuco,  585,  601 
Huanuco  M.,  570 
Huari,  585,  601 
Huaseo,  592,  601 
Huauri,  601 
Huddersfield,    115, 

121, 141 
Hudson  B.,  505. 517 
Hudson  Bay  Terri- 
tory. 517,  529 
Hudson  R,  507 
Hudson   Str.,  502, 

505 
Hue,  346,  401,  405 
Huelva,  178, 185 
Huercalovera,  178, 

186 
Huesca,  179,  196 
Hughli  R,  346 
Hull,  115,  121,  141- 
Hull  R,  141 
Humber  Mouth,  135 
Humber  R,  141 
Humboldt  B.,  540 
Hungary,  256 
Hungerford,      116, 

140 
Hunse  R,  74,  224, 

263 
Huntingdon,     118, 

129  141 
Huntiy,  146,  159 
Huron  L.,  608,  521, 

526 
Hurst,  116,  140 
Huy,  215,  216,  225 
Hwai-ngan,407,421 
Hydra,  299,  300 
Hymettus  M.,  301 
Hythe,  116, 122, 140 

Ibar  R,  264,  812 
Ibi-6aminPas8;850 
Ibrail  or  Brahilov, 

264,  808,  810 
lea,  685 

Iceland  I.,  66,  281 
Icy  C,  606 
Ida  M.,  811 


iiij-riu,  -JLH 
iiuiK..  lies 
iiiuBiiiu  B.,  sas 

IbnluBler.  116.  13» 
li.iuuicu  L..  MH 
Iltchi.  42S,  iiH 

IruDm-Jii/W,  Sll 
liuuniK.  Gl,  L,  M] 
IulIi.wwI.,  ISS 
lui'^kinlliL,  lU 

Inili>,StS,  981 
ludii,  Britinh,  13 


lodluiijvolii,     £07^ 

Iud[«,  Wot, 

»>£,  Ml 
I  iidigirlu  B. .  S 


iiipiR.  ass 


nvareMgai,      6Hi, 
uverftoiduD.     14lt, 


B.,  Mi,  M5 

■    ■     1 B.,  827 


ii,is(F..rf)i;,iMi 


ludiu  R,  Ul,  Si!, 


lUVEtllMt,  IM,  IM, 

InvsrmT.  140,  ISB 
Inua  1..  IH 

luuiis  &B1, 07,  mis, 

]tm  CitJ,  6» 
Itfumlnu,  4U,  t5i, 

lliHwich,  lis,  1S2, 

ll-ut  E.,  SE8 
Irtk-Ajeiui,  ST3 
Imk  Anbl,  UD 


IrknuL.   SU,   4 
Iran  G»t«,  811 


JilnlpAr,  m,  S9U, 


Jnliimiitui  B.,  SH 
Jolon  IL,  ISA 
Jiil]nu-.b  L.,  S13 
Jii|iu<^  B..  31:! 


Jimtn  Di  Jhhjh  u. 
Jsluu.    !40.     MB 


JuTMUr,     351, 

in'k,  SOT 

Jelxdl,  S 


•8l^'r™R..li 

rigi  I.,  or.  isg 

[vligbne,  ItB,  141 


_  — el-AWidir.  MS 
Jebel    Gbarib  Jl. 

4U 
Jibsl  Ifhnzu  X. 

4U 
jBbal  HilUin,  404 
JtdK,  I5S 
Jedbuneh, 

IM 
Jeddo-wi  YmUd 


148, 


652 


INDEX. 


JefTerson  City,  507, 

536 
Jefferson  Mt. ,  506 
JeflremoY,  320,  328 
Jehlnm  R.,  404 
Jelalabad,  376,  404 
Jelatom,  320,  329 
Jeletz  or  Eletz,  320, 

323,  328 
Jenneh,  473,  481 
Jerbahl.,441 
Jersey  I.,  134 
Jersey  City,  535 
Jersey,   New,  634, 

535 
Jerte  R.,  185 
Jerusalem,  360, 363, 

380 
Jemsalem  (Africa), 

483 
Jesi,  282,  200 
Jesiret-el-Arab,  367 
Jesso  I.—8ee  Tesso 
Jeysalmir,  383 
Jhalawan,  378 
Jhansi,  351,  405 
Jhind,  383,  387,  405 
Jiddah,360,364,380 
Jiga-Gungar,  418 
Jigansk,  433 
Jitomir,     76,    321, 

324,  328 
Jodhpur,  351,  383, 

387,  404 
John,  St,  Antigua, 

563 
John,      St     (New 

Brunswick),  519 
John's,    St,    New- 
foundland,    519, 

520 
John,  St,  R.,  520, 

521 
Jobnstaayen,  146 
Johnstone,  145, 160 
Johore,  405 
Joigny,  199,  206 
Jokulsflord  01.,  339 
Joliba  a,  444,  474, 

481 
J<Jnk»ping,  837,  340 
Jordan  R.,  352,865, 

380 
Jordan  (U.S.X  606 
Joudpore — see  Jod- 

pur 
Josef,  St,  Pen.,  569 
Juan  de  Fuca  Str., 

540,  541 
Juan  Fernandez  I., 

569 
Jug  R.,  827 
Juggernaut  —  see 

Jagannath 
Juicza,  307,  312 
JaiiieB.,206 


Jt^juy,  571,  596,  601 
Julalabad,  376 
Julamerk,  359 
Julian  Alps,  260 
Julianshaab,     234, 

503,  531 
Jumilla,  178,  186 
Jumna     R.  —  see 

Jamna 
Jungbunzlau,  262 
Jungfrau  M.,  274 
Jura,  198 
Jura  I.,  156 
JuraMts.,  205 
Jura  Sound,  156 
JUterbogk,  238,  262 
Juticalpa,  557 
Jutland,  229,  280 
JyhoonR.,  351,380 

Kabara,  473,  474, 

481 
Eabompo,  493 
Kabul.     346,    351, 

376,  404 
Kabul  R,  404 
Kabushan,  372, 427, 
Kachb,  383 
Kachh  O.,  348,  383, 

389 
Kachh,     Gundava, 

378 
Kachh,  R&n  of,  389, 

390 
Kaffa,  321,  328 
Kafflrland,  439 
Kafflrstan,  425 
Kaffiraria,  484.  485 
Kagosima,  434 
Kai-fong,  351,  407, 

409,  421 
Kairwan,  462 
Kalsarieh,  360,  361, 

880 
Kaiserslautem,  250, 

263 
Kaka,  451,  461 
Kakunda,  478,  481 
Kalagria  C,  310 
Kalahari      Desert, 

446,  490,  491,  492 
Kalbe,  239,  262 
Kalefat,  308,  312 
Kali  NadiR.,  405 
Kalikut,   382,  386, 

404 
Kalish  or  Kaliscz, 

261,  821,  324 
Kalmar,  337,  340 
Kalmar  Sd.,  388 
Kalna,  382,  384,  404 
Kaluga,  76, 820, 323, 

829 
KalwaiT,  821,  327 
Kama  R.,  329,  404 
KamaUa,  470,  481 


Kamienetz,  76,  321, 

324,  328 
Kampen,  222,  224 
KamtchikR.,312 
Kampti,  404 
Kamtschatka,   345, 

347,  348,  350 
Kamtschatka    Sea, 

848 
Kamyschin,  320 
Kan  R.,  421 
Kanagawa,  434 
Kanai  I.,  628 
Kanara  Co.,  404 
Kandahar,  352, 376, 

428 
Kandeish,  889, 404 
Kandy,  382,  387 
Kanem,  473 
KanhanR,  404 
Kanhpur,  382,  384, 

404 
Kanin  C,  325 
Kankari,  360,  380 
Kannaland,  486 
Kansas,  536 
Kan-su,  351,407 
Kanturk,  164 
Kanzas  R.,  541 
Kaole,  500 
Kao-you  L.,  410 
KaoyungL.,  410 
Kara  G.,  348 
Kara   Hissar,    360, 

361,  380 
Kara  Sea,  326 
Karachi,  382,    386, 

404 
Karak  I.,  373 
Karakal,  308 
Karakorum,  433 
Karakorum     Mts., 

349,  350,  418,  422 
Karaman,  360 
KaramangnaiL.  ,845 
Karanovacz,  264 
Karasch  R.,  264 
Karask  R,  828 
Kara-8uR.,880,881 
Karasa-basftr,   821, 

328 
Karatdier,  820 
Karikal,88S 
Karlsbad,  256 
KarlsbuTg,  257,  264 
KarlstadC  S57,  264 
Kamatak,  882,  889 
Eamul.  882 
Karotona,  828 
Karroo,  GreaL  486, 

487 
Kara,  869,  801 
KaxystOfSM 
Ka8a]i,8S0,8IS 
Ea8Uii,87M78,«f7 


Kashan,  372,  373 
Kashgar,   346,  352, 

423,  424,  428 
Kasligaria.  346, 349, 

415,  422 
Kashmir,  851,  352, 

383,  387,  404,  423, 

424 
Kasimov,  320,  329 
Kastamuni,  360, 380 
Katak,  851,  382 
Katema,  491,  493 
Kathiawad  Pen.  ,389 
Katonga,  491 
Katrine  L.,  160 
Katunsk  M.,  350 
Katzbach  R.,  261 
Kavallo,  308,  812 
Kavallo  G.,  312 
KaveriR,351,382, 

404 
Kazan,  76 
Kazanlik,  308,  312 
KazbekMts.,  70,326 
Kaz6,  500 
Keady,  163,  171 
Keczkemet,  257,259, 

264 
Kedje,  378,  879, 381 
KedronR,360, 880 
Kehveh  R,  846 
Kei,  Great,  R,  486 
Keidaun,  827 
Keighley,  115, 141 
Keiskamma  R.,  486 
Keith,  146, 158, 159 
Kelat,S46,878,S79, 

404 
Kelat-i-GhilJie,  428 
Keli-Shin  Pass,  350 
Kells,  164, 171 
Kelso,  145, 148, 158 
Kelvin  R,  160 
Kemi  R,  827 
Kemljoki,  827 
Kemmoo,  470,  481 
Kempen,  287,  261 
Kempten,  250, 265 
Ken  R  ,186. 100 
Ken  or  Kent  R,  188 
Kendal,  117, 126,188 
Keiieh,401 
KeniaMt.,440 
Kenilworth,  118 
Kenmare,  104,  ITS 
Kenxnan  R,  1701 

172 
Kennebee  R,  642 
Kennedy  G9l,  606 
Kent,  116, 12S 
Kentucky,  6S0 
XeolnaL680 
KericbS  B 


r      Ite™aBa.mai,  ri,  I  KilblmlB,  145, 160 

I{lrg1iIzSt[>ppe,  439|KD!&daIii   R.   346.              H 

KoS.m 

Ubride.  145 

Klr|,hl,    Teml;or>-, 

KdIii'd,  883 

KenyHMd,  109 

KnbrldeW.,H6 

Kirin-ma,  361,  416, 

Koig.evl.,68,S20 

Kortoh,  8111,  S23 

lldaifl,  164, 173 

lt.rWiStr.,fl7,SM 

ilhun  115, 141 

Kirk-Killsaia,   808, 

ImTioi  ^*''  '^'' 

Ke»be1BuhiI.,4ie 

ui<i,gk  m,  aia. 

DlobfSg,  401,  493 

Suwlnk,  U7,  ler, 

tuSmdJ™  'Mt. 

Klrkhy,  116, 141 

olORIH,  286,  E<4 

1S8 

Klrkby-ln-AgkDdd, 

olonit»C  830  82« 

K8ttBrtag,ua.l«l, 

KUkennr.  IM,  107, 

olpinC.ati 

KJrktIy-LalisdiJs, 

OlyB«R.863 

Kow-MuiB,  tU 

KiMii.  116. 171 

DmidngiK.tS! 

iiS» 

KUUli  S,.  183 

Kirkhy- Stephen. 

oaom.  S67,   368, 

EiUsUw,  ISO.  1T2 

117,188 

264 

KillamsT,  1«4,  168, 

ElrkcAldy,  146, 161, 

Kong  Mte..  410, 467, 

Khimil,  4!S,  428 

172 

474 

Khu.lB,30S 

KlItamoT  L.,  173 

Klrksodbrigbt,  145, 

Kongbo  R.,  405 

Killenaule,  163 

EoUeb,  360,801,  E3S 

KhsTkoT.    78. '821, 

KlUybfgE.,  183,  171 

KlfkLulSloch,'   146, 

Konjggratz.  362 

8IH.  828 

Krtpmllosi  165,172 

Kliartiim,  4B1.  452, 

2S9.S81 

KIrkWill,  147,  16S 

Kimtak-Otlkl    U., 

Knnish.  ISi,  17! 

Kiiri9Riuir,146,16» 

70,  82e 

Kh.taBt.au, '  sai. 

KH.j-th;H3,i61,180 

Kjsarieb,  360,  369, 

Konken,  332 

S8S,  3SB 

KilwlnniUB,  US,  160 

EonkBO   Co..    888, 

KhuwKk,  426 

KlsbfMDorKlcba- 

KhBKOI,,    TB,    S!l, 

K'LS,ura''pt.,s26 

SODlfU.  473 

B24,  SSS 

KlTicsrilne(pBrth), 

KiihS  I.,  370,  373 

KooD  R,  371,  372 

KhBraon   Btr..    67. 

146,169 

Kieslngeli,  260,  268 

KincvdlDeahlce, 

Klttart4M 

KlliD-piB,  319 

i:sc»r™ 

KM™,8S3,«S,4W 

KiBgCSlS 

KiStokkR.sei, 

Ktadl,  Sn,  372 

Klnshom,  1«,  16B 

852.880 

Koi^Dfon,  43R,  450. 

KhSS^*»i*«S, 

KingklQblBg     Fd.. 

Kiill    Onian     R, 

£31 

871,  427 

Koroko,  163 

*K 

KiiiB-fcl-tm,«6,421 

Kkliiir,3M.B25,sa8 

King's  County.  164 

K]flgenmrt,266,264 

Khonuiin,  B53.  S72 

KiDg'i  R.  172 

Klarenzi  C.  301 

Koron  G.,  301 

Klng9=l»«,lie,llfl 

KUttso.  25fl,  S62 

KoTOb  R,  284 

Khotu,  433,(34.428 

King»™urt,lSS,ni 

Korotohs,  BSO.  Si  3 

Kltgrtflnflunalui), 

257,  260.  364 

Koreoubid,      371. 

KmUum,  978,  428 

6^  603 

KleveoR.Bffl 

Khnlum'B..  428 

KlngiWu  (Sumy), 

KUuniB  R,  830 

K(«rfiiikoMt.,eOtl 

Rhuimui.  861,  371 

116,  123,  140 

lilluteh,  807 

KoMlo  R,  264 

KbTber  Fua.  SM 
KLlUlta,  414,  4S«, 

KlngKton   {B,  Ttn- 

KKutahewekei  M., 

KMlln,  238,  301 

,:S,t,m 

SA^Hoii.    201.  303. 

480.  43S 

Kl,«lnltz   E„   Sei, 

SIS 

itit.h!iie.4ai 

141 

Koibondll,  808.  313; 

Killing  R,  491 

Kn^e.torongb. 

Kortoimt  76,  330.' 

s;«;'i, 

Kington,  IIT 

116   IBl.  142 
KBigfilon,  189 

K<Mli™«  R.  81» 

sisii^i;. 

israi:'!!%'g. 

Knaivllla,  6AS 
KnutaW.  in 

Kobili,8Sl 

ISS:S:S 

Kl«ig->n,  SSI.  407 

Kobhe,  473.  «T4 

KUDg-tung,  415 

Kinn^inl  Ilri>.l,  Ut. 
Kdii-. 

tii.iKl..,  ilU,  i^Fi 

l£.>illn.),   or  Cfon- 

KlV'-^                                                                                                      ^1 

m,is» 

,             Kiel,  23S,  241 

KiBindHl,244 

^B  Xl»-<:1><><'.407.408 

Ktutt^K                                                                                                ^H 

^^LBIbt.  821.  »U.  US 

Rlgliml                                                                                                 ^H 

^Ribuui-Sbim    ua. 

Klol—                                                                                   70                            ^H 

EngoJnBCL     tM,  \  Inih-Behu,      3S1, 

311  S33 

Kntara,  904,  SOS,  CuahUmk,  Kt 

S13  giuttin,  238.  Ml 

Rnptakt  Ula.,  B9,  Sulils,  S32,  S2S 

leo,  S11  I  Sata.)*,   MO,    Ml, 

KiuDO '  Blobodlk,       aso 


IWBl-lin,    351,  407, 

109 

Sremnltz,  297,299, 

Kwel-yang,  341,107, 

!M 

KteBniKjl.M»,S68 

U  FecM  HW!4, 100, 

SSa.4M     * 

Ki(miUat,lSr,»59, 

U  Gniyara,  001 

LaHogiieC.,80,101 

KnwlE,  BTl 

U  Li&rtad.  M7 

KroJ».30T.  308,  811 

U  Paz,   Ml,   5B1, 

KrauLO.  268 

652,  baa 

EroBcbeiuti,    308, 

UPiwbla,661,5S2 

Kuarata.  4S9,  Ul 

La  Bouimtn  Ut, 

Kuba.  325,  S3S 

KBta'R.,328 

U  Scnma,  592 

LaUnioCfiS? 

Kutos^I^KTS 

Luland  1.,  80,  281 

Kuia,  ns.  IT* 

Ubrador,  60*.  617, 

KDeT>-luaUta.,8tll, 

tin,  lis 

Labiun  L.  826 

Kulm,  EST,  201 

I^cadlvesli.,  388, 

Kulpa  R.,  EH 

389 

Lachw,  388,  380 

slSSjimgi    M., 

lAcouU.  S99 

Knndm    SB2,   4SB, 

jutakb,  351 

«dogan,  77,^329^ 

K™|ri5;t26;*S7 
Kunto,  78 

StS'"'''' 

KDTR.,Te.S!8,346, 

319,  M2 

Lagpm  1^.100 

Knrab  R,  128 

L^l  R.,  289 

SiiraTlR.,S8(» 
KurdiBtaiillte.,319 

I^o,(aulnaa,,477 

KurilstBB     (Turk- 

lagoa  (Spain),  180 

7-agtn  (TurkfJ-),  508 

Lib)  3&»,  300 

I^«0SB,,183 

»."■« 

LagQS  G-,  312 

Sis'" 

EuTia  Hula  IbIw, 

STO 

Edi1ii,M0,11O 

Kanbe«,42fi.ll7 

Kunh«R.,i)7 

LalcliQV,  502,  6IS 

Knnt  120,328,  aw 

iSifiiS" 

Ko™n«r"l.«8 

Lambayequ^ 
Lambeth.  118, 123 


Laniaus  R,  KM 


Lan-cbow.  lOT,  4 


Lancutsr,  117, 128,    I 


uuceBtoQ     (Taa- 
iirenMWrk,   118, 


LingeGeld  Mts.,  TO 

LangsimalUa.    239. 
281 

Langpott,  139 

200    * 
Laigna  PI.,  71 
Langwartli  IL,  111 

0  I.,  410 

LaoD,  190,  203,  208 
Laos.  100,116 


Laacbua  R,  Ml 


Lajbach.    75,    258, 


Leamln^D,      110, 

Uan«  R,  172 
Loao-Tong,  408, 40T 
'  — "-erliead,     110, 


Lebedin,  321,  8 
LeliTlja,  ITS.  If 
'— «e,  232,  290 


teigh,  lir,  138 
l^ighlln,  16*,  ira 
Ltighbin  -  BoEzard, 

Ilcis^ter,'  103,  164, 
Leiraio,    243,   213, 
LelHU  B.,  2K 
Lelth,  144, 14g 
L^toieritE,  24G,  S62 
iiBilninbElil,     see, 
Ltitrbd,  16S 
Lsnua  II,  TT,  3T« 
UBbolB,  2M.  MS, 
Leu  B-.'SSO,  atl, 

S5a,1S9 
Lendfiun,  Se2,  991 


Iieoii(C9nLAiner.). 


Lerina  I.,  3D4 


iMlie,  14B,  168 
5r    Slivo  ' : 


LoveD  (Dumbarton) 
lay™  (EngL)  H., 


Lnlngtan,  S34 
Leybtini,  lis 
Leydsn,   311,    222, 
SM,  28S 


Lllwrtail,  S5T,  SSI 
LilmtlmB,  19Y,  20 
Lichaeld,  IIB,  It 

31)'     '      *'  ^' 
Lt«gnltz,  208,  2< 


Lille,  T4,  190,  S 

Lima,  esR,  sas,  e: 


Limpopo  R,    4S4, 


LladlBfhrne  L,  1 
LlnguetUO.,  31 
LIdUthgow,       I 


jinvanO, 


.ii<bnniG..60a,«05 


Ltslowol,  16 
LlUmy  B.,  K 


LlttDqnlha;,  501,509 


LDchwlnODCli,  14 
Lockecby,  14e,  I 


LodivB,  IBT.  K7 

LoHtK!BnLi.,Btl,; 
LogroBo,  17»,  18i 
LoEor,  404 
LdlntC  R.,  2<lfl 
Loir  B.,  -m 
Loire-etcher,  19 


Lambak,  2ie 
LDQhok  E,  «23,  81 

Lumonil  L-,  70.  If 

London  (Ainer. 
ti(itir]ondeiT7,  Itl 
arteriyC^M 


Luiu;  ■Mtltotd, 
L.ing(jrd.  IM, 


LoogR  .  isB 

LoopHaiLd,  li 


Looghboraogh,  118, 

m,  142 
LoDKhrea,  ISi,  ITl 
Lonb,  St,  4T0,  4S1 

LoniaiHde  Arcbip. 


Louth'(C«.>,  i 
lioavlen,  log, 
liOratR.,  837 
l<ow    AibbipQUfiO, 

«%,  «80 
LamQ,    BSE, 

Loner  KeIsw  R., 
Loweston,  IIG,  m 

14] 

Lmtston  Neu  < 


Laiembamg,    S22, 

Lniemboucg,    Bol- 

,    LiSSS'lySSS 
Lybiu  Desert.  493 
LfhiiD  Hta.,  4&3 

hydaajl  118,'  18» 
L;docb  L  ,  IW 
LTme  R,  140 


.   IIB. 


LaCL^L,  2fiZ,  S8B 


LimDoid,  III 
DrmlDfton,  1  IB,  140 
LyDeK,  IM 
Lynherk,  138,  ise 
' L    B^,    IIB, 


Lyon,  Tt,  198,  SO!, 

MaeniK.,2M 

LisR-.aoS,  225 

MaSadeokta.  3B0 

LylUBton.  61  a 

Mahunadi  R.  861, 

>tAuR,!2S 

m™.  Ert,,  m 

M.J.LR,3il,4M 

M4cao,40J,*oe,421 

aahluja  L..  873 

MMeoL,«0 

Ualdenbead,     116, 

licasur,  H2S 

Ui^datone.  115,  t!2, 

Jt^LVA     117, 

Ma^R,m 

Macdmr,  IM,  163, 

882,  889,  4M 

Micekt^  £82,  m 

Maine,  G3i 

Mai-gilUcuddy's 

Mains  at  Loire,  iOT 

Beak.  M.,  68.170 

Maira  R,  Ml 

Mackeule  R,  000, 

008 

Uatoo.    ISS,    £02, 

Mnifn'rn.,M7,3S9 

S07 

MslUand,  MO* 

Haoiooni,  1«4,  ITS 

Majazelte  R.  193 

M»d»g«cat  I.,  «B, 

MEjiUL-aiFnal.,183 

Ma<»i].i,,ses.'33o 

MSoiota'.'4w!'49»* 

MsdElra    I's.,    'l8S, 

MSkriG.,^3l5 

Mad™  R,  186 

MllabarCoa=t.104 

UadlBon,    luiliini, 

607,  630,  641 

Males'  ak.'sM. 

MKdlBOn,     Wlieon- 

848,  8Sa,  400 

bId,  G3«,  Ml 

MsladetM    or    Pip 

H>d<;D  R  20§ 

K.d™,    SBS.    8SS, 

Malaga,""!?^    181, 

880,404 

180 

M41arL.,T3,T0,SSB 

m 

Malar  P„  847 

M«d«Vi«ieR,18S 

Malaya,    S4S,    348, 

Madrid,  70,170,179, 

101 

lB0,i82  186 

»^y.l.,B«.^eitt 

S^^i^SIb""'^^ 

a1c£m>  L..  S44 

MmIstI,.,  830,340 

aldiTee    Is,,   888. 

UacBtncht,  74,  32S, 

W3.  SK 

Maldou,   115,    1S2, 

Migadoio,  406,407 

l^dala,  4M 

HMdonado,  OOfi,  601 

Magdalena,  070 

MaedslOM  R,  671. 

Maim  Head.  66, 169 

6UI 

Mallow,  164,17! 

m.l3ft 
Mai  mbe,  330, 33  7. 340 

Magellan,  8tr..  008, 

040 

Malni    Jaroalui-iu, 

MngrriloIfl.,Efi.3S9 

"^"m^'"''*'' 

kSS^S 

MoBh'eni.  I6J,  in 

uit-h^Srolt,       103, 

M»ltt)n,  How,  US, 

aK.,,,» 

MalvOTl,  Gt,  lift 

V    UiIvgit:  Hills,  ISB 

llspni:lin  B.,  503 

Marniorsl.,364 

llndbanec.  198.2118 

^      »ul»»,  fl4T,  389 

Manaom,   k«i    of. 

Maui^idiiie,  145,  leo 

MiniBB,  .100,408 

asS»)-to.5ra,s"7. 

sia,  384,  aas,  aao 

M.Mr  B«7T,  244 

MiUdd™  R,  SOI 

Marne,  198 

Maul  I„  82* 

Mm  I.,  as,  134 

MKnuajbo  (L.  and 

Mamea.aOB 

Mania.  S92 

Hiui  Pus,  tIS 

G.).  fiJl,  fl''l 

MamccD,  439,  4SS. 

MaulaR,891 

MuiiarG..  348,880 

Manrilius   Is.,    94 

KHMJ  L,  use,  SS8 

^^*^'  '"'  "°' 

MaroBUR.aSB 

uoBBgiu,  S03,  m 

Maranhio,  531, 582, 

M«oa  R..  SB4 

Hb^uL.,  659 

MaroB     Vasnrhelr, 

Maw  B.,  138  ' 

ii^^i.g«k 

M-raBon    B.,    688, 

267,284 

Marqaesas  I..  8!B. 

UUUDZUI,  44! 

Mirash,*  SSI.   300, 

686 

May  i    ISB 

Maybo  a.  145, 18U 

"^Ml'""    ^^' 

M^thon,  MB.  SOO, 

Nlli^llU,^2gS?28T 

ManMor,  im 

Miraeille,  198.  SDi. 

Ma™  239°l8S 

ManoliB,  196 

Majenca  or  Maim. 

IIM,  188 

.,;»,,;».'." 

Maniall    At=hlp., 

231,  252,  2S3 

MMChBtor  CUB.), 

MBrbnrg,  239,  m 

MamiM,  290 

MaJanne'R,  208 

S34,  B37.  S40 

Man*,  118.  141 

Maraivan,  360,  380 

Majq  R,  2113 

iiiidiii.  S8T.  S4a 

Marta,  ass 

Mahi  R^  R.  283 

lU]iilus,4TS 

MajEQQth,  184.  jri 
Majo,  IBS 

Hajntjamba.  801 

^       HidBisr/sie,  SSI, 

SFt!C 

Marti'gnes,  108,  208 

Mayottal.,  442 

^L        401 

Maypu  B.,  601 

MBrtngo,  asa.  283, 

Maitiiilqufl  L,  914. 

■     m 

661,  682 

^B  iunmaoii!sa.,ies, 

Murgarita,  678 

MnrtM,  178,  186 

H        290 

Ma^iTL,    B5i. 

MajBtlan,  641,  661, 

^H  Uugiiar.  SS8,B«I, 

6flB 

1B7.  173 

652.  668 

^m    4H 

Margate,  115,   122. 

H  lh»gei>I.,S3ll 

140 

Maiyland,  635 

■dl^i^Ao^as 

P£^r.^.o,iii 

HurgllllBD,  4S6,  428 

Meaae  B-,  142 

MarUnofl  Is..  ASS 

Mjuyport,117.  127, 

Maith,  184 

■^     sss 

MariatoPt.SOS 

MfatliW..lB4 

^~    MmImIoI.BM 

Marie,  at,  r.,  442 

Matui.  199.  208 

Usui  11*.  «»t.  6(iT 

Hm;aa.8B0.364.5fln 

BMipfll.  888 

Ma«en»,47S,48l 

Itulua,  B«l},  m-, 

Mnahini,  116, 141 

SIB,  318.  226 

880 

MaakL.,m 
Uaasa  dl  Camra. 

Uinltobil,  Gir,  B18, 

litz,  237,243 

m 

S81 

282,  285.  289 

Meoltlsnbqrg  -Sdi- 

MmitobaL.SOS 

Marignmo  I.,  681, 

Maaaaebnaetta.  634 

wprtn,  237,  S42 

iBi 

Medellin.  801 

M^ll'R.^i'sfl" 

SOS.  640 

Medina,  3  BO.  384 

Mm™     HamQton, 

Mgaaoiiali.  461,  469 
Miasaya,  667 

MadlnadsBioSew., 
1T8,  1S8 

MKrHet  -  Dmytm. 

MBaaBy«Mt,658 

MadiQii-BldDnla,178 

Minnn.  179,  IBS 

Mms.  La,  19B.  MS, 

Uaiket   -    Hubor- 

Matsbele,  492 

MBdlDBt-al-FtroiM,, 

MB 

461,  452,  461 

Matkel  mil.  WS 

Mat«JaC..8fl 

W)D,  419 

M«n«Ileia,  n;,  U7, 

MnrkBt-Ruen,  US. 

87,  34T,  869,  862, 

443 

Mirkot-Weiebton, 

eS;|'" 

Hadl°n1>R..484 

Medlook  R,  19S 

Huitcbuurill.     34S, 

IbQo^  m,.U7. 

M«dwi)rR,14IJ 

abi,  416, 4111 

540 

M«nM.  542.  981 

UiDtuB,  ssa,  ta*. 

'SSW 

141 

H>ta>iIO,S08.Sl! 

Utaa  R.  139 

KuytckR.SSS 

M«lr>».Qt..t.ll»; 

UatU  d^niw,  682. 

Maln«nM,,348.S61, 

Bmu,  iia,  «v«UJ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|^^^^^^^^« 

Utluai,  242,  2(5, 

Mllin,  75,  282.  284. 

Mltmvfci,  567.  2*4 

Mi 

290,  291 

MittlL,    319,    S22. 

MflJilODH.  5B» 

SfiB,  360 

MildenhUI,  115 

Massaaim  Se9 

Mlltvrslda,  142.  262 

"f.TA.V^J 

MesaiDB,  2B3,  287 

uiirotd'Htven,  135. 

Mitylon.  !..  !WB 

MaHfiiiStr.,tr;,2SS 

138 

MIzan  HBRd.  109 

Uelineais,  Ma 

MeBt™,  282,  291 

Mobile,     63B,    338, 

MUttary    Frnntier. 

541.542 

Mel  combe -BcgU, 

Methv^.  lie,  159 

Mod*.     361,     354, 

Hetnhanny,      491, 

MilkoT  R..  2M 

Mtldnm,  OW,  HB. 

UmedgBvilia,    535, 

Modeni.    76,    2Sl, 

231,  2SS,  2M) 

Metz,  108.  203,  208, 

MUlport,  146,  IBO 

ModarIt.,'208.E63 

MbIcdW.  S20.  829 

Mills,  New,U5, 100 

Modica.283 

Melil,  282,  wo 

MLIlBtreat.  IM,  172 

HelilAh  Q .  tu 

Meuleboka,  s'l5,  S2S 

Milnathort,  14fi,  IBO 

Mofrut.'itB,  119 

MtliDdn,  498,  107 

Mauitha.  198 

MUoI.,SI)i 

Mognclor,  4«3 

Mtgam.^  M9 

Meurtha  R.,  MS 

Mm«nM.,4e4 

Mogllllev.    7B,    321, 

JKltshiun,  lid,  ISA 

Mittwatdl,  242,  262 

334,  a2a_ 

Milvertnn,  110, 139 

Mil»>iikaB,53B,fi3e. 

MoSS  sia;  iw 

Malto»,'l4S,   148, 

Mewir,  S61 

M.-.liawk  R,  540 

Moina  B.,  206 

MelWn-Kowbny, 

tJod,  603,  BM 

Miii>s  Qenwa.  682, 

Hail<^.    BOS,   B51. 

mSS;  17S 

Melon,  IM,  205 

Minch,  LitUa,  167 

Moksh.R.329 

Mel.UBa.6(ir 

M«L     (district), 

MLnoh,The,167 

Mol«,  282,  2a0 

SS3:kS. 

Mincbiu  Himpton, 

MolJ,  UB   132.  138 

Uoldsn  R,  S62 

UeineL,2a7,24a.32T 

Mlnaio  it.,  290 

MoldBvta,  807.  aoB 

M™mingeD,    a». 

Miie,  197,  207 

Mindanso  1.,  B2« 

HenphiB.  E3S,  SSB, 

Me^r^Tes.'ias,  208 

MoUeBon'M,,'2W 

MedD  H.,    Caren- 

MindifMt..440,474 

MoltoD,  South,!  IB 

Mfludo,  SM 

MIndoro  I.,  626 

Uolacua  ia,  (122. 

Meoul  Btt„  ISS 

Minarvtno,  282,  290 

Mende,  167,  207 

Mlnbo,  180 

Mombsi,  4M,  407 

Ueadergh  a,  SOD, 

Miobo  B.,  T5, 186 

Mompot  571.  t-.e 

iohael,  k  I.,  IBS 

Mlnnuot;.  B30 

Monngbin,163,lfl«, 

Mendip  HlUa,  13S 

Mbioria  I.,  67, 1B3 

ieWgan,  B38 

MeodoIB,  g»li" 

lcl!ilHiL„608 

Mbu^7ll.  321,324, 

M™in,21B,22B 

iChOBOUl,  BBl 

MoossUr  (Tnrkert 

Meatoiie.  188,  203, 

Mloam  II,  76,  339 

Wdelburg,74,a2l, 

Mim,  189.  IBB 

Mon<a«lleii.      iSt, 

Meppel,  222.  421 

223,220 

Mint.  351.382, 385, 

290 

Mare,  11« 

Middle  I..  «1B 

40B 

Mondiobo,«l,40S, 

Meigau.  4».  421 

Middleboig  (U.8.X 

MeifulAKlL.agg 

Uilgocod,  821, 828 
Miropolii320,S2g 

MoDdit,  ITS,  1B6 

MenV  STB,  677 

Ulddlem,  119 

Mond<^B.,76,lM 

Mettonath,  UB.  133 

Middlelon,  117,128, 

Mimpnt.  132,  834, 

MmdDoedo.      177, 

Mark  B.,  335 

4M 

ManB.,  I8i 

UlddiatDU    (U.S.). 

MinR.  290 

MnngDite,  MS,  Bt7, 

H8i«.4Sl,«2.4fll 

Mi»honm«  B.,  1« 

ail  416       ' 

Marrlmac  B..  S40 

Mlddlewioh,      117. 

Miikolt^  U7,  US, 

Mongol)*     Proper, 

BM 

41« 

Hidhnnt,  IIB,  140 

MiBlHlpi^,B04.BU 

Montmorilloo,  109, 

M«r.eyR,l88 

Midi,  Mont.  204 

Ui»d8alpp1B,Mr, 

203 

Midia,81» 

633,041 

SlISJi^dVlUlB, 

MidDnisa,ar7 

Ulsaonri,  ts« 

126,139 

134,  139 

Mian  R.  189 

Mlwmi    R,  Mt 

Merv,  425,  *M 

MigliBsi  R.,  312 

6o^(».»a 

Mlrtia.lN 

Uaschio  B.,  2»1         HljareiR,18S         |Httofa>U&,«(« 

Metbed,  SM,  373 

\Milbg™Port.llB 

17J 

HartiMina,  IVT,  m, 
lTudtLlll,m 


660 


INDEX. 


Kaseby,  118, 129,141 
Nashua,  f>34 
NashviUe,  607,  635, 

539,  541 
Nasik,  882,  386 
Nassau,  239 
Nassau  (Bahamas), 

562,  563 
Natal,  94,  439,  440 
Natal  (BrazU),  581, 

582 
Natchez,    533,  535, 

538,  541 
Nathe  R.,  262 
NatunaL,  625 
NauC.,66,  288 
Naumburg,  239,241, 

262 
Nauplia,  299,  300 
Navan,  164, 166, 171 
Navarra,  179 
Navarrino,  299,  300 
NaverL.,  160 
Navigators  Is.,  629, 

630 
Naxia,  299 
Naxos  I. ,  301 
Nazareth,  860,  362 
Naze  C,  134 
Naze  or  Lindesnaes 

C,  66,  338 
NeaghL.,76, 173 
Neagh  Mts.,  170 
Neath,  119,  184, 139 
Neath  R.,  139 
Nebal  R,  262 
Nebraska,  536 
NeckarR.,  263 
Nedda  R.,  263 
Needles  C,  134 
Negrais  C,  348,  388 
Negro  C,  441 
Negropout    I.,    or 

Eubcea,  67,  301 
Neheemabad,  871 
Neilston,  145, 160 
Neisse,  238, 240, 262 
Neisse  R.,  262 
Nelson,  616 
Nelson  R.,  508 
Nen  R.,  141 
Nenagh,    165,    168, 

172 
Nenagh  R.,  172 
Nene  R.,  141 
Neokhorio,  308,  812 
Nepakto,  299 
Nepal,  883 
Nephin-BegM.,170 
Nerac,  197,  207 
Nerbudda  R.,  851, 

404 
Nerl  R.,  829 
Nertchlnsk,      421, 

429,  430 
KerasasL  R,  328 


Nervion  R.,  75, 185 
Nesenbach  R.,  263 
Ness  L.,  160 
Ness  R.,  159 
Neston,  117,  138 
Nethan  R.,  160 
Nethe  R,  225 
Nethe,   Little,    R, 

225 
Netherlands.  65, 220 
Nette  R.,  263 
NetzeR,  261 
Neuburg,  250,  264 
Neuch&tel,  263, 272, 

273 
Neuch&tel   L.,    77, 

276 
Neusatz,  257,   259, 

264 
Neuse  R,  541 
Neusiedl    See,    77, 

265 
Neusohl,  264 
Neuss,  239,  263 
Neustadt,  256,  262 
Neustadt  -  au  -  der- 

Hardt,  263 
Neu    Strelitz,    73, 

242,  243,  262 
Neutitschein,    256, 

261 
Neuwied,  239,  263 
Neva  R,  73,  827 
Nevada,  536 
Nevada  Mts.,  534 
Nevada  de  Sasagu- 

anca  M.,  570 
Nevada  de  Toluca, 
-  M.,  553 
Nevers,  74, 199, 204, 

206 
Neviansk,  820 
Nevis,  Ben,  M.,  68, 

157 
New  Albany,  586 
New    Amsterdam, 

579 
New  Archangel,  586 
New  Bedford,  685, 

537,  540 
New  Britain  I.,  620 
New      Brunswick, 

505,  517,  519 
New  Caledonia,  214, 

619 
New  Guatemala,  S57 
New  Guinea,  620 
N  e  wHampshiTe,534 
New  Hebrides   I., 

619 
New  Holland,  613 
New  Ireland,  620 
New  Jersey,    634, 

535 
New  Santander,  651 
New  Iaou,  651 


New  London,  535 
New   Market,   118, 

141 
New  Mexico,  536 
New  Orleans,  507, 

509,  536,  539,  541 
New  Plymouth,  616 
New  Providence  I., 

561 
New  South  Wales, 

603,  605,  612,  613 
New  Westminster, 

507,  527,  541 
New  York,  509, 584, 

535,  537,  540 
New  Zealand,  612, 

613,  615,  629 
Newark,  117,   127, 

141 
Newark      (Amer.), 

535,  538 
Newburgh,  145,  159 
Newbury,  116,  140 
Newbury  Port,  534 
Newcastle      (Aus- 
tral.), 604 
Newcastle     (Irel.), 

165, 172 
Newcastle         (on 

Tyne),   114,  120, 

142 
Newcastle  -  under  - 

Lyne,    117,    128, 

141 
NewenhamC,  505 
Newfoundland     I., 

605,  518,  519.  520 
Newhaven,  116, 140, 

144,  159 
Newhaven     (U.S.), 

535,  637,  540 
Newport   (Isle    of 

Wight,  116,  123 
Newport        (Mon- 

moathshireX  117, 

125, 139 
Newport/Shropsh.), 

117 
Newport  (U.8.),635, 

587,540 
Newport  -  Pagnell, 

118, 141 
Newry,  163, 166, 171 
Newry  R,  171 
Newton  (Lancas.), 

117, 138 
Newton     (WalesX 

119, 183 
Newton  Abbots  116, 

140 
Newton-Axdi,  IfiL 

in 

Newton-Bainr,  IM, 

172 
Newton-LiiiiAfidar. 


Newton  -  Stewart^ 

145, 149,  160 
Newton  -  Stewart 

(Ire.),  163, 171 
Newtown  -  Hamil- 
ton, 163 
NgamiL.,445,  446 
Ngan-king,  351.  421 
Niagara,  519.  540 
Niagara  Falls,  519 
Niagara  R,  519,  520 
Nicaragua,  503,  557, 

558 
Nicaragua  L.,  504, 

508,  559 
Nicaragua  Plain, 558 
Nicaria  L,  364 
Nicastro,  282,  290 
Nice,  198,  202,  208 
Nicobar    I9.,    234, 

388,  889 
Nicolaiev,  821,  824, 

328 
Nicolsburg,  256,  264 
Nicopoli,  264,  308, 

309,  812 
Nicosia,  283 
Nicoya  G.,  558 
Nidd  R,  142 
Niemen  R,  73,  827 
Nieschin  or  Nejin, 

321,  828 
Niesenbecke  R. ,  261 
Nieuburg,  250,  262 
Nieuveld  Mts.,  486 
Nieuwer  -  Amstel, 

221 
Nievoli  R.,  289 
Ni6vre,  199 
NiewiezaR,  827 
Niger  R,  440,  444, 

469,  474 
Nigritia,439.440,472 
Nijar,  178, 186 
Njjni-LomoT,    820, 

829 
NiiJni-Novgorod,  76, 

820,  823,  828 
Nljni-Tagilsk,  820, 

433 
Nikolaieysk,     851, 

421,439 
Nfle  R,  489.  440, 

448,  444,  461,  601 
Nik^  Mts.,  880 
NilkaiiuvB.,406 
NiiiiQg:iMn,92S,SSL 

824 

Nlital,10r.9ei,907 
inDCVcli,881 

TOlnounA     MIT.   ^am 


407^ 


INDEX. 


661 


Nissa,  264.  308,  312 
KissawaB.,  2C4 
NithR..160 
Niti  Pass,  350 
Niuk  L.,  76 
NiveUea,  215,  225 
Nizza  -  Monferrato, 

282,  290 
Nocera,  282,  290 
N(^ent  -  le  -  Rotrou, 

196,  206 
Noirmoutier,  197 
Noinnoutier  I. ,  204 
Nola,  282,  289 
Nonette  R ,  206 
Nord,  196 
Nord  C,  66,  231 
Korden,  239,  263 
Nordhansen,     239, 

241.  262 
Kordheim,  262 
NordkynC.,66, 838 
Nordland,  837 
Nordlingen,  250, 265 
Nore  R.,  172, 173 
Norfolk,  115, 121 
Norfolk  (U.S.),  535, 

538,  641 
Norfolk  I.,  94,  619 
NorlcAlps,  260 
Norman  Ft,  529 
Norman  Is.,  66, 134 
Norrkttping,  837 
Norrland,  337 
North  C,  66, 70,338 
North    Devon    L, 

505,  616 
Northallerton,  115, 

142 
Northampton,  118, 

189, 141 
Northampton     (U. 

S.\  585 
Northumberland, 

114, 119 
Norway,  65,  886 
Norwich,  115,  121, 

141 
NoaopR,  486 
Nossen,  242,  262 
No88i-B«  L,  442 
Notq.288 
Notteif^iam,     117, 

127,  Sa 
Nova  Scotia,   604, 

517.  619, 620 
Novaia  Zemli*  Is., 

60,826 
Nova^^  281,  290 
Novels,  178. 186 
NovKorodi,  78,  820, 

8»,827 
Novl.  264,  281.  284, 

812 
Novl-Buir,      864^ 

807,812 


Novo 


Alezan- 


drovsk,  429 
Novo  -  Georgievsk, 

822 
Novoi-Oskol,   820, 

828 
Novomoskovsk, 

822,828 
Novo  -  Tcherkask, 

822,  328 
NoyaB.,  186 
Noyon.  196,  206 
Nubia,  439,  450, 499 
Nuglandi,  404 
Nuko  I.,  326 
Nan  C,  440,  468 
Nuneaton,  118, 128, 

142 
Niimberg,  250,  251 
Nuthe  R,  262 
Nyanza,  Albert,  L., 

444,  501 
Nvanza,     Victoria, 

L.,  444,  501 
Nyassa  ll,  445 
Ny-Carleby,  827 
Nyborg,  230 
Nykerk,  222,  224 
NykOpinp,  337 
Nyssum  Fiord,  231 
Nystad,  327 

Oakham,  118,  128, 

142 
Oamaru,  616 
Oaxaca,  551,  553 
Oban,  146,  159 
ObdorskM..70,826 
Oberland  GL,  275 
Obi  G.,  848 
Obi  R.,  352.  428 
Oboian,  820.  328 
Obra  B.,  261 
Ocafia,  179, 186 
Oceania,  602 
Ochil  Hills,  157 
Ochrida.  811 
OchridaL.,812 
OckR.,141 
OckerR.,  262 
Ocklokonee  R.,  641 
Odensee,  280 
Odensee  Fiord,  281 
Odenwald,  252 
Oder  R,  78,  261 
Odessa,    821,    824, 

328 
Odessa  O..  67, 826 
Odet  R,  206 
Odiarca  R,  185 
Odiel  R,  185 
Oedsnlraig,  257,268, 


Odiu,  071, 681, 001 
OdaiKl  Iiw,  00»  888 
OtMlL.00,820 


:  Ofen  or  Bada,  256, 

264 
Offenbach,  251,  262, 

263 
Oglio  R.,  290 
Ogmore  R.,  139 
Ogun  R.,  481 
OhioR,  541 
Ohlau,  238,  261 
Ohre  R,  262 
OichL.,160 
Oise,  196 
Oise  R.,  206 
Oka  R,  829 
Okhak,  530 
Okhotsk,  348,  429, 

430,  488 
Okhotsk  Sea,  848, 

433 
Old  Head  C,  156 
Oldenburg,  73,  236, 

242,  243,  262 
Oldham,    117,  126, 

138 
Olepgio,  282,  290 
Olekminsk,  429 
Oleron  I.,  2P4 
01ifantR,486 
OliveuQa,  581,  601 
Olivenza,  177, 185 
Olmtitz,    256,    258, 

264 
Olney,  118, 141 
OlonaR,  290 
Olonetz,  820,  327 
Olot,  179, 186 
OlsaR,  262 
Oltenitza,  308,  312 
Olvera,  178, 186 
Olympia,  299,  300 
01ympIa(U.8.),686, 

540,  541 
Olympus    M.,    69, 

311,866 
Omagh,    163,    166, 

171 
Omaha,    686,    689, 

541 
Oman,  868 
Oman  G.,  848,  878, 

880 
Omatako  Berg,  440 
Ombrone  R,  289 
Ombrone  Senese  R , 

289 
Omer  Beg^  R,  464 
Omoa,657 
Omsk.  429 
Ondom,  488 
OnoKaXi.,  77 
Onegii  Plain,  618 
OnwaR,  72 
Qnumiga,  010 
Ontulo^   617,  618, 

610 
OBteiloL.,608 


Onteniente,  178, 186 

Oo  R,  421 

OosbachR,  263 

Oosterhout,  221, 
225 

OpliirMt.,622 

Oporto,  75, 180, 182, 
185 

Oppa  R,  262 

Oppeln,  261 

Oppido,  282 

Or8efajokullM.,231 

Oran,  462,  463 

Orange,  198,  202, 
207 

Orange  R,  439,444 

Orange  R.  Repub- 
lic, 439,  484 

Orbe  R,  207,  290 

OrbitellaL.,  291 

Orca  R.,  290 

Orebro,  837,  340 

Oregon,  536 

Orel,  76,  820,  329 

Orenburg,  321,  324, 
329,  852,  449 

Orense,  176,  177, 
185 

Orfah,  881 

Oria,  178,  186 

Orihuela,  171,  186 

Orinoco  R.,  508, 571, 
601 

Orisa,  882 

Oristano,  282 

Orizaba  M.,  506, 
553 

Orkney  and  Shet- 
land, 66, 112, 147, 
155, 156 

Orleans,  74,  199, 
203,  206 

Orleans,  New,  536, 
539 

Ormskirk,  117, 188 

Ormuz  G.,  373 

Onnuz  I.,  848.  873 

Ormuz  Str.,  873 

OiTiain  R,  206 

Ome,  196 

Ome  R,  206 

Orogawa,  484 

Oronte8R,851,880 

Orotava,  179 

OrriaR,186 

Orta  R.  261 

Ortegal  0.,  66, 183 

Ortbex,  197,  207 

Ortler  Spits  M.,  260 

Orton,  117 

Ortona,282.  290 

Oniba  t,  662 

Oniro,  680 

Orvieto,  282,  280 

Orwdlk,  Ul 


662 


INDEX. 


Osborne,  116 
Oschatz,  242,  262 
Osimo,  282,  290 
Oskol  R,  328 
Osman-Bazar,  308, 

312 
Osnabriick,  239,241, 

263 
Ostashkor,  320,  328 
Ostend,  215.  225 
Oster  B.,  328 
Osteiode,  239,  262 
Osteroe  L,  68 
08trR,328 
Osana,  178, 185 
Oswego,  535,  540 
Oswestry,  117, 139 
Otago,  616,  617 
Otley,  115,  141 
Otranto    Str.,    67, 

288,  310 
Otrar,  428,  429,  480 
Ottawa,    503,   507, 

519,  540 
Ottawa  R.,  618 
Otter  R.,  140 
Otterbum,  114, 120 
Ottoman    Empire, 

359 
Otway  C,  607 
Ouche  R,  207 
Oudh,  882.  404 
Oudenarde,  215, 216 
Oughter  L.,  172 
Oiindle,  118. 141 
Ouro  -  Preto,    571, 

582,  601 
Ourthe  R,  225 
Oa8e,Great,  R,  141 
Ouse,  Lit,  R  ,  141 
Ouse   R  (Sussex), 

140 
Ouse  R.  (York),  135, 

141 
Oust  R.,  206 
Ouveae  R,  207 
Ouzel  R.,  141 
Ovampo    Country, 

482,  483 
Ovar,  180, 185 
Over-Flakkee     I., 

223 
Overyssel,  222 
Oviedo..75, 176, 177, 

181, 185 
Owel  L.,  172 
Owyhee  I.,  628 
Oxford,  118, 130, 140 
Ozieri,  282 

Faarl,  485 
Pacaraima  Mts. ,  568 
Pachuca,  651,  552 
Pacific    City,    536, 

541 
Pacific  Mts.,  506 


Pacific   Ocean,  23, 

35U,  502 
Padang,  624 
Paderbom,  239, 263 
Padron,  177, 185 
Padstow,  139 
Padua,  282,  285,  291 
Psestum,  290 
PagliaR,289 
Pahang,  401,  405 
Paliun  C,  310 
Paisley,    145,    149, 

160 
Pajani  L,  77 
Palancia  R,  186 
Palencia,  176,  179, 

185 
Palenque,  552 
Palermo,  283,  287, 

291 
Palestine,  359 
Palestrina,  283,  289 
PalinuroC,  288 
Palk  Str.,  348,  388 
P&li,  383,  387 
Palma.  178, 283 
Palma     (Baleares), 

179, 182,  183 
Palmas  C,  441 
Palmas,   Las,    179, 

182 
Palmi,  282,  290 
Palmyra,  860, 363 
Palos,  178, 185 
Palos  C,  66,  183 
Palti  L.,  352,  419 
Pamiers,  197,  207 
Pamir,  Plateau  of, 

348,  423 
Pampas,  The.  596 
Pamplona,  75,  179, 

181, 186 
Pamplona  (S.  Am.), 

576,  601 
Panamd,  575,  576 
Panam&B,  502,569 
Panami  Isth.,  504, 

569 
Panaro  R,  290 
Pancsova,  257,  264, 

812 
Paneas,  380 
Pangani,  499 
Panjab,    351,    382, 

399 
Panjim,  383,  383 
Pantellaria  I.,  67, 

288 
Panuco  R,  541 
Paola,  282.  290 
Papua,  229,  628 
Para,  671 
Para  or  Belem.  581, 

582,  601 
Para  or  Grand  B., 
i     5Q9 


Paraguana,      Pen., 

569 
Paraguay,  582,  598, 

599,  601 
Parahyba,  667,  581, 

632,  601 
Paramaribo,      668, 

579,  601 
Paramatta,  603, 604 
Parani,    568,    571, 

596,  601 
ParandR,582,  689, 

697,  601 
Paranahyba,     681, 

601 
Paranahyba  R ,  571, 

601 
Parang  Pass,  350 
Parati,  581,  601 
Parchim,  242,  262 
Parim6  Mts.,  577 
Paris,  65,   74,  195, 

199,  203,  205 
Parkersbiu^,  541 
Parma,  75,  282,  285, 

290 
Parma  R.,  290 
Parnassus  M,  301 
Paropamisan  Mts., 

349,  360 
Paros  L,  301 
Parras  L.,  553 
Parret  R,  139 
Parry  Is.,  505 
Parsonstown,    164, 

172 
Parthenay,  197,  206 
Pas-de-Calais,  196 
Pasco,  585,  586,  601 
Passage,  West,  164, 

172 
Passaniaqnoddy  B., 

519,.  532 
Passau,    250,    251, 

264 
PassargeR,  261 
Passaro  C,  66,  288 
Passarovicz,      264, 

308 
Pastaza  R.,  601 
Pasto,  676 
Patagonia,  668, 591, 

595 
Patau,  383,  404 
Patemo,  283 
Paterson,  635 
Pati&la,  383,  387 
Patia  R,  601 
Patience  C,  848 
Patmos  I.,  364,  365 
Patna,351,382.384, 

404 
Patos  L.,  601 
Patras,  299,  300 
Patras  O.,  301 
Patta,  496 


Patti,  283 
Pan,  197,  201,  207 
Paut6  R,  601 
Pavia,  282,  290 
Pawtucket,  6.S5 
Paysandu,  599,  601 
Payta,  585,  6ul 
Peal  L,  628 
Pearl  R,  541 
Pecha  Mt,  350 
PechiliG.,421 
PedrotaUagalla  M. 

388 
Peebles,    145,    150, 

158 
Peene  R,  262 
Peesweep,  145, 160 
Pegnitz  R,  263 
Pegu,  351,  382 
PeguR,  405 
Peiho  R.,  346,  406. 

421 
PeUe  R,  262 
Peipus  L.,  77 
Peking,    346,    407, 

409,  421 
Pelew  Is.,  628 
Pe-LingM.,349,406 
Peltew  R,  261 
Pelvoux  M.,  69,  204 
Pemba  I.,  443     • 
Pembroke,  119, 133, 

138 
Pena    Marella   M., 

184 
Penas  de  San  Pedro, 

178, 186 
Penedo,  681 
Penicuik,  144,  159 
Penk  R,  142 
Penkridge,  118, 142 
Pennine  Alps,  273 
Pennine  Chain,  135 
Penninstone,     115, 

141 
Pennsylvania,  634, 

535 
Penobscot  B.,  640 
Penrith,    117,    127, 

138 
Penryn,  116,  139 
Pensacola,  635 
Pentland  Hills,  157 
Penza,  76,  820,  323, 

329 
Penzuice,  116, 139 
Peoria,  636 
Pera,  308,  312 
Perak,  346 
Perdu  M.,  204 
Perejaslav,  321,  32S 
Perekop  G..  67,  326 
Perekop.Isth.,  66 
Pereslav,  320,  329 
Perigueux,  197,  807 
Perleberg,  288, 9^ 


INDEX. 


663 


perm,  76,  820,  323, 

829 
Pdmambaco,    581, 

601 
Pernau,  819,  827 
Pernaa  R.,  827 
Ferpignan,  75,  197, 

201,  207 
Perry  R,  189 
Persante  R.,  261 
Persepoliis  871,  872 
Pershore,  118 
Persia,  846, 871 
Persian G.,  847,348, 

865,  880,  881 
Pertabgurh,  405 
Perth,  146,  152, 159 
Perth    (AuRtraliaX 

604,  605,  606 
Pertuis,  207 
Peru,  568,  585 
Perugia,  282,  289 
Perugia  L.,  291 
Peruwelz,  215,  225 
Pesaro,  282,  290 
PescaraR.,  290 
Peschia,  282,  289 
Pe-Shan  Hts.,  849 
Peshawur,  850, 382, 

885 
Pesio  R.,  290 
Pesth,  256,  259,  264 
PetchoraR.,72,827 
Peterborough,  118, 

129  141 
Peterhead,  146, 158, 

159 
Petersburg    ru.S.), 

535,  538,  540 
Petersburg,  St,  73, 

819,  822,  827 
Petherton,    South, 

116, 189 
Petra,  360,  364 
Petnea      (Arabia), 

859,860 
Petrinia.  257 
PetroTsk,  820,  828 
Petroi>aulov8ki,429, 

480,433 
Petrozavodsk,     78, 

890,  828,  827 
Petworth,  116, 140 
Pezenas,  197 
PfefTers.  278,  275 
Pfonheim,  250,  251, 

263 
Pharsala,  807,  312 
Philadelphia,    635, 

638,648 
Philippine  Is..  198, 

848,  622,  626 
Fhillppopolis,  807, 

800^812 
Philiwdlfl,  485 
flioeu.tM 


Phrygius  R.,  880 
PhthiotU,  299 
Phunga,  401 
Placenza,  2S2,  285, 

290 
Piauhi,  581 
PiaveR.,291 
Piazza,  288 
Pichinca  M.,  570 
Pickeiing,  115, 141 
Pico  L,  183 
Picton,  616 
Pictou,  519,  520 
Piedmont,  281 
Pietermaritzburg, 

485 
Pilcomayo  R,  568, 

601 
Pilibhit;  882,  385 
PiUen,  256, 267,  262 
PindusM.,311 
Pinerolo,  281,  283, 

291 
Pines,  Isle  of,  562, 

619 
Pinghai,  421 
Ping-yoo,  407,  421 
Pinsk,  821.328 
Pin-yang,  421 
Piomba  R.,  29ft 
Piombino  C,  288 
Pineus,  299 
Piranga,  582 
Pirano,  256,  265 
Pirmasens  25U 
Pima,  242,'  262 
Pisa,  282.  285,  289 
Piscadoras  Is. ,  628 
Pisco,  585,  601 
Pistoja,  282, 285,289 
PistriczaR,  811 
PisuergaR,  185 
Pitcaim  I.,  630 
Pitic,  551 
Piton  de  la  Four- 

naise,  442 
Pitsligo,  146, 159 
Pitt  I.,  619 
Pittenweem,     145, 

159 
Pittsburg,  535,  538, 

541 
Plura,  585,  586 
Pizzo,  282,  290 
Placentia,  177, 185 
Plassy,  382,  384 
Plata  Estuary,  569 
Platte  R,  541 
Platten  See,  77,  265 
Plau  L.,  244 
Flauen,    242,    243, 

262 
Pleisse  R.,  262 
Plenty  R,  616 
Flock,  78,  261,  321, 

a84 


Plofikton,  146,  159 
Ploemeur,  197 
Ploennel,  197,  206 
Ployesti,  808,  812 
Plouaret,  197,  206 
Plougastel,  197, 206 
Plouha,  197,  206 
Flussen  Meer,  225 
Plymouth,  116, 124, 

139 
Plymouth   (U.  S.), 

635,  537,  640 
Plymouth  (W.Ind.), 

563 
Plymouth  Sd.,  135, 

189 
PIyiilimmonH.,136 
Po  R,  75,  290,  291, 

421 
Podgoricza,  307, 811 
Podolia,  821 
Podsbrook  R.,  141 
Poebeck  R,  138 
Pogar,  328 
Point-i-Pitre,  664 
Point    Barrow   C, 

605 
Point  Dale  C,  607 
Point  de  Oalle,  387 
Point  Gallinas  C, 

569 
Poitiers,    74,    199, 

203,  206 
Pola,  265 
Poland,  321 
Policastro,  282,  290 
Policastro  G.,  288, 

290 
Poligny,  198,  207 
Polotsk,  321,  827 
Poltava,     76,    321, 

324,  328 
Polynesia,  629 
Pomerania,  238 
Pomona,  156 
Pondicheri,       214, 

3S3,  888 
Pont  -k-  Mousson, 

198,  208,  2(}3 
Pont-Audemer,  196, 

205 
Ponta  Delgada,  180, 

182 
Pontarlier,  198,  207 
Pontchartrain     L., 

542 
Pontecorvo,  282,288 
Pontefract,  116,121, 

141 
Pontevedra,      176, 

177, 185 
Pontevico,  282,  290 
Pontianak,  625 
Pontifical     States, 

281,  283,  296 
FonUvy,  197,  206 


.  Pontoise,  199.  206 
Pontremoli,  282,289 
Pont  St  Esprit,  Le, 

197,  207 
Pontypool,  117, 139 
Ponza  L,  288 
Poo-kiang,  407,  421 
Poole,  116, 124, 140 
Poole  Hr.,  135, 140 
Popayan,  571,  670, 

601 
Poperinghe,  216 
Popocatepetl     M., 

604,  606,  653 
!  Poppi,  282,  289 
Porcunna,  178,  186 
Port  Adelaide,  604, 

605 
Port  Beaufort,  485 
Port  Chalmers,  «lft 
Port  Culebra,  557,. 

568 
Port  Darwin,  604, 

605 
Port  Denison,  607 
Port  Elizabeth,  435 
Port   Espa&a,  5t)2, 

563 
Port  Essington,  606 
Port  Glasgow,  148, 

149,  160 
Port  Jackson,  603, 

607,  613 
Port  Louis,  04,  442 
Port  Luke,  442 
Port-Mahon,    179, 

182 
Port  Nicholson,  616 
Port  Philip,  607 
Port-Royal,  562 
Port  Stephen,  607 
Port  Victoria,  618 
Portadown,163,166, 

171 
Portaferry,  163, 171 
Portalegre,  180, 185 
Portarlington,  164, 

172 
Port-au-Prince,562, 

663 
Portici,  282,  289 
Portland  (Austral. ), 

604 
Portland  (Ojegon), 

6.10,  640,  641 
Portland    (Maine), 

534,  537,  540 
Portland  Bill C.  134 
Porto  Alegre,  682, 

601 
Porto    Calvo,   681, 

601 
Porto  FoUx,  581 
Porto  Ferra^jo,  282 
Porto  Principe,  662, 

663 


664 


INDEX. 


Porto  Rico  I.,  193, 

561,  562,  584 
Porto  Santo,  180 
Porto  Santo  I.,  183 
Porto  Segoro,  581, 

601 
Portobello  (Scot-X 

144,  159 
Portpatrick,      145, 

149, 160 
Portree,  146 
Portsmouth,     116, 

123, 140 
Portsmouth    (New 

Hampshire),  534, 

537,  640 
Portsmouth     (Vir- 
ginia),   535,  538, 

541 
Portsmouth     Hr., 

135,  140 
Portsoy,   146,  153, 

189 
Portugal,  65,  179 
Portuguesa  R.,  601 
Portumna,  165,  172 
Posega,  257,  264 
Posega  R.,  264 
Posen,  73,  237,  240, 

261 
Potchefstroom,  439, 

485 
Potenza,  282,  290 
PotenzaR,  290 
Potomac  R. ,  541 
Potosi,    571,     589, 

590,  601 
Potosi,   Cerro    de, 

570 
Potsdam,  238,  240, 

262 
Potshinki,  320,  329 
Potton,  118,  141 
Poyang  L.,  352,  410 
Pozoblanco,      178, 

185 
Pozzuoli,  282,  289 
Praga,  321 
Prague,  73, 256, 257, 

262 
Prato,  282.  285,  289 
Pravadi,  308,  312 
PravadiR.,312 
Preetz,  239 
Pregel  R.,  73,  261 
Prenzlow,  238,  261 
Presburg,  257,  259, 

264 
Prescot,  117, 138 
Presteign,  119, 189 
Preston,    117,   126, 

138 
Prestonpans,     145, 

148,  159      • 
Prevesa,  307,   SOS, 

311 


Priego,  178, 186 
Primorsk,  352 
Prince  Albert  Land, 

505 
Prince  Albert  Sd., 

505 
Prince  Edward  L, 

505,  520 
Prince ofWales  C, 

502,  505 
Prince  of  Wales  I., 

388,  505 
Prince's     I.,     193, 

441 
Princes-Risborough 

118 
Princeton,  519 
Pripet  R.,  328 
Prisrend,  807,  308, 

311 
Pristina,    264,  308, 

310,  312 
Privas,  197,  207 
Prome,  382,  387 
Promontore  C,  260 
Pronia  R.,  829 
Pronsk,  320,  329 
ProsnaR,  261 
Prossnitz,  256,  264 
Protva  R.,  329 
Providence,       535, 

537,  640 
Provins,  199,  206 
Prussia,  65,  236 
Prussia  Proper,  237 
Prussia,     Rhenish, 

239 
Pruth  R.,  264,  h2 
Przemysl,  256,  261 
Pskov,  73,  320,  827 
Psiol  R.,  328 
Pubna,  404 
Puebla,  178, 186 
Puebla,La,541,551, 

552 
Puente  Genii.  185 
Puerto  Cabello,  576, 

601 
Puerto    es    Maria, 

178, 186 
Puerto  Montt,  592 
Pulicat  L.,  390 
Pulnitz  R.,  262 
Pulo  Penang  I.,  388 
Pultene3rtown,  155 
Pultusk,  261 
Punderpur,  404 
Puna,  382,  386 
Punnair  R.,  404 
Puno,  585,  586,  591, 

601 
Punta  Arenas,  557, 

558,  568,  591,  601 
Punta,  La,  C,  301 
Pun,  382.  884,  404 
FuTlflcacion,  576 


Pumeah,  362,  384, 

404 
Putivl,  320 
Putrid  Sea,  67 
Puttun,  383 
Puy-de-Ddme,  199, 

205 
Puy-de-Sancy    M., 

69,  205 
Puylaurens,      197, 

207 
Pwlheli,  119, 138 
Pym  or  Bourne  R., 

140 
Pyrenees  Mts.,  68, 

72,  184,  204,  348 
Pyrenees,    Austra- 
lian, 606 
Pyr^n^es  Orientales 

197 

Quang-si,  407 
Quang-Tung,  407 
Quano,  434 
Quantock  Hills,  136 
Quamero  G.,  260 
Quarto,  282,  601 
Quatre    Bras,   215, 

216 
Quebec,    617,    619, 

540 
Quedlinburg;     239, 

241,  262 
Queen  Charlotte  I., 

505,  517,  527,  619 
Queen  Charlotte  Sd. 

505,  528 
Queen's  Ch.,  608 
Queen's      County, 

164 
Queensferry,       8., 

145,  159 
Queensland,      603, 

604,  606,  612,  613 
Queenstown,     159, 

164,  167,  172 
Queenstown      (Af- 
rica), 485 
Quel  R,  421 
Queich  R.,  268 
Quei-chow,  421 
Queilas  R,  186 
Quei-ling,  407,  409, 

421 
QueissR.,261 
Quei-te,  407.  421 
Quei-yang,  407, 409, 

421 
Queretaro,  607,  641, 

551,  552 
Quesaltenango,  657 
Quettah,  850 
Quiberon  Fen.,  204 
Quilca  R,  601 
Qnilliman^,  496, 497 
Quiloa,  496,  497 


Quimper,  197,  200, 

206 
Quimperl^,  197,  206 
Quimperl^  R.,  206 
Quintanar,  179, 185 
Quiper  R.,  186 
Quito,  668,  676,  677, 

601 
Quito  PL,  670 
Quoich  L.,  160 
QuoUe  R.,  171 
Quorra  R.,  440,  444, 

474,  481 

Raab,  257,  259,  264 
Raab  R.,  264 
Raabnitz  R.,  264 
Raalte,  222, 224.  263 
Raba  R.,  261 
Rabastens,  197,  207 
Rabatt,  463 
Rabba,  473, 474, 481 
Racconigi,  281,  283, 

291 
Race  C,  505 
Racine,  686 
Radack  Is.,  628 
Radicosa  R.,  290 
Radnor.  119, 134 
Radnor,  New,  119, 

134, 139 
Radom.  261,  821 
Radomka  R.,  261 
Ragusa,    257,    260^ 

265,  283 
Raichur,  399 
Rainy  L.,  508 
Rajamahendri,  382, 

404 
Ra,iputana.  383,  389 
Rakkah,    860,   380, 

381 
Raleigh,   635,   638, 

541 
Ralick  Is.,  628 
Rambla,  178,  186 
Rameshwaram     L, 

888,889 
RamgungaR,406 
Ramillies,  216 
Ramor  L.,  173 
Rampttr,  382,  884, 

385 
RamriL,  888 
Ramsey,  118, 141 
Ramsey  I.,  134 
Ramsgate,  115, 122, 

140 
RftQ  of  Eaohh,  889, 

890 
RanoeR.,306 
Rand«n,  880 
Rangftn,  882,  887, 

Rannoeh  L.,  160 

lB«piM)e.i6a  m... 


^F                                                                V 

■  •^r— s—- 

RhydJiM.  119,  133 
Ria  J'Arjss,  133 

RiS-id,  3M 

B.PO  R,  m 

Rei,'lie4lHch(Siii.l, 

RU  deBflaiiJuii,llifl 

'^'■^wn%, 

lUrbl  I..  44S 

Riad'Bate,  R.,  75, 

Roanne.  IJW.  300 

lUrobingo  1.,  631 

HobBR.wi 

Ru  Seudion  ![., 

Rla  do  Vigo,  IBS 

Rooa,  da.   C„   66. 

Riu-^-Hma  C,  SIS 

Rulgato,  116. 140 
KslDii,  IBS,  209. 200 

»iB2^7e.  320 

188 

Ra-H-KruffiCMO 

R^look.TOS 

RlbUle  a.,  las,  138 

138 

Rugrad,  MS,  31* 

Keiniremunt.     198. 

RluUinond  (Ainer), 

RoohB  R.  1S8 

KH^iu  L.,  sia 

007,526,635,1138, 

Boclieroit,  197.  2111, 

IU«DT*,30S,  SIZ 

Rama  R,  363 

641    650 

RMtadt,  aso,  afls 

R™«Qheld,239.263 

Bochello,    74,    197, 

Jtothdnim,  IW,  172 

Renafi,  315,  22i 

201,  306 

Ibilheaaw,  238  SD2 

RondsbniB.  2B9 

BkihiMnd'  (TBain,), 

BochBsUr.  115.  140 

Bithfrjlud,     leii, 

H™f«-ri4i,  149, 

a"^"»^'jj,  {iu.(t,X 

Itathkeile,  US.  172 

Rin"  SM,  313 

Rideau  Csnall  620 

Rookiaioplon.  6ill 

Rqiine3,-J,19r,2M, 

lUthmBlWn.      163, 

2(ia 

"eTaJ^JM'""' 

Rooky    Mts.,   5U,' 

Reau  R.,  2S0 

RLsCt,  9«2 

628.  583 

RaUbor,  MS,  sei 

Renaduif.  239,  268 

liiSB.  T3,  319.   822, 

Raliabon,  SS6,  £J1, 

Renton.  146.  lUO 

327 

nllli™'ti.fi39 

!a4     ■      ■      ■ 

Rl^lf?\m^2J 

RlgaorLlvonlflO.. 

ItodS),   808,   300, 

RiuhflAlpiM.,a52 

«7,  32« 

R*y«B.,*a7 

R»lford.E.117.U3 

RIIleR,206 

Rbvhd  L.,  3»0 

RethEl.  19B,  206 

5S».Si'" 

EiwIlKh,  837.  S40 

RDmDO.30a 

Roa  R,  171 

SBl 

Bsiu,  179.  ise 

BiminL,  3s-i.   m. 

R.i9r  or  Ruhr  B., 

Hay  R,  141 

Reiian  —  Groin  — 

Ru  FoiDt,  H,  364 

Suhleitz,  237,  a»2 

Rim!ll,  3C8,  312 

Ks,rs2'"* 

SiL.tm* 

R«u»iR,26S 

Rtnsn.HKi.  110,  140 
Ri„6udl«,  676,  eoi 

Reartlng,  lie,  I'M, 

ReUtUoRBIl,  350,2*3 

R«j.B-,3Bl 

Rovel,  73;  319,  333, 

Rill  Colorado,  5ua, 

RDkeUaa.JSl 

B™llii6(n,S.),(IM. 

JtTi^l.itt 

Roman  308.  813 

«1 

Keval<  Franco),  197, 

Etui  L.,  lar 

207 

Rio    Qraude,    440, 

RBdfe.  BSl,  BBS 

Revaro,  3B2.  390 

444,481 

Roi^ana.  198,  217 

K«iD^tUoiit,°<IJ 

Bio     GraidB     M 

Bed  L.  S41   ^ 

Reyfeiarik,  230 

NotU,    M3.  506, 

Bums,  76,  388,  2ST, 

Red  R.  Ml 

Bed   River  Bpttls- 

B«LlR.,  263 

Rlo^nrndB  do  BuL. 

Riiubrd,  115, 140 

ni«nt,    HIT,   flJB, 

RIluetilD  Alps,  266 

name  I..  244 

IIW,6S0 

RlngllB.  B73 

Rio  Negn,  568,690, 

R«liea.34a 

Rhivrill  L  .  369 

(01 

2,i» 

Hhawui.RliadIL,. 

Bio  Pare.  609 

Bedraih,  lis,  134, 

BLo  gas  Jdan.  607 

KuniaeT,  116,  1411 

IW 

RlienlabPniBili.SEO 

R!o  Ginlligo.  607, 

Roijila,  178,  ISO 

IleoL.m 

R1,«,R.,1M1 

Ron»B  330 

Rhli.B  R,  74,  208. 

R  tes™,  isa 

S±S:S" 

«.i,Wy'»,llU.,'e8; 

824.  iOS,  976 

Rlndf  Juiienl,6«S, 

RhluBEsl.,3t4 

Roper  R,  60S 

RHsI  R  ,  124.  SDS 

Bhio,  2^9 

RlDd»lMont«.m 

Boraaa,    837,    33?, 

£?«."■ 

Biiodi  R.,  ass 

RlndaliFliUk.663, 

Rourlo,  596.  601 

^^«WisDl'<To»ii.476, 

ltl,-,M,,.  "l'.,.      -: 

|> '  i'>9,20i,  zoo    RusrommoD.     ICS.               ^M 

^■■«im>.  Gl.  Luke>, 

.li."l'J0.141 

Rr™.in5.,7.              ■ 

^^K^°l^     (Aft!^) 

!i"i    Head, 

Bowd^ir. ««,!»«                ■ 

Khcli.i..     ■!  .  .  : 

IbiaetU,   451.  (SI.              ^H 

hiim«. .  .o 

^^Kulo.  Nl.  !S7.  SflU 

Wmw  R.,  I.j,  ;i:.  '  J[i..i-(li:-Gliir.     19if, 

^HB5teR.,M 

€6t> 


INDEX. 


Rossan  Point,  169 
Rossano,  282,  290 
Rossieny.  321,  827 
Ross-shire,  146, 154 
Rosswein,  242,  262 
Rostock,  242,  243, 

262 
Rostov,  320,  328 
Rota,  178,  186 
Rothenburg,250,263 
Rothenthurm  Pass, 

261,  311 
Rother,  R.,140, 141 
Rother   West,    B., 

140 
Rotherharn,       115, 

121,  141 
Rothes,  146, 159 
Rothesay,  146,  152, 
•     160 

Rothwell,  118, 141 
Rotondo,  Monte,69, 

289 
Rottenburg,250,263 
Rotterdam,  221,223, 

225 
Roubaix,  196,   200, 

208,  225 
Rouen,  74, 196,  200, 

205 
Roufia,  R.,  302 
Roulers,  215,  225 
Rouinelia,  307 
Rovigno,  256,  265 
Rovigo,  282,  291 
Row  R.,  828 
Roxburgh,  145,  148 
RoxoC,  441 
Rshev,  320,  328 
Ruatan  I.,  558 
Rudolstadt,  73, 242, 

262 
Rugby,  118. 128, 139 
Rugely,  118,  141 
Rugen  I.,  66,  244 
Rugenwalde,  238 
Ruhine  R.,  2C2 
Ruhr  R ,  263 
Rninza  R.,  264 
Runcorn,  117,  138 
Rupel,  R.,  225 
Rupert  R.,  530 
Rupert's  Land,  517, 

629 
Rnppin,  238,  262 
Ruremonde,  222,225 
Rush,  164,  171 
Russia,  65, 318,  421, 

427 
Russian  Turkestan, 

421,  430 
Rnstchuk,  808,  809, 

312 
Rutherglen,      145, 

150.160 
Ruthin,  119 


Ruthven    R.,   138, 

159 
Rutland,  118. 128 
Rutland  (U.S.),  534 
Ryan  L.,  157, 160 
Rybinsk,  320,  328 
Ryde,  116 
Rye,  116, 140 
Rye  R.,  141, 171 
Rylsk,  320,  328 
Ryton,  R.,  142 
Rzesgow,  256,  261 

Saale  R,  262 
Saan  R.  261 
Saarbrttck,  239 
Saatz,  256,  262 
Sab  R.,  328 
Sabermati  R,  404 
Sable,  199,  2U6 
Sable  C.  (Florida), 

505,  532 
Sable  C.  (N.S.).  505 
Sables      d'Olonne, 

197,  206 
SaborR,  185 
Sacco  R ,  289 
Sacramento  R ,  541 
Sacramento.      507, 

536,  540,  541 
Sadao  R,  185 
SadoR,  75 
Saffron  Walden,  115, 

122,  141 
Saga,  434 
Saga  R,   351,  382, 

386 
Sagan,  238,  261 
Saghalien  I.,  348 
Saghalien  Ula,  416 
Sahara,     439.    440, 

453,  467,  474 
Said,  Port,  451,  452 
Saida  (Sidon),  360, 

362 
Saigon,     346,     351, 

401 
St  Abb's  Head,  166 
St  Afrique,  199,  207 
St  Alban's,  118, 131, 

140 
St  Alban's    (U.S.), 

534 
St  Alban's  Hd.,  184 
St  Amand,  199,  206 
StAmand-les-Eaux, 

106 
St    Andrews,    145, 

150,  159 
St  Andrews  (Amer.) 

519 
St  Andrews  B.,  156 
St  Anthony,  533 
St  Antonio  C,  564 
St  Asaph,  119,  138 
St  Augustine,  541 


St  Austell,  116, 139 
St  Austell  B.,  135 
St  Bartholomew  I., 

562 
St  Bee's  Hd..  134 
St  Bernard,  Pass  of 

Great,  289 
St  Bride's  B  ,  135 
St  Brieuc,  197,  200, 

206 
St  Chamond,    199, 

207 
St  Christopher,  I., 

562 
St  Clair  L.  526 
St  Clair  R,  520 
St  Claude,  198,  207 
St  Croix  I.,  234 
St  David's  Hd.,  134 
St  Denis,  199,  205 
St    Denis    (Mauri- 
tius), 442 
St  Diey,  198,  208 
St  Dizier,  198 
StElias(Amer.)M., 

506 
StEIiasM.,301 
St  Esprit,  Le  Pont, 

197,  207 
StEtienne,199,204, 

206 
StEufemiaG.,  289 
StEustatiusI.,229, 

562,  564 
StFeliudeGuizols, 

179,  186 
St  Flour,  199,  207 
St  Francis  C,  569 
St  Gall,  272,  273 
St    Gaudens,    197, 

207 
St  George,  662 
St  George's  Ch.,  135 
St  George  6.,  569 
St     Germain  -  en  • 

Laye,  190,  205 
St    Germans,    116, 

139 
St  Gilles,  197,  207 
StGoven'sHd.,134 
St  Helena   I.,  94, 

441 
St  Helen's,  117, 138 
St  Helen's  M.,  506 
St   Ives,  116,  118, 

124,  129,  139, 141 
St  Ives  B.,  135 
St  Jean  d'Angely, 

197,  207 
St   Jean-du-Gard, 

207 
St      John      (New 

Brunswick),  519 
St  John  (W.Indies), 

234,  562 
St  John  R. .  621 


St     John's    (New- 
found.), 519,  620 
St  Josef,  Pen.,  569 
St  Junieu,  199,  206 
St  Just,  116 
St  Lawrence  6.,  60S 
St     Lawrence    R., 

504,  607,  617,  520, 

621,  540 
St  Leonard,  199, 206 
St  Lo,  196,  206 
St  Louis,  609,  636, 

539 
St     Louis     (Sene- 

gambia),  470,  481 
St  Louis  R,  621 
St  Lucas  C,  505 
St  Lucia  L,  562 
St  Malo,  197,  206 
StMaloB.,204 
St  Marie  L,  442 
St  Marie  aux  Mines, 

198,  263 
St   Martin   C,  66, 

183,  662 
St  Mary  C,  441 
St  Mary  R,  521 
St  Mary's  Loch,  160 
StMaryOttery,116, 

140 
StMatthieuPt..204 
St  Michael,  586 
St  Michel,  319 
St  Mihiel,  198,  208 
St  Moritz,  275 
St  Neots,  118,  141 
St    Nicholas,    215, 

216  225 
St  Oraer,  196,  200, 

205 
St  Paul,  536,  539 
St  Paul  R,  481,  507 
St  Paul  de  Loanda, 

478,  479 
St  Petersburg,  319, 

322,  827 
St  Pierre,  196 
St  Pierre  (N.  Amer.) 

214 
St  Pierre  L,  563 
St  Point  L.,  208 
St  Polten,  256,  264 
St  Pons,  197,  207 
St    Pourcain,    190, 

206 
St  Quentin.  199,205 
St  Remy,  198,  207 
St  Roque  C  ,  569 
St  Servan,  197,  206 
St  Thomas,  557 
St  Thomas  (W.  In- 
dies), 234 
St  Thomas  I 

441,  562 
St  Thome  C. ,  569 
StTrond,  215,  225 


193. 


^F 

GG7 

^Bet  nues  B.,  les      :  s»kbioh  R,  m 

Ssn  Lucar,  178,  18B 

Saria   Ibal.tl    Mi, 

^■(t  VuItry-en-CsuI,    Sabburg.   71),   3t>n, 

^■i  196 

:s3,  »i 

Sin  LniB,  M7,  BOB, 

SautaLsilal.,  441 

^nt  VlDi»Dt  C,  «, 

«01 

Santa    Maria,    a. 

aaniMB.     78,    820, 

183.689 

^HbuTlncimtG.,  SUT 

32*.  828 

B07,  611,391,663, 

SantaUarlaI.,18S 

^F»  TlDCent  I„  est, 

SatninR.,328,329 

San_M«rlno,    BBS, 

001 

sJfLu^sG.,GOO 
Ban  Miguel,  liB 

Santa   Maria,  670, 

aiYrteiilmso? 

*29,  430 

aiintu,M.lflV.20T 

Bud.rfa,  MO.  BBS 

^orU'a,  380 

BimbtwlpOr,     SSI, 
S82,  aei 

BanPimred'Atena, 

Santa    Hosa,    641, 

SantaDdni,  117,191, 

fWls,  38S.  m 

SambroV  M§,  2iB 
Sambahr  L.,  800 

BaDRuqueara^isB 

8>ilBdoR,lSS 

Santander.  _  Kew, 

8iDlM  IB.,  «2B,  680 

Si^Q^  (Amcr,), 

SaniotiI.,SI0.31S, 

aiwniinc«,ir«,nr, 

bla.  B81.  fi82 

SiiinoUiral[iI,,3]0 

Ban  Salvsdm  (Cen- 

BiIaiDiuini   _(Mei- 

SanAngBlo,282,290 
San     Antniilo     de 

tral  Amer.),  Bu3, 

Sanlarem    (Brazil), 

S<toi^''m  «1 

Ban    Salvador    t, 

8ii]«,M3 

San  Carlos,  MS 

Bantlsgo      (Cldl«, 

finlgm,     fiO!,    eM, 

San  Balvatora,  989, 

608.  Dli2,  8iil 

GSa,  BST.  B40 

Ban  Chrlatoval  [s., 

aantla«o(LaPl>ta), 

BAlembris    R,    75, 

090 

Ban  Sebashlra,  177, 

671 

San  Clirlstovao,  681 

-ssr^r  "■■ 

Silemo,    SS!,   SGr, 

San    DooiioBO    i.. 

MO^ 

Bana,  BOO,  304  ' 

Bantlago  de   Com- 

BiilenioG.,!!S8,  2» 

San  Felipe  de  Ben- 

poBtella,  177,  ISl, 

Bllfort,    IIT,    128, 

1B6 

S-o'VliiJl^Vxa- 

Sandhurst,  to* 

SintlBgodelEstero, 

stSi.Z 

tiva,  178,  1S8 

BandrldEB.  801 

Sau  Foliu  da  GiiLi- 

Bandnsky,  B40 
Sandwtcfi,  116,  HO 

SanW    Nicolao   I„ 

BaljBbiUT,  ]1«,  12S, 

olL  170,  189 
Ssn  FemiDdo,  ITB, 

e.llMiel.«Ml.ar6 

Silo.  282,  290 

aandl  c,  Bor 

Bao  Paulo,  681,  001 

Sulinnoo   Is.,    003, 

(CbilS),  B92,  801 

Saone  R.  S07 

810 

a»ioB,m.m 

Apuri,  ST6,  Ml 

aaneonara  H.,  1S8 

Saranga  R.,  3M 

B>loiia.eM 

Sangro  H  ,  m 

Saransk,  320,  S29 

SslDPika.    76.   S07. 

6S6,  S40,  541,  849 

Sanguega,  170,  188 

Saratov,    78,    320, 

SOS,  SIS 

Ban   i^nWo  B, 

Sangninet  L..  908 

IMODlIU    G..    BIO. 

683,608,671,001 

SanRnlrl.,822,  020 

Bannk,  82fi 

Ban  Joao',1o  Win- 

BanWallM 

Sara^o:  S79,  ST9 

■"A—  ""■- 

Banna  B.,  SIS 

Sardbila,  281 

San'Toi^Vi./lM 

Sansandlng,      47S, 

8alotR,196 

San  J^i.  6i3,  667, 

8alietEel.,SSg 

Bardg-Cotrtfan  Is., 

SlJwtB  R.  EftO 

SanJDBa[Urngoaj'), 

BaiiW      CatUarina, 

bit  Lake  City,  £S6, 

Ssree,  B71,  4E7 

iw2i'6"8;SI 

Ban  Juan  (Meilco), 

sJnlaCmi(BouV). 

SS-i%, 

WtllBll.  118,  139 

Bsu  Juan  (W.  In- 

SaA  I.,  134 

Bilt«Ht>,  14S.  14B, 

rtiei),  68.1 

Santa'  Crui  (Cana- 

Sark B.,  ISS 

1W 

ries),  179 

Bsrkara,  SS2 

Biat«i..,ie!> 

Sin  Juan  Banlibta, 

Bantu  Crui  I,.  609, 

earIatR,207 

ElllJllD,  BM,  fisa 

Sarmatlan  Mta.,  70 

Balnai  a,  m,  lOS, 

San   'Jniin    da    la 

Santa   Cms  (Mei- 

Samen,  272 

ieo>.  Ml 

Sam«AaR,»« 

HrSM^,  Ml.  990 

SauJnandaNioaia- 

Sanlo  Fc.  607,  630, 

Saraia,  Port,  B2fl 

^■nhlntonO.  389 

Suno,  989,  990 

^Klnrp  n  .130 

Pa^J^n'd^Rlo, 

Santa  Fi-de  DoEOli, 

Saro>0..3tD 

Ka 

S71.  S90 

airpenSW.iM 

>U(|R.,i 


S*v«B.,  SS-V.  31S 
S«iere  R..  £08 


SirooiL.  tsl.  3S» 


%i  Kin.,  ua. 


Scheldt  R,  Tt, 
3(ibBtaliidt.l<ll 


ISUKS. 

SsdbeiEli.  1 

.,SM    Sedo.  470,  * 

SeeUud  I.,  < 


Schonebek,  !3S,  a 


Bchweldiiili. 

20S 
Bchvsisfuit, 


Bc)iwliig«B..2e! 
Bchfl  a,  HM,  SI! 


BclnTonii.  1ST 

Scone,    New,    IIB, 

Bcol]uid,144 

Sciopbi  C,  sol 
SonCari.  Sll,    SSI, 

Sn,  SM 
ScutATi    (Albub). 


ahuTtosbiUT,     lis. 


INDEX. 


G69 


S}iield«,N.,  114,130, 

142 
BliieldB,  B.«  115, 142 
BhlflEoal,  117, 18P 
Bhicatie,  4U5,  416 
Shikakolam,      882, 

867,404 
Shikupiir,  862.886, 

404 
BhilkaB,  421 
Shin  L.,  IflO 
Bhinte,  4Pl,  498 
Bhinz,  871.  872, 428 
Bbir^  R.,  444,  495 
BhirwaL.,  445,  495 
Bhoa,  456,  459 
Blioreham,      New, 

116, 140 
Bhntts,  145, 160 
fihrewsbary,     117, 

1S5,  189 
BhroTMihirp.,  117, 125 
Bbtsban  R.,  827 
Hlmbuiacadie     R., 

521 
Bbnk  -  el  -  Bhnynk, 

360 
BliunOa,    808,    SOP, 

812 
Blins    (BoBa),    871, 

872.881 
BhoBha,  822,  S28 
Bhiuter,   851,    871, 

872,380 
Biaime  R ,  206 
BiAin,  846,  400,  401 
Btam  G.,  848 
Hianp-yan«j,407,  421 
Bias  R,  827 
Biberia,    817,    S45, 

346,428 
Ril>eria,    New,   Ib., 

348 
Sil)erian  Plain.  353, 

424 
Bi(;hon  R,  206 
Hicie  C,  204 
Kioilvl.,67,288,288 
Bid  R.,  140 
Bidlaw  HUls.  157 
Bidmonth,  116,  140 
BidTaorBertG.,443, 

458.  4C4 
BiegR,  268 
Biegen,  268 
Biena,  282,  289 
Bienne  R.,  806 
Bierra  Ainambaliy, 

599 
Bierra  da  Tabatinga, 

588 
8ierTad'Eiitrella,]84 
Bierrade  Guadalupe 

184 
Sl^rradoEtpinhaQo, 

6M 


'  Etierra  Gredon,  184 

'  Bierra  Leone,   469, 

470,  477 
Bierre  Madre,  506 
Sierre    Honduque, 

184 
Bierra  Morena,  68, 

I      184 

,  Sierra  Nevada,  68, 

i      164 

j  SierraKeTada(Mex- 

I      ico),  506,  584 

'  Bierra  Verde,  506 
Sieva  R.,  3:28 
BievBk,  820,  328 
Bigean  L.,  208 
Biguenza,  179 
Bihoon  R,  851,  360 
Bikandarabad,  883 

i  Bikhim,    849,    883, 

'      887, 404 
Sikh  States,  888 
Bikokf,  484 
Bile  R,  291 
Silesia  (AnBt.\  256 
BileBia(Pru8.),  238 
Silhit,  415 

>Bili8tria,:5.S06,  812 
Siljan  L.,  77,  339 
Bilverio  L.,  571 
Simbirsk,  76,    320, 
328,  828 

i  Simferopol,  821,S2r>, 

828 
Simoda,  484 
Bimon'B  Town,  485 
Bimplon  M.,  274 
Simplon  Paiui,  28P 
Simpson  Ft.,  529 
Sim}>Bon  R ,  526, 5'i7 
Binai  Ht.,  849 
Sinaloa,  541,  551 
Sin-chow,  407,  421 
Sindh,  852,  382,  399 
Sindh  R,  405 
Bi-ngan.  407,  410 
Bingapfir,  382,  887, 

405 
Singapfir  I. ,  388 
Sinna,  871,  372 
Sinope,  3«(»..%I,SS0 
Sion  or  Sitten,  '27'2 
Sioo-choo,  407,  4i'l 
Sioule  R,  206 
Siont,  451,  401 
Siphantol.,  301 
Sipra,  R,  405 
Sir  Daria  R,  —  see 

Syr  Daria 
Sirgnjah,  404 
Sirhind,    3s2,    383, 

387.  404 
Sir-i-Kol,    L.,    347, 

352 
Sisters,  Seven,  Is., 

I     66, 325 


Sistova,    808,    309, 
312 

iSitangR,405 

I  Sitka  I.,  505 
Bittern,  R,  268 

!  Bivas,  851,  860,  361 

,  Bivash  G.,  67 

I  Biwah,  467 
Siwah-el-Kebir,  467 
Bizaudro  R,  185 
Skagen  C,  231 

I  Skager    Rack,    67, 

I      231, 838 

'  Skagesioestindeu 

;      M.,  70,  339 
Skaw  C,  66,  231 
Skeen,  84U 

,  Bkeens  Elf,  840 

:  SkelefteaR,339 

'  Skeme  R,  142 

'  Skibbereen,  lf»4,172 

:  Skiddaw  H.,  136 

:  BkUlo  a,  801 

,  Skipton.  115.  141 

j  Skomerl.,  134 
Skopin,  820,  329 

I  Bkye  L,  156 
Blaney  R,  172 
Slave  Co.,  477 
Slavo- Hellenic  Mis. 

79 
Sleaford,  115,  141 
Sleaford  R,  141 
Bleat  Bd.,  156 
Slieve  Blooui  Uts., 

170 
Slieve-Boughty,  170 
Blieve-Donard,  17u 
Sligo,  165,  168 
Bligo  B.,  169 
Slonim,  821,  827 
SloteMeerL.,  225 
Slutch  R.,  328 
Smestow  R,  139 
Stnilbfleld,  535 
Bmiuka  R,  328 
BiiiOIen  I.,  338 
Sinolensk,  76,  320, 

823,  328 
Smvma.    346,    860, 

861,  880 
Smvma  G.,  865 
SniifellM.,  231 
8naith,  115.  141 
Snake  R,  541 
Siieebatteu  AI.,  70, 

339 
Sneek,  222 
Sneeker  Meer,  225 
Sueuw  Bergen  Mts. , 

486 
Sniatyn.  256,  2^4 
Snizort  L.,  156 
Snowdon  M.,  136 
Soar  R.,  142 
Society  I8..029. 6S0 


Socorro,  676,  6ia 

Bouotra  1.,  846, 441, 
448 

Bofala,  198,  439, 496 

Bogaraozo  R,  601 

Bogne  Fiord,  388 

Bohar,  368 

Boignies,  215,  225 

Boitwons,  199,  206 

Soj  R ,  328 

Sokoto,  478, 474, 481 
j  Bolaua,  179,  165 

Solent     Btr.,     135, 
140 

SolMmes,  196,  208 

Solenre,  272,  273 

Solihull,  116,  142 

Bolingen,  239,  268 

Boiler,  179 

Bolor  I.,  1P3,  623 

Bolovetskoi  I.,  826 

Bolt,  264 

Bolway  Fr.,  185, 157 

Somali,  439 

SomergiU  R,  189 

Somen  Is.,  566 

Somerset,  116, 124 

Bomeraet    (Africa), 
485 

Somerset    (Anstra- 
lia),  6«'4,  605 

Somerset   (N.),    I., 
505 

Bomerton,  116,  Iflft 

Bommariva.  282, 291 

Somme.  196 

BommeR,  74,  205 
!  Bomme  Est,  204 

Bondershauseu,  73, 
I      242,  262 
:SoTieR..  404 
'  Bonnieauf  e,       878, 
379.  381 

Bonora.541,551,  552 

Souora  R.,  541 

S(msonate,  557 
'  Soo-choo,  407,  400, 
421 

Bool<»o  Arch.,   iV2li, 
626 
'  Soi-hia,  808,  312 

SorR.,207 

Sora,  282,  289 

Sorata  M.,  570,  592 

Sorell  L.,  014 

Boresina,  282,  290 
,  Sorgiies  R ,  207 
I  Soria,  179.  185 

SoHJCubo,  581 

Scjroe  I.,  338 
I  Sorrento,  282 
I  Sosna-Blstraia    R. 
!      328 

Sosnitza,  321.  '.]'2S 

S«st,  239,  20.'i 


Soadan,  439, 
Sonna.Tho.f 


apulsh  Tovn,  K2, 

Spirt*,  i99.  BOO 
SpiTtsl  C.  14D 
gpart^vento  C,  86, 


8pitib«rgen  t 

Spitikop  H., 
Splttgen  Fua, 
Bpolsto,  °e3, 
Spomil«sIii..i 
Bpres  R.,  S63 
SprembeiB,  B! 
Bpringfleia. 

SprotUii,  139 
Si'iun  Head  < 
OqaiOltcaa- 


Blalrmene  1. 
Stnniboul.  SO 

Slamford,  IIS.  121, 


Stusard,  S3S.  W 
autml-OAol,    3 


Stiiub-bBchl^U,S7tl 

auvropol'  7fl,'a82, 

Sleep  Ft,.  aoT 

StelnuE  R.,'  !H3 
SMtenbiHBb,  tSS 
SMvto  Fua,  Ml 
atepniti  S.,  202 
gtappet,  StT.  i28 
aUmbers.  ISO,  2M 
8l«ttin,TS,SS8,24l>, 


SlSr-Avan 
Btfir  R..  TS 


andeHeMts.ISO 


ati>ur   (Gloucealsr)  ^ 

R,  139  F 

aMTir<K™t)R.,lM  t 

Stourbridge,      118,  f 

Stour'port,  lis,  12S,  f 


Strtitrotd,  113,  1!3, 
atntfoid  (ArnerX 
atistford,      Stoii]r, 


,    3Cn>ud(0]ouc.),lIS, 

,  Strand  R.  ISO 
awgiua  R.,  528 
aitlfilwelMeDburg. 


BuDdariaad,      1 
SuBgHri  R   421 

Sur(iyK),  380, 


81188.  en.  312 

smher  laud.' 147.: 
Button  -  ColiHe 
113 

Sveodhoi^,  230 


"^ 

V.X.                                        C71            !■ 

^B  8>n:ea.ll3 

Tnlcbow   407   ♦"l 

TarragoBa^  179,  1S6    Telgn  R.,  140                          H 

^H  ewuit.,«>'(.i:i3 

m-kooi..iio' 

^K  Bhusiu,  ii».  isy 

Tnin,  llfl,  134,  ISfl 

TareuB.SHO,  363,881) 

140 

Tai-ping,  4Sl 

TartarjG,'34a' 

^B  SwBtow,  tm.  m 

Tii-wan,  4U7 

Ta«1iig01ig,418 
Tsflhkeiii  4as,  420, 

Triavl.  328 

^H  Bwedon,  ee,  am 

Tsiynan,  41.7,  409, 

Teleg,  468 

431 

TeirrpLatte.  376 

TnJim&a.lSS 

TaaliKurghaB,Sie, 

TskkHtu  M.,  378 

TeSlMB'..S64 

&?UIR.1SB 

TaUwm,  179,  16b 

Tasiaa4on.S51,383, 

Tamesnar,  76,  3ri7. 

TbIch.  DO!,  601 
TiiUBha«.aB,680,Hl 

3iS»,i64 
Teoipio,  383 

Tanbuif,  118. 139 

■miow,  164,  17B 

Taaselot,    Lc,    M., 

Tenby,  119, 138 

SirordB.  1«.  171 

SjdsDhun,  115 

?mll^a^^o^ 

Tatar  -   Buaridik. 

Tginar  (Haiu.)  R., 

307.  318 

183 

T.ttlaB.421 

Teng-olio",  407.  431 

TattH,  463 

Tongrl-nor  L.,  SJ3, 

8y1t  1.,  SU 

Tauibovr  78,    m. 

Taubar  B.,  !(I3 

410 

f^[  Iterli^  4S» 

sii.m 

Taunton,  118,  1S4, 

TsPKri-Tagb   Mt„ 

e>T  DaciH  R.,  S52. 

Tame  a,  14a 

421,  *S8,lMI,4a» 

Tsinpico,  041,  562, 

Tanntoii(U.B.),6B5 

TfPgii   MlB.,   444, 

By™,3BB,3M 

Taurida,  381 

46B 

Byro  1..  801 

T^picoU.SSa 

TanniaM.,347,34B, 

TeunesBBB,  535 

830 

TonaittR,  43» 

Syniciuie    (Amer,), 

TauL.,4B9l445.1sa 

TiiYlm,  IBO,  18J 

Tentsnlfln,  US,  140 

SBi,  5M  " 

Tuuuurlvn,  439, 441 

TaviBtock,  116,  IBl, 

TcDlfl.  541.  651 

Eyria  28T.MS,S59, 

Tunsro  R,  MD 

13B                            1  Tai»lBlll,  ill-,  311                    H 

3» 
Syrfu  DBHii.  S69 

Tandenififta,  163,171 
Tuigv^l(ll..,439. 

TavyR.,139             iTerB.,  188                            H 
Taw  R, ,  ISB                TBismo,  334,  2O0                   ■ 

SyijuiLcbuioD.ses 

440.  444,  461,  403 

Tawy  R.,  ISO 

Tank  R..  437 

Bymn.  320,  3!B 
BaiDOB  a,  164 

TUJ^P,'   3S2,    SS8, 

Tay.  Fr-.  166 
Tay  U,  160 

Termini,  283 

BUTTH.  2iT,  2« 

TayR.lSB 

Terni[noeL,,55S 

SOH-BBgeo,   asT, 

T,nuaI.,B10 

?;i;|'"i!.«o'«B, 

TBtd  R,  139 

TaTiti.4ai,4a3 

Tenil,  333,  386,  289 

Blepdlo,  m.  MB, 

964 

TopM  R,"  404 

TcUama,  388,  373 

BwitH,  »5T,  Stt 

Tarrein  R.',  2lia 

8»a>p^f(.,83; 

T^niUd.  61« 

TohellaMnBli,  331 

Ter-SchelJlnB[..523 

Ti^berkasi,  331,  328 

TllB,  MO.  330 

TaBohe'n.  266,  'itlL' 

T^i^m 

TutpatD,  SSS.  601 

Taibu-LaoinbD,4U5, 

rsbiaeo,  631 

T«,™re.  IBS,  307 

Tohemlgay,  J6,  sai, 

TbDuco  B.,  BOT 

Tiniaoon,  19S,  a07 

394,328 

TealR,  140 

TibK  S.,  430,  lis 

Tarizoaa,  178,  1S6 

■fcbta  M.'.  4Sa 

TsrlHgatii,  410 

TetS,  499,  407 

T«b«.473 

Tarbsrt,  146,  inO 

Totare»E..»29 

Tubrti,  an,  873,457 

TarbB.,  197,  S07 

Tuhlltopol,  330,  S3B 

Tetuan,  46,5 

TlFUuIt.,444,4e3, 

TarWN»aQ,la6 

TauliulflC„03.3S8 

Tama  R,  264 

T«UD,  2er36!> 

tAI?.,  BBS,  SM,  601 

Tariri,  176,  186 

T«i™bR,312 

Tadcuter,  119,  141 

Tarifa,PimU<la,6a, 

Tedrf,46a 

120,130 

Tulinor,  3IIU,  36fl 

Teaa  R  ,  149 

Tataa.  Sas.  541 

^H'^!»>B.    141 

TarUa.  571,  880,601 

TeBiB,  76,  331,  391, 

Taiel  J.,  333 

^KbB^yiicn,  SJl 

Tarlinn.,tS3 

338,  846,  863 

Tawdoo.  flSI,  5a; 

^^^1TI1.,13I> 

Tara,  107 

a:r!s,'.s 

Telooeo    L.,    6U3, 

^^Kafllet,  tsi.  463 

Ta™ii,aoi 

^^nigRnras,  33%  31!5, 

SSiSfS 

Tta.aoiayaR.B28 

Thanii,  118,  141 

^B      839 

Thame  R.  141 

^^T»glMra™toR.,Ml 

S81.5S3     ' 

Thaiuu  R..  110 

■I»gaaB>t.,l88 

TiuuOaDt,  463 

ThaBiBBR,(AH,ar.), 

T«KUS  a,.  70.  IBB 

„,.„„,.,., 

Thames  RudB.  137 

TulllCiliMlt.  (DT.  WW 

JUl^lW.  Itl 

TdlryR.,  198            <'niUn>:i,Eu...«.-'>^          ^^B 

«T2 


INDEX. 


Thanet  I. ,  134 
Thann,  198,  263 
Thaso  L,  310 
Thattha,   382,  886, 

404 
Thaur  R.,  208 
Thaxted,  115,  141 
Thaya  B ,  264 
Thebes,  2{)9,  300 
Thebes,   Rains   of, 

451,  452,  461 
Theiss  R.,  264 
Therasche,  215,  225 
Theresianstadt,  257 
Thermia  I.,  301 
Thermopylae,  299 
Thessaly,  307 
Thetford,  115,  141 
Thian    Shan    Mts., 

S49,  415,  422,  429 
Thibet— «««  Tibet 
Thiel,  222,  224 
ThieleR.,  263 
Thielt,  215,  225 
Thiers,  199,  206 
Thionville,  198,  208 
Thirlmere  L.,  142 
Thirsk,  115,  142 
Thiva,  299,  800 
Tholen  L,  223 
Thomastown,    164, 

172 
Thorda,  267,  264 
Thorn,  237,  261 
Thombury,  118 
Thome,  115, 141 
Thomhill,  145,  160 
TfaoTshaven,  230,231 
Thou  L.,  208 
Thouet  R.,  206 
Thourout,  215,  225 
Thrace,  307 
Three  Points C, 441 
Three  Rivers,  519, 

540 
Thun,  272 
Thun  L.,  77,  276 
Thar,  847 
Thar  R.,  268 
Thargau,  272 
Thuringerwald 

Mts.,  244,  252 
Thnrles,  165,  168 
Tharso,    147,    165, 

159 
Tiber   R.,  75,  289, 

291 
Tiberias  L.,  365 
Tibeste,  467 
Tibet,  346,  347, 406, 

418 
Tichtield,  116, 140 
•ftcino  (Tessin),  272 
Ticino  R.,  200 
TickhiU,  115,  142 
Tideswell,  117, 142 


Tidi-ban(2;-sa     Mt., 

349,  400 
Tien-chi  R.  and  L  , 

421 
Tiene,  282,  291 
Tien-tsin,  407,  409, 

421 
Tierra   del    Fuego, 

569,  691,  695 
Tiflis— «e0  Teflis 
Tigr6,  468 
TigriL.,445 
Tigris  R.,  359,  381 
Tikhvin,  820,  827 
Tilbury  Ft.,  115 
Till  R.,  142 
Tillicoultry,       146, 

159 
Tilsit,  237,  240,  327 
Timaru,  616 
Timbo,  470,  481 
Timbuctu,  439,  473, 

481 
Timor  I.,  193,  229, 

621,  623,  624 
Timor  Laut  I.,  608, 

621 
Tinos  L,  801 
Tinto  Hill,  158 
TintoR,185 
TioshaR.,  829 
Tipperary,  165, 168, 

172 
Tipperary  Mts.,  170 
Tirana,  307,  811 
Tirlemont,  215,  225 
Tinnez,  425,  427 
Timova,  308,  812 
Tis  L.,  231 
Tiszmanicka  R.,  328 
TiticacaL.,  570,571, 

589,  600,  631 
Tiumen,  429,  483 
Tiverton,  116, 140 
Tiverton  (U.8),  535 
Tivoli,  283,  289 
Tixtia,  551 
Tlascala,  641,  551 
Tlemezen,  462 
Toacas  R,  553 
Tobago  I.,  561 
Tobarra,  178,  186 
Tobermory,  146, 169 
Tobol  R.,  483 
Tobolsk,    346,  352, 

429,  433 
Tocantins  R.,  671, 

6U1 
Toccia,  290 
Toess  R.,  263 
Tokat,  860,  361, 880 
Tokay,  257.  259,  264 
Toledo,  179, 182, 185 
Toledo  (U.S.),  536 
Toledo     Mts.      C8, 

1)^4 


'  Tolentino,  282,  290 
I  Tolima,  576 
TolimaM.,  570,677 
Tolraezzo,  291 
Tolosa,  177,  186 
Toluca,  641,  651 
Tom  R,  433 
Tomsk,    852,    429, 

438 
Tondja  R,  812 
Tone  R.,  139 
Tonga  Is.,  629,  630 
TongariroM.,  617 
Tong  -  Chang,    407, 

421 
Tongo,  405 
Tongres,  215,  225 
Tong-Ting  L.,  852 
Tongue,    Kyle    of, 

156 
Tonneins,  197,  207 
Tonnerre,  199 
Tonquin    G.,    348, 

405 
Tonquin  R,  405 
Tons  R.,  406 
Toong-ting  L.,  410 
Topeka,    607,    636, 

640.  541 
TopiaR,  289 
T6plitz,  256,  262 
TopoliasL.,  802 
Topsham,  116,  140 
Tor,  360,  364,  380 
TorB.,  185 
Torgan,  239,  262 
Tonnes*  R.,  185 
TomaR,  264 
Tomea,  827 
Tomea  L.,  77,  389 
Toniea  R.,  839 
Toro,  177,  185 
Toronto,   619,  626, 

540 
ToropaR,  327 
Toropecz,  820,  827 
Torquay,  116, 124 
Torre  Doii-Gimeno, 

178,  186 
ToiTensL.,  606,608 
Torrente,  178 
Torres  Str,,  607 
Torres-Vedras,  180, 

182,  185 
Torridge  R,  139 
Torrington,  116, 189 
Torrisdals.  78.  340 
Torshok  or  Torjok, 

320,  329 
Tortona,  281.  290 
Tortosa,    179,    181, 

186 
Tortuga  I.,  661,  569 
Tory  I.,  169 
Tosa  Fall.  275 
Xosia,  360,  880 


,  Totana,  178,  186 
Totness,  116,  140 
Tottenhani,  119^146 
Toudemi,  468 
Toul,  198,  263 
Toulon,    198,    202, 

208 
Touloubre  R,  2^8 
Toulouse,   74,  197, 

201,  207 
Touques  R.,  206 
Tourcoing,  196, 200, 

208 

Toumay,  215,  216, 
■    226 

Toumon,  197,  207 
Toumus,  198,  207 
Tours,  74,  199,  203, 

206 
Tow  R,  141 
Towcester,  118, 141 
Towey  R,  189 
Trafalgar  C,  183 
Trajan's  Gate,  811 
Tralee,  164, 168, 172 
Tralee  R,  169, 172 
Tramore,  164,  172 
TramoreB.,172 
Tranal.,  621 
Tranent,  145, 159 
Trani,  282,  290 
Trans-Baikal   Ter., 

429 
Transcaucasia,  818, 

846 
Transvaal    Repub< 

lie,  489,  485 
Transylvania,  257 
Trapani,  283,  287 
Trasen  R,  264 
Tra«-o8-Monte8, 180 
Traun,  265 
Traunik,  307,  312 
Travaucore,  883 
Trave  R,  73 
Trebigno,  265,  307, 

311 
Trebizond,  359,  301, 

880 
Trecate,  282,  290 
Tredegar,  117,  125, 

139 
Tregaron,  188 
Treidar  AaR.,  827 
Trent,  266,  258,  291 
Trent  R,  137,  141 
Trenton,  607,  6o5, 

540 
Treptow,  Neu,  238, 

261 
Tres  Monies  Pen. 

569 
Tresa  R. .  290 
Treves.  224,239,242 

263 
i  Treviglio,  282,  290 


^BirtvlBlio.  SSt,  m    1  Timt.  168                  |  Tyne,  N.,  R  ,  H2 

(i73 
Upton.  118. 139 

^■T«riio,2aa.2B&,211l 

Tilbingtn,  S50,  203 

Tjnemoulli,      114, 

Vn\   R.,    T8,  329, 

TuGBon,  »l7,a3e,B41 

3sa  137    ■      ' 

Tjn.,'B(IO,  862,  SSO 

Ural  Mts.  70,326.317 

TriobiDSpalU,    S8S, 

Tudela,  179,  188 

Tyn>au,  2M 

Uralsk,  S2I.  339 

SSS,  4M 

Tusrto  R  ,  133 

Tyrol,  2BB 

Urstepeli,  425 

TriMiB,aaB,a68.seB 

TuceU  B.,  468 
Tab,  78   923,  329 

Tyrone,  163 

Urbina,  232,  S90 

T)Trhei.iimSea,8T, 

Ures,  641,  551 

Muta  8.,  tw.  2efi 

Urga,  862,  418,  493 

f  rism  B.,  »e 

TuIliDiDi'e.'lM,  ler, 

D^,  125,  427 

SffiK^K 

TbUs,  199,  204,  20T 

famn.l-S.  185,138 

Sftff5B^-"^ 

SOT,  81S 

UbriquB,  178.  1S6 

Urilngtord,  IM,  172 

Trim,  IH,  1S«.  171 

Tnltilhl,  2fii 
Tambei,57e,S77.fl«l 

UBavallB.,  601 

UnR.lOU 
Urris  flead,  189 

Trina  110, 141 

T™iik(L.,160 

nchte  B  .  282 

Uruguay,  568,  693 

Tri^n,W 

Tunliridge,  115, 140 

Ueker  B..  261 

Umgn4R,698.86l 

Trinidad,  HS 

Tnnbriiigs      Wells. 

UroiDen  B  ,  1S5 

Trinidsd   (B»U.l8X 

US,  121.  UD 

Dddeva'lta,  949 

Unnniah,  671,  372. 

6SB,  eoi~ 

Tundras,  Uio.  S47 

Trinldsdl,,g(n,se2 

Tingabhadro      R, 

Mine,  282. 285,  201 

TTriinii.h    L,     362, 

Trinity  B..  IJa 

404 

Udlnsk,  *i9 

973,427 

TrtDo.  m.  m 

TuHla,  4Sfl,  4ni,  487 

Odlpur,  351 

Uscli,  436,  427 

Tripoli,    88^,    S«% 

Udone.  491.  406 

Usedom  I.,  2.4 

SsMss,  us 

Tmiiknt,W  ' 

Uft,  S21,  334.  339 

Tripotita,SW.»9, 

Usk,  117" 

SQO 

Turin,  h,  esi,  2S3.    Uganda,  4Ue 

Ust  R,  139 

Triiandemm.    aS3, 

290                        ,  Ugie  R,  169 

Uskup,  3"7.  312 

TarltBstan,S47,3M,     UgHanol.,2B0 

fSS 

421,  4S3.  429             \Ji\\ie1\,  920.  323 

UsasJ,  199,  2i<f 

TurlMStai.ElstBru,     Ugogo,  500 

UstiM,  87.  2SS 

Iroitalioi -Moras- 

318,  122                     Hist.  N..  I..  158 

ustiug-veiiki,  aao, 

ton,  32(1,  S29 

Turkestan,     W^st- 

tE&^%S?,  339 

T ifrkay,  M,  306 

U  t«l1wgei'4S3,  468 

£,.ij,.u«„. 

TroiaMJ6,83T 

U  ijl.  439.  199 

Utah  L,.  608 

TroDdlijun,  TS,  SSt, 

OJJaln,  351, 388,387, 

Utica,  699.  640 

SSB,  340 

Turkish    AmBuIa, 

406 

UtJUa  I.,  668 

Trmdhjim    Fiori. 

tTknlne,  831 

UUeL  179. 188 

TS,8« 

Turkish      Erapirs, 

U  ea  L.,  77 

Utrecht,  74,221,223, 

TrODtliiD  B..  SM 

234,263 

TnntoR.MD 

Turkish  Konllatan, 

U  eaboi^  S19,  927 

Dtrora,  117,  136 

TrooB,  liS,  l«n 

BfiB,  MO 

n  InssnE  416 

naoHster,  118,  142 

Troppao,  73,858,282 

TuniiikR,18a 

UlUl  R,  75.  185 

Uibridga,  119.  UU 

Tn)Ku<H.,ira 

DIUpool,  147,  ISB 

U;,  Lsud  or,  389 

Trowbridfre.  333,637 

Tuin1iaut.''218.  2!S 

Ullehr>i;rL.,142 

Usk,  197.  Sl7 

Treyw,  74,  IBB,  SOB, 

Tnrriff,  118,  159 

Uln.,230,  !1B1,2« 

Dlln»»,499 

I1..6 

Tnimbarg  Pmh.  SBX 

Ulster,  188,  186 

TmbMli  R,  S2B 

TDishoei.  488. 189 

DliuiR,B0S,6iB 

TiirtDkal,  SIS 

Tosealoosa,  535 

nman.  321,  B23 

TadUI.  71,  251,  263 

T^Slalln^'lC^n^l 

TusauiT.  232,  286, 

Umf .,  319 

V«tgBteh,  68,  326 

m.  «3,  293 

UmeaR,  73,310 

TaliatairBtr.,  328 

A™r.),eS7 

TulburT,  lis.  143 

Unltel  glares.  93, 

Vitsla.  273 

InaUlo     (V«,(B,), 

l»l^,^^ 

sSi'""" 

Vsldal  Hills,  70. 72, 

TncdJlDfPeral.  8S6 

ValdfpeCas,  179,135 
Valdlvia,  593,  801 

M^Wl       ' 

'^'3M,"29'*'''  '^' 

TMBhtl  M..  ftOB 

T-eodB.,  112.  1!8, 

Vslonce,'  198,  202, 

Tilamdo.  418 

Tw"8piiisM..17B 

Valenda{ap.iuX7S. 

^^^n^ST,4('l«!491 

Upa  R  ,  329 

178, 181.  isa 

Twertu  R.  329 

OppeniJivlk.  631 

^^K^k^'ob"' 

Twlckeuhnin.    119, 

Upplngliain,      US, 

ela),  S78.  577,  801 

^^^fanS-mlng  I..  410 

140 

168. 141 

VilsiO^ia  d.  Al<ai>- 

^^^l«i.VlTl 

Tyn.  R.  US,  IW       Upsala,  337,  340 

lara,  186 

674 


INDEX. 


Valenciennes,    196, 

200,  208,  225 
Valential.,169 
Valenza,  282,  290 
Valladolid  (Spain), 

176,  179, 181,  185 
Vallengin,  272 
Valles,  651 
VaUet,  197,  206 
Valley  of  Death,  624 
ValliSre  B  ,  207 
Vails,  179,  186 
Valognes,  196,  206 
Valona,  807,  311 
Valparaiso,  592,  601 
Valverde,  178,  185 
Van,  859,  861 
Van  L.,  852,  365 
Van  Buren,  536, 541 
Van  Diemen's  Land, 

603,  614 
Vancouver's  I.,  505, 

517,  528 
Vannes.  197,  206 
Var,  198 
Varanger  Fiord,  67, 

76,  338 
Vardar  R.,  75,  311, 

312 
Varese,  282,  29f) 
Varinas,   571,    576, 

601 
Varna,     308,     309, 

312 
Vartry  R,  172 
Vasarhely,  257,  259 
Vasarhely     Maros, 

257,  264 
Vasarhely     Sonilo, 

257,  259,  264 
Vasilikhov,  821, 328 
Vasto,  282,  290 
Vaticano  C,  288 
Vaucluse,  198 
Vaud,  272 
Vecht  B.,  74,  224, 

263 
Vega  R,  186 
Veglia  I.,  260 
Vejer  R.,  185 
Vejer  de  la   Fron- 

tera,  178, 186 
VelezR.,186 
Velez  Blanco,  178, 

186 
Velez  Malaga,  178, 

186 
Velez   Rubio,    178, 

186 
VelikajaR,  327 
Velino  R,  289 
Velino  M.,  288 
Velletri,    283,    287, 

289 
Veluisk  —  see    (Jst- 

VeJuisk 


Velftr,  382,  386,  404 
Vendee,  197 
Vendue  R,  206 
Venddme,  199,  206 
Venetia.  282,  292 
Venezue'ji,  561, 568, 

575 
Venezuela  Gr.,  570, 

601 
Venice,  75,  282,  284, 

291 
Venice  G.,  288  . 
Venlo,  222,  225 
Vennachar  L.,  160 
Ventnor,  116 
Vera,  178,  186 
Vera  Cruz,  551, 552, 

556 
Verbas  R.,  264,  312 
Vercelli,    281,    283, 

290 
Verd  C,  440 
Verden,  239,  262 
Verdun,    198,    208, 

225 
Vere  R,  206 
VeresaR,  185 
Vergush  R,  328 
Veria,  308,  812 
Vermeao  R. ,  601 
Vennelho  R.,  601 
Vermont,  534 
Verne  R,  208 
Verno6,  429 
Vernon,  196,  205 
Verona,     282,    284, 

291 
Versailles,  199,  203, 

205 
Versetz,    257,    259, 

264 
Vertou,  197,  206 
Ver\'ier8,  215,  216, 

225 
Vesdre  R,  225 
Vesle  R,  206 
Vesoul,  198,  207 
Vesuvius M.,  70,  288 
Vevey,  207,  272 
VezireR,  207 
Viadana,  282,  290 
Viana,  180.  185 
Viasina,    320,    323, 

329 
ViaiKa,  76,  320,  329- 
ViatkaR,329 
Viborg,  230 
Vicenza,    282,    285, 

291 
Vich,  179,  186 
Victoria      (Africa), 

486,  487 
Victoria  (Austral.), 

603,  604 
Victoria      (Brazil), 

581,  601 


Victoria      (China), 

407,  408 
Victoria    (Mexico), 

507,  541,  651 
Victoria  Falls,  444, 

493 
Victoria    L.    (Aus- 
tralia), 608 
Victoria  Mts.,  606 
Victoria  R ,  608 
VictoriaStr.502,505 
Victoria  Nyanza  L. , 

443,444 
Vidourle  R ,  207 
Vidzy,  327 
Viejo  M.,  558 
Vienna,  75, 256, 258, 

264 
Viennfe,    198,    199, 

202,  207 
Vienne  R,  206 
Vierzon,  199,  206 
Viesti,  282,  290 
Vigevano,  281,  283, 

290 
Vigo,  177, 185 
Vigo  L.,  76,  329 
Vigten  Is.,  338 
Vilaine  R,  74,  206 
Vilia  R,  327 
Vaia  Boa,  582,  601 
Villa  Real,  178,  186 
Villa  Rica,  599 
Villafranca  (Italy), 

282,  290 
Villafranca  (Spain), 

177,  179, 185,  186 
Villajoyo8a,i:78,186 
Villaiiueva,  178, 186 
Villanueva    de   los 

Infantes,  179, 185 
Villanueva  de  Ser- 
ena, 177, 186 
Villarica  M.,  592 
Villefranche,      198, 

199,  207 
Villeraur,  197,  207 
ViUena,  178, 186 
Villeneuve  d'Agen, 

197,  206 
Villeneuve  -le-  Roi, 

199,  206 
VilouiR,433 
VUvorde,  215,  225 
Vimeira,  180,  182 
Vinarosa,  178,  186 
Vincennes,  199,  205 
Vinci,  282,  289 
Vindau  R,  327 
VindhyaMt8.,389 
Vinnitza,  321,  328 
Vire,  196,  206 
Vire  R,  206 
Virgin  Is.,  193,  561 
Virginia,    534,  535, 

535.  540 


Virginia  W.,  535 
Visch  R,  564 
Viseu,  180,  185 
Vishakpatnam,  382 
Vishnei-Volotcbok, 

320,  329 

Viso,    Monte,    205^ 

288 
Visp,  207 
Vistre  R.,  207 
Vistuia  R,  73,  261 
Vitebsk,    73,    321, 

324,  327 
Viterbo,  283,  289 
Viti  Islands,  629 
Vitimsk,  433 
Vitoria  (Spain),  177, 

180, 186 
Vitre,  197,  206 
Vitry,  198,  206 
Vittoria(SicilyX288 
Vixa,  320 
Vlaardingen,     221, 

225 
Vladimir.   76,   320, 

321,  823.  329 
Vlielandl.,223 
Vlissingen,  221,228, 

225 
Vodena,    807,    309, 

312 
Vogelsberg  Mts.,  70 
Voghera,  281,  290 
VoU  L.,  160 
Voiron,  198,  207 
Voisin  R,206 
Voje  L  ,  76,  829 
VojutzaR,311 
Volga  R,  76,  328 
Volhynia,  321 
Volkbov  R,  327 
Volo  G.,  67,  310 
Vologda,  72, 76,  320, 

323,  327 
Voltchansk,  328 
Volterra,   282,   285, 

289 
VoltumoR,  289 
Vonitza,  299 
Voome  I.,  223 
Vorarlberg,  256 
Vorcay  I.,  621 
VorlanR,  140 
Vorona  R,  328 
Voronej,    76,     320, 

323,  328 
Vorskla  R.,  328 
Vo8ge.s,  198 
Vosges  Mts.,  205 
Vostitza,  2P9 
Vouga  R,  185 
Voulima  R.,  480 
Vouzie  R,  206 
Vulcan  Pass,  261 
Vulcanello  M.,  71 
,  Vulcanol.   288 


WittsnbeTg,       2», 

Wittatack,  2Sa,  itS 
WladlsUvlw,    821, 

Wo-cbuig,  lOT,  40», 

WoklDghim.  llfl 
Wnlfenbattel,   24!, 

Wollmton  L  ,  SOS 
noUiu  1.,  241 
WoUiBghun,     IIS, 


ir  (AfriM), 
ir    (U.S.), 


WoienK.,SOT 
Wrath  C,  15t 

Wrcihan.,'llB,  IBS, 

Wrietsen,  23S,  Sei 

WunaB,'!S5 

■tombe^,  !M 


Wttnl 


"R,~iBS 
:at[v(  Bu 
ITS.  1S< 


Xativi  Bu  Feljpo, 


g,  IDT       Zeeland, ! 


t.,  1S»    ZelUnn,  3»9  . 


ZmdBTOod  R..  42! 

2eiigg.  SBf,  3fli 
Zengbl  R  .  ESS 


ZlehkiM.  SS\,  131 
ZirknlU  L,  166 


Zafir  R..  1 
ZdlK  it.,  « 


Zula  Land.  434. 4S 
Zumbo,  4».  tM 
,    Zungoioero,  600 
Zurtch,2e>,S7!.S7; 


'XS 


u'ellendaia    Mts., 


LIST 


OF 


EDUCATIONAL     WORKS 


PUBLISHED  BT 


WILLIAM    BLACKWOOD  i  SONS 


«6  GBOROE  8TRRRT,   EDINBURGH;  and 
37   PA1>ERN08TER  ROW,   LOKDOIi. 


ENQUSH 

ETYMOLOGICAL    DICTIONARIES. 


I. 
AN  KTYMOLOGIOAL  AND  PRONOUNCING 

DICTIONARY      OP      THE      ENGLISH       LANGUAGE. 

Including  a  very  Copious  Selection  of  Scientific,  Technical,  and 
other  Terms  and  Phrases.  Designed  for  Use  in  Schools  and  Col- 
leges, and  as  a  Handy  Book  for  General  Reference.  By  the  Ret. 
JAMES  STORAIONTH.  The  Pronunciation  carefully  revised 
by  the  Rnv.  P.  H.  PHELP,  M.A.  Fifth  Edition,  revised,  with 
a  new  and  enlarged  Supplement.    Crown  8vo,  pp.  795,  7b.  6d. 

IL 

THE  SCHOOL    ETYMOLOGICAL    DICTIONARY  AND 

WORD-BOOK.  Combining  the  advantages  of  an  ordinary  Pro- 
nouncing School  Dictionary  and  an  Etymological  Spelllng-Book. 
Containing :  The  Dictionary — List  of  Prefixes — List  of  Postfixes — 
Vocabulary  of  Root-words,  followed  by  English  Derivations.  By 
the  Same.    Fcap.  8vo,  pp.  260.    2s. 

ni. 

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THE      DAILY    CLASS-BOOK     OP      ETYMOLOGIES. 

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OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 
ETTMOLOOICAL    AND    PBONOUNCIITG    DICTIONARY. 

**  This  Dictionary  is  admirable.  The  etymological  part  especially  is  good 
and  sound.  .  .  .  The  work  deserves  a  place  in  every  English  school,  whether 
boys'  or  girls'.** — Westminster  Review, 

**A.  good  Dictionary  to  people  who  do  much  writing  is  like  a  life-belt  to 
people  who  make  ocean  voyages  :  it  may,  perhaps,  never  be  needed,  but  it  is 
always  safest  to  have  one  at  hand.  This  use  of  a  dictionary,  though  one  of  the 
humblest,  is  one  of  the  most  general.  For  ordinary  purposes  a  very  ordinary 
dictionary  will  serve ;  Vut  when  one  has  a  dictionaiy,  it  is  as  weU  to  have  a 


Eilucational  IVcrki. 


STORUOBTH'S  DICIIONABIES-QpinMnu  eo 


I 


■MieJbci  mutera  Uis  v*ried  contanUoriLli  dlnlousni  will  not  ba  [u  0?  IM 

prill!.'  in  lliB  niiLlor  of  QnLoi[raiiliy  at  »iiy  rslB."— 5iiji»(  Jforlftt™  »'(i(j. 
"A  full  iiudcotiihlHtBelyiiioloELr4iriiniieKpUnilor7Uictlonuy(tr  tliQ  l£r«gli9rj 

onJt  (QBJitJDQjiis  aoDie  "f  ItB  mon  atrlklnn  |ibDQllBrlt1«.  En  Uia  OrsC  iiui«,  il 
is  CDm;>rebebBive,  iDclii'lLng  pnt  only  nit  Iha  wonla  rtcotn^sed  by  Uin  beat 
iiithDrltLOB  on  ■utlluD  old  l^ngllHb.  but  nil  Dia  d«w  {^Dltiaffot  whicb  hArn  imuinil 

»ineuD<ler  UiB  iIulgnnUbUDf  alnuif,  ,  .  .  TLe  ptanntiulatloD  iionnllillf  Kuil 
Pleuly  Binrked  In  uKotdlncii  wllb  Uie  moat  il>pro<«il  avAeia  usige.  nod  In 

nynolanr  of  minin,  II  in  eibUiIteil  in  n  ram  thai  dm  luejf  nunn  tlin  uenuiy, 
Uia  ruot-woidji  aliovrlog  Uib  (irulnlila  oiigln.ol'  ths  £ull>b  ttoiils,  tbdir  jiriiuxiy 
tncanlug,  and  tbeir  •quivnlBUU  In  oUier  liuiaBmii.    Hoc'b  iut>ral  Inltmuniilou 


"A  mlly  gvHl  ami  valna 


r.  "—Journal  of  ff'Zueof  {oil 

lU  that  In  tha  alroDeeat  tenna  or  cun- 

na  ■  luarrel  ofpalnnlakiiiB  lsl«iiir  nnd 


I 


glaanl  lEBuncy.  Wltli  ceKaril  to 
alvtly  lutroduoHl  inin  II,  I  rniut  s*^,  Ibil  \b  iIUb  napeot  t  kuow  i^o  DlctlDniry 
that  10  aatiaraeloilly  niHUi  i  icnl  au.l  wldaly  felt  nut  fn  oiu  lluratiirB  of  rc- 
tennca.  1  bnra  cumiJuEd  U  with  the  Ivga  and  cutly  worki  oF  Utiiiin, 
WBdgwiHx),  anil  othtn,  aud  Hod  iLat  In  tha  mlnEU  of  lU  deUlls,  ab.l  li.e 
Gleanieai  D(  iti  deflnltioui,  It  holds  I ta  em  ana  agulnat  tlieia.  Tlteet;inul<HV 
baa  bono  IreilHl  tbrouKhoot  vltli  oiucli  liituIliKBOcn,  tha  moat  iligtlii^Uljeil 
aDlborlUaa,  and  the  moat  reccot  dlan^vRriaa  In  pbllolo^lca]  iiclence,  havlug  Imcd 
laid  noder  carenU  canlrlliutlon."— fUetord  D.  Qrotam,  Eiq.,  En^XtA  UaUrr, 
CMiiifiir  DiaigKun  III  UiniiUrt  q/ Uh  CAimh  ij' &:eii/oiu1  mid  iV'  PTaJUmn  in 


SCHOOL    ETTUOLOOICAL    DICTIONAEY, 


nonls    II  wlU  he  obyiooa  ia  avBrvM[i ,. 

lafiguagii,  nnd  rorbelnlog  uiKnuData  puiiila  orar  Ilia  Uinible  dUllimltia  of  uur 

—Tht  S^ooiiniuln-, 


i  of  boot*,  and.  if  rinhtlynard,  "111  l.tosB  a  aaFa 
and  tliurough  kaottlfid^e  of  bia  uitiva  lonEno." 

Irabla  word-book,  haj  provided  the  means  of 

B  hlghw  qlaawa,  and  of  eorractliig  all  Lba  lu- 

and  want  of  coini-leWneia  to  which  tho  Engltah  smd.ut  of  EiiBliah 

■Ilbtoutaat,  and  Indeed  pntly  DCcNy  (paiklne^  t^oitalTGA.'— £eikoLilUi>iii. 


WiUiam  Bhukwood  and  Sotii 


GSOaBAPHY. 


Eighth  Thouiand. 
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plete development  of  the  lUver  Systems  of  the  Globe.      By  the 
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publication.    Crown  8yo,  pp.  688.    7s.  6d. 
This  volume — the  result  of  many  years'  unremitting  application — ^is 
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In  this  edition  the  entire  work  has  be^  subjected  to  another 
thorough  revision.  All  political  changes  are  carefully  represented ;  the 
social,  mdustrial,  and  commercial  statistics  of  i^  countries  are  brou^^t 
down  to  the  latest  dates :  and  the  rapid  progress  of  geographical  dis- 
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Educational  Works. 


OPINIONS  OF  DB  MACKAT'B  GEOGRAPHICAL  SERIES. 


It  of  tbe  Rarol  Geo, 


■HA  bin  deacripiioD  riftba  [ihyilcal  g«ot 
Lfufl  bull  ur  geoLngical  BtrufiLuro.    it  !■ 


I  prodigioui  iimjr  o(  geognpblGiI  (i 


I 
I 


A.  KEITH  JOHNSTON,  LL.D,,  F.R.S.E.,  F.K.O.B.,  aM.  Oeographai 
far  SDOtluid.  Autbor  of  tbe  ■Royid  AtUs.'  &c,  Ac— Tbere  ia  no  wnrk 
or  U.s  kind  In  lils  or  »ny  otber  iBiujmijfB,  tiiciwn  to  mis.  which  coinu  lo  uoBr 
D.;  iiliol  or  jwfeutloD  tu  a  >clioaI-tH»k.  on  lbs  liuporUiit  anbjocl  of  nbich  il 

O.  BICKEHTON,  Eaq.,  Edlobargb  Instltotlon.— I  hlvo_  hooo  lod  W  fnrm 

■JiBii  ni«l  ..iMble  toBtojea  la  Iha  BlabomW  T.hls  o(  'Hin,r.|3iu.iii*  iwl  TuUa, 

guM  lilu  nu;  b»  obtalnaa  by  iLa  iiiii'll  of  lbs  DBtunl  u  wsU  u  u!i  jiulltiisi] 
.  1  .. — ^.^  -.  .,  _ ,-  — ..  --..iiiry.    On  lU  IP-" ■-■'  ■-"'■ 

flVi'l^lif''' 
u>  mil  aniiniiito(gwi(,T«pl.y. 

RICHARD  D.  ORAHAM,  I 


1  Muter,  CollFgo  fbr  Danithten  of 
niiuBwiB  uj  (□«  ^^aurca  oi  auoiiAiii]  Bjid  of  FnifBuara  In  th4  Seottlab 
PttivariillB*.— Nd  torli  irtth  whlob  I  kiu  najuuiileit  kj  ainjily  fuIDli  Uie  rou- 
^Ittooaofii'BrfBct  tsit-bookooDialuiiisTtulanbjMilaf  wblobit  tnaU.aa  lli 
llicluy')  ■ElamtnU  «r  Hmlcni  D«(ni|>hy.'  to  hilnnn  udteouncy  of  ir. 
\u\9l,  Ld  tb«  vieoUQc  gmnplDg  ot  Auitii,  eoiablticd  hHUi  oleamoia  tod  ilm^tUclty 
d(  HtiCflUiDutH  It  Atanilj  alutiB,  vid  Ifiivoi'  ibiioal  uciUjing  lo  be  ilealriKl  iti  tlia 
ir*T  o(  ItnpioTeiDsnI.  Bmlneotty  Dued,  bj  rsuoii  of  Lbia  euwptloul  varlelv 
and  tboroaubtiiiH,  to  lantaU  Ihe  roqalmaanti  olblEber  sduciClon,  Itli  ucipi 
rltbonta  liTing  iDlanat,  itblob  olipiiJi  Id  Uieiut<iUlgiiiiiiiolordimn'pu]<IN. 

dBTFlapiDsnU  In  (taograi.blcal  muhbiie,  aocuMlsIr  tibllillliig  botb  tlia  tnx-nt 


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** '  There  is  only  one  History  of  India,  and  thai  is  Marshman's,'  exclaimed  a 

critic  when  the  original  three-volume  edition  of  this  l*ook  ap])eared  some  years 

ago.     He  had  read  them  all,  and  a  whole  library  of  liooks  referring  to  peril ><ls 

of  the  history,  and  Uiis  was  his  conclusion.    It  is  a  wise  and  a  just  verdict."— 

/>ai2y  lieview. 

THE  LIPE  AND  LABOURS  OP  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 

A  Continuous  Narrative  for  Schools  and  Bible-Classes.   By  Cuaklks 

MiOHiK,  M.A.       Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlai^ged.      Fcap. 

8vo,  cloth.     Is. 

'*  A  succinct,  yet  clear  and  comprehensive,  view  of  the  life  and  labours 

of  the  great  A{K>stle.    The  story  of  Paul's  life,  so  replete  with  spirit-stirrinfj 

incidents,  is  told  in  a  manner  eztremelv  well  fitted  to  arrest  the  attention  of 

advanced  pupils,  and  we  can  with  confidence  commend  this  little  work  as  an 

admirable  text-book  for  Bible-classes." — Hatumal  Educational  Gazette. 


ENGLISH  PROSE  COMPOSITION  ;   A  Practical  Manual 

FOR  Use  in  Schools.     By  James  Currie,  M.A.,  Princiiial  of 

the  Church  of  Scotland  Training  College,  Edinburgh.      Thirty- 

Second  Thousand.     Is.  6d. 

"  We  do  not  remember  having  seen  a  work  so  completely  to  onr  minds  as  this, 

which  combines  sound  theory  with  judicious  practice.     Proceeding  steji  by 

ste]),  it  advances  from  tlie  formation  of  the  shortest  sentences  to  the  comj>osi*- 

tion  of  complete  essays,  the  pupil  l»eing  everywliere  furnished  with  all  needful 

assistance  in  the  way  of  models  and  hints.    Noltody  can  work  through  such  a 

l*ook  as  this  without  thoroughly  auderstanding  the  structure  of  sentences, 

and  acquiring  facility  in  arranging  and  expressing  his  thoughts  appropriately. 

It  ought  to  be  extensively  used." — Athenceum. 

A    MANUAL    OP    ENGLISH     PROSE     LITERATURE, 

Biographical  and  Critical :  desigiied  ni.'iinlv  to  show  characteristics 
of  style.    By  W.  Minto,  M.A.    Crown  8vo.     lOs.  6d. 


Eduea&inal  Works. 


CLASSICAL    TEXT-BOOKS. 


I 


ADITDS  FACII.IOBES:  An  Caey  L&tiii  OoDBtraing  Book, 
with  OomplBte  VcMsbnlary.  By  A.  W.  Potts,  H.A.,  LU.D.. 
Uead-Mmster  of  tbe  Fettes  College.  Edisliargli,  and  BOisetilDC 
FbUow  orSl  Jotn'i  CoIlBee.  Cumiritlge  :  and  tbp  Rev.  C.  DiRKELX, 
M.A,,  Head-Uwitflr  of  Cargilfibld  Prbpftratory  School,  EdtD>>iin:^ 
mnii  lalf  SohuUr  of  Pambrokf  ind  Downing  CoDegos,  CBmbriiige. 
SimL  Edition.    Tcap.  Bvo.     &.  &1. 

ADITDS  FACILIORES  GBABCL      An  Buy  Gr»ek  Om- 

■IraiDE  Book,  with  CompleU  VoisbuLuy.  By  Uu  Sun  AoTBOBt. 
SscOQd  BditioD.     Fcap.  8va.     3s. 

A  PASALLEL  STKTAX     Greek  end  Letin  for  Begiimen, 

with  EiBTciBoB  and  B  Groak  Tocabularj,  Bj  the  Rtt.  Hiebbet 
W,  SirKTC-KuraEEBOBT,  LL.M.,  Trin.  CoU,,  Csmbrideo;  Hsad- 
Uuter  of  SunDiaehill  Houbb,  Amoti  Author  of  '  Oreak  Terbi  lor 
Begisaeim,'  An.     Crown  Sro.     3a. 

PRACTIOAX.    EUDIMENTS     OF    THE    LATIN    LAK- 

;UA(iE;  Or.  L«TIN  FiiiiKS  iKD  Ekqusb   Boots.     ComprisiiiB 


English  Derivatire  Eibtc 
Cpurst,  boUi  for  English  u 
Baetar  of  Uu  Bi^b  Euhoo 
6to,  pp.  Iflt.     1b.  Ed. 


rigliahj    Eueliflh-Latin,   ■ 
B  ■   BomrdeU  Pint  Ls' 


d  Bdlljon.  Crows 


I 


D.C.L.     >"cw  Eitition.    Cron-n  8vo.    3s.  fid. 

EUl-BS  AND  EXEBOIBEB   IN   HDHEBIC  AND  ATTIC 

(JREEK  ;   to  ithiob  n  artiisd  *  sliort  SjBiaiu  oi  Greek  ProsoJj-. 
Bf  the  Same.     Ke«-  EJition,     Crown  Bvo,     &.  6d. 

GREEK   EXTRACTS,   WITH    NOTES   AND   LEXICON. 

Kcir  tne    Um^   cI  Juuioi'  Cta^sES.      ilj  tbe  b4une.     New  Kditiou, 

GERMAN    LITEKATIJRB. 

A  HANDT  HAN  DAT.  OF  GEBKAN  LITEBATDBB.     For 

Schools,  Civil  Service  Compenitians,  and  University  LoaJ  EiuB' 
iutJoni.     By  M.  F.  EEnt.     Foap.  cloth.     Ss. 
A    TBEAStJRT    OF    THE    ENGLISH    AND    GEBHAN 

LAjVCUAGE-S.     Oompiled   vaa,    the  belt  Aillhora  and   Leiioo- 
■  iiKUsgeg.     Adapted  to  the  Ose  of  Scboola,  S 

•U'  Geirnnn-Enfliab  t 
ft  Ph.D.,  of  tl*  Univenilj  of  Guttingen, 


8  IVU/iam  Blackwood  and  Sonf 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


A  MANUAL  OF  ZOOLOGY,  for  the  Use  of  Stadenta. 
With  a  General  Introduction  on  the  Principles  of  Zoology.  By 
liENRT  ALLBTVE  NICHOLSON,  M.D.,  D.So.,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  FTu.S.E.» 
F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Natuial  Bistory  in  the  University  of  St 
AndrewB.  Fifth  SkUtion,  reyiMd  andgreatly  enlarged.  Crown 
8vo,  pp.  816,  with  894  Engravings  on  \^^>od.  14s. 
**  It  is  the  beat  manual  of  soology  yet  publislied,  uot  merely  in  England,  but 

In  Europe."— PaU  MaU  GautU, 
*'The  best  treatise  on  Zoology  in  moderate  comitass  that  we  possess.**— 

LancU, 

TEXT-BOOK    OF    ZOOLOQT,    for  the  Use   of    Schools. 

By  the  Same.     Third   Edition,  enlarged.    Crown  8vo,  with  188 

Engravings  on  Wood.    6e. 
**Thi8  capital  introduction  to  natural  history  is  illustrated  and  well  got  up 
In  every  way.    We  should  be  glad  to  see  it  generally  used  in  schools."— i/eilv> 
toL  Prtu  and  Cireular. 

INTRODUCTORY  TEXT- BOOK  OF  ZOOLOGY,  for 

THE  UsB  OF  Junior  Classes.    By  the  Same.     Fourth  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged,  with  156  Engravings.    3s. 
**  Very  suitable  for  Junior  classes  in  schools.    There  is  no  reason  why  any  one 
should  not  become  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  the  science,  and  the  fkcts 
on  which  they  are  based,  as  set  forth  in  this  volume." — Lamest. 

**  Nothing  can  be  better  adapted  to  its  object  than  this  cheap  and  well- 
written  Introduction."— London  Quarterly  R$view. 

OUTLINES   OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,  for  Beginners; 

being  Descriptions  of  a  Progressive  Series  of  Zoological  Types.     By 
the  Same.     Second  Edition.    With  52  Engravings.    Is.  6d. 
** There  has  been  no   book  since   Patterson's  well   known    'Zoology  for 
Schools'  that  has  so  completely  provided  for  the  class  to  which  it  is  addressed 
as  the  capital  little  volume  by  Vr  Nicholson."— Po2>u2ar  Science  Review. 

EXAMINATIONS    IN    NATURAL    HISTORY;  being  a 

Progressive  Series  of  Questions  adapted  to  the  Author's  Introduc- 
tory and  Advanced  Text- Books  and  the  Student's  Manual  of  Zoo- 
logy.   By  the  Same.    Is. 

INTRODUCTION    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    BIOLOGY. 

By  the  Same.    Crown  8vo,  with  numerous  Engravings.    5s. 

A  MANUAL  OF  PALJEONTOLOGY,  for  the  Use  of  Stu- 
DENTS.  With  a  General  Introduction  on  the  Principles  of  PalsBon- 
tology.  By  the  Same.  Second  Edition.  2  vols.  8vo,  with  722 
Engravings.    42s. 

THE    ANCIENT    LIFE -HISTORY    OF    THE    EARTH. 

An  Outline  of  the  Principles  and  Leading  Facts  of  Paleeontological 
Sdeoce.  By  the  Same.  With  a  Glossary  and  Index.  In  crown 
hvo»  with  270  Eogrikrings.    10s.  6d. 


Elereuth  Sditioii. 
INTRODnCTOHY    TEST-BOOK    OP    GEOLOGY. 
ivm  PiOR,  I.L,D.,  Etc.,  I'rofesBor  of  Geologv  in  Ilia  I)c 
diversity  CoU«ge  of  Ph>Blcii1  Sdeuce,  Newcastle     WiLh  El 
la  on  Wood,  sad  Olotsarml  Judex.    2a.  ej. 


^    drorm 


.With  En),'rai-ui2B,  aud  Glasas  . 
'erias.    By  tbu  Same.    Revised  and  eularged.    7b.  6iL 
9  ttAve  CBrefuUv  road  this  tnily  utla^ictory  book,  and  do  not  hanltate  L 

at  LI  Ifl  an  OXCellailt  COUllieUdlDID  at  the  grtnl  bntR  nf  l^w^lniT    anA  wrll 

a  iTDIIirDl  and  pLiloaopUio  ■i'lni.~^£diit'-     '^ 
I  a  school-book  DoUiliig  caa  milch  the  A      . 
iTeatar  FAgb  or  NewcastJa  " — iSec/M-nia'  Majjatine, 
t  kuon  of  DO  iDtiodactloo  ODCUIuing  s  larKer  kid 


'^Eiintmri/h  PhiloKphicaX  Jovmal 


gGTanth  Edition. 
THE     GEOLOGICAL     EXAHINATOB.     A     FroKreasiva 

Series  of  Queationa,  adii|jted  to  the  lutroductory  and  Advouceil 
Text-Books  of  Geology.  Prepared  to  assist  Teacliera  In  [nuniiit; 
their  ExsuiiualioDs,  and  Students  ia  le^itiug  their  own  Progress  and 
ProBcieiicj.     By  the  Sania.     yJ. 

Slith  EdltlOD. 

THE    CBDST   OF    THE    EABTH;    A   Haody   Ontlise  of 

GEOLOcr.     By  the  Same.     Is. 

"in  euunontly  iatlstaoloiy  work,  glilng,  tn  less  than  100  ]«({ei,  an  idmlr- 

e  of  tba  qniooU^est  ws  posatjas,  to  ao  Inu^eut  sdjoalulsiice  with  ffeiilit- 

"  Of  singolar  loerit  for  lu  eleamess  and  tniatworttiy  charaotar." — SUndaf± 

Turd  Edition,  Enlarged. 

GEOLOGY    FOR    UENEBAL    READERS.     A    Series    of 

Popolar  SketcheH  In  Geology  and  l'alii«niolot;y.    By  the  Same.  G-,. 


-ThlsU 


[r  11^'i 


'—Gtittofficui  JUrifon 


1  the  asm 


BTN0PSE8    OF     SUBJECTS     tttQght    in  the   Geoloeical 
Clara.  College  of  Physical  Science,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  UuiversiU 
of  Durham.     By  the  Same.     Fcap.  cloth.     Sa.  6d. 
Second  Edition,  Enlarged. 

HANDBOOK    OF    GEOLOGICAL    TERMS,    GEOLOGY, 
AKO  PUVStCALGKOGRAl-HY,     By  Ihe  Sajue.    7<.  fld. 


1  o  Wiiliatn  Blackwood  and  Sonf 


QT^OIaOOtY— Continued. 

CHIPS    AND    CHAPTEBS.     A  Book  for  Amateurs  and 
Youug  Geologiffta.    By  David  Paob,  LL.D.,  Etc    6s. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  QEOLOaY.      A  Brief  Beview  of 

the  Aim,  Soope,  and  Character  of  Geologica)  luquiry.      By  the 
Same.     Fcap.  8vo.    88.  6d. 

Fr<m.  the  'Saturday  Review,* 

**  Few  of  our  band-lioolu  of  popuUr  sdence  can  be  said  to  have  greater  or 
more  decisive  merit  than  those  of  Mr  Page  on  Geology  and  Palieontology. 
They  are  dear  and  vigorous  in  style,  they  never  oppress  Uk"  reader  with  a 
{■edantic  dispUy  of  learning,  nor  overwhelm  him  with  a  |)otnTM>iu>  and  sniier- 
flnoas  terrainology ;  and  they  have  the  happy  art  of  taking  him  straightway 
to  Uie  face  of  nature  herself,  instead  of  leading  him  by  Uie  tortuous  and  bewll. 
dering  iiaths  of  uchuical  system  and  artificial  classification." 


AGRICULTURE. 

CATECHISM    OF    PBACTICAL    AQBICULTUBE.     By 

llENRT  Stephens,  F.R.S.iil.  Author  of  the  'Book  of  the  Farm.* 
A  New  Edition.     With  Engraviugs.     Is. 

"Teachers  will  find  in  this  little  volume  an  admirable  course  of  instruction 
In  practical  a^culture->that  is,  the  outlines  which  they  may  easily  fill  up ; 
anu  bv  following  the  hints  given  in  Mr  Steplieus'  preface,*  the  course  would 
Kiarceiy  fail  to  be  quite  interesting,  as  well  as  of  great  practical  beneGt. 
Lnnled  proprietors  and  fkrmers  might  with  propriety  encourage  the  introduc> 
tion  of  this  work  into  schools." — Aherdun  JoturnaL' 

PBOFESSOB    JOHNSTON*S    CATECHISM    OF    AOBI- 

CULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  A  New  Editfon,  revised  and  ex- 
tended by  Charles  A.  Cameaon,  M.D.,  1.K.G.S.L,  Etc  With 
Engravings.     Is. 

PBOFESSOB    JOHNSTON*S    ELEMENTS     OF    AOBI- 

CULTURAL  CHEMISTRY  AND  GEOLOGY.  Eleventh  Edi- 
tion.  revised  and  brongbt  down  to  the  present  time,  by  Charles 
A.  Cameron,  M.D.,  F.R.G.S.I.,  Etc    Foolscap.    68.  6d. 


POPUIiAR    CHEMISTRY. 

PBOFESSOB  JOHNSTON*S  CHBMISTBY  OF  COMMON 

LIFE.  New  Edition,  revised  and  brought  down  to  the  present 
time  By  Arthur  Herbert  Church,  M.A.  Oxon.,  Anther  of 
'  Food,  its  Sources,  Constituents,  and  User ; '  '  The  Laboratory 
Guide  for  Agricultural  Students,'  &c  Illustrated  with  Maps  and 
102  Engravings  on  Wood.    Crown  8vo,  pp.  618.    78.  6d. 


««' 


No  popular  scientific  work  that  has  ever  been  published  has  been  more 
generally  and  deservedly  appreciated  than  the  late  Professor  Johnston's 
'Chemistry  of  Common  Life.^  ...  It  remains  unrivalled  as  a  clear,  inter- 
esting, comprehensive,  and  exact  treatise  npon  the  important  subjects  with 
which  it  deals.  .  .  .  The  book  is  one  which  not  only  every  student  but 
every  educated  person  who  lives  should  read,  and  keep  to  refer  to."^Mark 
Lane  Bxpreu, 


PHYSIOAi    GEOGEAPHY,    &c. 

INTRODUCTORY   TEXT-BOOB    OF   PHYSICAL   G 

GRAPUY.  Witli  SkaUIi-Ma]iB  Bad  Illuatrationa.  By  I, 
Paqe,  LI..D.,  Etc.,  Author  of  Text-BookB  of  GeolaEy.  I 
Edition.     Sa.  fld. 


Ol-booh   0! 


:e  priv.le 


"& 


ADVANCED  TEXT-BOOK  OF  PHYSICAL  QEOQRAPHY. 

With  BDgravinffs.     By  the  Same.     Second  Kriiiion.     5a, 
"  A  tberanghlj  giwd  Tsil-aook  of  Phyilcul  Gr.igni<liy."-SaUTdi2i  Kivltn. 
EXAMINATIONS    ON    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.      A 


ELEMENTS  OF  PHTBIOQBAFHY  AND  PHYSICAL 
GEOQRAPBY.  With  aiprasa  rafBrencB  to  the  Instruotions 
recently  iuned  hy  the  SoiencB  and  Art  Department  By  the  Rtv. 
Albi,  Mack*t,  LL.D.,  F.R0.8.,  AotW  of  'A  Manniil  of 
Modam  Geogmphy.  Mathani«tic«l,  Phyiicsi,  ud  Politicml,'  tc. 
With  nnmflpoua  lUnitrstioni.  15tb  Thousand,  pp.  160.  la.  Art. 
COMPARATIVE    GEOGRAPHY.      By   CARL    RITTEk. 

Traniilated  by  W.  L  Gaijk.     Fuiip.  35.  fi.l. 

INTKODDOTORY  TEXT-BOOK  OP  METEOROLOGY. 

By  ALKXANlJiMi  BOCBAN,  11. A.,  K.ll.B.K.,  Eocretary  of  iLe  Si-ot- 

tiah  Motoorologlcal  SociBty,  Authni  of  'IIsDdy  Book  of  Sleteor- 

" o—   .....I.  B  (i^ioured  Charts  and  other  Kugrav- 


ology,"  be    Crown 
ingg.     Pp.  218.     4a.  Hd. 
■■  A  h>ndT  comieniUimi  o(  lleleorolciCT  by 


>  of  the  n 


BOTANY. 

A   MANUAL  OP  BOTANY,  Analomieal  and  PhVRiologice 
For  the   Ua«  of  .Sludants.      By  Robkbt   BH'.wk,    M.A..  Mt.I. 
F.K.0.8.     Cfovra  8vo,  with  numeroua  Illmtration*.     12a.  fid. 
"We  hive  no  heallittOB  tn  leoomniendlng  tfali  TotDiDt  to  onr  nEden 

l-fiDg  Uje  belt  And  niont  rellilili  of  iht  nmuy  nnrkt  ee  botuiT  ret  Luued 

brtia  Oaicllt.  "' '  nj.  —    i 


1 2  IVilUapn  Blackwood  and  Soni 


MATHEMATICS,    &a 


THE  THEOBT  OF  ARITHMETIO.  By  David  Mann, 
F.R.S.E.,  Mathematical  Master,  Royal  High  School  of  Edinburgh. 
Crown  8vo,  pp.  294.    ^8. 

ELEMENTART     ARITHMETIO.        By     Edward    Sang, 

F.R.S.E.  Tliis  Treatise  is  intended  to  supply  the  ^eat  desidftr- 
atum  of  an  intellectual  instead  of  a  routine  course  of  instruction  in 
Arithmetic.     Post  8vo.    5s. 

THE  HIGHER  ARITHMETIO.  By  the  Same.  Being 
a  Sequel  to  *  Elementary  Arithmetic.*    Crown  8vo.    5s. 

FIVE  -  PLACE  LOGARITHMS.    Arranged    by  the  Same. 

Sixpence.     For  the  Waistcoat- Pocket. 

TREATISE  ON  ARITHMETIC,  with  nnmerons  Exercises 
for  Teaching  in  Classes.  By  Jamks  Watsok,  one  of  the  Ma&ters 
of-Heriot's  Hospital.    Foolscap.     Is. 

PRIMER  OF  GEOMETRT.  An  Easy  Introduction  to  the 
Pi-oi>ositious  of  Euclid.  By  FiUNCis  Cuthbertson,  M .A.,  LL. D.» 
late  Fellow  of  Conius  Christi  College,  Cambridge ;  Head  Mathe- 
matical Master  of  the  City  of  Loudon  School    3d  Edition.   Is.  6d. 

**  The  selection  is  most  Judicious,  and  we  believe  the  plan  will  be  success- 
fuL"— iS;/«cttttor. 

A  GLOSSARY  OF  NAVIGATION.  Containing  the  De- 
finitions and  Propositions  of  the  Science,  Explanation  of  Terms, 
and  Description  of  Instruments.  By  the  Hev.  J.  B.  Harbokd, 
M.A.,  Assistant  Director  of  Education,  Admiralty.  Crown  8vo, 
Illustrated  with  Diagrams.    68. 

DEFINITIONS    AND    DIAGRAMS    IN    ASTRONOMY 

AND  NAVIGATION.     By  the  Same.    Is.  6d. 

ELEMENTARY  HAND-BOOK  OF  PHYSICS.  With  210 
Diagrams.  By  William  Kossiter,  F.K.A.S.,  &c.  Crown  8vo, 
pp.  390.    5s. 


*i 


A  singularly  interesting  Treatise  on  Physics,  founded  on  facts  aud 
phenomena  gained  at  first  nand  by  the  Author,  and  exitounded  in  a  style 
which  is  a  model  of  that  simplicity  and  ease  in  writing  which  betokens  mas- 
tery of  the  subjecl  To  those  who  require  a  non-mathematical  cxiK>8ition  of 
the  principles  of  Physics,  a  better  boolt  cannot  be  recommended. **>  PaU  Mali 


Eiliiealtonal  Works. 


ientaTj    philosophy. 


By  Sir  WILLIAM 

HAMILTON,  Bart.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Jletaphvaics  in  the 
University  of  Eiiinl>urgh.     EHited  by  the  Very  Rev.  H.  L.  MiN- 
BELL,  LL.D.,  Dnitn  of  St  Panl'e.anil  Joari  VKTTca,  M,A,,  Professor 
of  Logic  and  Rhetoric,  Olaegow.     2  Tola.  Svo.    24s. 
Third  EaitiDD. 

LECTURES   ON   LOGIC.      By  Sir   WILLIAM    HAMIL- 
TON, Burt.     Edited  by  the  Same.     2  vola.  8to.     2Js. 
Third  Edition. 

DISCDSSIONS  ON  PHILOSOPHY  AND  LITEEATDEE, 
EDUCATION    AND    UNIVERSITY   REFORM.     By  Sir  WtL- 


r,  Bart. 


21a. 


[few  Editicn. 
PHILOSOPHICAL    WORKS     OF    THE    LATE    JAMES 

FKEUERICK  FEURIER,  B.A,,  Oiod.,  U..D.,  ProfesBor  of  Moral 
Philosophy  and  Political  Econnmy  In  the  UniveraiCy  of  Si 
Andrewi.    3  vols,  crown  Svo.     'Hi.  Ud. 

The  following  are  sold  Separalely  :— 
INSTITUTES  OF  METAPUYSIC.     Third  Edition.     lOs.  Sd. 
LECTURES  ON  THE  EARLY  GREEK  PHILOSOPHY.    Sec- 

oui3  EdltioiL     10b.  GiL 
PHILOSOPHICAL    REMAINS,   (NcLCBlNO  TBK  Lectures  as 
EiRLV  Okkeui  PaiLOSnFHt.      Bililed  hy  Sir  AiEX.  GBi.vr,  - 
Bart.,  D.C.U,  and  Professor  LOGaLsaTON.     S  voli.  24a. 
Eighth  Edition. 
PORT    ROYAL   LOQIO.      Trucfllated   from   tho   French  r 
iviih  [iitrciiluitiun.  Notes,  and  Avin^nilii,     By  Thomas  Spekckh 
BiTNES,  LL.D,,  IVifesaar  of  Logic  »nd  Bngllah  Literature  in  tb* 
Unireraity  of  St  Andrews.     ISmo.     la. 
SeTenth  Edition. 
METHOD,    MEDITATIONS,     AND    PBIN0IPLE8    OP 
PHILOSOPHY  OF  DESCARTES.     Tranolatad  from  tho  original 
French  and  Latin.     With  a  New  latrodiiotory  Esniiy,  Hiitcrioa! 
and  Critloal,  on  the  CarWalaa  Philoeopliy.      By  JOSN  VeiTCa, 
LI.D..  Profesior  of  Logic  and   Rhetorio  in   the   UQiTeraity  or 
Glaagow.      Vlmo.    (is.  6il, 
THl  PHIL080PHT  OF   HISTOBT  IN   EDBOPE.    ToL 
1.,  ooDtalnln|  the  History  of  that  Philosophy  In  FHiHcnE  and  Gsn- 
■uiTT.    By  RoBEST  Flibt,  D.D.,  LL.Ii.,  Piofeuorof  DiTiaity  is 
the  UnlTenity  of  EdiDborgh.    8ra.    15s. 


14  William  Blackwood  and  Son^ 

PHILOSOPHICAL    CLASSICS 

FOR 

ENGLISH     READERS. 

EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  KNIGHT,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  University  of  St  Andrews. 


T 


HE  success  which  attended  the  experiment  of  introducing  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Classics  to  English  readers,  confirmed  the 
Publishers  in  their  original  intention  of  undertaking  a  similar 
series,  devoted  to  Foreign  European  Classics.  In  now  announcing 
the  extension  of  their  scheme  to  another  Series,  dealing  with  the 
chief  Philosophical  writers  of  modern  Europe,  from  Bacon  and 
Descartes  onwards,  the  Publishers  feel  certain  that  they  are  fillm^ 
up  a  blank  in  popular  literature.  A  growing  interest  in  Philo- 
sophy, arising  out  of  the  diffusion  of  Learning  and  the  progress  of 
Science,  is  one  of  the  marked  features  of  the  present  age. 

The  aim  of  this  Third  Series  will  be  to  tell  the  general  reader — 
who  cannot  possibly  peruse  the  entire  works  of  the  Philosophers — 
who  the  founders  of  the  chief  systems  were,  and  how  they  dealt 
with  the  great  questions  of  the  Universe  ;  to  give  an  outline  ot 
their  lives  and  characters ;  to  show  how  the  systems  were  con- 
nected with  the  individualities  of  the  writers,  how  they  received 
the  problem  of  Philosophy  from  their  predecessors,  with  what 
additions  they  handed  it  on  to  their  successors,  and  what  they 
thus  contributed  to  the  increasing  purpose  of  the  world's  thought 
and  its  organic  development ;  as  well  as  to  illustrate  the  questions 
that  engrossed  them  in  the  light  of  contemporary  discussion. 

The  Series  wUl  thus  unfold  the  History  of  Modern  Philosophy 
under  the  light  cast  upon  it  by  the  labours  of  the  chief  system- 
builders.  In  each  work  it  will  be  the  aim  of  the  i^Titers  to  trans- 
late the  discussion  out  of  the  dialect  of  the  Schools,  which  is  often 
too  technical,  and  which  presupposes  the  knowledge  of  a  special 
vocabulary,  into  the  language  of  ordinary  life.  If  the  philo- 
ophical  achievements  of  such  writers  as  Descartes,  Spinoza, 
Bacon,  Hobbes,  Locke,  Leibnitz,  Butler,  Berkeley,  Hume,  Stewart, 
Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  Cousin,  Comte,  and  Hamilton  (not  to  refer 
to  other  names),  were  thus  recorded, — and  the  discussion  popu- 
larised without  being  diluted, — it  is  believed  that  the  Series 
would  form  a  useful  assistance  to  the  student  of  Philosophy,  and 
be  of  much  value  to  the  general  reader.  A  prospectus  of  the 
Series,  and  a  detailed  list  of  the  writers,  will  speedily  be  an- 
nounced,   • 


Educational  Works. 


IS 


Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers. 

Edited  by  the  Rev.  W.  LUCAS  COLLINS,  M.A. 

Complete  in  28  vols.,  price  28.  6d.  each,  in  cloth  (sold  separately);  or  bound 
in  14  vols.,  with  calf  or  vellam  back,  for  £3,  lOs. 


CONTENTS. 


HoMist:  The  Iliad.  By  the  Edi- 
tor. 

Homer  :  The  Odyssey.  By  the  Edi- 
tor. 

Herodotus.    By  G.  C.  Swayne,  M.A. 

Xenopuon.  By  Sir  Alexander  Grant, 
Bart. 

Euripides.    By  W.  B.  Donne. 

Aristophanes.    By  the  Editor. 

Plato.    By  Clifton  W.  Collins,  M.A- 

LuciAN.    By  the  Editor. 

.fiscHYLUs.  By  Reginald  S.  Cop- 
leston,  D.D.  (now  Bishop  of  Col- 
ombo). 

Sophocles.  By  Clifton  W.  Collins, 
M.A. 

Hesiod  and  Theognis.  By  the  Rev. 
J.  Davies,  M.A. 

Greek  Anthology.  By  Lord  Neaves. 

ViRoiL.    By  the  Editor. 

Horace.    By  Theodore  Martin. 

Juv enal.    By  Edward  Walford,  M.  A. 


Plautus  and  Terence.    By  the  Edi- 
tor. 
The  Commentaries  of  CiSSAR.    By 

Anthony  Trollope. 
Tacitus.    By  W.  B.  Donne. 
Cicero.    By  the  Editor. 
Pliny's  Letters.    By  the  Rev.  Alfred 

Church,  M.A.,  and  the  Rev.  "W.  J. 

Brodribb,  M.A. 
LivY.    By  the  Editor. 
Ovid.    By  the  Rev.  A.  Church,  M.A. 
Catullus,  Tibullus,   and  Proper- 

Tius.    By  the  Rev.  James  Davies, 

M.A. 
Demosthenes.     By  the  Rev.  W.  J. 

Brodribb,  M.A. 
Aristotle.    By  Sir  Alexander  Grant, 

Bart.,  LL.D. 
Thucydides.    By  the  Editor. 
Lucretius.    By  W.  H.  Mallock. 
Pindar.    By  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Morice, 

M.A. 


*'  In  the  advertising  catalogues  we  sometimes  see  a  book  labelletl  as  one 
'  without  which  no  gentleman's  library  can  be  looked  upon  as  complete. '  It 
may  be  said  with  truth  that  no  popular  library  or  mechanic's  Institute  will  be 
properly  furnished  without  this  series.  .  .  .  These  handy  books  to  ancient 
classical  literature  are  at  the  same  time  as  attractive  to  the  scholar  as  they 
ought  to  be  to  the  English  reader.  We  think,  then,  tliat  they  are  destined  to 
attain  a  wide  and  enduring  circulation,  and  we  are  quite  sure  that  they  dcuerve 
it." — Wtstminster  Review. 

*'  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  too  highly  the  value  of  such  a  aeries  a.s  this  in 
giving  *  English  readers '  an  insight,  exact  as  far  as  it  goes,  into  those  olden 
times  which  are  so  remote  and  yet  to  many  of  us  so  close." — Saturday  Review, 

'*  We  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  to  recommend  the  other  vol- 
umes of  this  useful- series,  most  of  which  are  executed  with  discrimination  and 
ability." — Quarterly  Review, 


1 6       IV.  Blackwood  and  Son^  Educational  Works. 


Foreign  Classics  for  English  Readers. 

Edited  by  MRS  OLIPHANT. 

In  course  of  publication,  price  2s.  6d.  eacb. 

" The  wonderfal  and  well-deserved  success  of  the  'Ancient  Classics '  natu- 
rally led  to  the  extension  of  the  design;  and  the  kindred  series  of  '  Foreign 
Classics'  bids  fair  to  rival  its  predecessor  in  educational  value." — London 
Quarterly  Review.  

I.  DAHTE.    By  the  Editor. 

"We  consider  Mrs  Oliphant's  to  be  exactly  the  book  which  its  authoress  in- 
tended, and  a  very  grateful  and  opportune  boon  to  all  who  are  beginning  the 
study  of  Dante,  as  well  as  to  the  far  larger  class  of  readers  who,  without 
having  either  time  or  energy  for  so  arduous  a  task  as  that,  are  still  anxious 
to  acquire  a. clear  and  (for  their  pnrpose)  adequate  knowledge  of  the  genius 
and  writings  of  an  author  of  whom— far  more  truly  than  of  Montaigne — it 
may  be  said  that  he  is  the  first  author  whom  a  gentleman  is  ashamed  of  not 
kn  owing. " — Spectator. 

II.  VOLTAIRE.    By  Major-General  E.  B.  Hamlet. 

"  A  work  in  which  all  the  salient  points  of  a  complicated  and  puzzling  exist- 
ence are  brought  in  a  clear  and  striking  manner  into  a  genecal  view."— S^ur- 
day  Review. 

"  A  bright  and  judicious  little  book."—  Westminster  Review.  , 

III.  PASCAK    By  Principal  Tulloch. 

'•  The  result  of  Principal  TuUoch's  labours  is  a  little  volume  which  is  ex- 
cellently pitched  for  English  readers,  and,  avoiding  critical  questions,  collects 
iiitn  a  charming  miniature  all  that  can  be  most  interesting^  to  theuL" — Pall 
Mall  Gazette. 

IV.  PETRARCH.    By  Henry  Reeve. 

**  Thoroughly  well  done.  One  of  the  best  of  this  valuable  and  remarkable 
Beries."— Educational  Times. 

V.  GOETHE.    By  A.  Hatward,  Q.C. 

"  It  is  the  condensed  product  of  original  and  independent  study,  full  of 
sound  criticism,  instructive  comment,  and  piquant  reflection." — Tim^s. 

VI.  MOLIERE.    By  the  Editor,  and  P.  Tarver,  M.A. 
•*  An  excellent  little  yolnxne."— Westminster  Review. 
VIL  MONTAIGNE.    By  the  Rev.  W.  Lucas  Collins,  M.A. 
VIII.  RABEIjAIS.    By  Walter  Besant,  M.A. 
IX.  CAIjDERON.    ByK  J.  Hasell. 

X.  SAINT  SIMON.    By  Clifton  W.  Collins,  M.A. 
XI.  CERVANTES.    By  the  Editor. 


in    PREPARATION. 


CORNEILLB   AND    RACINE.     By 

Henry  M.  Trollope. 
SCHILLER.    By  James  Sime,  Author 

of  *  Life  of  Lessing.* 
ROUSSEAU.    By  Henry  Graham. 


LA    PONTAINR 
Collins,  M.A. 

MADAME     DE 
MADAME   DE 
Thackeray. 


By  Rev.  Canon 

SEVIGNE     AND 
STAEL.    By  Miss 


WILLIAM  BLACKWOOD  &  SONS,  EDmBUROH  and  Lom)ON. 


SIHETEBBTH  THO0SABD.— BE  VISED. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY  AND   PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


ExBUUUilion  Fkpera.     Price  Is.  Sd. 

By  the  Rev.  ALEZ.  MACKAY,  LL.D.,  F.E.G.B. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  REVIEWS. 
"  The  wall-kno'WD  and  BQoceaaful  writer  of  School  Gec^jraphies  step! 
into  the  gap  thoG  nuide,  with  his  BOcnrate  bnowledge,  comprehuiiBivc 
gnsp  of  &cli,  and  purer  of  prepmng  hia  inrormatiou  for  tolerably  e«sy 
nEsimilation  in  the  miads  of  titginiiers,  and  produoes  a  hook  which  is 
a  Eort  of  eiementary  eonipendinni  of  nenTly  nil  the  Bcienceb,  containing 
knowledge  op  to  the  latest  date.  .  .  .  WUI  prove  a,  really  niefnl  tert- 
boot"— Spectotor. 


e  pongraphE  umler  the  eubjec' 


.       ^    .  .  ,  1  teadines  n. 

therein,  and  has  Buoceeded  in  aondenahi^  a  vast  amonnt  of  infonn&tion 
into  tbiB  bqulII  space.  The  book,  which  is  illaBtrHted  by  woodcnte  h«re 
and  there,  and  provided  nith  a,  full  index,  will  douhtlesE  be  welcomed 
bv  Etudent-s  who  are  reading  for  e:caniinAtion  in  '  FhyHiography,*  and 
who  pievionsly  mnst  have  been  obliged  to  glean  their  infomation  frmn 
alai^e  nnmber  of  sspajnte  works." — The  Acadany. 

"The  book  lb  a  capital  one,  brimful  of  Information  broneht  down  to 
tiie  latest  date,  writt^  by  a  thoroughly  competent  hand,  «.nd  ndmirably 
arranged.  Teachers  will  dowel]  to  m^e  a  note  of  it." — Landrm  Edvai- 
tiotuU  Timis- 

'•  Dr  Mackay  has  giyen  ns  an  excellent  traatiBe,  which  PhyKJographers 
will  do  well  to  obtain  and  put  into  tlie  hands  of  their  ea|iab1e  papjle. 
,  The  UBwer  parts— the  additions  to  tte  tmhjBct  of  Physical  Geography — 
•re  eepedafly  viluable. " — The  Sehovimasltr, 

"Bially  a  capital  muHiiwi  t»  jiarw  for  even  advanced  (.ludents."— 
The  Graphic. 

"In  tliis  ughteenpenny  book  of  IfiO  pages  will  be  foimd  the  masterly. 

..J    —J :..  ,i,str«cta  of  phprtca'    -^ '-'-'■    — '-   — -     " 


I   Inoid,  and  c 


CltTsmuJt. 

"  TLe  naolt  is  that  a  volnme  has  been  produced  which  e ontaina  the 
[    MBXimum  of  informBtloD  in  the  minimnm  of  space. "^jVr<miU|7  Ailrrr- 

ents  of  phyiioal  acienee  it  will  be  valnsble  as  a  remiitiler 
h  whiclL  bat  for  such  a  book  as  thi^,  they  might  bp  in  danger  of 
g.  Sa>o6U,  and  rtodMts  ot  home,  will  welronie  this  vern  coni- 
n  volmiM."— /•*«  AiU. 


*'  The  plan  of  the  volume  is  admirable ;  its  style  is  lucid  and  simple, 
and  the  facts  are  marshalled  in  so  concise  and  accurate  a  form,  that  no 
student  will  have  any  difficulty  in  mastering  the  author's  teaching. 
The  numerous  illustrations  and  diagrams  greatly  elucidate  the  text,  and 
will  be  found  of  inestimable  assistance  to  the  learner :  and  in  fact,  it  is 
no  exaggeration  to  state  that  Dr  Mackay's  manual  is  in  every  respect 
the  best  and  cheapest  book  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats." — JS  inning - 
ham  Gazette. 

"  This  is  a  brief  but  admirably  condensed  manual  on  a  subject  inferior 
to  none  iu  interest.  .  .  .  We  need  hardly  say  the  learned  doctor  has 
fulfilled  his  self-imposed  task  with  great  felicity — fulness,  accuracy,  and 
perspicuity  are  combined,  and  the  result  is  a  text-book  of  paramount 
excellence." — Sheffield  Independent. 

"  The  introduction  of  a  book  of  this  wide  scope  makes  a  great  advance 
in  elementary  education,  and  in  the  volume  before  us  Dr  Mackay  deals 
with  the  elements  of  his  subject  in  a  very  comprehensive  way." — Liver- 
pool AWioti. 

*'The  '  Elements  of  Physiography'  presents  a  rapid  and  condensed, 
but  still  comprehensive,  survey  of  tne  leading  facts  in  the  various 
branches  of  the  new  science." — Scotsman. 

"A  valuable  addition  to  the  geographical  text-books  of  the  pub- 
lishers."— Ediriburgh  Daily  Revieio. 

'*  *  Physiography  and  Physical  Geography  *  is  one  of  the  most  compact 
handbooks  to  the  sciences  on  which  it  treats  to  be  found  in  the  whole 
range  of  modem  literature.  .  .  The  volume,  which  is  copiously 
illustrated,  is  one  which  should  be  in  the  possession  of  all  students 
taking  up  the  branch  of  Physiography — one  now  substituted  by  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  for  Physical  Geography."  —  Greerwck 
Advertiser. 

'*It  makes  one  sigh  to  think  that,  when  he  was  at  school,  he  should 
have  had  to  go  to  fifty  different  sources  for  the  knowledge  here  brought 
into  one  iocxxs.*'  —Dundee  Evening  News. 

"  As  a  summary  of  information  the  book  is  certainly  the  most  suitable 
for  present  wants  that  exists." — Ayr  Observer. 

"Dr  Mackay's  ability  as  a  geographer  is  well  known,  and  in  his 
present  work  we  find  the  same  characteristics  as  in  those  that  have 
preceded  it.  The  book  will,  we  are  satisfied,  meet  the  wants  of  teachers 
and  scholars  admirably,  and  the  private  student  will  find  it  very  con- 
venient and  useful." — Aberdeen  Free  Press. 

"  The  mass  of  information  conveyed  is  really  wonderful,  and  the 
author's  power  of  condensation  is  such,  that  we  think  the  pupil  who 
carefully  masters  the  present  treatise  ought  not  to  fail  at  the  examina- 
tion."— Irish  Tea^liers'  Journal. 

"  To  those  who  wish  a  general  view  of  the  subject  treated  of,  the  book 
is  invaluable,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  it  will  form  the  text-book  in 
national  and  other  schools." — Londonderry  Standard. 

*'  The  book  is  calculated  to  be  a  valuable  aid  to  students,  and  the 
explanations  are  rendered  clearer  than  they  could  otherwise  possibly  be, 
by  the  introduction  of  numerous  illustrations.  The  various  subjects  are 
treated  with  considerable  fulness  and  marked  ability." — Belfast  Whig. 


WILLIAM     BLACKWOOD     AND     SONS, 
EDINBURGH   K^T>  \kC>^\iQ>^.