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A MANUAIi

COACHINa

THIS EDITION IS LIMITED
TO FIFTEEN HUNDRED
COPIES PRINTED FROM
TYPE. ONE THOUSAND
FOR AMERICA AND FIVE
HUNDRED FOR ENGLAND

■•/

« ;-y

TO
MY FRIEND

WILLIAM G. TIFFAIVY

RECALLING

MANY PLEASANT HOURS

PASSED WITH HIM

BOTH ON AND OFF A COACH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE COACH

CHAPTER I

PAGES

Development of the Coach. — Simple Farm Wagon
Carriage-Part. Addition of the Seats and
Body. Early American 'Stage Waggon.' Use
OF Springs. English Coach at the End of the
Eighteenth Century. Word 'Tally-Ho' erro-
neously APPLIED ....... I-I5

CHAPTER II

General Character of a Coach. — Distinction be-
tween Coach and Drag . . . . . 16-18

CHAPTER III

Carriage- Part. — Axles, Wheels, Springs, Pole,

Lead-Bars ........ 19-60

CHAPTER IV
Body. — Boots, Driving-Seat, Roof-Seats, Painting 61-79

CHAPTER V

Accessories. — Brake, Skid, Lamps, Basket, Awning,

Tables, Lunch-Boxes, Tool-Box, Aprons . . 80-101

CHAPTER VI

Drag, Mail-Coach, Malle Poste, Diligence, Break,
Barouche Landau, Phaeton, Jaunting Car, Pri-
vate Omnibus, Cape Cart ..... 102- 11 5

^ TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII

PAGES

American Coach. — Constructive Peculiarities, Di-
mensions . . . . . . . . .116122

CHAPTER VIII

COiMPARISON OF COACHES. — CaRE OF A COACH, CoST

OF Coaches ........ 123-128

CHAPTER IX

Weight of a Coach. — Distribution of Weight, Cen-
tre OF Gravity, Effect of Centrifugal Force 129-146

CHAPTER X

Draught. — Rolling Friction, Axle Friction, Total
Resistance to Motion, Traction, Roads, Systems
OF Road Making, Action of Horse in Draught 147-193

CHAPTER XI

Harness. — Details oi^' Harness. Bridle, Bit, Bear-
ing-Rein, Collar, Hames, Traces, Pad, Reins,
Cock Horse Harness, Leather, Mountings, Spare
Parts to carry, Care of Harness . . . 194-246

CHAPTER XII

Harnessing. — Putting-to, Bearing-Reins, Coupling-
Reins, Buckling Reins 247-273

CHAPTER XIII

Different Arrangements of Harness. — Tandem,
Three Abreast, Pickaxe, Unicorn, Six Horses,
Posting, Daumont . ...... 274-284

TABLE OF CONTENTS ^^

CHAPTER XIV

PAGES

Driving. — Getting Up, Starting, Places of Reins
IN Hand, Seat, Fingering, Turning, Stopping,
Getting Down, Various Methods of Finger-
ing, American Method, Turning and Backing,
Driving Apparatus 285-348

CHAPTER XV
General Observations on Driving. — Bitting, and

Handling Horses 349-379

CHAPTER XVI
Horses for Coach or Drag. Cost of Private

Coaching 380-389

CHAPTER XVII
The Whip and its Use. Salute .... 390-414

CHAPTER XVIII
The Men. Duties and Dress. Coaching Dress . 415-426

CHAPTER XIX

Public Coaching. — Putting a Coach on the Road,
Length of Stages, Time-Tables, Time-Charts,
Coachman's and Guard's Duties and Dress,
Changes 427-464

CHAPTER X X
Road Coaching generally.— Speed, Distances driven,

American Coaching, English Coaching . • 465-483

CHAPTER XXI
Coaching Trips, Coaching Club Trips . . • 484-489

^" TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXII

PAGES

The Rule of the Road ...... 490-501

CHAPTER XXIII
Accidents ......... 502-509

CHAPTER XXIV

Coaching Clubs. — Rules and Customs of Meets,

Judging at Shows, Driving Competitions . . 510-530

CHAPTER XXV
Music for the Horn 531-532

CHAPTER XXVI
Coaching Medals or Tokens ..... 533-535

CHAPTER XXVII
List of Books. French Names for Parts of Harness 536-566

Index 567-579

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE PAGE

Coach and Horses. {From a p/wtograp/i. Re-drawn by
Harrv Finney) .... Frontispiece

A May Morning in the Park. {From a painting by

Thomas Eakins) i

I. The London and Oxford Coach. Phototype of a Painting
by CoRDERY, 1792, showing the Basket, the Front
Boot attached to the Carriage-Part, and the Suspension
of the Body. {Reproduced by the kind per7nission
of Messrs Dickinson &^ Foster, New Bond Street,
London) . . . . . . . . .10

II. Drawing of same Coach. {Half -inch scale, with trans-
parent sheet) . . . . . . . .10

III. The Carriage-Part of a Coach in Isometrical Perspective.

{Scale one-half inch to the foot) . . . .20

IV. Phototype of Two Etchings from a Political Pamphlet of

1766, showing Coaches of the period . . -71

V. Phototype of a Print of Hogarth's, 'The Inn Yard,'
1747, showing a Coach with Passengers on Top, and
an Old Woman in the Basket. {One-half the size
of the original priiit) . . . . . -7-

VI. Phototype of an Etching by Rowlandsox, 1793. A
Coach with Two Extra Horses, ridden by a Postilion ;
the Traces of the Leaders attached to the Traces of
the Wheelers and not to Lead-Bars , . .72

VII. Mail-Coach by Guiet, 1892. Built for Mr W. G. Tiffany,
on the hnes of the Old Enghsh Mail-Coach. Used on
the Trouville trip in July 1892. {Drawn to a half-inch
scale, with transparent sheet) . . . . .102

''i^ LIST OF PLATES

PLATE PAGE

VIIL French Malle Poste of the period of 1830. {From a

ifrwiuing by Victor Adam) . . . .104

IX. Swiss DiHgence on the Julier Pass, 1891 . . . 105

X. French Posting with a Private Travelling-Carriage,
early part of the present century. {Rcprodicciion
of a dra^vmg by Alfred de Dreux) . . .107

XL Char a bancs, for five persons and two servants.
{Drawn to a half-inch scale, with transparent
sheet) . . . . . . . . .Ill

Xn. American Stage-Coach, as made by The Abbot Down-
ing Company, Concord, N. H., and generally
known as a Concord Coach. {Drawn to a half

inch scale, witJi transparent sheet) . . .116

XIIL Concord Coach, rear view. {Half inch scale) . .116

XIV. Concord Coach, Plan of Carriage-Part. {Half inch

scale) . . . . . . . . .116

XV. Heavy Concord Coach, as sent to the West, to Africa,
and to Australia. {Phototype from an original
photograph) . . . . . . .116

XVI. Light Concord Coach, as used in the White Mountains.

{Phototype frojn a)i original photograph) . .116

XVII. Road-Coach, by Breavster & Co., of Broome Street,
New York, The 'Vivid,' used on the road between
Philadelphia and New York. {Drawn to a half-
inch scale, witli transparent sheet) . . . 1 24

XVIII. Standard Park-Drag, by Brewster & Co., of Broome
Street, New York. {Drawti to a half inch scale,
with transparent sheet) . . . . . 1 24

XIX. Road-Coach, by Guiet & Co., Paris. {Drawn to a

half-inch scale, with transparent sheet) . . .124

.XX. Drag, by Barker & Co., London. Built for the
Author in 1873. {Drawn to a half inch scale,
with transparent sheet) . . . . . 1 24

LIST OF PLATES

XXL Front and Rear Views of same Drag. (Half-inch

scale) . . . . . . . .124

XXIL Road-Coach, by F. & R. Shanks, London. {Drawn

to a half-inch scale, with transparent sheet) 124

XXIIL Tipping Angles of a Coach
XXIV. Cock Horse Harness
XXV\ Lead-Rein passed through Terrets
XXVL Bitting and CoupHng Diagram
XXVIL Position on the Box .
XXVin. Turning Diagrams .
XXIX. Team for Drag
XXX. Half-bred Mare 'Josephine'
XXXI. The Salute
XXXII. Time-Chart

XXXIII. Lead-Rein passed through Terrets

XXXIV. Pole and Bars on front of Coach

135
236
249
270
302
340
380
380
414

444
460

517

The Title-Page Vignette is from a painting by Harry Finney.

The Wood Engravings of Harness and of Hands are by James D.
Cooper, of London.

The Five-Horse Vetttirino {Y\%. 131) is from an original drawing
by G. La Rocque, of Paris.

A MANUAL OF COACHING

THE COACH

CHAPTER I

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

The History and Evolution of the Coach '•' will
be here treated of only so far as it is necessary to
assist the reader to understand the general con-
struction of a coach before we proceed to details.

Those who wish to study the subject at length
are referred to Thrupp's History of Coaches, to
Stratton's Tlie World on Wheels, and to Adams's
English Pleasure Carriages, which give much that
is interesting on the subject, including copious ex-
tracts from earlier writers ; and also to the other
authorities named in the ' List of books' given in
Chapter XXVII. , where will be found the full tides
of the books referred to in the text.

The earliest vehicle which bears any resemblance
to a coach (its predecessors being merely cars on

* The word 'coach,' always with nearly the same sound, is found
in almost all European languages during the last four centuries. It
is variously spelled cache, caroche, kutsche, koets, kaisi. In France
the name was also applied to a passenger boat.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

CH. I

Fig.

two wheels) is the farm wagon of the ancient Ro-
mans which still exists, with but little chanoe, in
almost all agricultural countries. It consists of a
hind axle with its two wheels, to which the perch
is attached, and a front axle, with usually somewhat
smaller wheels, so connected by a bolt to the front
end of the perch as to turn about it (Fig. i).
In order to make a rigid connection between the

hind axle and the
perch, two pieces,
called hounds, or
wings, are fast-
ened to the perch
and to the axle,
or, in ruder con-
structions, a forked branch of a tree, all in one
piece, which rests upon the top of the perch, sup-
plies their place. If it is desirable to be able to
change the length of the wagon, the perch is made
to slide through the hind axle, and has in it a
number of holes, through any one of which a bolt
will fasten it and the hounds toofether. The front
end of the perch is firmly attached at right angles
to a bed or transom, somewhat shorter than the
front axle, upon which it rests, being connected with
the axle by a bolt (perch-bolt or king-bolt), which
permits the axle to turn underneath the bed. The
pole or tongue, fastened to the axle, completes the
simplest form of wagon. If it is intended for one
horse, a pair of shafts takes the place of the pole.

CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 3

A simple attachment of the pole to the axle being
deficient in strength, two hounds or futchells are
added, fastened to the axle near its ends and run-
ning out on the pole a short distance, and, in order
to support the pole more efficiently, their hinder
ends, prolonged, are connected by a cross bar, the
sway-bar, which bears against the under side of the
perch, and balances the weight of the pole. Some-
times the futchells are fastened directly to each
other in front, and the end of the pole, being forked,
is attached to them by a bolt. In this case, the
point of the pole must be supported by the harness,
as it is in a trotting wagon. For the purpose of
attaching the horses to the wagon, a double-tree
rests on the pole in front of the futchells, and is
secured to it by a pin which permits it to turn ; to
this double-tree are attached two swingle-trees.'''
Near the ends of the hind axle, two vertical stand-
ards are firmly fixed, and at the ends of the bed
in front are similar ones. Boards laid between

* There is some uncertainty as to the proper speUing of this word.
Bartlett, in his Dictionary of Americanisms, says that swingle-tree
is vulgar for single-tree, but Skeat in his Ety^nological Dictionary
says, under Swingle-tree, ' Corruptly called single-tree, whence the
' term double-tree has arisen to keep it company. ' ' A single-tree is
' fixed upon the end of another cross-piece called the dottble-trtQ,
' when two horses draw abreast," Haldeman (in Webster). Middle
' English, swingle-tre, spelt swyngletre in Fitzherbert On Hiis-
' bandry. The word tree here means a piece of timber as in axle-
' tree. The word swingle means a " swing-er," a thing that swings ;
' so named from the swinging motion, etc'

4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH CH. I

these, on the axle and on the bed, form the floor,
and other boards fastened vertically against them,
form the sides of a body. A wagon of this kind,
sometimes covered by a canopy, was undoubtedly
the first four-wheeled vehicle in which people were
carried.

The next advance was to suspend seats by means
of straps attached to the sides, whereby more com-
fort could be had than by sitting on the rigid car-
riage-part ; wagons thus arranged can be seen at
the present time in Switzerland.

Finally, a 'body,' distinct from the carriage-part,
was suspended from the points of the four stand-
ards, the fixed body having been removed, and this
form of carriage remained in use for a long time,
as is shown in prints as late as the end of the 17th
century.

About 1660 (Thrupp, p. 43), the 'Berlin' was in-
vented in Germany. In this, the floor of the body
was rounded and rested on long leather straps,
called thorough-braces, which ran from one stand-
ard to the other, and the under-carriaofe was fre-
quently made with two parallel perches for strength
and stiffness. The coachman's seat was on the
carriage-part, and not attached to the body.

We have now reached the form of carriage which
lasted until late in the i8th century, and which still
exists in the modern American ' Concord coach,'
with the modification of having the coachman's seat
placed on the body instead of on the carriage-part.

CH. I

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

It is sometimes supposed that the American coach
was invented especially for use on the early, rough
American roads ; but it is evidently the European
vehicle of the latter part of the i8th century, arrested
in its development, because the condition of the
roads in those parts of the United States where
coaches were used, resembled the conditions exist-
ing at that time in Europe,

In America, the vehicle called the ' stage-waggon,'
which preceded the coach, was evidently evolved
from the carrier's wagon, keeping its essential form
but being- much lighter.

There is shown in Fig. 2, copied from an Amer-

FiG. 2.

ican newspaper of 1759, a 'stage-waggon' run-
ning between Philadelphia and New York. Fig.
3 is from a paper of 181 2 representing a 'stage'
on the same road, and shows the same general
form, improved after an interval of fifty-three
years.

The ' Concord coach,' which succeeded this, was
an adaptation of the private coach, or chariot, to the
purposes of the road. In England, road-coaches

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

CH. I

were, from the first, direct copies of the private
carriage, as will be seen by comparing- Fig. 4 with
Plates I. and II.

Engravings and pictures, and also the descrip-
tions, show that the drivinof-seat remained on the

carriage-part, and with-
out any springs, until
very near the end oi
the 1 8th century. No
drawinor, such as often
headed the advertise-
ment of a regular
stage - coach in the
early American days, has come under my observa-
tion, in which the driving-seat is not on the body
of the coach ; and it is probable that this change
was made in America, since there are no draw-
ings of English carriages with thorough-braces, and
with the box on the body ; so long as thorough-
braces were used, the box was on the carriage-
part.

Fig. 4.

CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 7

Mr Warde, of Squerries, is credited by 'Nimrod,'
in his Essays, reprinted in Malet (p. 249 '='), with
having induced the proprietors of the Manchester
' Telegraph' to put the box on springs, which, ' Nim-
rod' says, ' was not the case when I first mounted
them.' As ' Nimrod' was born in 1778, it was prob-
ably about 1798 that he 'first mounted them,' and
that would fix the date of the use of springs under
the driving-seat as being early in this century. It
can hardly be supposed that the driving-seat was
separately placed on springs ; it was probably at-
tached, therefore, to the body, which was already on
springs, and thus led to the substitution of steel for
leather suspension.

The reproduction in Malet's Annals of the Road
(p. 15), of an advertisement of the Edinburgh Stage-
Coach of 1754, is headed by a cut which shows the
driving-seat as being on the body ; but this cut is
not an accurate copy of the original and does not
show the construction of the coach of that period.
The photographic reproduction of an advertisement
in The EdinburgJi Conrant of May 13, 1754 (given
on p. 8), shows a vehicle resembling a private car-
riage much more than a coach, but not unlike the
coach shown in Plate IV. The driving-seat is evi-
dently on the under-carriage.

* These Essays were originally published in The Sporting Maga-
zine in 1 822-1 827. 'Nimrod' (J. C. Apperley) left The Sporting
Magazine m 1829.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

CH. I

THE EDINBURGH STAGE-COACH,
for the better Accommodation of Paflen-
gers, will be altered to a new genteel Two-end
Glafs Machine, hung on Steel Springs, exceeding
light and eafy, to go in ten Days in Summer and
twelve in Winter, to fet out the firfr Tuefday in
March, and continue it from Hofea Eaftgate's, the
Coach and Horfes in Dean-ftreet, Soho, LON-
DON, and from John Somervell's in the Canon
gate, Edinburgh, every other Tuefday, and meet
at Burrow-bridge on Saturday Night, and fet out
from thence on Monday Morning, and get to
London and Edinburgh on Friday. In the Win-
terao fet out from London and Edinburgh every
other Monday Morning, and to get to Burrow-
bridge on Saturday Night; and to fet out from
thence on Monday Morning, and get to London
and Edmburgh on Saturday Night. • PafTengers to
pay as ufual. Perform'd, if God permits, by your
dutiful Servant* HOSE A. EASTGATE.

Care is taken of fmall Parcels, paying according
to their Value.

Cross (vol. ii., p. 70) speaks of the change from
the old, heavy, six-inside coaches, ' with the boot
* fixed on the fore-axle, and a larcje basket on the

CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 9

' hind,' to the ' new and elegant Telegraph coaches,'
as occurring just before 1816, as well as the date
can be made out from the context.

The suspension of the bodies of carriages, other
than stage-coaches, by four leather braces, is con-
tinued to the present day, but always in connection
with springs. As early as 1669 springs were tried,
but they do not seem to have
come into general use for many
years later, probably not until
after 1 700, when the standards,
which held the straps on which
the body was hung, were made
of steel and were called whip-
springs (Fig. 5, A). Small

spring's were also used to attach ^

11 r Fig. 5.

the ends of the straps to the

body, as at B. About 1790, the whip-spring was

replaced by the C-spring (Fig. 5, C), which is still

used in expensive carriages.

Down to 1805, all carriages had perches, but in
that year the elliptic spring was invented in Eng-
land by Elliot, and since that time the majority
of carriages are made without perches, although
coaches still have them.

Plate I., which is a reproduction of a picture by
CoRDERV, 1792, shows the coach as hung on whip-
springs by short straps attached to pump-handles
projecting from the bottom of the body, as in the
present C-spring carriage. The front boot is built

lO DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH CH. I

up solidly from the front end of the perch, and
the top of it forms the driving-seat. The whip
springs are fastened to what might be called the
platform of the carriage-part. To prevent too much
play, and consequent breakage of the springs, their
tops are attached in front, to the boot, by straps, and
behind, to the upper ends of standards which are
built up on the platform. Straps from the body to
the same points also prevent too much motion of
the body. The space on the platform between the
springs and between the standards is occupied by
a basket, in which was carried either merchandise
or passengers. From the ends of the splinter-bar,
iron stays ran, outside of the wheels to the ends of
the axles, — an arrangement not uncommon even
now, in heavy vehicles in Europe. This particular
coach has a narrow body, accommodating only four
inside, and the roof-seats do not overhang the body.

Plate II. is a drawine of this same coach to a half-
inch scale ; it may be compared with the other half-
inch scale drawinors on Plates XVII. to XXII. The
transparent sheet, printed in red, can be torn out so
as to be superposed on the black plates.

Shortly after 1800, the bodies of coaches, and of
some travelling carriages, were lengthened by the
addition, as a part of the construction of the body,
of a front and hind boot, the whole being hung on
the springs ; the coachman's seat and the rumble
for servants were on the boots, as is shown in the
drawino^ of a ' Britszka' of 1825 (Fig. 6). This

o >

»= H

fl.

CH. I

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH

I I

brings us to what is, practically, the present form of
the coach, in which the C-springs and leather braces
are replaced by the stiffer platform springs.

Fig. 6.

In a o-eneral treatise on carriaoes, the name
' coach' is applied to any vehicle on four wheels
with a body more or less closed, but in the present
Manual it will be used in the narrower signification
of a four-in-hand coach of the type used in England
and America. We find the road-coach called in
the last century, 'stage-waggon,' 'stage-coach,' and
sometimes, in the early part of the present cen-
tury, ' drag.' Drag now means a coach for private
driving, and the word will be employed in that sense
in the following pages, road-coach being used to
mean a coach which runs over a regular route at
fixed hours, and carries passengers for pay. The
term stage-coach was originally applied to a coach
which went over a number of stages on the road,
and not to a coach which ran only a short distance.

12 TALLY-HO CH. I

As an example of the curious chancres of langruaee,
it may be worth noting that, in New York, it became
the custom to call an omnibus, which ran only over
a short route, a ' stage ;' first applying an improper
name ' stage-coach,' and then dropping the character-
istic term and retaining the other designation only.

The popular word in America for a four-in-hand
coach: 'Tally-ho,' is entirely incorrect, and should
not be used. It originated thus: When, in 1876,
Colonel Delancey Kane first put on his road-coach
from the Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham,
he named it the 'Tally-ho.' This was in accord-
ance with the old Enorlish custom of o-ivina- names
to coaches, just as, for many years, engines were
named on railroads. 'Tally-ho,' 'Tantivy,' ' Light-
nino-,' 'Meteor,' 'Defiance,' 'Quicksilver,' ' Inde-
pendent,' were favourite names, and were used in
advertising the coaches, and in speaking of them on
the road. Some newspapers, in writing about the
Pelham coach, called it t/ic 'Tally-ho,' and others,
less well informed, called all four-horse coaches
' Tally-ho's.' Many mild protests were made, with-
out avail, by coaching men, against such an incor-
rect expression, and finally an American Dictionary,
the CcntiLry, published in 1891, embalmed and per-
petuated the error as follows :

' Tally-ho (tal'i-ho) [< tally-ho, interj.]. i. Aery
'of "Tally-ho." See the interjection. 2. A four-in-
' hand pleasure-coach ; probably so called from the
' horn blown on it.

CH. I LE MAIL COACH 1 3

* " The mail still announced itself by the merry notes of the
' horn ; the hedge-cutter or the rick-thatcher might still know the
' exact hour by the unfailing yet otherwise meteoric apparition of
' the pea-green Tally-ho or the yellow Independent. — George
'Eliot, Felix Holt." '

Webster's Dictiojiary (1892) gives the same er-
roneous definition. Worcester's last edition is cor-
rect, and gives only the proper meaning of the word.

After having been for so long a time thus popu-
larly used, the expression will probably survive, but
coachinor men, at least, should avoid it.

In somewhat the same way, the coach has in
France come to have the name : ' Le Mail.' A mail-
coach, as will be described later, is different from a
road-coach, and it is the road-coach which has been
copied for pleasure purposes ; not the mail-coach.

Mortimer d'Ocagne {Le Mail Coach en France,
p. 3) says : ' At the outset we must make a com-
' ment upon the title of this little sketch. One
' should not say, a mail coach. In reality, the mail is
' the carriage which carries the mails, but the use
' of this name has become general in France, and
' every one says, a mail ; the sporting journals them-
' selves often speak of the meet of the mails. We
' will not assume an authority to change this way of
' speaking, but we must note its inaccuracy.' *

* ' Des la premiere ligne 11 nous faut faire una reserve contra le titre
mema da cette notice. On ne devrait pas dire un mail coach. En
affet, le mail, c'est la malle, la malle poste ; niais T usage est pris en
France et tout le monde dit un mail ; les journaux de sport eux-

14 TALLY-HO CH. I

Since ' Tally-ho' and * Tantivy' are names fre-
quently given to coaches, their origin is interesting
to the coachinof man.

Hunter's E^icy eloper die Dictionary gives, ' Tally-
' ho [Norman French — Taillis-eiiL = to the cop-
'pice], The huntsman's cry to urge on his hounds.'

Le Jimit teiillis is a wood of twenty-five to thirty
years' growth and presumably ' cut high,' or with no
underwood, so that the hunted animal, on running
into it, can be plainly seen. In fox-hunting, it is
when the fox is viewed, that the cry is used.

The Dictionary of the French Academy gives
' Taiaut' as being the cry of the hunter when he
views the deer.

' Taiaut' is oriven in old French books on Hunting-
in the same sense, and is also used as a verb ; just as
in English, one is said to ' tally-ho' the fox. * Taillis-
au' or ' taillis-haut' are not given as hunting cries.

Since tally-ho is a true fox-hunting expression, it
is considered proper, when a coach bears that name,
to have a fox or a fox's head on the harness, unless
there is a monogram or crest. If the coach is
named 'Tantivy,' something belonging to a deer is
used, since that term is associated with stag-hunt-
ing ; but the connection is not so clear as is that of
tally-ho with the fox.

' memes parlent souvent de la reunion des mails. Nous n'avons pas
' la pretention de modifier cette faqon de dire ; nous en signalons
' toutefois I'inexactitude.'

CH. I TANTIVY 1 5

No word resembling tantivy, either in sound or in
spelling, occurs in the nine hundred pages of the
great work on Hunting by the Comte de Bey, writ-
ten in 1635.'^'

There are two possible derivations of this word ;
it is not in the French dictionaries except in that
of Chambaud, 1805, and seems to be of English ori-
gin ; its usual meaning is ' at full speed,' Chambaud
gives it as, ' Tantivy, au grand galop.'

The following quotations give both derivations :

Hunter's EncyclopcEciic Dictionary gives ' Tantivy
' [from the note of a hunting horn], swiftly, a rapid,
' violent gallop. As a verb, to hurry off.'

Todd's Johnson's Dictionary gives ' Tantivy, from
' the note of a hunting horn, so expressed in articu-
' late sounds. From tanta vi, says Skinner, Dr.
' Johnson. The old French language has tentiveux
'to denote an eager person " homme qui est tente
'par tout ce qu'il voit : avide etc." To ride tantivy
' is to ride at great speed.'

GoDEFROY, Dictionnaire de F ancierine langue fran-
(aise, gives ' Tentir : faire entendre un son " Les
' cors as bouces commencent a tentir."' Retentir
is from tentir, and this again from the Latin, tinnire,
to sound.

* Les Mnittes et Veneries de Jean de Ligniville, Chevalier,
Comte DE Bey. Introduction et notes par Ernest Jullien et Henri
Gallice. Paris, 1892. 2 vols, quarto.

I 6 CH. II

CHAPTER II

GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH

As at present built, either for public or for private
use, the coach is essentially the same as that which
existed at the time when coaches in England were
superseded by railroads.

A distinction is made, however, between a dragf,
built for private use, and a road-coach intended to
carry always a full load, and to be driven at a high
speed over long routes. The drag is made lighter
than the coach, but between the two extremes of
weight and of finish there are many grades, depend-
ing upon the taste of the owner.

Some men, living in the country and liking to
drive long distances, use their coaches like road-
coaches, at high speeds and with changes of horses ;
certainly the most * sporting' way of doing the thing.
A coach for this purpose should be built almost
exactly like a road-coach. Other men use their
coaches only about home or, if they live in a city,
principally in park driving, with small loads, at a
moderate pace, on good roads, and such a coach
should be two or three hundred pounds lighter than
a road-coach, and may be slightly ornamented with
plain mouldings worked on the edges of the under-
carriage timbers, and with a little carving on the

CH. II GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH I 7

ends of the splinter-bar and the futchells, which in
a road-coach are always perfectly plain.

There are, however, between the two kinds of
coaches, some essential differences which shotdd be
observed. In a road-coach, the rumble is supported
on the hind boot by a solid wooden bench, and seats
three or four persons, including the guard ; in a
drag, the rumble holds only two persons, usually
the grooms, and is supported by open irons. It is
quite easy to have both kinds of rumble fitted to a
coach, so that it can be used either as a drag or as
a road-coach. On a road-coach there is an iron
rod running between the side-irons of the roof-seats
along both sides of the coach, and this usually has
a net of leather straps (see Plates XVIII. and
XIX.), connecting it with the roof, so that wraps
thrown on the roof cannot fall off. This net should
be omitted in a drag, although for long trips one
may be made with buckles in such a way that it can
be taken off The door of the hind boot of a road-
coach is hinged on the off side ; that of a drag is
hinged at the bottom (see Fig. 36). The road-
coach is not trimmed inside, but is usually finished
in hard wood. This hard-wood finish is, however, a
modern fashion, as in old coaching days the inside
passengers paid higher fares than those outside and
were made as comfortable as possible. The interior
of a drag is trimmed plainly in morocco, cloth, or
cord. The general finish of a drag may be higher
than that of a road-coach without being elaborate ;

1 8 GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH CH. H

it should be about the finish of a plain, first-class
brougham.

The reader should be reminded that a drag is a
sporting vehicle ; it is not at all a voiturc dc luxe,
and in all its appointments it should retain the sport-
ing character. Elaborate harness or unnecessary-
ornament of any kind, about a drag is in bad taste ;
a drag is nothing more than a well 'turned out,'
neat, road-coach, and the showy features of a lady's
carriage should be avoided.

Down to about 1870, drags were made to take
only three persons on each roof-seat, and these seats,
like those of a mail-coach, did not extend beyond the
edge of the roof; now they are always made long
enough to accommodate four persons.

After these gfeneral indications of the difference
between the two classes of coach, we will consider
the parts of a coach.

CH. Ill

CHAPTER III

CARRIAGE-PART

The carriage-part of a coach (see Plate III.) con-
sists of the axles, the perch (sometimes called the
reach), the futchells, the bed or transom, and certain
minor parts, constituting, with the wheels, a com-
plete vehicle, upon which the body is supported by
springs.

The perch is of wood, mortised at its rear end
into the hind axle ; its connection with the axle is
strengthened by the hounds, also of wood, which are
mortised into the axle, and bound to the perch by
bands.

To insure steadiness in the running of a coach,
the length of the perch (that is, the distance be-
tween the axles) should be not less than six feet,
which was the minimum formerly allowed by the
English Post-Office authorities for the mail-coaches.
Six feet four inches is not any too long ; a short-
coupled coach will rock unpleasantly and little is
gained by diminishing the length.

To the front end of the perch is attached, at right
angles, a bed or transom. This transom rests upon
the top of the front axle and is connected with it by
the king-bolt or perch-bolt, about which the front
axle turns. The under side of the transom and the

CH. Ill CARRIAGE-PART 21

upper side of the axle are covered with steel plates
(transom plates) which slide on each other. When
the axle and the transom are parallel, these plates
touch each other throuo-hout their whole leneth ; but
when the axle is turned round the perch-bolt, the
plates touch only near their centres and their bear-
ing is consequently much diminished. To obviate
this defect certain American builders add ' horns' to
the transom plates, which practically widen these
plates and permit them to bear upon each other
throuofh the whole ano-le of turninor. In
ordinary carriages the transom does not
bear directly upon the axle, but carries
upon its under side (Fig. 7) a circular
plate, which turns upon a similar plate at-
tached to the top of the axle. This is

. Fig. 7.

called the fifth-wheel, and it is generally a

full circle, although sometimes, as in light wagons,
it is a half circle only. A fifth-wheel is not used in
a coach, but is sometimes used in a break.

Inasmuch as the bearing just described, of the bed
on the axle, would be insufficient to give the requi-
site strength and stiffness, two additional pieces of
wood, the inside futchells, are mortised through the
axle and run backward, spreading to a width of
about sixteen inches at their hinder ends, where
they are connected by the sway-bar. In the rough
farm wagon, before described, this bar is straight,
but in a coach it is curved to a radius equal to its
distance from the perch-bolt, so that it is really a

22 SPLINTER-BAR CH. ITI

short section of a large fifth-wheel. This sway-bar
is plated with steel on its upper surface, and bears
against the under surface of the perch, which is also
plated at that point. The plate on the under sur-
face of the perch has an arm or lug projecting
downward and embracing the sway-bar plate so as
to prevent the sway-bar from springing away from
the perch under any jumping motion of the pole.
The sway-bar plate has projections near its ends,
which bring up against this lug when the axle has
turned through a certain angle, usually about twenty
degrees, to prevent the wheel from touching the body
when the coach is on the lock. A coach is said to
be 'on the lock,' when the front wheels are turned
as far as they can go without touching the body.

The inside futchells project forward of the axle,
approaching each other near enough to form a chan-
nel into which the pole is fitted. Near their ends
they carry the draw-bar, or splinter-bar, which is
bolted on top of them. For the purpose of sup-
porting the ends of this bar, two straight pieces,
the outside futchells, run through the axle, and are
attached to the sway-bar (the plate of which runs
over on top of them), and projecting in front, take
the ends of the splinter-bar, to the under side of
which they are firmly clipped. The splinter-bar is
straight, six feet long, and carries the four roller-
bolts to which the traces are attached. The roller-
bolts have flanges on top to prevent the traces from
slipping off, and the flanges of those on the outside

CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 23

are wide enough to serve as steps in mounting to
the box.

On a drag, these flanges should be Hned under-
neath with thick leather, to prevent the metal
slides of the traces from rattling against them.
The inside roller-bolts should be larg-er in diameter
than those on the outside, in order to take up a
portion of the length of the inside trace, for the
reason o-iven in the article on ' Puttine to,' in
Chapter XII.

With the traces attached directly to the stiff splin-
ter-bar, the horse, in the movement of his shoulders,
pulls alternately on one trace and the other, and if
he has on a breast-collar, or as it is sometimes
called a ' Dutch collar,' this movement inside of the
leather will frequently rub the shoulder, and make
it sore. For this reason, when English travelling
carriages were taken to the Continent in old post-
ing times they had loose swingle-trees attached to
the splinter-bar because the Continental posting
harness had breast collars. (Beaufort, p. 353.)
See Plate X.

Even with ordinary collars, horses work more
easily with moveable swingle-trees, and it will be
noticed that those who work horses as a matter of
business, such as livery-stable keepers, invariably
use them. My own experience long ago led me to
modify the arrangement of the splinter-bar of my
coach in such a way that, while the roller-bolts are
retained and the general outward appearance of the

SPLINTER-BAR

CH. Ill

bar but little altered, the advantage of a moveable
swingle tree is obtained.

The general arrangement is seen in Fig. 8. The

Fig. S.

details, with dimensions which should be somewhat
closely adhered to, are shown in Fig. 9, drawn to
one-quarter of the full size. The bolt which passes
through the splinter-bar should be not less than
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, the swelled
portion being welded upon it. It should be carefully
turned in the lathe to the proper
I' I I 'I fit, and the corners between the

■'=^=^ ^=="^ swelled portion and the pin must be
left full, and not cut in sharply, since
it is here that the pin is most liable
to break. After the nut on the bot-
tom of the pin is screwed up, the
end of the pin should be hammered
over so that the nut cannot come
off; the top end of the bolt should
have a split pin passing through it over the nut.
The shackle, which is bolted to the back of the
splinter-bar, must be strong and of tough iron, be-
cause, should the pin break, all the strain will come
upon the shackle. Of course the objection may be
made to this arrangement that every additional

Tjr

Fig. 9.

CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 25

moveable part about a coach increases the chances
of breakage, but the increase of comfort to the
horses is undoubted. This arran^rement is similar
to that usually seen on light wagons, with the dif-
ference, however, that the swingle-tree is deep
enough, and the pin stiff enough, to permit the use
of the outside roller-bolt as a step. The motion
of the swingle-tree is restricted by a strap, which
should be put on quite tight, since a movement of
the roller-bolt of an inch and a half in front of, and
behind, the bar is sufficient.

Some coachmen think that a coach can be guided
more accurately with an entirely stiff bar than with
moveable swingle-trees, because either horse, if
urged forward, will turn the fore-carriage very
quickly by the application of his force to the outer
end of the bar. Since, however, the motion of the
swingle-tree is limited by the strap and by the neat-
ness of fit of the pin, it will be found, in practice,
that the difference is not noticeable.

The amount of the motion of the ends of the
swingle-trees corresponding to the action of the
horses' shoulders can be well observed in a trotting
wagon, which always has swingle-trees, and it is
very noticeable to the occupant of any one-horse
vehicle, a coupe for instance, in which the traces are
attached directly to the root of the shafts and not to
a swing-bar. the alternate sideways motion given to
the carriage being extremely disagreeable.

' Ni.mrod' says (Malet. p. 386): 'The swing bar

26 SPLINTER-BAR CH. Ill

' we use in coaches is an excellent invention, as a
' horse works in it from either shoulder, and of
' course quite at his ease.' This, of course, refers
to the lead-bars, and shows that ' Nimrod' recog-
nises the importance of the principle.

Le Noble du Teil (p. 349) thinks that with a
collar, the freedom of movement of the swingle-tree
is not important, although it is important with the
breast-collar, or bricolc, because the collar is pressed
forward alternately by the shoulders, and there is
pressure but not friction. This alternating pressure
must, however, tire the shoulders, even if it does not
rub the skin.

After the preceding pages were written, I found
the following passage in Philipson O71 Harness.
p. 57, ed. 1882, written by ' Glencairn' (Colonel J.
P. Pedler) to The Field, in June 1878 :

' A word about sore shoulders. I never drive
' with anything but a swingle bar, and that not
' fixed by a band of leather eight inches broad,
'which defeats the object of a swingle bar, but by
' a bolt running through it vertically, or by an eye
' playing on a hook. I think a proper swingle bar
' is a help to preventing sore shoulders, besides
' having other and most important advantages.
' Even in a four-wheeled carriage and with a pair
' I always put swingle bars, and the following is
' the best way to fix them, viz. : Put them on top
' of the splinter bar, bring an iron support from
' the futchells to the top of the swingle bar, and

CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 27

' make an eye in the end of it ; drive a bolt through
' this eye, the swingle bar, and the splinter bar,
' with a nut underneath. On this bolt the swindle
' bar revolves beautifully. You can have the ordi-
' nary roller bolts on the swingle bars. I have
'written to " Nimshivich," who is evidently one of
' those who knows what he is talking about. I
' consider that with swingle bars a horse is always
' pulling with both shoulders instead of with one
' at a time alternately ; also that the evil of uneven
'traces is nullified.'

A full-sized model of the bars, as shown in
Fig. 8, was exhibited by me in the Coaching Ex-
hibitions in London of 1894 and 1896, and had
Colonel Pedler's letter been seen earlier, the model
would have been accompanied by a note of explana-
tion. The arrangement was applied to my coach in
1877, ^^^ the invention seems therefore to have
been made by us both at about the same time.

In many vehicles, the bar itself is made to move
about a central pin, and is then called an evener,
because it ensures, within certain limits, each horse
doing an cz'cu share of the work, but it is not used
on a coach, nor is it necessary, as the coachman
should be able to make his horses work evenly
without the aid of any mechanical appliance.

An evener is sometimes made with two holes on
either side of the middle one, so that by shifting it
on the pin, a weak horse can be favoured. This
is not likely to be used on a coach, but a good

FORE-CARRIAGE

CH. Ill

Fig. io.

coachman ought to know all the dodges that at some
time might be of use to him.

The front axle of a vehicle with a perch, or with

a body which is wide and low, can turn through a

small angle only, before the front wheel touches the

perch or the body, and many attempts have been

,■;> .. made to remedy

r- — , .■:']:, -^ , .■?-•'" this defect. One

method is to put
. the perch-bolt

- back of the line

of the axle-arms,
in which case (as
is shown in Fig.
IO, where the wheel is represented as touching the
body), a larger angle of the pole with the centre line
can be obtained. This is dangerous, however, if
carried to excess, because when on the lock, the
front wheels are to one side of the centre line and
the stability of the coach is much diminished.

In broughams the perch-bolt is frequently put
somewhat foi'iuard of the line of the axle-arms,
which brinors the inside wheel forward in makino- a
turn and permits it to go under the boot without
touching the body, still keeping the carriage-part
short.

A variety of plans for jointed axle-arms have
been proposed : by Ackerman in 1818 ; by Rock in
1850; by Hekdic in 1880; and later by Jeantaud,
of Paris. Nearly all modern horseless carriages

CH. Ill FORE-CARRIAGE 29

have this arrangement, which permits part of the
machinery to be sunk between the front wheels.
These plans all depend upon an arrangement of
parallel bars, with arms that turn the axle-arms and

wheels, about the end of a fixed

, a ,

axle. If the boots are not too

deep, a coach fitted in this way izz

will turn, on an almost square

-- — 1 I — ■-

lock, round a point inside of the

spot where one hind wheel ^^-

touches the ground, and the KNU^

lowest points of the front wheels c^l\\

will not deviate greatly from the ^X^^./xv....

lines runninor througrh the hind _

, ^ ^ i^IG. II.

wheels, as is shown by the dotted

lines in Fig. 1 1 , which is only a diagram, and is not

intended to show details of construction.

To obtain the greatest freedom in turning, the
parallel bar A B (Fig. 12), which is behind the axle
and connects the arms, must be as much shorter than
the distance on the axle between the joints of the
axle-arms as will make the lines of the arms, pro-
duced, join at the centre of the hind axle (Fig. 12, C).

The front wheels, when turning, will then assume
positions which are not parallel to each other, as
they are in Fig. 11, but at right angles to two radii
meeting on a line which is the prolongation of the
hind axle, and all four wheels will turn round that
point, as a common centre, without any grinding
upon the road.

AXLE

CH. Ill

A practical objection to this arrangement, is the
largely increased number of parts and joints, with

fl\

Fig. 12.

the consequent risk of breakage, and difficulty of
preventing rattling.

Axle. — The axle of the simplest cart or wagon
is entirely of wood, the ends being tapered and
rounded, and covered by a thin conical iron tube
called a skein, on which the wheel, which has an
iron boxing or lining of some more or less complete
form. runs. The axle of a coach is made in several
parts. The axle-bed is of wood, sometimes in two
pieces, between which the futchells are held, and
under it is fastened the axle proper, which is of
stronor, tougrh iron or mild steel, about two inches
square, in one continuous length, terminating in
arms upon which the wheels run. Originally these

CH. Ill

MAIL AXLE

arms were tapered, and projected beyond the face of
the hub of the wheel, and through a hole near the
end a linchpin of iron or hard wood passed, to keep
the wheel on. Until the end of the last century,
the linchpin was universally used, but it was then
superseded by a nut screwed on the end of the
axle. On private carriages the linchpin was used
to a much later date than on coaches ; until 1830
or 1840. (Beaufort, p. T^oy.)

A simple axle-arm is used in light carriages and
in business wagons ; it is tapered, and the nut, which
screws against a shoulder so that it cannot be set
up too tight, is cut with a right hand thread on the
off side axle and a left hand thread on the near
side axle, so that the turning of the wheel tends to
keep the nut on and not to screw it off

All coaches have either mail axles or Collino-e

axles. The mail axle (Fig. 13), so called because it

was originally

used on the

mail - coaches,

is not tapered,

but the arm

is cylindrical.

It is not lone ^''^'- ^^-

enough to extend tJiroiigJi the hub of the wheel,

and it has at the back end a wide collar against

which the back of the hub bears. The box in the

hub is turned to fit the cylindrical axle-arm, and

the two are ground together, or around bv eanees.

COLLINGE AXLE

CH. Ill

SO as to fit with accuracy. '=' This box is closed at
its outer end, and there are neither nuts nor Hnch-
pin. Behind the collar of the axle there is a loose
circular plate, called the moon plate, which has been
put on before the axle is welded together in the
middle. Around the edge of this plate there are
three holes ; three bolts run entirely through the
hub from the front and pass through the holes in the
moon plate, terminating in threaded ends, on which
there are nuts. As will be seen in Fig. 13, these
bolts hold the wheel, by drawing the moon plate
towards the back of the hub. the collar of the axle
beino- between them, so that the wheel cannot come
off unless all three bolts break, and even if the axle
breaks, the wheel will not be released unless the
fracture takes place behind the collar. For this
reason the mail axle is the safest axle in use.

The Collinge axle (Fig. 14), so named from its in-
ventor, was intro-
duced in i792.-|-
Its arm is also
cylindrical and
fits accurately to
its box. The arm
extends throiigJi the box and has on its end two
nuts having threads running different ways, so that

Fig. 14.

* A journal which is an absolute fit will not run so easily as one
that has a little play both in its diameter and endwise. — Thurston,
Friction and Lost JVor/c in lifac/iinery, p. 44.

f It is interesting to note that this axle, first made at a date when

CH. Ill TAPER AXLE 33

any movement tending to unscrew one will screw
up the other. Outside of the nuts there is a small
pin passing through the reduced end of the axle,
which pin is prevented from coming out by the cap
covering it. This cap screws into the box\ and con-
sequently into the hub, and not on the axle ; it
turns, therefore, with the wheel. The cap holds
about half a pint of oil which slowly finds its way
along the arm through shallow grooves made for
the purpose. The outward pressure of the wheel is
not taken directly by the back of the nut, but by a
loose collar, called the collet, which is behind the
nut, and prevented from turning by being fitted to
a flat place worked on that part of the axle.

The thrust in the other direction is against an
enlargement of the arm, a leather washer being
put there to regulate the play of the wheel. This
washer also prevents the oil from oozing out at the
back of the wheel, and the dirty oil accumulates in
a recess in the box, made for the purpose.

It will be noticed that both these arms are cylin-
drical and not tapered ; the fit is therefore made by
the maker and is not adjustable.

The point at which an axle-arm is most liable to
break, is at its back end, owino- to the leveracre of
the wheel beino- the greatest there, and the diam-
eter at that point must be made proportionate to the

mechanical processes were not so far advanced as at present, should
have been so perfect that little improvement has been made upon it
in a hundred years.

34 CYLINDRICAL AXLE-ARM CH. Ill

Strain. A taper arm can be considerably reduced
at its outer end without weakening it and a smaller

box and hub can be used ;
for this reason, in lieht car-
riages the taper arm (Fig,
Pj(. J- 15) is generally adopted.

One disadvantage of it is,
that the tightness of the wheel depends upon the
thickness of the leather washer behind it ; if this is
too thin, the wheel may be so shoved up on the
taper as to run too tight ; if it is too thick, the
wheel will be too loose and will not run true.

With a cylindrical arm, a certain amount of end-
play can be given by using a thin washer while the
wheel will still run perfectly true. Some coachmen
think it well to have this end-play (to have the
wheel talk, as it is called), thereby avoiding some
sidewise shocks from small stones and ruts. A
slight end-motion undoubtedly helps to distribute
the oil, prevents the arm from wearing in grooves,
and is in accordance with the best modern practice
in railway and mill work.

There is a parallel or cylindrical arm made, which,

to a certain extent, fulfils
both conditions, by being ta-
pered in a curve at its back
end and parallel throughout
most of its length (Fig. 16). The effects of taper
and of parallel arms will be further considered when
treatinor of Wheels.

Fig. 16.

CH. Ill AXLE-ARM 35

There is some difference of opinion among coach-
ino- men and builders as to the relative merits of the
mail and Collinge axles for coaches. The usual
practice is to put Collinge axles on private coaches
and mail axles on public coaches. Owing to the
absence of the bolt-heads and the presence of the
plated cap, the Collinge axle looks the neater and
more finished, and with the use that it gets in pri-
vate driving", it will run for two or three months
without re-oiling. The mail axle is no doubt some-
what safer, but the breaking of the axle close to the
back of the wheel, even though the wheel could not
come off entirely, would, at any speed, probably
cause an accident due to the wheel's being twisted
to pieces.

The mail axle requires oiling every one or two
weeks, which is not only troublesome, but neces-
sitates the constant unscrewing and screwing up of
the bolts, which wears the threads, and ruins them
if it is not done with much care. An oil chamber
can be made in the end of the axle, as shown in the
cut of an improved mail axle in Stratton (p. 454),
and in Fig. 1 3 ; but it is difticult to fill this chamber,
the only way being to pour the oil into the wheel be-
fore putting it on, while the cap of a Collinge axle
is readily filled and quickly put on, before the oil
can run out. Collinge axle-boxes are usually merely
forced into the hub and not otherwise fastened ;
consequently they sometimes work out ; this is im-
possible with a mail axle and is one of its chief

36 AXLE-ARM CH. Ill

advantages. The fancy of some builders or owners
for having a ColHnge axle with a sham plate and
three bolt-heads, put on over the cap, cannot be
commended, since one of the objections to the mail
axle is the ugliness of the plate, especially on a
private coach.

The present fashion certainly is to have Collinge
axles on private coaches and mail axles on road-
coaches, and there seems to be no objection to it
as a proper distinction ; but the more the coach is
used for long drives and fast work, the more reason
is there for adopting the mail axle. The fact that
a public coach, running at a high speed, a number
of miles every day, with heavy loads, requires a
much more frequent inspection in all its parts than
does a private drag, makes the trouble of frequent
oiling of relatively less importance.

It is a mistake to have the axle-arm too small ; a
some\vhat large hub is not out of place on a heavy
vehicle, and the best practice in modern machinery
tends toward large rubbing surfaces on all journals,
although the resistance to the turnino- of the w^heel
due to friction is directly as the diameter of the axle.
The value of the oil as a lubricant depends upon its
particles remaining in good condition between the
rubbing surfaces, and on small surfaces, with heavy
pressures, this condition is rapidly destroyed. In
any question as to the dimensions of an axle-arm,
therefore, the designer should lean toward a large
size, both on account of its superior strength and

CH. Ill GAUGE 37

its lighter running. Two inches is the minimum
diameter for a coach axle-arm ; two and a quarter
inches is better.

India-rubber bands, or rin^s, are sometimes in-
serted between the inside of the hub and the out-
side of the axle-box, and they undoubtedly lessen
the vibrations, but they require a large hub since
they weaken a small one, and if a brake is used,
they are twisted out of condition, so that they are
not adapted to coaches, — at least not to the hind
wheels. Since rubber tires have come into use, the
rubber-cushioned hubs have been abandoned.

The length of the axle obviously depends upon
the distance apart of the wheels ; this distance is
called the gauge or track, and is usually measured
from centre to centre of the tires, on the orround.
It varies from 5 ft. 4 in., in an American Concord
coach, to 4 ft. S}4 in., which is given by Harris
{Coaching Age, p. 102), as having been that of the
old mail-coaches.

That was probably the distance from out to out,
since it was adopted as the railway gauge, and an
Act, of George III., fixes 4 ft. 6 in. as the minimum
gauge for a coach from centre to centre. In the
coaches and drags of the present day, the gauge is
usually about 5 ft. i in. On good roads a uniform-
ity of guage of the different vehicles used is unim-
portant, but on the earth roads of America, a car-
riage which does not fit in the ruts already made,
runs very hard. In any one locality, therefore, all

38 WHEEL CH. Ill

carriaees are made to track the same, but in different
localities this track varies ; for instance, in New York
it is 4 ft. 8 in., while in Pennsylvania it is 5 ft. 2 in.

Wheel. — The wheel is a simple mechanical con-
trivance for transferrinpf the friction between the
moving body and the ground, to a surface which
reduces that friction, and also for diminishinor the
resistance opposed by an obstacle on the ground.

If a weight is drawn along on the ground on a
sled, the friction between the runner of the sled and
the o-round is ereat, and is due to the rouo-hness
of both surfaces, as is shown by the fact that when
both are very smooth, as in a steel runner on ice,
the friction becomes very small. When a wheel is
introduced, as it does not slide on the ground, the
friction is changed to a rolling friction, and the rub-
bine friction is transferred to the axle, which can
have its surface so polished and supplied with a

lubricant that this
rubbing friction is
greatly diminished.
As to the ob-
stacle : it is obvious
that the wheel has
to be lifted over it,
and the draught,
acting in the line
A B (Fig. 17), pulls on a bent lever, BCD, raising
the weight, which may be considered as concentrated

CH. Ill WHEEL 39

at D. The longer the arm B C, and the shorter the
arm C D, the more easily will the draught raise the
weight of the wheel, and for the same sized obstacle
the larger wheel will evidently have the advantage.

In the figure, the lines of draught make the same
angle with the radius-arm of the lever ; if the lines
of draught are parallel, the advantage of the larger
wheel is still ereater.

There is a limit in practice to the size of wheels,
because, if very large, their weight may more than
balance their other advantages ; but this will be true
only of extravagant designs ; within the usual limits.
the larger the wheel the better. The very small
wheels sometimes used on pony phaetons are cruel
to the horses.

On a road which is level crosswise, the wheel
which will run the easiest must be straight, vertical,
with a tire at right angles to the face of the wheel,
and the axle must be cylindrical, — that is, not ta-
pered,— and horizontal. In other words, the wheel
must be a short section of a true cylinder, revolving
on a horizontal cylindrical axis. All rolling frames or
carriages in ordinary machinery are thus mounted.

In wagon and carriage building, departures from
this system have been made for various reasons.

In the first place, it is much more easy to make a
wheel fit on a taper axle-arm than on one with par-
allel sides, since the application of washers behind
the wheel will determine how far it may be pushed
on the arm and how tight it may be ; while with a

WHEEL

CH. Ill

'//////mw///.
Fig. i8.

parallel arm the box must be fitted to it with accu-
racy, requiring very good workmanship and perfect
tools, and no adjustment of the fit is afterward pos-
sible. The greatest strain on the arm being at the
back end, a tapered arm can be made lighter for a
given strength.

With a straight, vertical wheel on a
taper arm, the centre line of which is
horizontal, the tendency of the wheel will
be to run off, or against the nut, or linch-
pin, while to be safe it should tend to run
on, or against the collar (Fig. i8).

To obviate this defect, the taper axle-
arms are so set that their undersides are
horizontal (Fig. 19).

This arrangement places the wheels
farther apart at the top than at the
bottom, and evidently brings a strain
upon the lower part of the wheel,
tending to push it inward. To provide
aoainst this, the wheel is dished, so that
the lower spoke is always vertical or
plumb (Fig. 20).

This turning down of the point of the
axle is called variously : hang, dip, swing,
and pitch.

The amount of dish, is the distance of the front
side of the root of the spoke from the face of the
rim, measured in the direction of the axle.

This construction of the wheel also strengthens

'//'///w////////''A
Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

CH. Ill

CONED WHEEL

Fig. 21.

it, since, owing- to the clasp of the tire, the wheel
cannot be flattened out by a force acting on the in-
side end of the hub ; but it is correspondingly weak
in the opposite direction. Equal strength in both
directions can be secured by placing the
spokes alternately on both sides of a line
around the hub, as is done to an exagger-
ated extent in a bicycle wheel and to a
smaller extent in carriage wheels (Fig.
21). This 'staggering,' or 'dodging,' of
the spokes also less weakens the hub.

The best results would seem to be ob-
tained in heavy work, by using a parallel
axle, fitted by the best processes, set very nearly
level, with an almost vertical wheel having but little
dish.

If a wheel is dished and the axle so set as to
give a plumb bottom spoke, the tire, in order to fit
a flat road, must be horizontal cross-
wise at its bottom point, and must
therefore be a section of a cone, the
position of the apex of which will be
determined by the dip of the axle
(Fig. 22). If the tire is not so made
in the beginning it will finally wear
into that form.

Now a cone, or a section of a cone,
will tend to roll in a circle, the centre
of which is the point at which the apex of the cone
would touch the oround, so that if the wheels of a

7777777777777

7777Z77Z7777?
Fig. 22.

42 CONED WHEEL CH. Ill

carriage are sections of cones, they will not tend
to roll straight on in the direction in which the car-
riage is going, but to turn off to the outside, as

shown by the dotted
curves of Fig. 23 ;
consequently, they
" ■;. will run against the
nuts, or linchpins, and
thereby set up a re-
sistance which will in-
^•. crease the draught.
''//////////////////////y///////)//////y^^^ jj-^ addition to this

Fig. 23.

the face of the wheel

having different diameters, its parts will revolve with
different velocities ; and as all parts must move
over the surface of the road at the same forward
velocity, there will be but one line of the tire that
will roll, all other lines of the tire being dragged
on the surface, with a grinding action that destroys
the road and the tire, and increases the draught.
Some old English wagons are said to have had tires
10 inches wide, and with coned wheels these would
grind on the road excessively. It was because, in
the last century, all wheels in heavy vehicles were
considerably coned, that the road authorities ob-
jected to wide tires as injuring the road ; wide
tires on cylindrical wheels are an advantage to a
road.

In the figures an exaggerated amount of coning
is shown, for clearness, but exactlv the same kind

CH. Ill CONED WHEEL 43

of action takes place in a less degree with a less
amount.

We have so far assumed that the road is flat
crosswise ; the conditions will be changed if the
cross section is different.

To take an exao^^erated case, such as mieht occur
in a special piece of machinery : the treads of the
wheels, and the axles, must be parallel to the sur-
faces on which they run in order to
determine a straight direction, as in
Fig. 24 ; and in the case of a road,
the cross section of which is curved,
a straigr-ht, not a coned, wheel, with
the axle bent down so as to brino-

the tire to bear flat on the road,

Fig. 24.
would be correct. This probably

gave rise to the early practice of building vehicles
in this manner, but it is obvious that to be correct,
the cross section of the road must be the same in
all places, which is not likely to be the case.

All roads are somewhat lower at the sides than
at the middle, and when a carriage leaves the cen-
tre, it inclines toward the o-^-itter, so as to throw the
weiofht more on the down side wheel and to take it
off the higher wheel. The danger always is, there-
fore, of bending the wheel from its inside outward,
but not in the other direction ; this is resisted by
the shape of a dished wheel, as the hub cannot
possibly be pushed through from the back with-
out compressing and shortening the spokes ; an

44 WHEEL CH. Ill

important reason for at least a small amount of
dish.

In turnino- a corner, the centrifueal force acts in
the same way upon the outside wheel.

In some heavy vehicles we find wheels made with
a slight dish, but fitted on horizontal axle-arms, so
that the face of the wheel is vertical, but the bottom
spoke not plumb ; this dish gives strength to the
wheel and is not a disadvantage, since the bottom
spoke approaches the vertical when the vehicle in-
clines sidewise on the down side of the road. On
the continent of Europe, this construction is very
common in carts, which frequently have wheels 6
feet high.

It must be noted that in a small, heavy wheel
the width of the spokes compared with the
diameter of the wheel is so great that any
line representing a moderate dish falls en-
tirely within the substance of the spokes, as
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 25 ; such
a wheel is therefore strono-, although not
LI really dished.

„ ' Ni.MROD,' in The Road (18^2), prefers

Pig. 25. _ ' _ V o /' i-

straight, vertical wheels, and speaks of the
mail-coach wheels as being the best ; made with a
large nave, every other spoke framed perpendicular
to the nave ; the others behind the line.

Since these old wheels were made with 'strokes,'
and not with hooped tires, a part of the advantage
of dishincr the wheel was lost. Strokes were tires

CH. Ill WHEEL 45

put on in pieces and secured by bolts ; they over-
lapped the joints of the fellies and added to the
strength of the wheel, but not nearly so much as
does the modern hoop-tire, which is continuous and
binds the wheel tightly together. The hoop-tire is
made somewhat too small to eo on the wheel ; it is
expanded by heating, and being then put on the
wheel, is rapidly cooled and shrunk by the applica-
tion of water. A great deal of judgement must be
exercised by the smith in this operation with light
wheels, as they may have their dish increased be-
yond the intention of the designer, by drawing the
tire too tight. Machines are now made which com-
press the tire after it is on the wheel without its
having been previously heated.

According to Corbett (p. 28), continuous tires
were adopted for the coaches before they were used
on the mails. On some of the wide wheels of the
old ' stage-waggons,' two widths of strokes were put
on with their joints overlapping.

There are many details of the construction of
wheels too technical to be entered upon here, but
it may be said that there is no good reason for
making the tire very narrow on upright wheels, es-
pecially as a somewhat wide tire protects the rim
of the wheel, which is otherwise liable to be rubbed
and scratched. If it projects too much beyond the
rim it will cast up the mud. There is no advan-
tage in a narrow or round faced tire on a vertical
wheel, but on a coned wheel there is an advantage.

WHEEL

CH. Ill

especially on a hard road, inasmuch as the grinding
action is less (see page 42). On a soft road, the
narrow tire will cut in and cause friction, or adhe-
sion between the faces of the rim and the mud.
The coach wheel shown in Fig. 26, may be taken
as a good example, not being
exaggerated in any way, having
a dish of ^ of an inch.

There are reasons outside of
the purely mechanical questions
of drauo-ht and strenorth, which
induce builders to dish their
wheels and to give them the
resulting outward flare. In a
brougham, made to a narrow
track, the flare of the w^heels
gives more room for the body,
and in all carriages the flare of
the wheels throws the mud away
from the body. A carriage with
nearly vertical wheels will have
its panels covered with mud in
wet weather. These are good
reasons for the practice in certain cases, but as a
question of draught, the horizontal, parallel axles,
with straight and vertical wheels, are the best ; and on
four-horse coaches, the track of which is always wide,
a close approach to these conditions is desirable.

In light vehicles the points of the axles are not
only turned doiun, but they are also turned a little

Fig. 26.

CH. Ill SIZE OF WHEEL 47

to the front ; this is called the ' grather' of the axles.
A light axle will spring backward when the draught
upon it is opposed by the resistance of the wheel
on the orround ; the axle-arms will be no longer in a
straight line, and the wheels will not be parallel to
each other or to the centre line of the carriage,
hence they will run against the nuts instead of
against the collars ; and if the axle-arm be tapered,
the motion of the carriage causes a pressure against
the front side of the taper, and increases this ten-
dency, so that, to counteract it, the gather must be
still more increased.

Wheels, when not parallel, will rub sideways upon
the road and increase the resistance. When an
old carriage has axles badly bent, the wheels may
be observed to plough up the mud on the inside of
their rims as they move along. Cabs in a crowded
city, which frequently have collisions, sometimes
have their axles bent back in this way, and it will
be seen that their tires are polished from being par-
tially dragged on the surface of the road instead
of runninor with a true rolline motion. In coaches
which have very strong axles and parallel arms, the
necessity for gather does not exist, and it is not
given ; but in overhauling a coach, or in buying one
second-hand, it is important to notice whether or
not the axles are in the least degree bent backward.

The heieht of coach wheels varies, in the best
examples, from 4 ft. 2 in. to 4 ft. 4 in. for the hind
wheels, and from 3 ft. 2 in. to 3 ft. 4 in. for the front

48 SPRINGS CH. Ill

ones. ' Nimrod' gives 4 ft. 8 in. as a usual height of
the hind wheels in old coaches. The wheels of an
American Concord coach are 5 ft. i in. and 3 ft. 10
in. There are usually twelve spokes in the hind
wheels and ten in the front wheels, but in the old
English coaches there were frequently fourteen and
twelve, respectively, and these are the numbers in
the Concord wheels. '='

What is now usually called the 'patent wheel,'
the characteristic of which is a hub formed by two
iron plates applied to the back and front of the
spokes, is not particularly new ; it is described in
Adams's book, published in 1837. It is used exten-
sively on business wagons but not on fine work.

Springs. — Coaches are hung upon what coach-
ing men usually call
tclcgrapJi springs
(because they were
first used in Eng-
land on the Man-
chester 'Telegraph'),
but known by coach-
^'°' ^''- makers as platform

springs, which permit the body of the coach to be

hung low (Fig. 27).

* The following dimensions of the wheel of a very light, one-man
trotting buggy, are given for the purpose of comparison with coach
wheels : height, 48 in. ; diameter of hul^, 2| in. ; diameter of axle,
f in., taper ; dish, j^ in. from outer spoke ; swing or overhang of

CH. Ill SPRINGS 49

They are fastened by clips to the transom bed in
front and directly to the axle behind, and the body
rests upon the centres of the cross springs and is
attached to them in the same way.

It will be noticed that the body is attached to
the springs at four points only, and that these
points are all in the centre line of the coach. This
arrangement permits an amount of rolling motion,
which would be serious were the springs not stiff,
and is an obvious disadvantage, which is, however,
more than compensated by the lowness of the
body, a greater height of which would increase the
liability to roll.

The four springs forming this combination are
connected at the corners by shackles, or ' D's,' and
in a coach for the road, carrying heavy loads, these
shackles should be as short as possible, otherwise
the body will sway sidewise too much, and in going
down-hill will swing forward, taking the brake away
from the face of the wheel, and in going up-hill may
move back enough to put the brake-block against
the wheel. If they are long, the coach will ride
somewhat easier and the body will be lower. These
are points to be considered, but, on the whole, it

wheel, 3^ in. ; gather, J in. ; tire, | in. face and ^ in. thick ; spoke,
I by 1^ in. ; rim, |- in. The swing given to the wheel is much greater
than that called for by the dish, because the axle being light the
weight of a man on the centre of it, where the spring is attached,
will spread the wheels enough to ensure a plumb spoke with this
amount of swing. There are fourteen spokes.

50 SPRINGS CH. Ill

is better to make the shackles short and close,
giving them as little play as possible. They should
be covered with leather, to prevent rattling.

According to Corbett (p. 28), the telegraph
springs were used on coaches before they were
used on the mails, and after the expiration of Vid-
ler's contract in 1836, they were put on the mails,
which appear to have been hung originally with a
cross spring behind.

Springs are always made of several plates, or
leaves, which give more elasticity than would be ob-
tained with one plate of steel of the same strength,
and are also less liable to break from a sudden
shock or rebound, which is communicated succes-
sively to the plates.

The springs are fastened to the bed, and to the
body, by clips, which embrace them, so as not to
have holes through their centres.

In many business wagons, three-quarter springs,
shown in Fig. 28, called in England ' dennet springs,'

are used. The front
ends of the side
springs are fastened
directly to the body,
or to the carriag-e-
part, as the case may

be, and there are
Fig. 28. , - . .

thereiore six pomts

of attachment, four of them so far apart side-
ways as to resist a rolling motion much better

CH. Ill POLE 51

than when all the supports of the body are in one
centre line. Since a backward and forward motion
of the body is prevented by the attachment of the
front ends of the springs, the brake-blocks will not
be carried away from the hind wheels in the way
that the movement of the shackles of the ordinary
springs permits. This arrangement would be prob-
ably an improvement in a road-coach and it is
necessary for the hind axle of a break which has no
perch, since, when there is no perch, the action of the
brake brings a great strain on the elliptic springs.

Pole. — The pole, which fits into the space be-
tween the inside futchells, completes the carriage-
part.

There is some difference of opinion among
coaching men as to the proportions of the pole.
It should obviously be heavier for a road-coach
than for a dracr, and in all cases should be strono-
enough to bear safely any strain that can come
upon it in going down a hill ; the best coachman
can hardly avoid an accident if, on a steep hill, a
pole breaks.

In turnincr round and or^ittinor the coach on the
lock, the leaders may pull nearly at right angles to
the end of the pole, and if anything breaks at such
a time, it is better that it should be the pole than
some more complicated part of the carriage, as it
is the most easily repaired, or than that the coach
should be overturned, as might happen upon side-

52 POLE CH. Ill

long ground. In turning, the bend of a flexible
pole will indicate the danger before a break occurs.

Some drag poles are not plated at all on the
underside, and some road-coach poles are plated
throughout their whole length, which makes them
stiff and inelastic. The best way is to plate them
for two-thirds of the length, since a fracture will
naturally occur near the hinder end, and to use a
tough, soft iron, not too heavy, which will bend and
keep the pole together, even if the wood is broken.

The places at which a pole is most likely to break,
are where it leaves the futchells, or through the hole
for the pin, which is just behind that point ; and a
light plate on each side, extending from the hinder
end of the pole to a point ten or twelve inches in
front of the ends of the futchells, is of service and
prevents the wear of the pole in the jaws of the
futchells.

The proper size of a pole at a point two feet from
the splinter-bar, is 2,^4 inches wide and 4.^4 inches
deep for a road-coach, and somewhat less for a drag.

The pole goes between the plates which connect
the futchells on their under and upper surfaces, and
is thus stiffly attached to the fore-carriage. A pin
passes horizontally through the futchells and the
pole and makes it fast, and, since by it the leaders
do their part of drawing the coach, it must be
strong. Sometimes a second pin is put in near the
hinder end of the pole ; a proper precaution against
accident.

CH. Ill POLE 53

In the majority of European four-horse vehicles,
except in England, the leaders do not draw from
the point of the pole, but by means of a chain, or a
rope, passing along the underside of the pole, from
a hook which is under the futchells. This hook is
sometimes put in this place in a coach, to be used
in case six horses are driven ; but it is not well
to have it there, since, should a wheel horse fall and
get under the coach, he may be badly torn by the
hook.

The length of the pole should be 9 feet from the
front of the splinter-bar to the cross-head of the
pole-head or crab. If it is longer than this it takes
the leaders too far away and impairs the ' smart'
look of the turn-out. French carriage poles are
usually much too long.

The length given above, for the pole, is proper
for sixteen hand, or fifteen-three hand, horses ; if
smaller horses, or short, cobby horses are to be
driven to a drag, an extra pole, two or three inches
shorter, should be provided.

When the coach is standing on a level pavement,
the end of the pole should be three feet from the
pfround.

It must be remembered that a short pole re-
quires a longer cross-head, or else the pole-chains
will pull too much sideways from the horses' necks.
The most exaggerated form of a long cross-head is
the yoke of a trotting wagon, which is so long as to
make the pole-straps parallel to the pole. There is

POLE-HEAD

CH. Ill

Fig. 29.

a regular pattern of crab, or metal mounting of the
pole, which is well adapted to its purpose and
should be adhered to. It is shown in Fig. 29. and

consists of a kind
of sheath which fits
on the end of the
pole and is fast-
ened to it by two
bolts, which must
be strong, since
by them the leaders pull. This sheath terminates
in a hook to take the lead-bars. At the root of the
hook is the cross-head, which is free to turn upon
the stem, and has a ring at each end into which the
pole-chains are fastened. The arms of the cross-
head should be about six inches long from the cen-
tre of the pole to the rings. A strap, attached to
the pole, passes through the eye on the point of the
hook ; it should be strong and always kept in good
order, as it may serve to prevent the lead-bars from
being jerked off the hook in case of an accident
with the leaders.

In many French four-horse vehicles, the hook is
under the pole ; but this is not a good arrangement;
the bars are liable to come off unless the point of
the hook is fastened by a screw to the pole, which
is troublesome.

The whole pole-head should be of the best steel,
highly polished. On a road-coach it is usually
painted black, but lately, on some road-coaches,

CH. Ill LEAD-BARS 55

especially in France, it is bright, as on a drag.
This looks much better, and it is really but little
more trouble to polish it than to keep revarnishing
it. On a long- route, however, and in bad weather,
the bright steel becomes tarnished toward the end
of the day. Of course, the chains must correspond
to the pole-head, and it is more trouble to varnish
them than to brighten them by shaking in a bag.
In old road-coaches the chains were usually made
fast to the pole-head, as they now are on farm-
wagons, and they had to be blackened.

Pole-heads, chains, or lead-bar fittings, should al-
ways be of bright steel, never plated with silver or
with brass. The plating soon wears off at the
rubbing surfaces.

Road-coaches, or private coaches on long trips,
sometimes carry a spare pole made in three pieces
to screw together, the joints being strengthened by
collars which slide over them. This pole is strapped
to the perch. Its head is of a simple form and
painted black.

Lead-Bars. — The lead-bars are made after one
regular pattern. Fig. 30 gives a better idea of
them than any description can give. They should
be rather heavy than light. The main bar is 3 ft. 4
in. long ; the single bars are 2 ft. 11 in.

The D fixture on the main bar is better than the
eye fixture shown alongside of it. It is somewhat
the fashion to use the eve for draos and the D for

LEAl)-r.ARS

CII. Ill

road-coaches, but the objection to the eye is that,
on account of its small size, it may get caught

Fig. ^o.

sideways on the hook and twist or break it. This
cannot happen with the D.

On the other hand, the D, having much more
play, is more noisy. This is a slight objection, and
at night it is an advantage, since the coachman can
tell by the ' chatter of the bars' whether or not his
leaders are working, since there will be no rattle if
they are pulling. The D is, therefore, recommended
for both draors and coaches.

The fixtures of the single-bars
have eyes set at right angles to the
bars ; these eyes hook on the ends
of the main-bar, and there are
springs which prevent them from
becoming unhooked. These springs
are usually made as shown at A in
Fig. 31, but a better method, de-
vised by Brewster & Co., is to have
the end lengthened into a loop,
which surrounds the stem of the hook as at B, so
as to keep the fitting from coming off should it be-

FlG. 31,

CH. Ill LEAD-BARS 57

come loose. These springs were comparatively
new in ' Nimrou's' time. (Malet, p. 348.)

The fittings of the bars are usually secured by
screws, and the bars should be always put on with
the screw-heads ?//, so that the loss of a screw will
be noticed. It is, however, much better to have the
fittings secured by bolts which go entirely through
them, as at C, and are riveted, so that they cannot
possibly come off

A dangerous accident, which not infrequently
happens, is to have the fitting on the end of the
main-bar come off, which lets the single-bar drop
on the leader's hocks and may cause even the
quietest horse to kick ; therefore the method of
fastening- the fittings with bolts should be insisted
on. It is not so important for the centre fittings,
since their coming- loose cannot do much harm.

A single link, or three or four short links, of steel
are sometimes used to connect the inside hooks of
the bars.'^" This should never be done, as in the
event of a horse kicking and getting his leg between
the main-bar and the single-bars, it is almost im-
possible to release him, and great damage may
result.

Such an arrangement is useless, at any rate, but
if, for any temporary reason, it should be desired,
merely a strap, which can be quickly cut, should be
used.

* This is as old as 'Nimrod's' time. See Essays, Malet, p. 191.

Fig. 32.

58 LEAD-BARS CH. Ill

An extra main-bar and one extra single-bar are'
carried on the back of the rumble. They are usu-
ally strapped on as shown in Fig. 32, but they

are sometimes held
in steel spring-racks.
Straps are better ; the
steel springs are diffi-
cult to clean and the
bars sometimes shift
sideways in them. The extra bars should be always
taken off when the coach comes in ; else they will
harbour dust and soon get rusty.

The lead-bar has sometimes been made in one
piece (Fig. ;2,2,), which is objectionable, not only be-
cause it does not permit
^ — *p^ -^ the free action of the

t:, horse's shoulder, but be-

FiG. 33.

cause, if one horse is
more free than the other and works in front, the
bar is oblique, and each horse has his collar pulled
sideways on his neck, which is certain to cause sore
shoulders.

The mails in old times carried this single-bar with
four hooks on it, as a spare bar in case of breaking
the lead-bars. (' Nimrod's' Fssays, Malet, p. 190.)

A method of rigging the lead-bars, frequently
used by Italian and Swiss vctturini. is well adapted
to the temporary conversion of a two-horse car-
riage into one for four horses. A rope is attached
to the centre of the front axle and carried along

CH. Ill

LEAD-BARS

the under side of the pole, from which it is sus-
pended at intervals by straps (hame-straps. for

Fig. 34.

instance). About two feet behind the point of the
pole, this rope is attached to the centre of a some-
what lighter line, the two ends of which are made
fast to a bar, 3 ft. 9 in. long, corresponding to the
main-bar. To the end of this bar are attached the
single-bars. The main-bar is held up by straps,
like light pole-pieces, from the pole-head. They
may go to the end of the bar or can be made fast
nearer its centre. The short bridle of the main-
bar can be replaced to advantage by a chain.

For three horses the lead-bars are made as
shown in Fig, 35. The long arm of the main-

-^ W

"~^

Fig. 35.

bar is twice the length of the short arm, so that
all three horses do an equal share of the work.

6o LEAD-BARS CH, III

The steel hook of the bar of the sinele horse
is long- enough to bring his bar out to the line
of the other bars. This is a common arrangement
in three-horse ploughs.

CH. IV 6i

CHAPTER IV
BODY

The bodies of coaches are essentially the same,
, but builders vary them sufficiently to make notice-
able differences in their proportions, as can be
seen by comparing the plates of coaches in the
present volume by detaching and superposing, the
sheets of transparent paper upon each other, or
upon the plates, which are all drawn to the same
scale.

The average length of the body is 4 ft. 10 in.,
the width 4 ft, o in., and the height 4 ft. 2 in. The
extreme lengths, as shown in the drawings, are
4 ft. II in. for the longest, and 4 ft. 8 in. for the
shortest ; these are outside dimensions. The di-
mensions within these limits are, to a certain extent,
a matter of taste, but extreme shortness should be
avoided, since it leads to a short coupling in the
under-carriage, which is objectionable. The body
should be made as light as is consistent with
strength, so as to keep the centre of gravity of the
whole coach low. Its weight is usually rather more
than half that of the whole coach, the irons and
cushions of the roof-seats being included. The
roof is very nearly flat, so that the seats can be
adapted to it, and for convenience in carrying bag-

62 BODY CH. IV

gage. The sides are moderately curved in both
directions, or have, what coach-makers call the ' cant'
in the horizontal direction, and the ' turn-under' in
the vertical direction.

The 'Wonder,' a coach much admired on the
Shrewsbury road in 1825, built by Waude, is said
to have had perfectly flat sides.''' A body looks
' smarter' if it has not too much curve. The .
bottom line of the coach should be between the
extreme boat curve and the nearly straight, side
and bottom lines, connected by short curves.

The doors of the body are hinged on the front
edo-e, unlike the doors of brouQfhams or landaus, so
that if they are left open by accident they will swing
shut on starting. They have solid, or stable, shut-
ters in addition to the usual orlasses, and there should
be some way, on the inside, of fastening them up
by buttons, or by pulling up the inside glasses tight
against them, so that they cannot be pushed down
from the outside in case it is desirable to lock up
the coach. For the same reason, the doors have
locks, which work with a key ; in addition to the
usual latches.

The inside of a modern road-coach body is usually
not lined, but finished in hard wood, and it has
cushions only. Old road-coaches were comfortably
stuffed and lined inside and had arm-straps, as the
inside places were the highest priced.

* Old Coaching Days, p. 37.

CH. IV BODY 63

A drag is plainly lined, and there is nothing more
stylish for the purpose than a very light drab cloth.
There should be straps of some kind on the under
side of the roof to hold hats or any similar light
thinp-s. It is a serious mistake to make the inside
of a coach so low that a man cannot sit in it with
his hat on. When a full load is on a drag", the ser-
vants have to go inside, and, apart from the ques-
tion of their comfort, it does not look well to have the
men sitting bare-headed ; and if they are required
to get out, they should be ready to do so quickly,
and not have to wait to put on their hats. For this
reason the height from the top of the wooden seat
should be not less than 3 ft. 8 in. This will admit
of a cushion 3 inches thick, and will give a height of
3 ft. 5 in. from the top of the cushion to the under-
side of the roof, which is enough for a tall man with
his hat on. If the top of the wooden seat is i 2 inches
above the centre of the floor, the whole inside height
will be 4 ft. 8 in. This is apparently greater than
the outside height of the body given in the begin-
ning of this chapter, but that is because the floor
drops inside as low as the bottom of the rocker.

Many of the road-coaches in England in the early
part of this century were uncomfortably low, and
there has been a disposition to copy them in modern
draofs.'^'

* ' The inside of the coach was very small. E. had to sit without
his hat, and he is not particularly tall.' — Extract from a private
Journal of Travel, in England in 1835.

64 BOOTS CH. IV

Boots. — The boots are constructively a part of
the body ; they vary considerably, being made
more or less deep according to the taste of the de-
signer ; shallow boots give a poor air to a coach,
and it is better to err on the side of depth. Their
distance below the top of the body should be such
as to give comfortable leg-room to persons sitting
on the roof-seats, and for that i6 inches is right.
This is from wood to wood, and does not count
the cushion. The hind boot is about 2 feet long,
the front one 3 feet, and both are about 2 feet deep.
The front boot should be from i to 2 inches higher
on the body than the hind boot, as that always gi\'es
a ' smarter' appearance, and prevents the appear-
ance of the coach's hanging down in front, when
the back seats are not occupied. The front boot
slopes backward from the root of the foot-board,
usually about 7 inches. This may be varied, but it
must not be so straight that, in the motion of the
coach, the boot will touch the inside roller-bolts,
which may happen if the spring-shackles are long.
The boots are 4 inches narrower than the body.
There is an opening into the front boot from above,
and the front part is usually hinged at the top so as
to turn up. This door must never be hinged at the
bottom, else it may fall open and, striking the horses,
occasion an accident.

In a road-coach the front of the boot is generally
entirely closed, and it is sometimes covered with
iron to prevent a kicking wheeler from knocking it

CH. IV BOOTS 65

in ; in this case the boot is accessible only from
the top by lifting a flap which is under the feet of
the persons sitting on the box-seat. While, on the
score of safety, it may be well to make a road-
coach boot in this way, it is so exceedingly incon-
venient for a drag, that it is better to have a door,
but always hinged at the top and with a lock, or
still better two locks, that can be trusted to hold.
On a race-course, for instance, the hind boot is full
of the lunch-boxes, or should, at any rate, never
have anything dirty put into it, the horse clothing
and halters must be in the front boot. It is diffi-
cult for the grooms to get out these articles through
the small opening in the top, under the feet of the
person, sitting on the box-seat ; but after the horses
are taken out, the front of the boot is quite acces-
sible if it has a door.

The boot may be made accessible from the inside
of the body, the opening being closed by the back
of the front seat, which is hino-ed or made to come
out altosjether. In old travellinor-carriao-es this ar-
rangement was frequently used, to permit a bed to
be made inside of the carriage, the feet of the per-
son lying on it, extending into the boot.

A coach was designed by Mr W. G. Tiffany,
and built for him by Peters of London, in 1868, in
which the sides of the front boot turned down, being
hinged near the bottom edge, one of the steps serv-
ing as a handle to the lock, and so arranged that
the door could not be opened unless the step were

BOOTS

CH. IV

turned edgewise, which would prevent any one from
stepping upon it unless the door were fastened.
A second coach, with the same kind of boot, was
built by Laurie & Marner in 1873, and both were
used on the London and Brighton road by Mr
Tiffany in 1873.'^' This arrangement is perhaps
somewhat complicated, but it is one way out of the
difficulty and gives convenient access to the boot.

It may be said that while in a road-coach (where
horse cloths, or anything else, may be put in the
hind boot) the front boot should be solid, the front
boot of a drag may have a door well secured.

The hind boot of a drag has
its door hinged at the bottom
in such a way that, when it is
open and horizontal, its inner
surface is level with the bottom
of the inside of the boot. If it
is higher, the boxes which be-
long in the boot will not slide
out over it unless it is put down
altogether. This door should
have iron quadrants, or chains,
which hold it when open, in a
horizontal position, so that it serves as a table for
serving lunch (see Fig. 36).

Fig. 36.

* The ' Peters' coach was built for Mr Tiffany to take to Tunis,
and the seats were covered with pigskin, the first time that this
material was used for that jnirpose.

CH. IV

BOX AND DRIVING SEAT

If the door is not hinged so as to be fair with the
bottom of the boot when horizontal, it may have a
chain and hook, as in a dog-cart, so that it can be
let down entirely in order to get out the boxes, and
afterward hooked up.

The door of the hind boot of a road-coach is huno-,
not at the bottom, but at the off side, so as to be
easily opened by the guard to take out parcels ; un-
less, however, a coach is built especially for a road-
coach, it is better to hano- the door drap--fashion,
and the coach can then serve both purposes.

In some of the old road-coaches, a rack on which
additional packages could be carried, was fitted
behind the rumble, and it was placed even as low
as the bottom of the boot, in which case the boot
was opened at the top, as was also the case for
security in the mail-coach.

Box AND Driving Seat. — On the front part of
the front boot is placed the driving-seat. In all
coaches it is supported
by solid ends, or risers,
and has a board runnino-
crosswise under it, so as
to close the space en-
tirely. The top of the
bench is flat, and the
proper shape of seat for

the coachman is made by the cushion. The best
form for this cushion is shown in Fig. 2il • It may

68 BOX AND DRIVING SEAT CH. IV

be entirely stuffed, in which case it is fastened on
by two straps which cross on top of it, or it may be
made with box sides and back, like the driving
cushions of a landau or of a brouo-ham, and fast-
ened to the seat by a strap underneath. The
former is the old-fashioned coaching style. The
seat should not be too flat, nor should it be as
steep as it is sometimes made, so that the coach-
man rather leans against it than sits on it, a point
that will be referred to when treating of the Position
on the Box. On a road-coach there is usually a
pocket on the near side of the cushion. The iron
rail on the off side should rise above the cushion,
to prevent the coachman from being thrown off
by a violent jolt. The box-seat has a back which
does not extend behind the coachman's cushion.
It is sometimes curved, as shown in Plates VII. and
XIX., but this is no improvement. It is frequently
so made that it can be taken off, in which case,
it should be, when in place, strapped tightly, other-
wise it may yield to the pull of a passenger who
takes hold of it in getting up or down with the
risk of crivinor him a fall. It is better to have it a
fixture.

Attached to the upper front edge of the boot
(Fig. 38) is the footboard, the angle of which is of
great importance. An angle of '%,'X) degrees with the
horizontal is the best.

Too large a footboard is uncouth ; in the old
mails it was both short and narrow, so that the

CH. IV

FOOT-BOARD

traces could be readily seen by the coachman. It

should be large enough ' fore and aft' to keep the

toe from projecting

beyond it, but no

larger ; 24 inches

from a vertical line

touching the front

edofe of the cushion

is correct.

A foot - board
which is narrow,
from right to left,
permits the coach-
man to see his

Fig. 38.

horses better than if it is too wide ; and as the
passengers do not want to walk about on the toot-
board, there is no reason for makinsf it more than
46 inches wide, on any coach.
On the hind boot is placed
the rumble (Fig. 39), which,
in a draor, is a seat for two
servants. It is supported by
irons at its ends, and is en-
tirely open underneath. It
should be 44 inches long,
which length does not make
it look out of proportion and
will eive room enough for
three slender persons, which is sometimes very con-
venient with a full load on top, as for a picnic or

Fig. 39.

RUMBLE

CH. IV

races. It should have a lazy-back, which can be
put on when it is used in this way, and there should
be also a valance of patent leather, which can be
buttoned on the front edge of the seat. These are
shown by the dotted lines of Fig. 39. WHien the
grooms occupy the rumble, neither the back nor the
valance should be used.

On a road-coach the rumble is supported by a
solid bench like that of the driving-seat ; the board

at the back joins the boot
at its upper angle, and the
seat is 60 inches long, so as
to hold three persons com-
fortably. On the near side
is a cushion (a couple of
inches higher than the cush-
ion of the other two seats)
for the guard, which ensures
him his proper place and
enables him to see over the
heads of the passengers.
Sometimes a road-coach has a rumble long enough
for four persons, but it gives a clumsy air to the
coach. This seat has a permanent back.

A strap with a loop should be fastened to the
underside of the back roof-seat, on the near side,
half-way between the centre and the end, so as to
come between the end passenger and his neighbour,
by which strap the guard can steady himself when
standing up to sound the horn.

Fig.

40.

. ' h c| -hill ,• .> (Mil < li'liniii.) m ii luinimiut ciilUo ' -Jlir v oiifli. ™l-''ar6V.:>
. .'J',.|,i;..al' ^C.mu..X|i,rV,. Ij). . 'Jl.uXn. }^\\nlc^ |',.V. ^Ml . 'J^xnc^^
■|i|u;mI( '^(^'jVdii ;.-i/iiii ^(^'(ilr. ^i^i-\\\\n . VlM).

-'Ikh ;)!iiu' |i( ■<:.iii.-> hi I'k Imi.iI.-iI (iiiO (iI,>I' (i iiiiiii in llit Vint ['(■(•L

• >A'ii^ fell; (il 'tiiiiMicii III [\ic I'-ci'l cMicdil ^

■ 'K'"lic I'll lii., (.nl..lWlrli(?> ir.iii I., (iiiih ;(l■<,l^'^.'

1.. '2'). I', is. 1').

CH. IV BOOTS 71

In carriages of the seventeenth century, in addi-
tion to the four people who sat inside, two more
persons, usually pages, or persons of lower rank,
sat sideways in the door-ways, facing the side of the
road, with their legs in a kind of box built out from
the side of the carriage and not unnaturally called
a 'boot,' and when what we now call the 'boots'
were added to a carriage, the name went with
them. The front boot, which was the support of
the driving-seat, must have had a closed top, but in
a road-coach, the addition behind was originally a
basket, open at the top. fastened upon the hind axle,
in which packages and passengers were carried. If
the passengers could do so, they sat down, but if
there were too many of them for this, they stood
up, and in cold weather the basket was half full of
straw to keep their legs warm.

This basket is shown in Plates I., IV., V., and
VI. ; '^' it was later replaced by a wooden box, open
at the top ; this was afterward closed at the top,
the passengers sat on it, and it assumed its pres-
ent form. In the early coaching books we read of
persons /;/ the hind boot.

In Cross, vol. ii. p. 6, we read : ' Now the guard

* In a plate published by Edw. Orme, Bond Street, London, in
1 816, of ' The Ghent and Brussels Diligence,' there is shown a basket
behind, another on the top, and another for the l)ox-seat. The
coachman is on the roof, his reins passing over the heads of the
persons on, or /;/, the box. The flat, shallow basket is still seen on
the roof of broughams fitted up for station work.

72 ROOF-SEATS CH. IV

' had taken up two soldiers on the road, and from
' ofood feehngf, as I thouQ^ht, had, not longr before we
' stopped, put them into the hind boot and covered
' them up — the boots in those days being very capa-
' cious and opening at the top.' This happened in
January 1814. The guard's object was, of course,
to prevent the proprietor from knowing that he
had carried the soldiers free, or else had pocketed
their fares.

Again in Cross (vol. ii. p. 81), we find as follows,
where an old coachman is speaking of sailors just
paid off, travelling by the Portsmouth coach : * We
' used to set 'em a-fiorhtino- in the rumble-tumble,
' when they'd be sure to drop something worth
' picking up.'

The whole hind boot seems to have been called the
rumble. The name is now applied only to the seat.

Some of the older coachmen called it the ' dickey'
(Cross, vol. iii. p. 128), but that name is now applied
to the driving-seat of a carriage.

Roof-Seats. — In the very old coaches (Plates V.
and \^I., Hogarth and Row^landson) there were
no seats on the roof, but passengers frequently
sat there, clinging on as they best could. Seats
were afterward added in the form that we have
them now, and finally, so many accidents were
there from top-heavy coaches, that a certain Mr
Gammon procured the passage of an Act of Parlia-
ment, in 1788, prohibiting coaches from carrying

CH. IV ROOF-SEATS 'J T^

more than six persons on the roof and two on the
box beside the driver.'^'

The roof-seats, therefore, did not extend much
beyond the edge of the roof, but later they were
lengthened so as to hold four. These roof-seats
are sometimes called the 'gammon-boards,'-]- obvi-
ously from the name of the author of the Act.

In the present coach, the roof-seats are fastened
to the roof, with their edges fair with the front and
back parts of the body. To carry four persons
with comfort they should be 6 feet long, and their
length may be practically increased without adding
to their apparent size, by bending the side irons
outward, six inches being thus easily added.

The mail-coaches had no hind roof-seat and car-
ried only three on the front roof-seat, and down
to 1870 drags usually had seats long enough for
only three, and extending slightly beyond the edge
of the roof. These seats are now uniformly made
to hold four ; and while the width of the load on
top does undoubtedly detract somewhat from the
' smart' appearance of the coach, the additional ac-
commodation more than makes up for it, and
when only three people are up, they have a com-
fortable abundance of room and do not make the
load look really much wider than if they were
crowded together.

* Brighton and its Coaches, p. 25.

f ' NiMROD,' Road, p. 17, calls the hind roof-seat 'the gammon-
board.'

74 FOOT-STOOLS CH. IV

The roof-seats have backs, which, on a drag, are
covered on both sides with patent leather ; on a
road-coach, with the same coveringr as that on the
seats. On a drag, the standards should be hinged
just above the cushion, so that they can be turned
down when the seats are not occupied, — which
should always be done. On a road-coach, the
standards are usually fixed.

On a roof-seat for four, the outside persons have
their feet partially unsupported, and on road-coaches
it is usual to extend a board on both sides so as to
provide a footing. It is rather clumsy and very
much in the way in getting up, and is commonly
omitted in drags or made very small.

As the roof-seat is usually somewhat high for a

lady, it is well to have two boxes to fit on the top

of the boot, as shown in Fig. 41, so made that

they cannot readily slip off, and

In^-- , ""~"'^-^^. yet can be pushed sideways to

accommodate the persons sit-
FiG. 41. ,

tino- there. If two ladies are in

the middle, the boxes can be put close together,
so as not to occupy the whole foot room. A similar
arrangement is convenient for the box-seat. Car-
pet foot-stools serve the same purpose, but they are
always slipping about, falling off, and getting lost.

The tops of the boots and the foot-board should
be covered with perfectly plain, single-coloured oil-
cloth, kamptulicon, or india-rubber. The foot-board
sometimes has, in addition, a perforated india-rubber

CM. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING 75

mat, which must be firmly fastened on, since acci-
dents have happened from its being pushed off by
the feet and frightening the wheelers by falling on
their backs.

On some road-coaches running out of London,
there is a seat for three persons on the middle
of the roof, — 'the knife-board,' — but it makes the
coach top-heavy, and is a dangerous arrangement
not to be commended.

PAINTING AND LETTERING

Coaches are usually painted in two colours ; the
colour chosen for the body is on the quarter panels,
the whole of the door, and the panel of the hind
boot.

The colour of the carriage-part is on the risers of
the box-seat (also on the risers and panel of the
rumble, in a road-coach), the underside and edge
of the foot-board, and on any portion of its upper
surface not covered with kamptulicon, on all the
carriage-part including the springs, and on the long
rocker-bed which runs under the body and really
forms a part of it.

The upper panels, the sides of the boots, the
front of the front boot, and the roof, are always
black.

All iron-work not on the wood, such as the stand-
ards of the rumble, steps, seat-rails, roller-bolts,
hub-bands and plates, shoe, chain, and ladder, is
black. To this rule, the springs are an exception.

76 PAINTING AND LETTERING CH. IV

but their shackles are usually black, or are covered
with black leather.

The rule of painting the panel of the hind boot
the same colour as the body is not invariable ; it
is frequently the same as the colour of the carriage-
part, as in the mail-coaches. The choice of the
colour is somewhat a matter of taste, depending on
which colour will look the best when the coach is
seen from behind. If the body-colour is ligJit, it is
put upon the panel ; not if it is dark.

A road-coach usually has no striping. A drag
may have striping, preferably black, at the root of
the spokes, on the rims of the wheels, round the
doors, and on the box-seat risers, and a lined panel
on the under side of the foot-board. The corners
of the wood-work of the carriage-part are some-
times moulded and striped ; in this case some of
the bolt-heads and clips are black.

The only other ornamentation on a drag is the
monogram, or the crest, of the owner, painted on
the crest-panel (which is the narrow panel under
the window), and the devices of any coaching clubs
to which the owner may belong, which are painted
on the door under the crest-panel, and in the centre
of the panel of the hind boot ; or the crest, or
monogram alone, may be there.

A road-coach has painted on it the names of the
places between, and through which, it runs.

The names of the two ends of the route are
on the panel of the hind boot, the more important

CH. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING ']']

one yfrj-/;* for instance. 'London and Brighton' in
three lines, the ' and' beine in letters ; not the sio-n
&. On the boots, near the lower edges, are the
names of places on the road. On the crest-panel of
the door are the same names as on the hind panel,
but without the 'and,' Sometimes the name and
address of the proprietor are on the crest-panel ;
during a certain period in the old coaching days
this was required. On the risers of the driving-
seat and of the rumble, are the names of the offices
or inns at the ends of the route. For instance,
the Paris and Poissy coach has ' herald office' on
one riser and ' hotel de l'esturgeon' on the other.

The name of the coach is in large letters on the
back of the rumble.

Colonel Kane's New York and Pelham coach
had on the crest panels umoN-poRx ^^ the near side,
and PEL^AM-BRiDGE ^^ the off side ; and on the riser
of the box-seat, the name of the coach ' tally-ho'
with a Maltese cross above it. There was ' NEW
YORK and PELHAM' on the hind boot panel
and no names on the boots. The lettering was
in gold and black, — the coach being yellow, — and
was very quiet and in good taste.

Some coaches, both in England and in France,
have names of places on the lower panels also of
the body, near to and following, the curved lines

* This rule was not universal in the old coaches ; in many of the
old prints the name of the less important place comes first.

78 PAINTING AND LETTERING CH. IV

of the panels ; but this is, perhaps, putting too much
on the coach. Sometimes a device, such as a comet
or a meteor, suggestive of the name of the coach,
is painted on the upper panels, but there is never
any lettering there.

In the old coaching clays, the name of the princi-
pal place to which the coach ran, was often painted
on the under side of the foot-board, so that the
coaches, when standing under a shed at a large
coaching inn, could be readily distinguished ; or
else the name of the coach was there painted, a
fashion which has been copied in the mail-coaches
recently built in Paris.

The mail-coaches in England were all painted
alike ; the under-carriage red, the body a maroon
or claret colour. On the side of the front boot
was the cipher G.R. or V.R., of the sovereign, in
large interlaced gold, script letters ; on the side of
the hind boot the number of the coach (^^ 2),
in similar letters. On the crest-panel, which was
deep, were the names of the towns between which
the mail ran, and the words 'Royal Mail,' in gold.
On the four black panels were the stars, of the
Thistle on the near side, and of the Bath on the
off side, of the front boot ; of the Garter on the
near side, and of St. Patrick on the off side, of
the hind boot ; on the doors the royal arms ; on
the hind boot panel the names of the places be-
tween which the mail ran. On the iron legs sup-
porting the guard's seat on a mail-coach, there was

CH. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING 79

no place on which the name could be painted, and
while some of the mails had names, many of them
had none.

In Malet's Annals of the Road there is an ad-
mirable drawing, in colour, of a mail-coach, which
distinctly shows all these details, and in the same
book there is a drawing of a stage-coach with body
and carriage-part painted the same colour.

The colours of the mail-coaches have been
adopted by the Reunion Road Club of Paris, and
all its coaches are painted maroon and red, with the
red on the panel of the hind boot.

CH. V

CHAPTER V

ACCESSORIES

Brake. — Coaches are now always fitted with a
brake, consisting of blocks which can be pressed
against the tires of both hind wheels. The blocks
are fixed to arms projecting from a horizontal shaft
which runs across under the body of the coach,
turning in suitable supports or brackets fastened
to the underside of the body. An arm projecting
upward from this shaft, passes into the body and
is pulled forward by a rod leading from the front
boot and connected with the handle of the brake,
the upper end of which is on the off side of the
boot.

Every maker has his own way of carrying out
these details, but that arrangement in which only
the upper part of the brake-handle is visible from
the outside is the neatest.

The block which rubs against the wheel may be
made of iron, or of wood covered with some ma-
terial, or of wood alone. Iron is the least satis-
factory, because it does not take a good hold of the
wheel, and because it frequently makes a noise ; it
lasts, however, a long time. Wood covered with
leather holds well, but the leather requires frequent
renewal and is almost always ragged and torn.

CH. V BRAKE 8 I

The best leather for this purpose is old belting,
which is flat and somewhat oily. Pieces of old
india-rubber tires, fastened on a wooden block, are
much used by French builders and make a good
brake ; this is shown in Fig. 42. The best material,
however, is a tough wood, like chestnut, used alone ;
oak is too hard and squeaks almost as loudly as
iron. The soft wood wears, but it can be easily
replaced. The arm should terminate in an iron
socket, of the form shown in Fig. 42, the hollow
beine somewhat smaller at the
bottom than at the top, and the
block being made to fit it. A
dozen blocks can be made at a
time by any carpenter, and kept
ready for use. When a block is
worn, it can be knocked out by a blow from below,
and the new block dropped into its place ; no other
fastening being necessary. Of course, both blocks
should be renewed at the same time, so that they
shall bear equally on both wheels.

Blocks of this shape in solid rubber can be
bought ready made, from the manufacturers.

The handle of the brake moves past a toothed
rack, and when the block is pressed against the
wheel, a sharp projection on the side of the handle
engages with one of the teeth and holds the brake
against the wheel. To release the brake, the
handle is pushed outward, its length giving it
enough spring for that purpose, and the projection

BRAKE

CH. V

is disengaged from the tooth. The shape of the
teeth of the rack is important. If they are too
square, as in A, Fig. 43, the handle will jump out
with the shaking of the coach ; if they
are cut back too much, as in B, it will
be difficult to disenofaofe the handle.
This should be carefully looked to in a
new coach, since either fault is serious.

There is a difference of opinion among
coaching men as to whether the brake-
handle should move forward or backward
to put on the brake. Fig. 44 shows the
two arrangements. In A, the handle,
when the brake is off, is far forward and
down ; to reach it, the coachman must lean for-
ward somewhat, but he can exert a great deal of

force upon it as he pulls
it back. In its off posi-
tion it is much in the way
in getting up and down.
If it is placed further back
to avoid this difficulty,
the arm of the coachman,
when he has the handle
nearly back, and needs to
exert the most power, is in the worst position for
so doing. If the handle works by pushing instead
of pulling, as shown in B, it is always out of the
way, and in putting on the brake, the coachman
has to exert the least force when the handle is first

Fig. 44

CH. V BRAKE 83

moved ; as he requires to exert more force, his arm
is constantly getting into a better position to do so,
and during the whole operation, the body is much
less disturbed, — an advantage when it is remem-
bered that all movements in driving should be as
little noticeable as possible. I prefer decidedly the
brake which works forward, and many brakes are
now made in that way, but the advantages seem to
be somewhat evenly divided.

The handle should be flexible sideways, enough
to enable it to be pushed off by pressing the outside
of the right arm against it.

The brake-blocks should be applied to the front
of the wheel, because the rod running to them is
thereby shorter and consequently lighter, and be-
cause if applied to the back they will work up out
of the sockets by the action of the wheel, unless the
sockets have their large ends down, in which case
the blocks will drop out if not fastened. The
brake should be applied at a point of the tire level
with the axle. If it is not exactly at that point, it is
better to have it a little below it, so that when the
brake is put on, the springs of the coach will help
to keep up the pressure ; whereas, if it is above the
line of the axle, every time that the body of the
coach jumps up, on a rough hill, the pressure of the
brake will be for the moment diminished.

It was a long time before the brake, which was
first used on the Continent, was adopted in Eng-
land, the older coaches having the shoe only, but in

84 BRAKE CH. V

America it was used early in this century on heavy
wagons, and was worked by a handle at the back
by the wagoner, who was on foot.

The majority of Continental carriages and coaches
have a wheel by which the brake is applied, but it is
too slow in its operation, requiring several turns,
and therefore is not nearly so good as the direct
acting handle, and, moreover, it is frequently so
placed that the coachman has to stoop, or to lean
sideways to take hold of it, which is objectionable,
since he should not change his position on the box.

The brake is also sometimes so arranged that it
can be worked from the back of the coach by a
groom, as well as from the front ; but this is entirely
unnecessary, since the coachman should be com-
petent to work the brake himself

Paris omnibuses use the ' Lemoine brake.' which
is worked by the hind wheel itself On the inner
end of the hub of this wheel there is a flanged pulley,
round which a hemp cord is passed three or four
times. That part of the cord which is on the lower
side of the hub is attached directly to the ordinary
brake ; the other end passes to a foot lever at the
coachman's seat. As long as the cord is slack, the
pulley runs round inside of it freely, but as soon as
the forward end of it is tightened by the coachman,
the pulley winds up the cord and puts on the brake
with great force. The cord, on the side against the
pulley, is lined with blocks of wood or leather. It
is useful in crowded streets, and it has been applied

CH. V

SKID

to some coaches, but is so rarely needed, that it is
an unnecessary addition.

In the American (Concord) coach, the brake is
worked by the foot, and there being- no rack to hold
it, the continued pressure of the foot is necessary
to keep the brake on. With this arrangement the
driver is able to increase or diminish the pressure
in crossing the many catch-water banks which are
met with on American hilly roads. In some late
English coaches there is an arrangement by which
the brake can be put on by the foot, the handle at
the same time movinof back and enofaeine in the
rack. It is disengaged by the hand in the ordinary
way. This does very well for an omnibus, which
has to stop frequently in crowded streets, but it is
certainly not necessary on a coach ; as has been
pertinently said by an eminent coaching authority,
' let the coachman drive with his
'hands and not with all fours.'

A left-handed coachman may have
his brake-handle at his left side, be-
tween his cushion and the box-seat.

Even with a brake, the coach
should have a skid or shoe, to carry
one wheel, on a hill that is too
steep for the brake alone to be de
pended on. The skid should have
continuous sides, as in Fig. 45, and not merely four
lugs standing up, as in Fig. 46, since a skid of the
latter form is much more apt to come off of the

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

86 SKID

CH. V

wheel. The bottom of the skid is usually made not
much wider than the tire, but it is better to have a
light plate, at least 6 inches wide, welded ''■'■ to it, as
this tears up the road much less ; the underside of
the plate should be rounded up along all its edges.

A strong chain attaches the skid to the centre of
the front axle, and is of the proper length to keep
the skid vertically under the centre of the wheel
when in use. It is better to have the chain an inch
too long than an inch too short, in order to prevent
the skid from coming off of the wheel. A hook,
large enough to hook round the rim of the wheel
(Fig. 47, A), and covered with leather, is sometimes
attached by another chain to the
same part of the axle. This is
hooked on the rim of the wheel be-
low where the brake touches it, and
^ holds the wheel in case the skid
Fig 4t~^ comes off Instead of having a large
hook, the chain itself is sometimes
made sufficiently long to go round the rim. that
part of it which touches the rim being covered with
leather, as shown in Fig. 47, B. At the end of the
leather-covered portion, there is a small hook which
goes into one of the links of the chain.

The hook is perhaps an almost unnecessary addi-
tion, yet on a road-coach running over steep hills,
it is safer to have it.

* The olijection to l>o/f illicit on is, that the bolt-heads wear off.

CH. V

SKID

The skid, when not in use, should hook on the
body of the coach, just behind the bracket of the
brake-arm. Sometimes the hook for the skid is
worked on this bracket. It must be far enough
back to keep the bight of the chain entirely off the
grouncl. A leather loop is fastened to the body to
take the hook shown in Fig. 47.

In English coaches the hook and loop are on the
near side of the coach, because the skid is put
under the near wheel. In America, where we drive
on the rio-ht-hand side of the road, the skid should be
put under the off wheel, for the reason that the skid,
holding very tightly to the ground, acts almost as it
it were a fixed point, and the tendency of the force
exerted by the horses will
be to pull on the chain
in a straight line from
that point ; the coach
will therefore slide over
to the side away from the
skid, which should be,
therefore, always on the
lower side of the road ;

if it is on the upper side, the coach will be constantly
sliding toward the gutter (see Fig. 48).

The reader can satisfy himself that this is so, by
putting a skid on any four-wheeled carriage and
then pulling the carriage over a smooth, level pave-
ment, such as asphalt.

Attention is especially called to this, because

Fig. 48.

88 ICE-SKID CH. V

builders in this country have bhndly followed the
English fashion of putting the skid on the near side,
ignoring the fact that we drive on the off side of
the road.

It being the duty of the guard on a road-coach,
and of the second man on a drag, to put on the
skid, it is more convenient to have it on the near
side, but it is used so rarely that this is of little im-
portance.

A skid attached to a rod has been devised, that
can be worked by a cord or light chain and dropped
under the wheel, which would then run up on it and
thus save a man's getting down to put it on, but
the arrangement has not found favour in practice.

It has been also proposed to have the chain which
holds the skid, so lono- that the skid can drae
behind the wheel. By a hook and ring it may be
shortened to the proper length to go under the
wheel, and, at the bottom of the hill, the ring being
knocked off the hook, the wheel will run off the
skid without its being necessary to back the coach.

The ordinary skid does
not hold on ice, and in
Switzerland an ice - skid,
shown in Fig. 49, is used.
It is a link about 28 inches

^ lonor, with chisel-shaped

Fig. 49. ^ ^

teeth. The wheel rests in
the opening, and the ring can be shifted to either
end, so as to use one or the other set of teeth.

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CH. V DRAG-STAFF 89

A chain wrapped round the rim of the wheel and
round the ordinary skid when on the wheel, may
be used in an emergency. Icy roads are always
dangerous to a coach and alarming to the coach-
man.

Some Swiss travelling-carriages are fitted with
an additional brake on the front wheels, which is
worked from the near side of the coachman's seat.
Obviously the rod working this brake must pass
through the centre bolt of the fore-carriage, which
bolt is made hollow for the purpose. This second
brake obviates, in many cases, the employment of
the skid, but it should not be used unless the hind
brake is also on, as the retardation of the front
wheels while the hind wheels are running free, may
cause an accident.

A drag-staff was formerly attached to travelling-
carriages. It is a short pole, hinged to the hind
axle and trailing on the oround, so that, should the
carriage be stopped in going up a hill, the staff
prevents it from running back. It was rarely used
on coaches.

Lamps. — The lamps of a coach are large, with
eood reflectors, and should be made to burn the or-
dinary, large, carriage-candles ; oil lamps are dirty
and troublesome. They are made to fit easily into
the lamp-irons, which are fixed on the front edge
of the body of the coach, and should have stops on
them to prevent turning in their sockets. There

LAMPS

CH. V

should be brackets, or straps of some kind, in the
front corners of the interior of the coach, to hold
them when they are not in the lamp-irons.

Road-coaches usually have another pair of lamps
(see Fig". 50), which are put on the lower step-irons
of the front boot. These additional lamps should
throw their light to the side as well as to the front.

There is also a foot-board lamp, which is hung on
the front edge of the foot-board ; no part of it should
project above the foot-board, lest it catch the reins,
and if it extends much below, a horse may touch it
with his croup, in making a short turn ; it should
therefore be small, and it is not necessary to have

more than one candle in it ;
its only use is to light the
pole-head, which is always
in the shadow cast by the
horses' shoulders. Foot-
board lamps with three can-
dles are too large. It is not
easy to find the proper place
for this foot-board lamp ; it
is more out of the way at the root of the foot-board,
but the heat from it is likely to blister the paint
above it, and it can be put there only when the
front of the boot is fixed.

A completely equipped road-coach which runs
after dark should have a lamp on the near side
of the hind boot, shinincr backward, to enable the
guard to see the address on packages and to read

Fig. 50.

CH. V LAMPS 91

his way-bill. This lamp is so made that it can
be readily taken off to be used to look along the
road in the case of a doubtful bridge, or the like.
The main coach-lamps are often used for the same
purpose.

Lamps are sometimes made with slides which
cover the glass when they are not lighted, but
they are ugly, and when lamps are not in use they
should be inside the coach.

It is not considered the * proper thing' to carry
the lamps in the daytime. This is, to a certain
extent, an arbitrary dictate of coaching fashion,
based, however, on a real custom of road-coaching.
When coaching was a business, the lamps were
kept at the station where the coach changed just
before dark, and were put on the coach at the
change, having been trimmed and filled, — for they
were oil lamps, — during the day. When morning
came, they were left at the first change-place, so
that a coach was never seen carrying them in the
daytime, and this has been adopted as a fashion.
Moreover, the lamps, being large, are a good deal
in the way of persons, especially ladies, getting up
and down, — a practical reason for leaving them off.
At coaching meets, where uniformity is desirable,
they must be either on all the coaches or off all
of them, and they are always off.

It has become, therefore, one of the conditions of
a perfectly turned-out coach that it should not have
its lamps on, though it is hard to give any good

LADDER

CH. V

reasons, apart from those just mentioned, why the
lamps should not be on a coach as they are on a
broug-ham or a landau, which would look naked
without them, A break is always driven with its
lamps on.

The modern coach-lamp is so large, — almost like
a locomotive head-light, — that it is very conspicuous
when it is in place. Smaller and plainer lamps are
coming into fashion of late, more like the old mail-
coach lamps. It is a good plan to have two plugs,
of mahogany, or other polished, dark wood, with
smoothly rounded tops, to keep in the lamp-sockets
of a drag when the lamps are not in use. They
p"ive a finished look and are more agreeable to the
touch than the sharp edge of the socket if the lamp-
iron is taken hold of in getting on the coach.

A light ladder is necessary to enable ladies to
mount to the top of the coach. It folds in the
middle, so as to be convenient
to hang up, and is usually made
of iron. Two designs are shown
in Fig. 5 i ; the one with a plat-
form is the more complete, and
better for a public coach. The
other is lighter and convenient
for a drag. The steps should
be covered with woollen plush
or india-rubber, to prevent the foot from slipping.
The ladder must have hooks or pins which catch
in the step, made open for that purpose, or on

Fu;. 51,

CH. V BASKET 93

top of the wheel when it is used for the hind
roof-seats. The length of the ladder should be
carefully considered. If it is too long it will be
difficult to use it from a kerb, and for this reason
it is better to have it as short as will do on a flat
road. On a drag it is best carried on two hooks
under the rumble-seat ; on a road-coach it is hung-
under the hind boot, since it would hide the lettering
on the back panel were it under the seat.

A basket, for umbrellas and sticks
(Fig. 52), is fastened on the near side, to
the iron of the back roof-seat. It is 27
inches long. 10 inches in diameter, and
has a flat side which lies against the
panel. For a road-coach, it has usually
a division, making a small place in which
the horn, with its bell up, is carried. ^^''- S^-
The lower end of the basket is strapped to the
handle which is on the edge of the body.

While a basket is essential to a road-coach, it is
doubtful whether it is worth while to carry one on a
drag, when not on a journey. It does not improve
the appearance of the coach as seen from behind ;
it widens it out and detracts from its ' smart' look ;
and since a stop can be made at any time, the um-
brellas can readily be taken from the inside ; in the
basket they get chafed and dusty.

When a basket is carried, it is not necessary to
have a horn-case ; but if the horn is wanted when
there is no basket, it should be carried in a russet

HORN-CASE

CH. V

leather case (Fig. 53) strapped to the off side roof-
seat iron. It is on the off side, because the head
groom sits on that side, and it is he who usually
sounds the horn. The case should be slighdy
longer than the horn and open at
the bottom, so that dirt will not
lodge in it. A wire pin across the
end will prevent a loose mouth-
piece from dropping through.

On a road-coach, the rails of the
roof-seats are connected by a rod,
which serves for the euard to take
hold of in climbing round from his
seat to the front of the coach, and
also serves to hold a net, made of
straps, which prevents coats and
i'lG. 53. wraps, laid on the top of the coach,

from falling off (see Plates XVII. , XIX., and XXII.).
Similar rails may be temporarily attached to a drag
for a journey, but they should not be on when the
drag is used for park driving.

Lunch-boxes are fitted to ^o in the hind boot.
The best arrangement is shown in Fig. 54. These
boxes should be made of mahogany or oak, pan-
elled. The larofe ones should be lined with tinned
(planished) copper, which is much cleaner and nicer
than zinc, and each one should be divided into three
watertight compartments. In these compartments
bottles, ice, salad, &c., can be carried, separated
from each other.

CH, V

LUNCH-BOXES

The shallow case, which rests on a slide, over the
large boxes, should be 7 inches deep outside, and
divided as shown. Plates, with napkins between
them, are in one side, dishes
in the other, tumblers in the
places made for them in the
centre. A large division holds
glass pitchers and one or two
table-cloths, and a tray, fitting
on top of the tumbler compart-
ment, takes knives, forks, and
spoons. A number of small
pantry towels should be added,
in which the soiled plates can
be wrapped to bring them
home in the lower boxes. It
is needless to say that no soiled
articles should be put in the
divided box, which should be
Hned with buckskin, not with
the baize frequently used.

In addition to the boxes for
the hind boot, an ' imperial' is
frequently added to the roof of
the coach. It fits in between the seats, as shown in
Plate XVIII., and the front, back, and sides, turn
down, so that it flattens out into a table. It holds
a quantity of provisions, and generally has a tray
hanging near the top which is convenient as an
additional table top. The imperial is an ugly

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Fig. 54.

TABLES

CH. V

adjunct to the coach, and with reasonable ingenuity

in stowing what is needed, the boxes should carry

enough for any ordinary lunch.

For lunching- on the coach, tables fittinor on the

hind boot and on the foot-board are convenient. A

simple arrangement for
this purpose is shown in

Fig- 55-

The tops of the tables

are of a size to be carried

under the cushions of the

inside seats of the coach ;

the iron legs go in the

front boot. The method

of screwing the parts together is shown in Fig. 55.
For attendance at race-courses, &c., where the

people on a drag sit in the sun for a long time, an

Fio. 55.

awning is useful. A satisfactory way of arranging
it is shown in Fig. 56.

The standards are of iron 5/ of an inch diameter,

CH. V

AWNING

jointed in the middle like a fishing-rod, so that they
can be put in the boot, or inside the coach. They
slip into sockets under the seats. There are four
on each side ; those in the middle rise straight up
from the ends of the roof-seats. Those in the front
and back are of somewhat different shape, so that,
while rising from narrower seats, they have their
upper ends in a line with those in the middle ; those
for the box-seat also turn somewhat forward. The
standards have collars and knobs, at the top, and
four strips of hard wood, 1 1 2 inch by i^ inch,
with brass plates on the ends, drop over these
knobs, making a complete frame, over which the
awning is laid. The awning is best made of striped
material, not too heavy, and should have a valance 8
inches deep all round it. Braid or ribbons should
be provided by which the valance can be brailed up
if desired ; these braids can be passed through the
holes which have to be made in the awning where
it goes over the knobs.

Fig. 57.

A simple awning is shown in Fig. 57, but it can
be used only when the long and rather heavy poles
which it requires, can be sent by another convey-

98 TOOLS CH. V

ance than by the coach. These poles are long-
enough to reach from the ground to about 4 feet
above the roof of the coach ; they are driven slightly
into the ground and strapped to the rumble and to
the middle of the foot-board. For a week's race-
meeting or cricket-match, this awning may be kept
on the spot. One great advantage of it is, that it
can be canted to suit the direction of the sun.

Tools. — The foUowinof articles should be carried
in a coach : —

The wrenches belonging to the wheels.

Monkey-wrench. Foot-pick.

Blacksmith's hammer. Horseshoe nails.

One fore shoe. One hind shoe.

Large cutting pliers. Copper wire. Oil-can.

Cord and piece of manila rope ^ inch diameter.

Punch for making holes in straps. Strong knife.

Piece of canvas. Extra candles and matches.

Screw-driver. Brush. Cloth. Bucket.

If possible, a small hydraulic jack for raising the
wheel.

The uses of these articles will be referred to in
the Chapter on Accidents.

A list of spare parts of harness is given in the
Chapter on Harness.

Aprons. — Sometimes a small apron, usually of
some lieht stuff, such as is used for linen horse-
covers, or of thin cloth, is worn by the coachman.

CH. V APRONS 99

over the lap, reaching from a Httle below the waist
to the ankles, and long enough the other way to
tuck under the legs on both sides, so as to be sat
upon. This is for the purpose of keeping dust, and
any dirt from the reins, off the trousers. When it
is worn for warmth it must be of thicker material,
and fastened around the waist by a strap, so that
when the wearer stands up it is much like a skirt.
An apron of this kind does not, however, protect
the feet from cold ; it is better to have one long
enough to go under the feet.

In cold weather it is well for the box passenger
to have a small, soft rug, to be wrapped round his
legs in the same way, under the box-apron, since,
from the position of the coachman's legs, an open-
ing letting in cold air, is left necessarily at the side,
under any apron covering both persons.

The fashions of coaching having originated in a
country where fur robes are but little used, there
seems to be a certain lack of appropriateness in
using a fur robe on the box, although there is, of
course, no good reason against it ; but a thick drab
cloth looks rather more 'coaching,' and if neces-
sary, it can be lined with fur.

For ordinary weather there is no better material
for aprons than plain, drab, Bedford cord, either
hemmed on the edee, or bound with cloth of the
same colour. The corners should be rounded, with
a radius of 4 or 5 inches. The apron for the box-
seat should be 4 ft. 6 in. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. long,

lOO APRONS CH. V

and should have a strap 30 inches long-, fastened
to the underside, 7 inches below the upper edge,
which can be passed round the rail of the box-seat
to keep the apron from slipping down. This strap
is passed through a ring fastened to a metal boss,
which shows on the outside of the apron.

Box-aprons sometimes have sewed in the middle
of the upper part, a gusset which is supposed to
go down between the two persons who are on the
box, but it is of doubtful utility, since, if the apron
is wide enough, its centre part will be well kept
down by the strap without displacing the ends.

The box-apron sometimes has two pockets near
its upper edge, and then there is a long flap over
th.em ; unless there are pockets, the flap is hardly
necessary.

The aprons for the roof-seats should be 4 feet
wide and 9 feet long, so as to cover all four pas-
sengers, and there should be one for the rumble, 4
feet wide and 6 feet long. These sizes may seem
excessive, but it is a mistake to have aprons too
small ; they cannot be tucked under at the ends and
are always slipping about.

There should be an apron, of a cloth the colour
of the liveries, for the men to use in the rumble.

For cold weather, aprons made of heavy, drab
cloth, waterproofed, and lined with some check
material, are the proper thing. They should not be
bound, but stitched on the edge with several rows
ot stitches. The box-seat apron is sometimes lined

CH. V APRONS lOI

along its lower edge, inside, widi a band, about 8
inches wide, of pig skin, so that the feet may be
placed upon it without wearing it out. This band
should be only as long as the foot-board, say 40
inches, and should not extend to the ends of the
apron, else it will be difficult, on account of their
stiffiiess, to tuck them in.

The most comfortable apron for cold weather is
a hag, 4 feet long, up and down, and 27 inches wide
double, that is. made of stuff 54 inches wide. The
seam is not at the side, but at the back, in the
middle, and extends for a distance of about a foot
from the bottom, the rest being open. The bag is
pulled over the feet after sitting down and the sides
tucked in, so as to sit upon them. The bottom of
the bag is, of course, closed.

Against rain, india-rubber aprons should be pro-
vided, and, since it is not necessary that they should
be thick, the best, and by far the cheapest, material
is ordinary rubber-cloth, which can be bought by
the yard and merely cut to the proper length, with-
out any binding. It comes about 48 inches wide.
Whether it is white or black is a matter of taste ;
the white looks better, but has a whitish powder
on it, which marks dark clothes. The advantage of
these thin aprons is that they arc thin and can be
folded and kept under the inside cushions, while
the regularly made rubber aprons are usually thick
and stiff.

I02 CH. VI

CHAPTER VI

DIFFERENT FORMS OF FOUR-IN-HAND CARRIAGES

DRAG

As regards the different vehicles for four-horse
driving, the road-coach and the private drag have
been already sufficiently described. The name drag
is now restricted to the private coach, but in the
early part of this century a public coach was fre-
quently called a ' drag' and the coachman a ' drags-
man.' ''■

Adams writes, in 1837: 'A Driving Coach is a
' vehicle formerly much used by gentlemen fond of
' driving and attending races.'

MAIL-COACH

When, in 1784, at the suggestion of Mr Palmer,
of Bath, mail-coaches were established in England,
to replace the boys on horseback and the mail-
carts, the road-coach, so modified as to make it
more suited to higher speeds and lighter loads,
became essentially the mail-coach shown in Plate
VII. It had a heavy carriage-part, but the body
was comparatively light and somewhat narrower

* Cross, vol. ii. p. 136. 'Nimrod's' NortJu-m Tour, p. 32.

CH. VI MAIL-COACH IO3

than that of the road-coach. It carried four pas-
sengers inside, one on the box, and three on the
front roof-seat. There was no hind roof-seat, and
the rumble, supported by irons, carried only the
guard.

The hind boot had no door behind, the mail-baes
being put in through an opening in the top closed
by a lid, on which the feet of the guard rested.
In the place of the hind roof-seat there was a box
containing- a blunderbuss and tools. The earlier
mails had telegraph springs in front and a cross
spring behind, which was later replaced by tele-
graph springs. The axles were heavy, with mail
axle-arms, the wheels had but little dish and were
set nearly vertical ; the hind wheels were larger
than those of the coaches, and measured 4 ft. 8 in.
The foot-board was small, the boots were large
and deep, and sometimes the full width of the
body.

These coaches were made on contract by Vidler,
whose firm built them from 1784 to 1836. There
were other builders, however ; Ward and Wright
are mentioned.

There is a model of a mail-coach, on a scale of
one inch to the foot, in the General Post-Office in
London, and an exact copy of it is in the posses-
sion of The Coaching Club, New York. It has a
hammer-cloth. On occasions of ceremony (such as
the Procession of the Mails, which took place from
the General Post-Office, on the King's birthday), a

I04 MALLE POSTE CH. VI

hammer-cloth, Hke that used on a dress carriage,
was put on the box-seat. It was red, Hke the royal
livery of the guard.

During- Vidler's contract, probably few changes
or improvements were made in the mail-coaches,
but at the outset, the subject seems to have been
studied with much care by the Post-Office authori-
ties, with the result of turning out a very complete
vehicle.

An exact reproduction of the mail-coach was
built by Messrs Guiet & Co., of Paris, in 1892. for
Mr W. G. TiFFANV, and was used in the drive
against time, from Paris to Trouville in July of that
year. It has been copied since then for other
private persons, and is shown in Plate VII.

MALLE POSTE

The French Mail, or ' Malle poste,' was en-
tirely different from the English ; it was a britzska
with a dickey for the guard. It carried only two
passengers, had four horses, and travelled very fast.
(Beaufort, p. 327.)

General Morin, in his Report on the Loudon
Exhibition of 1862, says that the malle poste ran
on certain stone-paved roads at a speed of from
15 to 16 kilometres (9.32 to 9.94 miles) an hour.
The stages were short, only five miles. Beaufort
states that the changes of horses were made in
forty-five seconds. Plate VIII., from an old drawing
by Victor Adam, shows this vehicle.

CH. VI DILIGENCE IO5

Morin's description of the Eng-Hsh coach and
his comments upon it, in the Report just men-
tioned, are too good to be lost : —

' At the same period the EngHsh mails and
' coaches had an entirely different form from ours,
' and are reproduced in the vehicle now used in
' England to take a party of people to the races ;
' the body of a berline, with places inside for four
' persons only, and with twelve or fourteen seats
' outside, entirely uncovered and surrounded by a
' simple iron rail which barely afforded a point of
' support to the passengers ; a space on the roof for
' the baggage against which the passengers leaned :
' such is the vehicle to which the English gave,
' and still give, their preference in a climate which
' is wet and rainy the greater part of the year.
' We cannot dispute their taste in such things, or
' in colours.' '='

DILIGENCE

On the Continent of Europe, in old coaching
days, the vehicle which corresponded to the stage-
coach of Eno-land was the Dilio-ence. Plate IX.,
from a photograph of a Swiss diligence of 1891,
shows it well, since few changes have been made in
it during the past seventy years. The main body
is like that of a coach, carries four or six persons,
and is called the 'interieur.' In front, and con-
structively forming part of the body, is the 'coupe,'

* MoRiN, Rapport sur Classe VI., p. 411.

I06 DILIGENCE CH. VI

holding- three persons. Behind the body is a boot,
on top of which is a seat for two, or for three pas-
sengers ; this seat is furnished with a hood. The
driver sits on the top of the coupe, with his feet on
a foot-board, which is in front of the windows of the
coupe. This seat is usually long enough to take
the ' conducteur' (guard) alongside of the driver,
but he sometimes sits in the rumble.

The brake is applied both to the front and to the
back of the hind wheels, and is so arranged that it
can be worked from both sides of the driving-seat,
by either man. There is no perch, and therefore,
necessarily, three-quarter springs. The front wheels
turn under the body. The lead-bars are not at-
tached to the end of the pole, but to a rod which
runs under the pole from the futchells. When three
horses are in the lead, as is quite common, the
main-bar is long- enough to spread the outside
horses sufficiently to admit the centre horse be-
tween them, and his bar is hooked to the centre of
the main-bar, no attempt being made to equalise
the draft.

The baggage is piled on the roof and covered
with a tarpaulin ; the mail-bags and small packages
are put in the hind boot. Various modifications of
this vehicle are in use, but that just described may
be considered the standard diligence.

The harness is simple, and breechings are invari-
ably used on the wheel horses. The lead reins are
passed sometimes over the wheelers' heads, some-

n li

I 1

CH. VI TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE lOJ

times on the inner side of the bridle, never through
terrets on the pad. The leather portion of the trace
is short and terminates in a 5/^ inch rope, which is
looped round the score cut in the end of the swingle-
tree. There is no attempt at any finish in harness,
or appointments, or in methods of driving, but these
diligences go with safety, night and day, over good,
though sometimes dangerous roads, at a fair rate of
speed.

TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE

A European Travelling-carriage of the early part
of this century, is shown in Plate X. It had a large
body made in the form of a coupe, but with length
enouo-h to admit of a comfortable, additional seat
inside, and had large imperials and boxes, which
could be taken off and used as trunks. The horses
were always ridden by postilions, therefore there
was no driving-seat, but there was a rumble, usu-
ally provided with a hood,

BREAK

A Break, according to English usage, is strictly
the four-wheeled vehicle shown in Fig. 58, used for
breaking horses ; but, either from the obvious utility
of putting a body behind the driving-seat, or else as
a development of the well-known wagonette, it has
assumed the form shown in Fig. 59.

This in turn has been simplified by omitting the
perch and mounting the body on four elliptic
springs.

io8

BREAK

CH, VI

By this simplification, while the form of the vehicle
is but little changed, the mechanical principle is
much modified.

In a carriage made with a perch, the horses are
attached directly to the luJiolc of the carriage-part,
which follows them as one piece, while the body
alone is above the springs ; in a carriage without a
perch, the horses pull upon the body, and second-

FiG. 58.

arily upon the axles and wheels through the
springs, the body, in a measure, taking the place
of a perch.

It will be noticed that when any wheel of a perched
carriage strikes an obstacle, the shock is felt directly
by the horses ; while in one without a perch, the
shocks, both vertical and horizontal, are taken largely
by the springs, and reach the horses with their
violence much diminished.

CH. VI

BREAK

109

For this reason carnages without a perch are
undoubtedly easier on the horses, and nearly all
vehicles, nowadays, are so made.

They are also much lighter, and as the front
wheels can be made to p-o far, or, in fact, all the
way, under the body, such vehicles turn in a small
space. It is, however, supposed that, from the
greater flexibility of the vehicle, the hind wheels do

Fig. 59.

not follow the front wheels with accuracy, and that
thereby the draught may be increased.

It must be also noted that the pole of a carriage
without a perch is liable to fly up in crossing a de-
pression, such as a gutter, and strike a horse in the
mouth.

Experience, up to this time, and, perhaps, a cer-

1 lO BREAK CH. VI

tain amount of prejudice, have led to the retaining
of the perch construction in heavy vehicles, like
coaches.

A light buggy has only two elliptic springs, and
therefore, of necessity, a perch, because the springs,
set crosswise, would not be in the proper position to
resist the strain of the draught ; carriages interme-
diate in weight between coaches and buggies usu-
ally have no perch, and have four elliptic springs, or
some modification of them/*'

Mail-phaetons are almost the only carriages to
which the two systems are applied, some having
perches and regular telegraph springs, and others
four elliptic springs only. In this particular style of
carriage, the body is not heavy enough to make the
telegraph springs work easily, and a phaeton with a
perch, although stylish, is apt to be stiff and uncom-
fortable.

Since a break is principally to * knock about' with
and to use in rough places, it is better to have it
without a perch ; its greater lightness and the ease
with which it can be turned in narrow places much
more than counterbalances any advantages that the
perch construction may possess.

The wagonette break is the kind most frequently
used, but while it is convenient to carry baggage or
the like, it is not as good a four-in-hand vehicle as

* Beaufort (p. 238) speaks of Clark's coach, on the Brighton
Road, in 1862, as having no perch and being good to carry a load.

-» — w

<\1

—
CD "
i. o

p (I

CH. VI BREAK I I I

some form of the French cJiar a bancs (so called from
its being a car with benches placed across it), shown
in Plate XL The driving-seat is exactly like that
of a coach, and can be made the same height from
the ground ; the splinter-bar, and consequently the
horses, will be then in the same relative place as in
a coach. The second seat, which can be made for
three, or for four persons, is a little higher than the
box-seat, and the leg-room is much better than on a
coach ; the rumble, as usual, seats the orrooms. The
body has doors in the sides and a door behind, and
takes the place of the boots ; with open gratings
in the sides, or in the doors, does can be carried
comfortably. For country and sporting purposes
nothing can be better. A cha7' a bancs like that
shown in the plate will weigh about 1600 pounds ;
twice as much as a light mail-phaeton without a
perch. The connection of the hind springs with
the axles and with the body should be carefully
considered in designing this vehicle, since the brake
tends to push the hind axle backward in a manner
in which it will not be pushed in a carriage without
a brake. There is a way of connecting the front
end of the spring to the body which will counteract
this strain, but somewhat to the detriment of the
easy action of the springs (see Fig. 28).

The pole, pole-hook, lead-bars, &c., of a break
should be exactly like those of a coach, but some-
what lighter, not, however, in proportion to the
difference of weight of the vehicles.

112

HIGH PHAETON

CH. VI

Barouche Landau. — In the early part of this cen-
tury, the favourite carriage for the four-in-hand
amateur seems to have been a ' Barouche Landau,'*
which was a barouche with a high driving-seat, and
a rumble for two servants. A carriage of this kind
was used by the Prince Regent at Brighton.

A very high phaeton (Fig. 60) was also used at
the same period ; it was sometimes called a ' high
flyer.'

Fig. 60.

The Jaunting Car, introduced into Ireland in
1 81 5 by BiANCONi, is another four-horse vehicle;
although it is generally used with two horses only
(Fig. 61).

* sporting Magazine, 1826. Mentioned by Malet, p. 127 ; also
by Lennox, p. 201.

CH. VI

CURRICLE OR CAPE CART

I I

Private Omnibus. — A vehicle much used in the
country for station purposes, and the Hke, is the
Private Omnibus (Fig. 62). It is admirably adapted
for four-in-hand driving since the drivine-seat is
high and a seat for three, or for four people can be
readily arranged on the roof The interior is en-
tered from the back, and, therefore, the hind wheels
can be large, and the axle well under the body,
hence the vehicle runs easily.

iMi

Small seats are added at the rear, on each side
of the door, for the orooms.

The omnibus may be also used with three horses
abreast.

Curricle or Cape Cart. — Any two-wheeled cart
made with a pole instead of shafts, to be drawn by
two horses, can of course be used with four.

114

CAPE CART

CH. VI

Such a cart is the Curricle, the pole of which is
suspended from the centre of a bar which rests
upon the pads of the harness. A simpler arrange-
ment, much used in the English Settlements at the
Cape of Good Hope, and therefore called a Cape
Cart, has the pole supported by a yoke attached to
the lower part of the collars just as the pole of a

Fig. 62.

trotting wagon is supported, except that the pole-
straps are much longer. With a hook on the point
of the pole, or a rope running back to the axle
(as described on page 58), four horses can be
driven to such a cart, and it is admirably adapted
to wild reeions where the roads are little more than
tracks.

CH. VI SLEIGH 115

A curricle-bar may be made to go under the
horses' bellies instead of over their backs, and
such a 'rig' is described by ' Nimrod,' Noidhern
Tcnu^, p. 68, as being part of the ' curricle mail.' It
has been revived in America as part of a plough
harness, and has been used for the leaders of a
coach, with a single trace, or rope, going from the
middle of it to the point of the pole.

In Philipson On Harness, pp. 49-63, will be found
an excellent article on the Cape Cart, with full de-
tails of its construction and mode of harnessing.

Sleigh. — A sleigh is not well adapted to four-in-
hand driving, since it is usually too low, and if the
height of the driving-seat is increased the sleigh is
likely to tip over.

Probably the best arrangement for driving four-
in-hand on snow or ice, would be to fit four ' bob-
runners' to the axles of a break. A bob-runner is
a quarter of a wheel, with the lower part of the
rim lengthened horizontally, and having a hub and
box fitting on the axle-arm.

Il6 CH. VII

CHAPTER VII
AMERICAN COACH

As has been said in a previous Chapter, the
American coach seems to be nearly the English
coach of the middle of the eighteenth century,
arrested in its development, because the conditions
under which, in this country, it has been, and is still,
used, are nearly similar to those of that period in
England.

The lone distances in America, and the newness
and comparative poverty of the country, prevented
the construction, at an early period, of roads as
good as those of Europe, and later, the rapid de-
velopment of railroads checked the building of
main driving roads, so that coaches had to be
adapted to rough roads and bad usage.

The typical American coach, usually called the
' Concord coach.' from Concord. New Hampshire,
where the majority of them are built, is shown
in Plate XII., which is an accurate drawinor to a
half-inch scale, kindly furnished by ' The Abbot-
Downing Company of Concord.'

The photogravure, Plate X\^, of a heavy coach
made for our Western States and Territories and
still sent to Africa ; and Plate XVI., of a lig^ht coach
such as is still used in some places in the White

2 o

9 2,

PLATE XIII.

Scale of Feet.
REAR VIEW OF CONCORD COACH

CH. VII CONCORD COACH II 7

Mountains not as yet reached by the railroad, show
the two extremes of design.

The pecuharities in construction of this coach
are, that it has three parallel, straight perches con-
nectinor the hind axle and the front transom-bed
and forming a very stiff rectangular frame. See
Plate XI\'\ The three perches extend 9 or lo
inches back of the hind axle and are connected
by a cross piece. At the four corners of this frame
rise four stiff, iron standards, firmly braced so that
they cannot bend, which carry, at their upper ends,
square iron shackles ; connecting these shackles
on each side are thick leather straps, and upon
these straps, or thorough-braces, rests the body
of the coach.

This is exactly the mode of suspension of Eu-
ropean carriages before the introduction of springs,
which, it will be noticed, are wholly absent in the
Concord coach.

The fore-carriage differs from that of the English
coach principally in not having any outer futchells.
The inner futchells are spread out behind to take
the sway-bar, and brought together in front to take
the pole ; corresponding to the splinter-bar is an
evener, attached to the top of the futchells by a bolt,
about which it turns, its motion being limited by
chains which q-q from its ends to the axle. To this
evener are hooked the swingle-trees.

The pole measures 9 ft. 7 in. from the front of the
evener, but inasmuch as the swingle-trees are 4j4

Il8 CONCORD COACH CH. VII

inches in front of the evener, the pole is only 2i/<
inches longer than the English pole, measured be-
tween the same points.

The brake is attached to the under-carriage and
not to the body, of which it is entirely independent,
and the brake-blocks are shoved against the wheels,
beine on the ends of a bar which slides under the
perches ; it is worked by a lever, shown distinctly in
Plate XVI., rising alongside of the off side of the
coachman's seat. This lever has, near its upper
end, an iron cross-bar on which the coachman's foot
can be placed for the purpose of forcing the lever
forward ; there being no rack to hold the lever when
it is pressed forward, the brake can be kept against
the wheel only by constant pressure of the foot.

The form of the body is shown in the drawings.
It has a great deal of 'cant' and 'turn-under,' and
its extreme width is 4 ft. 6 in. It is made to carry
nine persons, three on each of the three seats.'-'
The middle seat is a bench in three parts, the
centre part fixed to the floor, the ends turning up
on hinges, to facilitate access from either door to
the seats. The passengers sitting on the middle
seat lean against a broad leather strap, which is
hung from the roof by two straps, and has, at each
end strong hooks going into sockets on the pillars
of the door (Fig. 63).

* Many English coaches in the early part of the century carried
six persons inside, three on each seat.

CH. VII

CONCORD COACH

119

That which corresponds to the front boot of an
EngHsh coach is a large foot-board with leather
sides, and the hind boot is a baororaore-rack with
leather sides and cover.

Fig. 63.

In the light coach, the front boot is small and
of wood ; in both light and heavy coaches, the front
seat and the boot are held to the roof by diagonal
iron rods.

The passengers occupying the roof-seat rest their
feet upon the back part of the cushion of the box-
seat.

The upper panels of the sides are not solid, but
closed by curtains ; a narrow panel with a small
glass in it, on each side of the door, admits lieht
when the curtains are down. The door has the
usual sash, with glass in one or more panes.

When the coach is running, the body sways about
freely upon the thorough-braces, the motion being
principally fore and aft, sometimes quite enough to
make a sensitive person sea-sick. An excessive
movement is checked by straps from the sides of
the body to the perches. This rocking to and fro
adds to the difficulty of driving, because the arm

120 CONCORD COACH CH. VII

has to go backward and forward to counteract the
movement of the body, interfering seriously with
fine work. When the foot is on the brake, the
leg is kept constantly in motion from the same
cause.

The hind wheels are high, being 5 ft. i in., while
those of the old mails were 4 ft. 8 in., and of a
modern coach 4 ft. 4 in.

The front wheels are 3 ft. 10 in., the same in
height as those of the mails, those of a coach being
3 ft. 4 in.

The body is high, being mounted upon the thor-
ough-braces, and it is somewhat singular that the
heieht of the roof from the around is almost ex-
actly that of the old English coaches.

An Act of Parliament passed in 1806 provided
that no passengers should be carried on top of a
coach the top of which was more than 8 ft. 9 in.
from the ground, and that 2 feet of luggage could
be carried on top, if the whole load were not higher
than 10 ft. 9 in. from the ground, thus giving again
8 ft. 9 in. as the height, or at least the maximum
height, of the roof. The height of the roof of a
Concord coach is 8 ft. 6 in., that of a modern Eng-
lish coach 6 ft. 10 in.

It will be observed that the body is as far back
as the opening of the door past the wheels will
permit, and as the heaviest baggage is put on the
hind rack, the load is thrown well back on the large
wheels.

CH. VII CONCORD COACH 121

A comparison of the Concord coach with an
EngHsh coach can be best made by placing the
transparent print of either on top of the other.

There are obvious reasons why the Concord coach
is not well adapted to amateur pleasure coaching.
In the first place, it is too large, and while it could
be much reduced in size, it would of necessity be
high on account of its suspension, unless the wheels
should be reduced below a proper size. It is cer-
tainly neither a compact nor a ' smart' looking ve-
hicle : it lacks the boots, which are convenient for
many purposes ; the arrangement of its front roof-
seat is not good ; there is no place at the back for
the servants ; a brake, with a rack, cannot be readily
adapted to it ; and last, but not least, the rocking of
the body interferes seriously with fine driving, since
the coachman's hand is always in motion back and
forth, to the discomfort of his horses' mouths, unless
he is continually giving his hand, which is an un-
graceful movement.

The changes from the old type of English coach
to the present type are precisely those which were
suggested by better roads and by the demand for
increased comfort ; the improved form of coach is
therefore that best adapted to pleasure coaching.

For rough business purposes on bad roads, the
Concord coaches are well adapted, and there can
be no better proof thereof than the fact that they
are largely used in Africa and Australia (notwith-
standing English influence naturally predominates

122 CONCORD COACH CH. VII

in those countries), to say nothing of Mexico and
South America.

These coaches are made almost wholly of wood ;
there is little about them that ordinary country
mechanics cannot repair ; they have no expensive
steel springs, but leather thorough-braces which
can be replaced by the roughest workman ; they
are loose and flexible in their movements ; bear
an immense amount of hard usage without being
disabled, and run safely over roads which would
dislocate an English coach in the first half-mile.
Other points in connection with these coaches will
be noted in the remarks on the American system of
driving in Chapter XIV.

CH. VIII 12

CHAPTER VIII
COMPARISON OF COACHES

Plates II., VII., XL, XII., XVII., XVIII., XIX..
XX., and XXII., give drawings of coaches of vari-
ous types, all drawn to the same scale, one-half
inch to the foot, and printed drj\'-''- so that the
dimensions are accurately shown. The duplicate
plates, on transparent paper, can be torn out and
superposed on the different plates for the purpose
of comparison.

The coaches in Plates VII., XVII., XVIII., XIX..
XX., and XXII., being of the same period (1873
to 1896), differ mainly in details. It will be noticed
that XX. is longer than the others between the
axles. — a good point ; XXII. is much lower than the
others. The relative sizes of the boots, places of
driving-seats, and foot-board angles, are of interest.

Since the bodies in all the coaches are nearly of
the same size, the differences of form and detail
may be most clearly observed by so placing the
transparent sheet that the ground lines and the
front or the back lines of the bodies coincide in the

* That is, printed on paper which has not been wetted for print-
ing. The scale of the drawing has not been affected, therefore, by
shrinkage.

124 COMPARISON OF COACHES CH. VIII

drawings. The outlines of the bottoms ot the
bodies will be seen to vary, some being rounder
than others. The heights of the foot-boards from
the ground also vary, that of XX. being somewhat
too low ; otherwise the proportions of the driving-
seat and foot-board of XX. are exceptionally good.
In XVIII. and XIX. the foot-board and driving-seat
are somewhat too high, the persons on the box-seat
cutting off the view from those on the roof-seat. It is
desirable to have the box-seat at least three inches
lower than the roof-seat ; in XX. it is five. The
foot-board angles in VII., XVII., XVIII., XIX., XX..
and XXII. are practically identical, ranging from 30
to T,T,j4 degrees, and are very good ; a greater angle
tires the ankles of the coachman, and a lesser one
places his feet too flat. The foot-board of XL, with
an angle of 40 degrees, is somewhat too steep.

The coach shown in Plate XXII. differs from the
other coaches in having its top much lower. This
is brought about by making the body itself slightly
smaller, and by hanging it closer to the perch, a
somewhat smaller hind wheel being adopted, thus
lowering the axle. Lowering the centre of gravity
is of course an advantage ; here it is obtained at
the cost of smaller hind wheels, of a low foot-board,
and of a low roof-seat.

The foot-boards of XX. and XXII. are somewhat
too low ; a large horse might touch them with his
rump, unless the traces are longer than is desirable.

A high foot-board and a steep front to the boot

^ ^

21 i'-O

I 2 ^

06^

PLATE XXi.

ll'iMl'H

Scale of Feet.
Front View. Re*" View.

DRAG BY BARKER & Co., LONDON.

n. viii

COMPARIS

the body, the
r<j)3f of II. is exactl)
>^ I. (American Cnr
to carrv nine in:-
extrem-

( \v. The
IS that of

MKtructed

-o

CH. VIII COMPARISON OF COACHES 1 25

permit the wheel horses to be put close to the
splinter-bar ; but instead of making the foot-board
too hiofh, it is better to brine the whole fore-car-
riage forward, and thus get a short trace, with the
additional advantage of a longer coupled coach
(see p. 167). The majority of coach-makers have a
fancy for a short coupling, and sacrifice important
features for what is really a disadvantage.

On comparing XIX. and XX., putting the ground
lines together and the roller-bolts together, two ex-
treme forms will be noticed. In XX. a sixteen-hand
horse, with a trace of the proper length, is too close
to the foot-board ; in XIX. there is more space
than is necessary ; XXII. is nearly the same as
XX. ; XVII. is a eood mean between the two.

The comparison of the Oxford coach (Cordery),
Plate II., with the others is very interesting. The
body is about the same size as that of the Barker
drag, Plate XX., but is hung 13 inches higher, a
position partly made necessary by the length of
the whip-spring, but also, no doubt, by following
the fashion of the private carriages of the day,
inasmuch as there is no mechanical reason why the
whip-springs should not have been set lower or the
braces made longer. Notwithstanding the height
of the body, the driving-seat is somewhat low. The
roof of II. is exactly the same height as that of
XII. (American Concord), but as XII. is constructed
to carry nine inside passengers, the bodies differ
extremely.

126 CARE OF THE COACH CH. VHI

The distance between the axles of XII. is made
necessary by the length of the body and of the
thoroueh-braces.

The hind wheels of II. and of XII. are of the
same size, and much larger than in any of the other
plates.

Plate XI. shows a break designed by me many
years ago for my own use, and a comparison of it
with the coaches, shows that it preserves their main
proportions, while being much lighter ; weighing
only 1600 pounds. As in almost all breaks, the
horses are from six to ten inches further away from
the coachman than they are in a coach. This dis-
tance can be diminished by putting the front wheel
further under the body, but somewhat to the detri-
ment of the steady running of the vehicle and of its
appearance.

CARE OF THE COACH

As soon as the coach returns to the stable after
use, it should be washed, and under no circum-
stances should mud be allowed to dry on it, since
that will inevitably spot the varnish. There is no
way of washing so good as with a stream from a
hose, where water under pressure is available ; fail-
ing this, water must be dashed on the carriage
from a bucket. As the under part of a coach is
much more complex than that of an elliptic-spring
carriage, it is more difficult to wash, and the man
must get under the coach to do it thoroughly.
Where plenty of water can be had there is little

CH. VIII CARE OF THE COACH 12/

necessity for using a sponge, and the water should
be dried off with a damp chamois leather. Sponges
should be carefully selected and examined ; they
almost always contain gritty lumps, which are sure
to scratch the varnish.

There is no orreat art in washincr a carriag-e, ex-
cept to exercise care and not to be in a hurry.
India-rubber boots should be provided for the
washer ; in French stables he wears sabots.

Water must not be allowed to g-o through the
joints of the doors so as to wet the linings and
carpet.

The blueness of the varnish on the dark parts
of a coach, resulting from a long wetting by rain,
will disappear after complete drying.

Little need be done to the steel-work at first,
except to dry it thoroughly. At the first convenient
time, generally the morning after the coach has
been used, it must be polished. If it is much
rusted by exposure to the damp, ve/y fine emery
cloth may be used to brighten it, and it should be
afterward burnished by rubbing with the chain
rubber (see Fig. 121) until a high polish is ob-
tained.

A piece of hard, steel chain, made exactly like a
curb-chain, but about two feet loner, is the best thino-
for burnishing a pole-head ; it can be pulled back
and forth over it with a great pressure.

A long piece of chamois leather dusted with flour
of emery may be used to advantage on the pole-

128 COST OF A COACH CH. VIII

head, but coarse grit will scratch the surface and
make it impossible to get a proper polish. Care
must be taken not to rub off the paint where it joins
the steel. Nothing shows good stable-care more
emphatically than really well-kept steel, and only
hard work will bring about the desired result.

In takinof off the wheels for oilinor, a small table
or chair, or at least a paper spread upon the floor,
should be used to receive the nuts, washers, and
pins ; if laid upon the floor they are sure to get grit
upon them, which will damage the finely finished
axle. The old oil must be carefully removed and
all the parts scrupulously cleaned before re-oiling
and putting together. On a private coach, Collinge
axles run from one to two months without attention,
but mail axles require oiling once a week, and on
road-coaches it is usual to clean and oil the axles
every day, and at the same time to make a thorough
examination of all nuts and bolts. When washing
a coach, public or private, the washer should always
bear in mind the necessity of examining every part
of it, to see whether all is in good order.

COST OF A COACH

The cost of a coach depends upon its finish and
the locality where it is built. For what may be
called a standard drag, built in the very best way,
the price is usually in America 2400 dollars, in
England 300 guineas, and in France 8000 francs.

CH. IX J 2Q

CHAPTER IX
WEIGHT OF A COACH

The weight of a drag- varies from 2100 to 2400
pounds, and of a road-coach from 2200 to 2600
pounds. It is not worth while to go beyond these
Hmits in either direction. A drag Hghter than 2100
will not stand the hard usage that an enterprising
coachman will give it, and will go to pieces before
its time, besides giving constant trouble, and nothing
is gained in strength or stability by exceeding 2400.
A road-coach is loaded more heavily than a drag,
and driven faster ; consequently it should be both
stronger and heavier, but need not exceed 2400
pounds.

'NiMROD,' in The Road (1832), and Macneill
(1830),* give the weight of the stage-coach of that
day as 18 cwt. (2016 pounds), and there is no doubt
that stage-coaches were then generally lighter than
they were made afterward. ' Nimrod' [Northern
Tour, 1834, p. 13) speaks of coaches as being,
always under one ton (2240 pounds).

The more of the whole weight there is in the
carriage-part and the less in the body the better,
since the great object is to keep the centre of

* Parnell, Roads, p. 333.
9

i^.o

WEIGHT OF A COACH

CH. IX

gravity low, and the carriage-part has to bear the
major part of the strains.

The following Table shows the distribution in
several examples : —

Road-Coach
Mail . . .
Drag . . .
Road-Coach

Carriage.

Body.

Total.

1367

1499

2866

477

523

1000

1323

1389

2712

488

512

1000

992

1257

2249

441

559

1000

1582

890

2472

640

360

1000

The larger figures give the weight in pounds, the
smaller ones the parts in 1000. The Table shows
somewhat wide differences of design, the last ex-
ample being one in which pains were taken to get
a very light body for a heavy carriage-part.

Figures of this kind are only approximately cor-
rect, unless all the coaches compared are weighed
by the same person, since the weights given by dif-
ferent makers may not always include the same
parts. For the purpose of this comparison the
coaches should be in the condition in which they
are to go on the road, with cushions, seat-backs,
&c., the separation between the body and the car-
riage-part being made at the blocks which are on
top of the springs. Neither the pole nor the chain
and shoe should be included.

The distribution of the weight between the front
and hind wheels is important ; usually there is more

CH. IX DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT 131

than half on the front wheels, and this seems un-
avoidable, but as the hind wheels are the larger
they should have more to carry.

In omnibuses this is usually well arranged, since,
there being no door in the side of the body, the axle
can be placed well forward. They consequently
run ViQ-ht.

In coaches the distribution of weight between the
front and hind axles is as follows : —

Front.

Hind.

Total.

Road-

-Coach .

• • 1532

1334

2866

535

465

1000

Mail

• • 1455

1257

2712

537

463

1000

Drag

I219

1030

2249

542

458

1000

As in the preceding Table, the smaller figures
show the parts in looo.

If it is borne in mind that there are frequently
five or six persons on the front of a drag and only
two servants on the back, the overloadincr of the
front wheels becomes more apparent, and suggests
an additional reason for not putting the front wheels
too far under the body.

The weights here given are taken without the
pole. It must be noticed that the pole, projecting so
far in front, will add by its leverage more than its
own weieht to the front wheels, the difference beinor
taken off the weight on the hind wheels. This can
be more readily appreciated by reflecting that a pole
might be made so long that, with a comparatively

I T,2

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT

CH. IX

small weight on its end, it could balance the weight
on the hind wheels so as to lift them off the
ground, and thus concentrate the whole weight
on the front wheels without adding very much to
the total weight. The influence of a pole weighing,
with its bars, 60 pounds, is shown in the following
Table
as follows : —

The weights, as shown on the scale, were

On front wheels, without the pole
,, with

Increased weight on front wheels

On hind wheels, without the pole
with

Decreased weight on hind wheels

pds. 1 213 12 13

,, 1345 •••■ 1345

132,

1253
1186

1^53

86 .... 1 186
67, 2466 2531

The increased weight on the front wheels is due,
one-half to the weight of the pole and one-half to
the 67 pounds taken off the hind wheels, but the
total weight, 2531, is only 65 pounds more than the
weight of the coach without the pole.

The weights are given as they came out in the
experiment ; theoretically, they should balance ex-
actly, but inaccuracies in the scales cause the small
discrepancy.

The distribution of the weight on the front wheels
and hind wheels depends also upon the inclination
of the road.

The following Table gives the results of an ex-
periment with a coach weighing 2200 pounds : —

Weight on

Front

Hind

Total

Wheels.

Weight

1 194

1006

2200

1204

994

2198

1 190

1014

2204

CH. IX DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT 1 33

On a level . . . pds.

Hind wheels raised 3 inches ,,
Front

Therefore in going up-hill, a portion of the weight
is transferred to the hind wheels, which is an ad-
vantage, since they are larger than the front wheels.

For comparison, the following average weights of
different vehicles are eiven : A CJiar a bancs Break,
1 600 pounds ; Mail-Phaeton without perch, 800 ;
City Brougham, 1000 to iioo; Landau, 1500.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

We now come to one of the divisions of our sub-
ject, important from a practical point of view : — the
position of the centre of gravity of a coach.

The centre of gravity of a body is that point in
which its whole weight may be considered as con-
centrated ; in a symmetrical body of equal thick-
ness and equal density in all its parts, it is at the
centre of figure of the body. For
example, a square piece of board of
even thickness will have its centre
of gravity at the point at which its
two diagonals cross (Fig. 64).

If at that point we bore a hole,
and hang the board on a smooth pin, the board will
remain in any position into which we turn it, be-

134

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

CH. IX

''m/m/////j^//////////////,
Fig. 65.

cause the centre of suspension and the centre of
gravity coincide.

If we suspend it from some other point, A, we
find that the board will hang- steadily in one posi-
tion only, namely : when the centre of gravity is
vertically under the point of suspension.

If we flatten one corner slighdy, as shown in Fig.
65, we can make the board stand upon it, when G
is vertically above A, but it will be in
unstable equilibrium and will fall to
the right or left at the slightest touch.
We therefore say that the board is
in equilibrium when the centre of
gravity is vertically above the point
of support. Conversely, the centre
of gravity is vertically above the point of support
when the body is in equilibrium.

Now, a coach, looked at from behind, is sym-
metrical as to the distribution of its parts about its
vertical centre line, and its centre of gravity must
be, therefore, somewhere in that cen-
tre line. If we tip the coach on the
two wheels of one side until it ex-
actly balances and would fall to either
side, the centre of gravity must be in
the vertical line passing through the
point of support. Since it is also in
the centre line of the coach, it must be at the inter-
section of these two lines, as shown in Fie. 66.
We can determine by this experiment the angle

Fk;. 66.

PLATE XXlll.

O1700

\ \ \

.->*

.-.#

\ Oim\ \

=^•^-¥^

c' W'>

' ■ ■ '" I

1 2

_L_ J_

DIAGRAM SHOWING POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

Since a coach is symmetrical, the centre of gravity is at some point in a plane
passing vertically through the centre of the body. When the coach is tipped on
the wheels of one side until it balances and would fall either way, the centre of
gravity is over the point of support, and must therefore be in a plane which passes
vertically through the points where the wheels rest on the ground.

In the case of an empty coach experimented with, the balance was found when
the wheels on the higher side were raised to the position shown by the dotted
lines

With a load of 1700 pounds added on the top, the position of balance is shown
by the lines . . — . — . — . — .

CH. IX CENTRE OF GRAVITY 1 35

at which the coach will tip over, or, what is the same
thinor, the elevation of the wheel on the higher side
which will cause it to balance.

It will be evident by comparing diagrams A and
B in Fig. 67, that the lower the centre of gravity
for the same wheel-
base, the higher the
wheel must be raised
to cause a tip - over ;
whence the importance

of keeping the centre of 'y^^7^y//>yy//^'^^y^/yy//yy///y/?///////y/^///2

. 1 Fig. 67.

gravity low.

To be strictly accurate, we must say that we have
thus far only found a horizontal line passing
through the body of the coach, in which line the
centre of gravity is somewhere situated. If we
wish to know the position of the point, we must go
through the same operation for the side of the
coach, but since a coach never turns over forward
or backward, where the centre of gravity is situated
leno-thwise is of small moment, and the relative
weights on the front and hind wheels will show it
with sufficient accuracy.

Plate XXIII. shows the method of tipping a coach
for the purpose of finding the position of its centre
of gravity. A drag weighing, without any load, 2300
pounds, was tipped until it exactly balanced on the
wheels of one side. The vertical line passing
through the point of support, intersected the centre
line of the coach at the point marked 2300 (which

136 CENTRE OF GRAVITY CH. IX

is therefore the position of the centre of gravity),
at a point 4 feet above the hne joining the bottoms
of the wheels (that is, 4 feet from the ground when
the coach is standing level). The elevation of the
higher wheel is 2 ft. 10 in., and the inclination is
34 degrees.

If the coach is loaded on top with twelve per-
sons, weighing together 1700 pounds, the centre of
gravity of this additional load will be at the point
marked 1 700 ; and the resultant centre of gravity
of that additional weight and of the empty coach,
will be at the point marked 4000, which is 5 ft. 6
in. from the bottom of the wheels, the whole weight
being 4000 pounds.

If the coach is now tipped, the centre of gravity
having been made higher, will come sooner into the
vertical line over the point of support, and the coach
will balance when the higher wheel is 2 ft. 4 in. from
the horizontal line or the inclination 27 degrees.

It is evident that a very considerable elevation of
the road sideways is required to upset a coach at
rest, but it must be noticed that for some time be-
fore reaching the actual balancing point the coach
becomes very tender, to use a yachting expression.
For instance, in the case of the unloaded coach,
when the upper wheel was 2 ft. 6 in. from the floor,
the coach seemed on the point of balancing, al-
though 4 inches more elevation was actually re-
quired to make it do so. When, therefore, even a
slight horizontal force is acting on the coach, an

CH. IX CENTRE OF GRAVITY 1 37

elevation of the wheel very much less than that
required to make the coach balance, will result in
an overturn.*

Since the whole weight of the coach may be con-
sidered as concentrated at the centre of gravity,
any sideways force, resulting from the momentum
of the coach, will act through that centre.

If, from going fast over a bad road or from the
horses galloping unevenly, a coach gets to swinging
laterally, the higher the centre of
gravity, the more readily will the
coach turn over, smce it is obvious

that a horizontal force applied to

the coach near the top (as at A,

Fig. 68) will pull it over more ^'^- ^^•

readily than the same force applied nearer to the

ground (as at B).

Centrifugal Force. — The dano^er in turning: a
corner is increased by a high centre of gravity.
A body in motion has, by reason of its inertia, a
tendency to continue its motion in the original di-
rection until it is acted upon by some exterior force.
A coach going along a straight road is deflected,
when it comes to a corner, by the horses pulling

* CoRBETT, p. 26, quotes some experiments made by Vidler in
1820, in which it is stated that in the case of a mail, the wheel was
raised 26 inches without an upset, and in the case of a ' double
bodied coach,' 31 inches, but he does not say whether this was
exactly the point of balance, or not.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

CH. IX

it round the turn ; it has, however, a tendency to
keep on in the straight line, and this tendency is
shown as a force acting at right angles to the
direction of the coach, pulling it outward from the
circle in which it is movinof. This is called the
centrifugal force, and acting as it does upon each
particle of the vehicle, the sum of these numberless
forces acts as if it were concentrated at the centre
of gravity ; and it evidently acts in a direction to
overturn the coach ; moreover, the higher it is ap-
plied, the more effect it will have (see Fig. 68).
This force is opposed by the weight of the coach
which, acting downward through G, keeps the
coach to the ground.

The centrifugal force varies exactly with the
weight ; increasino- the actual weigrht does not in-
crease the stability, but diminishing the height of
the point, at which the centrifugal force is applied,
does increase it.

In the diagram. Fig. 69, the black spot indicates

^yyy////y//y//'^///////////////////,ll^//^y//^^^^^^

Fig. 69.

the weight of the coach concentrated at the centre ol
gravity, C is the centrifugal force acting horizontally
outward, at G ; the weight is acting vertically down-

CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 1 39

ward ; A is the point at which the outside wheel
rests on the ground. The centrifugal force tends
to turn the weight about the point A, and in so
doing it is resisted by the weight at G, which acts
with a leverage AB.

As the coach tips more, and AG becomes more
nearly vertical, the leverage AB decreases, and the
action of the weight to resist the centrifugal force
becomes less, until when G is over A, the weight has
no leverage and the coach is acted upon by C only.

It is evident that, the centrifuQfal force and the
weight being constant, the effect of the centrifugal
force will depend entirely upon the height of G
above the ground. It is also evident that, from the
moment the wheel which is on the inside of the
curve, leaves the ground from the action of the
centrifugal force, the resistance of the weight to
overturning-, diminishes.

With a known weight of coach, the centrifugal
force, corresponding to any speed round a turn of
any radius, may be computed. The formula for
this computation is as follows : —

centrifugal force = ' ; where

o 'XI.'Z T

zij = weight in pounds.

V = velocity in feet per second.

r = radius of curve, in feet.

The quantity 32.2, usually expressed by ^^ is the
velocity in feet per second that a falling body has
at the end of the first second of its fall.

140

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

CH. IX

It is evident that the centrifuofal force increases
directly with the weight and with the square of the
speed, and also as the radius of the curve diminishes,
or as the turn becomes sharper.

Since the weight keeps the coach down at the
same time that it increases the centrifuoral force, the
weight does not affect the safety, but the sharpness
of the turn has a great deal to do with the safety,
and the velocity, or speed, very much more. If the
radius of the curve is halved, the centrifugal force is
doubled, but if the speed is doubled, the centrifugal
force is quadrupled. Therefore, a corner should
be always turned slowly.

Inasmuch as, in going around a turn, the centrif-
ugal force tends to turn the coach over toward the
outside, an elevation of the outside
of the road will counteract this action,
and roads being usually more or less
crowned, a corner to the rig^ht can be
turned more safely than one to the
left, because being on the right hand
side of the road the off wheels are
down and the inclination of the coach
counteracts the centrifuofal force which
is acting in the direction of the arrow
(Fig. 70).

In turninor to the left, the coach is
still on the right hand side of the road, and the cen-
trifugal force acting to the right, the effect of the in-
clination of the coach is added, and not opposed, to it.

Fig.

70.

CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE I4I

The formula for the centrifugal force being
= CF ; with a weio^ht of 2^00 pounds and a

32.2 r & vj 1

radius of 50 feet, we find, corresponding to different
velocities, the followinor centrifugal forces : —

At 7 miles an hour, v = 10.30 ft. per sec, CF = 15 1.5 pds.
10 ,, ,, 7/^14.66 ,, ,, CF = 307.0 ,,

15 ., ,, 7'=22.oo ,, ,, CF = 69i.4 ,,

With a weight of 4000 pounds.

At 7 miles an hour, z' = 10.30 ft. per sec, CF = 263.6 pds.
10 ,, ,, •t/^ 14.66 ,, ,, CF = 534.0 ,,

15 ,, ,, 7' = 22.00 ,, ,, CF^ 1202.0 ,,

In an empty coach weighing 2300 pounds, the
centre of gravity is 4 feet from the ground.

The weight, 2300, will act at the end of an arm
AB, Fig. 71, 2.5 feet long, with an effect of 5750
pounds (2300 X 2.5 = 5750) holding the coach
down ; the centrifugal force corresponding to a
speed of seven miles an hour, 15 1.5 pounds, will act
at the end of the arm BG. 4 feet long, with an effect
of 606 pounds (15 1.5 X 4 = 606) tending to over-
turn the coach.

At different speeds, the forces will be as follows : —

FOR THE UNLOADED COACH.

At 7 miles an hour, 15 1.5 X 4 = 606 pounds. \
10 ,, ,, 307.0 X 4 = 1228 ,, i
15 ,, ,, 691.4 X 4 = 2765 .. \

142

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

CH. IX

The fractions ^, ^, |, show the proportions of the
overturninof force to the holding down force.

In a coach weighing- 2300
pounds, loaded with 1 700
pounds on top, the total weight
will be 4000 pounds, which
acting at the end of the arm
AB will give a holding down
force of 10,000 pounds. The
centrifucral force will act at the
centre of gravity, 5.5 feet above the ground, and at
different speeds the forces will be as follows : —

A B
Fig. 71,

FOR THE LOADED COACH.

At 7 miles an hour, 263.6 x 5-5 = 1450 pounds. ^
10 ,, ,, 534-0 X 5-5 = 2937 ,, 1

1202.0 X 5-5 -= 661 1

In the case of an empty coach, the centrifugal
force acting at a height of four feet, required to
balance the weight of the coach, 2300 pounds, with
a leverage of 2.5 feet, will be 1437 (2300 X 2.5 ==
5750, and 1437 X 4 = 575o)- This is the force
due to a speed of 21.6 miles an hour, on a
curve of 50 feet radius, at which speed the wheels
on the inside of the curve would be lifted from the
ground and the coach overturned.

w v

= 1437 or V' = 1006.6

32.2 X 50

2/= 31.73 feet per second or 21.6 miles an hour,

CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 1 43

In the case of the loaded coach, the centrifuoral
force, acting at a height of 5.5 feet, required to
balance the weight of the coach, 4000 pounds, with
a leverage of 2.5 feet, will be 181 8 (4000 X 2.5
= 10,000, and 1818 X 5.5 = 10,000). This is the
force due to a speed of 16.5 miles an hour on a
curve of 50 feet radius, at which speed the coach
would be turned over.

7U 7'^

1818 or ?/2 = 73:

32.2 X 50
■6/z= 27 feet per second or 16.5 miles per hour.

It must be borne in mind that these are the
figures for a perfectly smooth road, level cross-
wise ; trifling depressions in the road causing lat-
eral swino-ine will overturn the coach at lower
speeds.

In the familiar example of a horse galloping
round a circus ring, it will be noticed that the
horse's body is inclined toward the centre of the
circle at an angle which depends upon the velocity
with which he is moving ; the faster he goes the
more he leans.

Another example is that of a bicycle moving
round the curve at the end of a cycling track.

Since a man and his bicycle may be said
to form a single straiorht line from his head to
the point where the wheel touches the ground,
the angle of this line with the horizontal must
be such that the action of the centrifugal force

144

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

CH. IX

will be exactly balanced by that of the weight,
or else the bicycle will fall to one side or the
other.

In Fig. 72, where the man is turning to the left,
the centrifugal force will be developed in the direc-
tion indicated by the arrowhead, and may be repre-
sented by the line CF ; the weight acting vertically
downward is represented by CW. The resultant
of these two forces will be represented in amount
by CB in the direction of the
line CD, and the point of sup-
port must be in this line, as at
D, to prevent the man from fall-
ing. If the speed, and conse-
quently the inclination, is not
,..- great, the bicycle may go safely
m////////////////.'M'//////// round a level curve, but if the
-'■''' speed be greatly increased the

^^' wheel may slip on the ground.

To avoid this, the surface must be sloped, as shown
by the dotted line, until it is at right angles to the
inclination of the rider.

This is done in a circus ring by heaping the earth
at the outer edge, and in a cycling track by sloping
the asphalt path on the curve, at angles propor-
tional to the squares of the speeds, one part of the
curve, usually the lower, having steeper slopes than
the upper, to suit all speeds.

The inclinations of the line CD, and consequently
that of the lines at right angles to it, will be propor-

CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 1 45

tional to the squares of the velocities, the radius of
the curve being constant.

For a curve of 50 feet radius these inchnations
will be as follows : — '='

At 7 miles an hour, 3 degrees, 45 minutes.
10 ,, ,, 7 ., 35

15 ,, ,, 16 ,, 42

20 ,, ,, 28 ,, 06

25 ,, ,, 41 ,, 21

It is obvious, that if the angle of the road cross-
wise is, for any given curve and speed, that which
is indicated by the above computation, the coach
will have exactly the same stability as if it were
going straight on a level, and for a curve of 50 feet
radius the elevations of the outer wheel are given
in the following table : —

At 7 miles an hour, 3.8 inches.

10 ,, ,, 7.9 ,,

15 .. .. 17-2 ,,

20 ,, ,, 28.4

25 ,, .. 39-6 ,.

These quantities are the natural sines of the
angles given above, the length of the axle, 5 feet,
being unity.

Since the base of the coach is wide, unlike that of
a bicycle, the resultant line of the centrifugal force
and of the weight will fall within the base with very

* In these computations, the centrifugal force is to the weight, as
the tangent of the angle is to unity.

146 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CH. IX

much smaller inclinations ; and the lower the centre
of gravity compared with the width of the base
the greater will be the stability at any speed, or
on any curve.

It must be also noticed that the load of the coach
has been supposed to be in the centre ; if it should
be moved over to the inside of the turn, its re-
sistance to the action of the centrifugal force (by
increasing the length of AB, Fig. 69) will be in-
creased ; if it is moved to the tnitsidc, its resistance
will be correspondingly diminished.

If the surface of the road is slippery, a coach,
under the influence of a centrifugal force much less
than is required to turn it over, will slide bodily
sideways, and if it brings up suddenly against an
obstacle or in the gutter, it may be upset.

CH. X

147

CHAPTER X

DRAUGHT

The amount of power, usually called the draught,
which is required to overcome the resistance to
motion of a vehicle, may be examined from two
points of view : first, as to the actual mechanical
force expended ; and, secondly, as to the way in
which that force should be applied by an animal.

The resistance to movement of a sled, is simply
that due to the friction between the surface of the
ground and the underside of the runner, but when
wheels are used, this resistance is composed of the
rolling friction between the tire and the ground, and
the friction of the axle in its box.

The rolling friction results from the necessity of
surmounting obstacles in the
way of the wheel, as shown in /"^^ ^"\
Fig. JT), where the power to / \

move the load is acting in the I S" T^"^

direction CP parallel to the \ \b/

road, and the weight of the ve- ^„2^^^^::si,,,,^^^^A-

hicle is actino- vertically down- i^ ^

^ ■' Fig. 73.

ward throuQ^h the centre of the

wheel and the point A, at which the wheel touches

the ground. In order to surmount the obstacle B,

the power acting on the bent lever CBA must lift

148 DRAUGHT CH. X

the weight, and its abiUty to do so depends ob-
viously upon the, relative lengths of the two arms
CB and AB. CB is the radius of the wheel, and
AB will depend upon the size of the obstacle as
indicated at B. For the same size of wheel, there-
fore, the smaller the obstacles, or, in other words,
the smoother the road, the less will be the resist-
ance to rolling-, and for the same roughness of road
the larger the wheel, the less will be the resistance.
The lenofth of the arm AB, in the case of the small
obstacles, which make up the roughness, will be
practically the same as the arc AB, and will be
measured by the angle BCA. For any given sur-
face of road, this arc may be represented by a con-
stant, which, multiplied by the radii of various wheels,
will measure the rolling resistance. Theoretically,
therefore, this resistance should be inversely propor-
tional to the diameter of the wheel. In 1 838-1 840, a
series of elaborate experiments made by Morin * for
the French Government, on the Traction of Vehicles,
confirmed this as a practical fact ; it may be there-
fore laid down as a law, that on any given road,
the rolling friction will diminish directly in propor-
tion as the size of the wheel is increased. -j- If

* Notwithstanding the comparatively early date of these experi-
ments they are still the most satisfactory that we have, and the most
complete, having been made on a very large scale, with heavy vehi-
cles, on all kinds of roads ; later experiments have only confirmed
them.

-j- DuruiT and other writers maintained that resistance diminished

CH. X ROLLING FRICTION 1 49

the surface of the road is at all loose or soft, as in
newly stoned roads, or in roads wet, and partly
disintegrated by hauling over them, the resistance
to rolling will be measured not only by the effort
required to surmount the obstacle, but also by the
force expended in pushing, in front of the wheel, the
loose stones or particles which oppose its motion.

If a wheel roUino- on ice meets a stone, it is more
likely to push the stone before it, sliding it on the
ice, than to mount over it ; and in a loose road
some of this sliding, with the consequent friction
between the particles of the road, takes place. Into
■such a road a narrow wheel will sink deeper than a
wide one, or will, in other words, form a rut, and
will have to push a portion of the material forward
before surmountino- it. On soft around, therefore,
increased width of tire is an advantage, and Morin's
experiments indicate, that up to six inches of width
the draught diminished, but that no advantage was
gained by a further increase. On good roads

in proportion to the square root of the diameter, while Morin's ex-
periments seem to show that it changes directly as the diameter.

Accurately, the relation between the resistance and the diameter,
depends on the relation of the sine and the cosine of the angle at the
centre of the wheel, included between the vertical radius CA, and
the radius CB which ends at the point of contact of the rim with
the obstacle (Fig. 73). On ordinary roads the relation is measured
closely enough by the diameter, but on rough, stony roads, it is
measured more nearly by the sc^uare root of the diameter and the
advantage of the larger diameter compared with that of the smaller
one, diminishes.

150 WIDTH OF TIRE CH. X

nothing was gained by having a greater width than
four inches, and on pavement less was sufficient.
These figures refer to heavy loads, 2000 to 2500
pounds on each luheel, and are applicable only to
wheels that are very nearly cylindrical, vertical, and
with horizontal axles (see notes on Wheels in Chap-
ter III.), in which case there is no grinding action on
the road. On a very hard, smooth road, such as
good macadam or the best pavement, the draught
appears to be independent of the width of the tire.
There always has been a belief that a narrow tire
affords an easier draught, and it is probable that this
opinion was formed when wheels had more dish
and axles more drop than is now given in the best
practice, in which case, the wheel being a section
of a cone, the tire ground on the road.

Even on a hard, unyielding road like a stone pave-
ment, if it is ro2igh, a wide tire is advantageous,
inasmuch as it prevents the wheel from dropping into
the inequalities between the stones.

If the wheel is nearly or quite cylindrical, an in-
creased width of tire is an advantag-e to the road
itself, but with coned wheels the increased width is
a disadvantage ; it increases the grinding action.

It is obvious, that in stiff mud, sand, or ordinary
earth, such as is crossed in hauling over a field, the
wheel, sinking in under the pressure of the load, is
constantly surmounting a little hill in front of it, and
leaving an open rut behind it, which, owing to the
nonelasticity of the material, is not filled up. If,

CH. X PNEUMATIC TIRE I5I

however, the wheel is drawn over an elastic mate-
rial, india-rubber, for instance, as in some of Morin's
experiments, the material recovers its form behind
the wheel, and in so doing restores most of the
force expended in compressing it. Notwithstanding,
therefore, that the wheel sinks into such an elastic
track, hauling over it requires but little more effort
than over a hard surface. With carriages this con-
dition occurs very nearly, when india-rubber tires
are used, which, notwithstanding their constant com-
pression in front of the wheel, again give out the
force behind the point of contact with the ground.*
Such tires seem to increase the draught somewhat,
but less than might be expected, which is due to the
fact that they diminish the shocks. Experiment
shows that, while at a walk, the resistance on hard
roads is the same for vehicles with or without springs,
it increases with the speed more rapidly for rigid
vehicles than for those on springs. This is no doubt
due to the fact that the shocks which occur at higher
speeds are largely taken up by the springs, and the
force thus absorbed is again given out by them, and
not all wasted in raising the load and hammering the
road, and the same effect is produced by the interpo-
sition of the elastic rubber.

The pneumatic tire, by which the whole load is
hterally floated on air, has given results at first some-

* This springing back of the road, or of the tire, has been termed
resilience by some of the later experimenters on Draught.

152 PNEUMATIC TIRE CH. X

what unexpected to the mechanic. Instead of in-
creasing the draught even sHghtly, it has diminished
it, owing to the perfect elasticity of the air contained
in the tubular tire preventing any appreciable rising
of the weight of the carriage in passing over an
obstacle, the resistance merely forcing the air from
one part of the tube to another, and experiment
has shown (Michelin, p. 21) that the saving in
draught is greater as the speed is higher : for in-
stance, with the same spring vehicle : —
With iron tires :

At a walk, 3 ms. pr hour, the traction was 48 pds pr ton.

,, trot, 6.5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 59 ,,

,, fast trot, 9.4 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 77 ,, ,,

With pneumatic tires :

At a walk, the traction was 48 pds pr ton.

,, the other speeds, ,, ,, ,,50 ,, ,,

The pneumatic tire, almost in exactly its present
form, was invented and patented in 1845, by R. W.
Thomson, of London. (English Patent Specifica-
tion, A.i). 1845, No. 10990.) Experiments made with
it, reported in T/u' MccJianics Magazine, of March
27th 1847, gave the following results : —

A carriage weighing 1050 pounds, running at 9
miles an hour, on a good macadam road, required
28 pounds of tractive force (53.3 pds per ton) with
pneumatic tires, and 45 pounds (85.6 pds per ton)
with iron tires. On broken stone, rough, the force
required was 38 pounds (72.3 pds per ton) with

CH. X ROLLING FRICTION 1 53

pneumatic tires and 120 pounds (228 pds per ton)
with iron tires, — about the same results which are
obtained now.

Notwithstanding these successes, the device
seems to have been entirely lost sight of until it
was re-invented a few years ago.

The ton here used, as in all the computations
which follow, is that of 2000 pounds.

Morin's experiments, which are especially valu-
able, because they were made with large vehicles on
the road and not with small models, further showed
that the rolling friction increased directly with the
weight of the carriage and load, and that for a given
kind of road it could be computed by the simple

P
formula, R = A—, where P is the weight (pressure),

r the radius of the wheel, and A a constant or coeffi-
cient,''' determined by experiment.

* A coefficient is a proportion and can be thus exemplified : If A
and B are associated in a business of which A owns % and B ^, the
coefficient of A will be % or 0.25, so that any profits or losses must
be multiplied by 0.25 to determine A's share. In the friction of a
body sliding on a surface, if the coefficient of friction is 0.05, the
weight of the body multiplied by 0.05 expresses the friction, which in
this case will be 5 per cent, of the weight or pressure.

In using the French coefficients from Morin's book, it must be
borne in mind that in the formula for the rolliitg friction, the wheel
radius in metres enters as a divisor, and the French coefficient must
be multiplied by 3.281, the value of a metre in feet, to obtain a
coefficient for use with Enghsh measures. For instance, A (French)
0.015 ^s the same as A (English) 0.05.

In the formula for resistance from axle friction, the multiplier ^ is

154

ROLLING FRICTION

CII. X

For example : if P = 10,000 pounds, r = 2.5 feet,
and A r= 0.05, which is the constant derived from a
number of experiments made on a road of the same
character as that for which this resistance is now to
be computed, R will equal 0.05 -'^2".*^-, or 200 pounds,
gijj of the load. If P = 10,000, and the radius of
the wheel is increased to three feet, the rolling fric-
tion will be reduced to 166.6 pounds, -^ of the load.
If the quality of the road changes for the worse,
the value of A will increase. On a road covered
with loose gravel two inches deep, Morin (p. 144),
found the value of A to be 0.165. and with this co-
efficient the resistance will become 0.165 x H^
= 660 pounds, or ^^ of the load.

As to the influence of the width of the tire in
diminishing the draught, Morin's experiments give
the following results (p. 132) : —

In English units.

In thick mud, on a road, a 7 in. tire gave A = 0.097

On a dry earth road

On a hard road

On a pavement

a 4.)4 in.
a 7 in.
a 4)4 in.
a 2^ in.
a 7 in.
a 4_^ in.
a 7 in.
a 4)4 in.
a 2^ in.

A = 0.084
A = 0.073
A = 0.068
A = 0.084

A =: 0.052

A = 0.045
A = 0.035
A = 0.030
A = 0.030

On roads, therefore, while there does not seem to
be much difference in the resistance of wide and

a ratio which is the same whether feet or metres are used, and there-
fore the Frenchyand the EngHsh /have the same vakie.

CH. X DRAUGHT I 55

narrow tires, a narrow tire gave somewhat the best
results. It may be observed, however, that the wide
tire is very wide, seven inches, and unfortunately
MoRix does not give the dish of the wheel or the
drop of the axle, but he does say (p. 133) that, 'the
' inclination of the axle-arm, obliging the wheel to
' move about the axis of a cone, the rubbing of the
' surface of the tire on the ground, which is the con-
' sequence, tends to increase the resistance of the
'wider wheel.' This is no doubt the whole reason
for the increase of friction, and since all axle-arms
are somewhat inclined, for the reasons already given
when treatincr of Wheels, it would seem that the
disadvantage of the grinding, counterbalances an
advantao-e from increased width. '^' In farm waggons
used on soft ground and grass, there is no doubt
that a width of tire up to at least four inches, is an
advantage, and experience has indicated the same
thing at many sandy sea-shore places ; but to get
the best result, the wheel must be nearly straight
and vertical. As far as damage to the road itself
goes, it would seem from experiments, that on hard,
good surfaces, well united, and with a hard bottom.

* In the experiments made at the Bedford Agricultural Show,
England, July 1874, with two loaded wagons practically alike, ex-
cept that in one case the inclination of the face of the wheel was 4
degrees, corresponding to an overhang of 3 inches or i %, inch dish,
and in the other case 1%' degrees, xyi inch overhang or 3^ inch
dish, the proportions of draught were ^^ of the load for the more in-
clined wheel and -^ for the straighter wheel.

156 WIDTH OF TIRE CH. X

the width is not important, but when only a thin
layer on top is hard, and the under part soft,
the wide tire injures the road much less than the
narrow one. The somewhat obsolete cobble-stone
pavement of eastern American cities is generally
laid upon an insufficient layer of gravel, on un-
drained soil, which, in wet weather or when the
frost is coming out of the ground, is soft, and the
stones, being round, and touching each other only
at points, become unstable, the narrow tires of
heavily loaded carts soon displace them and ruin
the pavement.

Under these circumstances, city ordinances which
encourage the use of wide tires are eminently
proper, and since it seems to be clearly shown that
if the width does not diminish the traction, it does
not increase it (provided the wheel is nearly ver-
tical and therefore cylindrical), wide tires cause no
injury to the interests of the carter. The shocks
and jerks felt by the horse in pulling a cart through
ruts and over little holes must be vastly more
fatitfuine to the animal than the simple traction,
and these shocks are much reduced by a wide tire
which spans many inequalities into which a narrow
one will drop.

Among late experiments on ' Draught' are those
made by Mr H. J. Waters, of The College of
Ao-riculture and the Mechanic Arts, of Missouri,
reported in '/7/e Engineering Record of March 12,
1898. Tires of lyi and 6 inches in width were

CH. X AXLE FRICTION 1 57

compared, with the results here noted : On ahnost
all roads, the wide tire diminished the traction by
an amount varying from i6 to 30 per cent., but
where the surface was sticky and there was a
smooth hard road below, the narrow tire cut down
to the hard road, whereas the wide tire adhered to
the mud, showing an advantaue for the narrow tire
of 20 or 30 per cent. In 14 experiments out of a
total of 21, with greatly varying conditions, there
was shown a decided advantage in the use of a
wide tire, and in all cases the road was improved
by the passage over it of the wide tire.

We have so far considered only the rolling friction
of the wheel, but to obtain the whole resistance to
the forward motion of the vehicle we must add the
friction between the axle and its box. This is a
sliding friction, the laws of which, as determined by
large number of experiments of different investi-
gators, are, within the limits met with in well de-
signed machinery, as follows : —

This friction is directly proportional to the pressure
per unit of surface ; that is, between any two given
surfaces, if the pressure is one hundred pounds per
square inch, the friction will be twice as great as if
it were fifty pounds per square inch. It is therefore
independent of the absolute amount of surface, be-
cause with the same weight, if the rubbinof surface
is increased, the pressure per square inch is dimin-
ished. A brick, for example, will move with just
the same amount of friction over the surface of a

158 AXLE FRICTION CH. X

table, whether it is on its flat face, its edge, or its
end. The friction, therefore, between an axle and its
box is directly proportional to the weight of the car-
riage without its wheels, and is not dependent upon
the length of the axle-arm. The absolute friction
of the axle depends very slightly upon the diameter,
but the resistance to the turning of the wheel due
to friction, acts at the surface of the axle with a
leverage which is represented by the radius (or
semi-diameter) of the axle-arm. If the axle is raised
off of the ground so that the wheel can revolve
freely, the force applied to the outside of the wheel

to make it turn will be re-

;;;;^ sisted by the friction at r, Fig.

\. 74, and the force will act with

\ a leverage RO. The long^er

I RO is, the less force will be re-

\ / quired, applied at R, to turn

X^^ ^^ the wheel, and the longer rO

V7777777^^7777^77777P7P77~y . , -nil

IS, the s^reater will be the re-

FiG. 74. . ^

sistance of the friction. The
ease, therefore, with which the wheel can be turned
will depend upon the relation, or ratio between RO
and rO ; the larger the axle the greater the effect
of the friction, and its anionnt will be measured by
the ratio p multiplied by a constant to be deter-
mined by experiment.

This constant, or coefficient, usually designated y
by writers upon this subject, is found, for polished,
well-oiled metal surfaces, to have a value, according

CH. X AXLE FRICTION 1 59

to MoRiN, of from 0.05 to 0.065. Later experi-
ments with machine shafting bring this to a lower
figure, but for coach axles 0.065 is a fair value.
This friction is much diminished by thorough oilino-.
and with a constant supply, or batJi, of oil it is some-
times not over 0.005, o^ one-tenth of the value
given above. When the bearing is thus flooded
with oil, the surfaces do not touch each other at all,
and the friction is that of 2. fluid.

This condition cannot be fully maintained in a
wheel, but the distribution of the oil by means of
shallow grooves in the axle-arm, or in the box, and
a large supply of oil in the wheel-cap, approach
it, and form an important feature of the Collinge
axle. Heating the oil, even to a moderate de-
gree, increases the friction, and great heating, as
we all know, by the expansion of the arm, soon
brings the wheel to a stop.

As is now well exemplified in the bicycle, the
ball-bearing, by converting the sliding axle friction
into rolling friction between very hard and smooth
surfaces, diminishes greatly the resistance to the
turninor of the wheel. The rolline friction between
perfectly spherical, highly polished, hard, steel balls
and a hard, steel surface is so small that it may be
said to be nothing. In the bicycle, this has been
successfully turned to account, and there is no
reason why the ball-bearing should not be adopted
in a coach wheel, except for the comparative com-
plication of such arrangements, and from the fact

l60 BALL-BEARINGS CH. X

that the horse, to whom the draught is of prime
consequence, is not able to express his opinion as
readily as the human cyclist. Some forms of car-
riage axles with ball-bearings have been already
brought out but are not yet in treneral use.

The results of some late experiments, made at
the Engineering Department of Yorkshire College,
Leeds {Engineering, Sept. ii, 1896), are interesting
as showing the resistance to crushino^ of hard steel
balls. Balls of a quarter-inch diameter stood a
pressure of five tons each, before crushing ; those
of a half-inch, more than ten tons. These were
statical pressures ; the balls would not probably
stand so much if they were in rolling motion.

Taking 0.065 ^s the coefficient of friction, r the
radius of the axle, and R that of the wheel, or of
the average of the front and hind wheels, the ex-
pression 0.065 R "^^'ill represent the proportion of
the weight of the coach ivitJiout its zokeels, which
measures the axle friction. It is of course the
weiofht of the coach resting- on the axles, that
causes the friction on the axles. If, therefore, a
coach with its load, and zuithont its wheels, weighs
3100 pounds, has axles two inches in diameter, and
wheels averaging 46 inches in diameter, the expres-
sion will be y" (w — w)^'-' or 0.065 % 3100 = 8.77
pounds, as the amount of the axle-friction, and
since experiment gives an average of 70 pounds

* W beiniT the weiijht of the whole coach and r^' that of the wheels.

CH. X DRAUGHT l6l

per ton (of 2000 pounds), as the total resistance
to motion in a coach on a good hard road (see p.
163), that resistance for a weight of 3400 pounds,
will amount to 119 pounds, of which 9 pounds, or
7.5 per cent., will be axle friction, and 1 10 pounds,
or 92.5 per cent., rolling friction.

The total resistance to forward motion on a level
surface is therefore represented by the rolling
friction and the axle friction added together, or

by the formula ^ = ^1^ + -^^ — t5~ ^^ which: —

P is the power required to draw the vehicle.

A is the constant for rolling- friction for a oriven
road surface (see p. 153) ; for a hard road 0.0615.

W, the total weight of the coach and load.

7Cf, the weiofht of the wheels.

R, the radius of the wheel (or the mean of the
radii of the front wheels and hind wheels).

r, the radius of the axle-arm.

/, the coefficient of friction, 0.065.

Example of computation for a coach : —

W = 3400 pounds.

w = 300 pounds.

R ^ 23 inches, or 1.9 foot.

r = I inch, or .083 foot.

A = 0.0615.

/ n= 0.065.

A _ ^ 0.061 ; ^'^°° = 1 10 RoUing friction
R 1.9

(W-7.0r_ ^ ^g (3400- 3oo)o-o83_ ^ Axle friction

R 1-9 779 = p

l62

DRAUGHT

CH. X

The proportion of the total resistance due to
friction of the axle being- small, it is evident that
the improvement of the road surface is more im-
portant than the improvement of the axle, and
this is shown in the oain arising from the use of
pneumatic tires, which is equivalent to having a
smoother road.

The following tables give an abstract of some
experiments on the force required to draw vehicles
under different conditions :

Kind of Vehicle.

Description of Roau

Proportion
of Draught
TO Weight.

Draught in

Pounds
per Ton of
20OO Pounds.

Experiments of Morin (pp. 182, 184).

Diligence.

Diameter of wheels,

1. 15 metre.

3 ft. 9 in.

Pavement

Dry macadam

Muddy macadam

Dry earth

Dry earth with gravel 4 in.
deep . .

1
50

27
1

33-3
40.0
74.0
74.0

250.0

Cart.

l)iameter of wheels,

1.60 metre.

5 ft- 3 '"•

Pavement

Dry macadam

Muddy macadam ....

Dry earth

Dry earth with gravel 4 in.
deep

1
3^

1
3 6

233
30.3

55-5
55-5

181.0

Cart.

Diameter of wheels,

2.0 metres.

6 ft. 6 in.

Pavement

Dry macadam

Muddy macadam

Dry earth

Dry earth with gravel 4 in.
deep

1
TO'7

18.7
24.4
44.4
44-4

142.8

CH. X

DRAUGHT

163

Kind of Vehicle.

Proportion
OF Draught
TO Weight.

Draught in

Pounds
PER Ton of
2000 Pounds.

Experiments of Macniell. Report of Committee.

Stage Coach.

Weight, with load,

3400 pounds.

Good Telford road.

6 miles -per hour

8 miles per hour

10 miles per hour

29
1

TI8

68.0

72.4

Wagon,
at 2^ miles per hour,

2300 pounds.

Diameter of wheels

not given.

Good pavement

Telford |^

Macadam j

Gravel on earth .....

-h
1

31.0

56.0

122.0

Bedford Experiments. Engineering, July 10, 1874.

Wagons.
Mean diameter of

wheels, 4 ft.,
without springs.

Hard gravel

Field of oats

4"^

43-6
182.2

The same with
springs.

Hard gravel

Field of oats

35-4
189.7

Carts.

Diameter of wheels,

4 ft. 6 in.

Hard gravel

Field of oats

29.4
126.3

Experiments of Michelin, 1896.

Brake,

1270 pounds.

Mean diameter of

wheels, 3 ft. 4 in.,

iron tires.

Good road.

3 miles per hour

b\ miles per hour

9i miles per hour

46.0

590
77.0

The same with
pneumatic tires.

3 miles per hour

6^ miles per hour

9! miles per hour

4ff

48.0

50.0
50.0

1 64

DRAUGHT

CH. X

From the Bedford Experiments on Traction.

Mean Diameter
OF Wheels.

Inclination of
Wheels to the
Vertical.

Width of Tirb.

Road.

Field.

Proportion
of Draught on
Field to that

ON RoAU.

K Q

0. 3

ill

K a
w z

III

Ft. In.

Degrees.

Inches.

Pounds.

Times.

4 O

44.1

205.0

4.6

4 O

45-1

168.8

3-7

4 o

39-1

183.0

4-7

•a

4 o

3
4

44.8
47-3

200.0
183-9

4-5
3-8

► 5-g.
"Kg

4 o

39-4

167.8

4.2

. .

167.8

45-7

181.2

4.0

29.6

188.4

6.3

\%t.

4 o

41.2

I9I.0

4-7

]?-

4 6

4 7

3l
4

26.7
32.1

125.0
127.6

4.6
4.0

Ill

An examination of the Bedford Experiments
shows : I St, That the draught on the soft field is
about 41^ times that on the hard road ; 2nd, that
with a wide tire this difference is less ; 3rd, that
an increased angle of the wheel to the vertical
increases the draught ; 4th, that carts have a
licrhter draught than waggons, and that the differ-
ence is greater than is merely in proportion to the
greater size of their wheels.; and 5th, that springs
diminish the draught on the road, but not on the
field.

These results agree, substantially, with those
obtained from other experiments, but it must be

CH. X DRAUGHT I 65

noted that it is difficult to compare such experi-
ments with accuracy, on account of varying condi-
tions. In this abstract of the Bedford Experiments,
for instance, the incau size of the front and hind
wheels is given ; in the full Report, their respective
sizes are given with the proportions of the full load
on each. The figures would be somewhat different
if the load of the four-wheeled wagon were placed
principally on the front wheels or on the hind wheels.

The inclination of the wheels, the character of the
axles, the equality or otherwise, in length of the two
axles, all affect the result.

The subject may be summed up as follows :

To obtain the least draught we must have the
largest wheel and the smallest axle ; the axle must
be highly polished, well-fitted, but not too tight, and
profusely oiled ; the axle must be cylindrical and
horizontal ; and the wheel straight and vertical. On
a hard road with a vertical wheel, the width of the
tire, within reasonable limits, is unimportant ; on
soft ground, a wide tire diminishes the draught. If
the wheel is dished and inclined, the increased width
increases the draught on a hard road. On a hard
road, it is not important that the two axles should
have the same lenofth, but on a bad, or soft, road
the draught is increased, if the front wheels are
closer together than the hind wheels, because there
are four new tracks to break instead of two.

On good, hard roads, the draught increases with
the speed, as is shown in the preceding tables.

I 66 DRAUGHT CH. X

and at much higher speeds than coaches attain, as
on railroads, it varies as follows : — '"''

At 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 miles per hour.
9. 15 ; 9.6 ; 10. 5 ; 1 1.4 ; 14.6 ; 19.0 ; 24.0 ; 31.5 pds per long ton.

On hard roads that are roitgJi, the draught in-
creases rapidly with the speed, owing to the shocks
which absorb part of the power, and on such roads
suspension on springs diminishes the draught, at
high speeds, by diminishing the shocks.

Well-laid, firm, stone pavements give from one-
half to two-thirds the resistance to rollinof that is
given by good, broken-stone roads. This difference
seems, at first sis^ht, to be too crreat ; but all the
experiments give substantially the same result, and
show that a solid, unyielding road is better than an
elastic one with ever so smooth a surface ; this is
confirmed by the experience of old coaching men,
who consider what they call the soundness of a road
its most important quality.

On a smooth surface, with a well-made vehicle,
there is no indication that the distance between the
axles in any way affects the draught.

It is a general opinion, however, that placing
the axles close together, or making a coach ' short-
coupled,' as it is called, makes it run easier.

No doubt a very long-coupled carriage, like a

* When it is said that the draught increases with the speed in a
certain degree, only the statical draught as indicated by a dyna-
mometer, is meant. The amount of actual -work expended is repre-
sented by this quantity combined with the distance passed over.

CH. X SWINGING OF A COACH 1 67

landau, runs hard, especially on a soft road, because
the hind wheels do not follow promptly, and some-
times run partly sideways in lines different from the
front wheels ; but within the limits of variation of
distance, possible in a coach, this can occur in only
such a small degfree that the disadvantacre is more
than balanced by the other advantages of a longer
coupling.

A very short-coupled coach can never be entirely
safe at high speeds, especially if the horses are
galloping : a short wheel base, overhung in front
by the body, will cause the coach to rock to and fro,
and especially to swing sideways. A short base is
generally obtained by putting the front wheels far
_ _ under the front boot,

and the effect of this
projection of the front
of the coach beyond the
perch-bolt can be ap-
preciated by imagining
the front axle pushed
back nearly as far as the centre of the body, and the
coach pulled from that point. It will be seen that a
slight side motion of the front wheels will be greatly
magnified at the front end of the coach, and will
cause a dangerous swing (Fig. 75).

The distance between the axles of a coach should
not be less than 6 ft. 6 in.

A third element of resistance to the motion of a
vehicle, is the action of gravity when ascending a

iz:

1 1

n n

^'[W'.'.'.Z:-:^--

U U

1 1

Fig. 75.

1 68

EFFECT OF GRADES

CH. X

slope, where a portion of the weig-ht has to be raised
vertically. The proportion of the weight thus lifted
is directly as the height of the inclined plane is to its
horizontal length, and is, therefore, easily computed.

If a road rises one foot in every ten of its length,
or, in other words, has a erade of one in ten, the
power of the horses must be exerted to raise one-
tenth of the weight of the coach all the time that
the coach is ascending the slope, and this resistance
must be added to that of the rolling friction and the
axle friction.

On all except very slight grades, this resistance
becomes important, as the accompanying table
shows.

Percbntagbs of Resistance from

Grade.

Rolling
Friction.

Axle
Friction.

Effect
OF Grade.

Total.

Level

100

I in 200

100

I in 100

100

I in 90

100

I in 80

100

I in 70

100

I in 60

100

I in 50

100

I in 40

100

I in 35

100

I in 30

100

I in 25

100

I in 20

100

I in 15

100

I in 10

100

1 in 8

100

I in 6

100

CH. X EFFECT OF GRADES 1 69

These figures are for a heavy four-wheeled
vehicle, on hard macadam (Morix, pp. 45 and
127). As the grade increases, its importance in
using up the power is manifest, until at a grade
of I in 55 the percentages of rolling resistance and
grade resistance are equal, and at i in 45 the grade
resistance is one-half of the whole. At i in 20,
which may be considered a permissible grade on a
mountain road, the grade resistance is nearly three-
quarters of the whole, and at i in 10, which should be
the utmost limit of mountain roads, it is 84 per cent.

Grades of i in 8, to i in 6, now and then met with,
can be ascended with an ordinary load only by the
use of extra horses.

Macneill, in 1838, recommended i in 40 as the
maximum grade on a main road of the best class,
but on a large proportion of the great European
roads, in mountainous countries, i in 25 is constantly
used, and there are grades of that steepness on the
great Holyhead coach road in England and Wales.
In all these cases, the surface is nearly perfect.

A grade of i in 20 is the steepest up which a
fresh team, with a moderately loaded coach, should
trot, and then only when the distance is short, not
more than 300 yards.

All experiments agree in putting the resistance
to rolling, on a well-paved stone street, at about two-
thirds of that on a eood, macadam-surfaced, road,
and every attentive coachman will feel the difference
in the action of the horses and the movement of the

lyO TELFORD AND MACADAM CH. X

coach when he runs off of any other knid of a road
on to the stones.

Of course, a paved road to be good must be made
of flat topped stones, and the joints must be so
small, that the wheels cannot drop into them in cross-
ing them. In many old pavements the stones are
so rounded and worn, that they are excessively dis-
aofreeable to drive over, even while their resistance to
traction may be less than that of smooth macadam.

The goodness of a road depends not only upon
its smooth upper surface, but also upon its solidity, or
what coachmen often call its soiuidiicss. In England,
about 1830, which was the height of the coaching
era, just before railroads came into use, there was a
great controversy between the advocates of the two
systems known as Telford's and MacAdam's.*

MacAdam held that a sufficient layer, that is
from 8 to 12 inches, of stone broken to a size to
pass through a two-inch ring, laid on even a yield-
ing foundation, made the best road ; Telford in-
sisted that it was necessary to have a strong stone
foundation under the broken stone.

Telford's view is now generally adopted in
Europe, especially for wet climates, but in America
it is an open question which system is the better.

* As the name MacAdam lends itself readily to being made into
a verb, 7nacadainised has become a well-known expression and has
taken its place in English as the designation of a road surface formed
of broken stone without reference to what is underneath it. The
French use en empierrement and also luacadaniiscc.

CH. X TELFORD AND MACADAM 171

European road makers, particularly in England,
insist that everything must be done to keep roads
dry, and object even to trees which may shade
them ; but in America the summer dryness is an
enemy to the stability of a road, since it permits
movement of the pieces of stone, and thereby facili-
tates the disintegration of the road under the traffic,
and the working up of the large stones from below.
In winter, on the other hand, the freezing- and thaw-
ing of the water in a road disturb the connection
between the stones and break up the road, allow-
ing ruts to be formed ; and the Telford system un-
doubtedly provides the best drainage.

If cost is disregarded, a good, deep Telford road
is the best, although, perhaps, the top covering
of stone wears out more rapidly than that of a
macadam road, from its beine hammered between
the wheels and the unyielding pavement beneath.
As soon as the top is so worn down as to be not
more than four inches thick, the stones of the foun-
dation are likely to work loose and to come to the
surface, with the result of making the worst kind of
a road. If the lower pavement is made of stones
merely gathered from the fields and tJirown in with-
out being packed, these stones will inevitably work
up through the small stone and make a road worse
than poor macadam.

One of the most experienced road makers of
eastern Pennsylvania is decidedly in favour of mac-
adam, as giving the better practical results in all

172 TELFORD CH. X

regards, and especially as being- the more easily
repaired, acknowledging, however, that it is more
likely than the Telford road to become rutted when
the frost is coming- out of the orround.

For a Telford road of the best quality, the bed,
formed 12 to 16 inches below the intended surface
of the finished road, should be carefully graded with
a slope from the centre toward the sides, and
thoroughly drained by tile, shallow broken stone,
or gravel drains. No road of any system can be
good or lasting unless it is thoroughly drained ;
this is absolutely essential. Upon the bed thus pre-
pared, a paving of one layer of stones, from 7 to
10 inches deep, is laid by hand. Each stone must
be laid with its widest face on the bed, the object
being to prevent the stones from being pressed into
the ground, and to distribute the pressure from
passing wheels over as large a surface as possible.

Fig. 76.

Since the stones should touch each other where
they rest on the ground, the upper surface will be
broken by irregular openings which must be packed
tightly with stone chips. Upon this rough pave-
ment, which may be made of any inferior stone, not
too soft, is spread the hardest stone procurable,
broken to sizes of from 1 1^ to 2 inches, to a depth
of from 4 to 8 inches and well rolled with a steam

CH. X TELFORD

173

or horse roller. The depth of both the under pave-
ment and the upper layer of stones will vary be-
tween the limits noted, accordingly as the road may
be intended for light or heavy traffic, and according
to the amount of money at the disposal of the en-
gineer. The more substantial the road, the easier
will be the draught upon it, and the less will be the
expense for repairs. No earth should be put upon
the surface of the road ; it is by the interlocking of
the clean angular stones under the rolling and the
traffic that the road is made, and earth prevents
such interlocking. If a surface finish is required,
very sharp stone screenings should be used, put on
after the road has been partially rolled.

Much rolling with a light roller, or prolonged
ramming with a light rammer, is preferable to
heavy rolling or ramming, because the object is
not to break the ano^les of the stones, but to shake
them into interlocking with each other, an opera-
tion not altoo^ether unlike the feltine of hair. Con-
tinuous liofht shakino- will turn the small stones
about among each other until they fit closely to-
gether and form a solid mass.

If a road is equally good all over, it ought to
wear down evenly under the traffic, and when worn
should be repaired by putting on a new layer of
stone, not less than 3 inches thick, after the old sur-
face has been picked up, so that the new stone will
bind into it. On a road that is not well made, and
sometimes even on a eood road, uneven wear will

174 TELFORD CH. X

take place, and depressions be formed, which must
be patched with new stone. These repairs require
great judgment on the part of the road foreman,
and the old surface of the portion repaired should
always be picked up before adding new stone.
When new stone is put on in patches, it should
be well wetted and rammed.

The dust or mud which is formed on the surface
by the wearing action of the wheels should be
frequently removed ; it does no good to the road
and is obviously objectionable. The effect of mud
in increasing the draught is shown in the Table on
p. 162, the resistance of thick mud being to that
of a hard clean road as 84 to 45. It seems almost
needless to add that a soft, ' woolly' road, even if it
is dry, gives a heavy draught.

It is difficult to give an estimate of the cost of a
Telford road, on account of the varying price of stone
and of labour, and the difference of natural ground,
but the followine figures are from late American
sources. Paving 8 inches deep, ;^4 per square rod ;
broken stone 4 inches deep, $2 per square rod. An
18-foot road has 340 square rods to the mile, which
at $6 per rod is $2040, and with $200 per mile for
grading and shaping the road bed, is $2240 per
mile. This must be considered a low cost ; cul-
verts and ditches may add largely to it. For the
same thickness of road bed, there does not seem
to be much difference between the cost of Telford
and of macadam, since the cost of hand laying the

CH. X STONE PAVEMENT 1 75

pavement is balanced by that of breaking all the
stone small.

Although country roads, paved with stone, or, as
in Holland, with brick, are common on the Conti-
nent of Europe, they are not used in America ; but
for cities where the traffic is heavy, stone pave-
ments, apart from their noisiness, have many good
qualities. The following extract, from a paper pre-
pared by the present writer, as a member of a com-
mittee of The Coachinor Club, to be submitted to
the authorities of the city of New York, in 1884,
describes a orood method of their construction : —

' The proper conditions of a paved city street, as
' indicated by the experience of the engineer and
' of the driving expert, may be stated as follows :

' The subsoil on which the paving is to be laid, if
' not naturally porous, must be thoroughly drained
' to a depth of at least four feet. A sewer, the
' crown of which is pervious to moisture, will usu-
' ally effect this purpose, but there are grave ob-
'jections to any leaks from or into a sewer, owing.
' to the danger of the escape of noxious gases ; and
' some simple system of special drainage similar to
' that used in farming land is preferable,

' The surface of the subsoil should be carefully
' eraded and consolidated, so as to Insure that no
' water reaching it can stand in puddles upon it,
' or that any portion can settle below the grade
' originally given to it. The best method of consoli-
' dation is by the use of a rather narrow steam roller.

iy6 STONE PAVEMENT CH. X

' Upon the subsoil, thus carefully prepared, there
' should be laid a base of concrete from eight to
' fifteen inches thick, depending upon the amount
' and character of the traffic, and somewhat upon
' the quality of the subsoil — a dry gravel or sand
' requiring less depth of concrete than a clay
' soil.

' The upper surface of this concrete must cor-
' respond in form to the finished grade of the
' pavement to be placed upon it.

' The pavement itself should be of stone blocks
'about three inches wide, nine inches deep, and
' from thirteen to fifteen inches long. The width
' and depth must be as uniform as possible ; the
' lengths may vary.

'The blocks should be laid upon the concrete,
' over which a light coat of sand, not gravel, should
' be spread merely sufficient to enable the workmen
'to bed the stones evenly. Less than an inch of
'sand should suffice if the stones are reasonably
' even and smooth. The blocks are set with their
' longest dimension across the street, their smallest
' parallel to the axis of the street.

' After they are set, a small quantity of fine sand
' must be swept over their surface with brooms, so
' as to fill the joints about half full.

' The joints should then be filled to the top with
' melted asphalt. This must be done, if possible,
' in dry, warm weather, and cannot be done when
' the stones are wet.

CH. X STONE PAVEMENT 1 77

' The stone selected must be one which wears

* rough and gritty, and does not poUsh and become

* slippery. The softer stone will not wear so long
' as the hard one, but that must be submitted to.

' The asphalt serves three purposes : it closes the
'joints, and prevents any water passing through
' the pavement to the concrete or the subsoil, which
' is necessary to the maintenance of a good pave-
' ment ; it prevents dust rising from the joints ; and
' it fills the top of the joint so as to prevent, to

* some extent, the rounding of the upper surfaces

* of the stones by the continued impact of the
' wheels, which is the way that the best laid pave-
' ment finally becomes rough and noisy. There is

* no remedy for this other than turning the stones
' upside down, or re-cutting their upper surfaces,
' and using them on streets admitting of a thinner
' pavement.

' The asphalt diminishes the noise by preventing
' the wheels from striking the edges of the stones
' with as much force as if the joints were open, and
' it can be renewed during any hot, dry weather at

* a small cost. It must be poured into the joints

* neatly from a ladle, or equivalent device.

* At street intersections, it is best to carry each
' line of paving to a point in the intersection, to
' avoid, as far as possible, the longitudinal joints
' being in the direction of the traffic.

' Continuous lines of joints in the direction of the
' traffic are fatal to the maintenance of a orood

178 STONE PAVEMENT CH. X

' pavement ; and for that reason flat gutter stones
' should be positively interdicted, and the paving
' should be carried directly to the curb.

' There is no occasion, in a well laid pavement,
' for any crown to the street beyond what is neces-
' sary to insure the centre not being lower than the
' sides ; for that reason no crown of more than two
' inches should be permitted in any street of sixty
' feet in width, and less in a narrower street.

' The excessive crown that most American city
' streets have makes them uncomfortable to drive
' upon, owing to the sliding of the hind wheels of
' vehicles toward the gutter,

' In streets newly laid out and paved, the curb-
' stones should have more slope than is usually
'given them. In a five to seven-inch curb, the
' slope of the face backward should be at least
' two inches, so that wheels rubbing against them
' may strike the tire only, and not wear the wood
' of the rims of the wheels.

' The method of construction advocated is prac-
' tically that of the streets of Liverpool, England,
' which are now the best in the world. The con-
' Crete base possesses the advantage, among others,
' that in laying gas or water pipes it can be cut
' up in blocks, and relaid so as to insure a more
* perfect patching than can be made on a soft
' substratum.

'Any pavement, however, is very much injured
' by taking up a portion over a long trench, as the

CH. X ASPHALT AND WOOD 1 79

' most skilful and careful workman cannot possibly
' replace the stones, even if they are marked, so as
' to form the original continuous surface.'

The asphalt and wooden pavements now rapidly
beinof introduced in cities, while not better for
draught than stone, have the great advantage of
diminishing the noise. Both are worthless unless
they are underlaid by a thoroughly well-made con-
crete foundation. Indeed, it cannot be too posi-
tively asserted that the surface, whether it is stone,
wood, asphalt, or macadam, is only a surface, and
that the true road is below, which if once well-made
and not injured by excavations, should last indefi-
nitely. The surface can be renewed as it wears
out. The wooden pavement, known in America
as the Nicholson, and others of its kind, were laid
on a lining of thin elastic boards upon poorly pre-
pared foundations of earth or gravel. These pave-
ments soon went to pieces, and gave a bad name to
wooden pavement of all kinds ; but creosoted wood,
laid as it should be, on a perfectly firm concrete
foundation, makes the best covering that has yet
been found, being nearly as smooth as asphalt, and
less slippery. The application to the wood, from
time to time, of very sharp, finely broken stone,
almost like coarse sand, which is forced into the end
grain of the wood by the traffic, gives the horses'
feet a better hold. A pavement must always be a
compromise : if it is very smooth it is slippery.
Certain stone pavements in the streets of Rome,

l8o SLIPPERINESS CH. X

made with a very hard lava, closely jointed, are per-
fect for wheels, but extremely slippery for horses/-'

Elaborate experiments were made in London in
1873, by William Haywood, Engineer and Sur-
veyor to the Commissioners of Sewers, on the
slipperiness of pavements ; they are described in a
Report entitled : Accidents to Horses on Carriage-
way Pavements. Many thousand passing vehicles
were observed and the falls of horses recorded, in
certain streets paved with different materials. The
observations showed that on stone a horse falls
once in travelling 132 miles, on asphalt, once in 191
miles, and on wood, once in 330 miles, proving the
great advantage of wood as affording a good foot-
hold to the horse.

The following results are quoted from pp. 72,73 : —

' On the average of the whole fifty days' observa-
' tions, the Granite was found to be the most slippery,
' the Asphalt the next so, and the Wood the least.

' Separating the accidents under three conditions
' of surface as regards moisture, it appears :

' That Asphalt was most slippery when merely
' damp, and safest when dry ;

* Within the last few years, the introduction of india-rubber pads
in the horses' shoes have overcome this difficuUy and it is now (1899)
a rare thing to see a horse fall in the streets of Rome. The pad is,
in effect, a shoe inside of the iron shoe, so much thicker that it
touches the ground below the iron. It is sometimes open at the
back, sometimes closed and covering the fi'og. The outer portion
is expanded into a thin web which lies between the hoof and the
shoe ; the nails passing through this web, keep the pad in place.

CH. X ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT 151

' That Granite was most slippery when dry, and
' safest when wet ;

' That Wood was most sHppery when damp, and
' safest when dry ;

' That when the surface of the pavements was
' generally dry, Granite was the most slippery, and
' Wood the least slippery ;

' That when the surface of the pavements was
' damp in different degrees. Asphalt was the most
' slippery, and Wood the least slippery ;

' That when the surface of the pavements was
' wet. Asphalt was the most slippery, and Granite
' the least slippery ;

' That on the whole. Wood was less slippery than
' either Asphalt or Granite.'

There is nothing so nearly perfect, from a driving
point of view, as a macadam surface, giving sufficient
smoothness without being in the least slippery ; but
its drawbacks of dust, mud, and rapid wear have
nearly banished it from large cities.

Action of a Horse in Draught. — If a man,
attached to a vehicle, throws his body into the posi-
tion shown in Fig. 77, he would fall forward were
he not supported by the strain on the line by which
he pulls. If his inclination is slight, he will merely
put a portion of his weight upon the line, and the
remainder will be supported by the ground through
his lees, but if he increases his inclination suffi-

l82

ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT

CH. X

ciently, the vehicle will move forward as soon as
the horizontal force acting on the line is equal to
the resistance to motion of the
vehicle. When the vehicle
moves in obedience to this
strain, the man is forced, in
order to avoid falling, to put
one foot in front of the other
and so successively to walk for-
ward. As this strain upon the
line is produced entirely by the
weight of the man, it is evident
that the heavier he is the more
The action of the horse is exactly
78), though at first sight it seems

he can pull,
the same (Fig.

Fio. 78.

complicated by the fact of his having four legs in-
stead of two. As the vehicle moves in obedience

CH. X ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT 1 83

to the impulse of his weight, he is forced to support
himself by advancing a leg, and he continues to
move, throwing;- his weight forward.

As in the case of the man, the heavier the horse,
the more he can pull, a fact well recognised by those
who use horses for slow, heavy draught. A horse
with a man on his back will pull a heavier load than
without the man, and the weight which is sometimes
hung on the yoke of a pair of oxen produces the
same result ; the advantage in both cases, however,
is obtained at the cost of additional strain upon the
legs and on the general powers of the animal. A
heavy animal has more weight of his own to move
than a light one, and he must therefore be propor-
tionately stronger ; and this becomes more impor-
tant as the pace is increased, since a speed may be
reached when all the power of the animal is em-
ployed in moving himself and nothing is left for
purposes of draught. In selection of horses for
service this should be duly taken into considera-
tion : for slow stages on soft roads, or for starting
a coach on grass and earth, heavy wheelers are de-
sirable, but for fast work on eood, hard roads, lio^ht,
quick, active horses are the best. These are im-
portant points in distributing horses along a road for
service on different stages, and show the judgement,
good or bad, of the person undertaking this duty.

If a horse weighing looo pounds throws himself
forward into such a position (Fig. 79) that his
weight overhangs the points of support 4 inches.

1 84

ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT

CH. X

the horizontal force will be equal to about 1 1 1
pounds, since the joints about which the body moves
may be considered as being- about 36 inches from

Fig. 79.

the o-round, and 36 is to 4 as 1000 is to 1 1 1, so that
a moderate inclination is sufficient to produce a con-
siderable effect of draught/^'

* This proportion is determined by what is known in mechanics as
the parallelogram of forces. The weight
at D, supported by a rigid strut, DB, will
tend to move in a circle of which B is the
centre, unless prevented by a resistance
acting in the line DC, and its effect will
be represented in direction and amount by
the lines DB and DC, DA representing the
weight.

The pressure on the ground acting in
the direction DB is greater than the weight
itself, and it would appear, therefore, that
some force is in this way made out of nothing, but it must be remem-
bered that mechanical 7uork is the result of pressure multiplied by the

CH. X RIGID OR ELASTIC CONNECTIONS 1 85

The relation of the power of a horse to the draught
of a vehicle is modified by the condition of the
road, since the exertion of moving his own body is
much the same to the horse, whether the surface of
the road is good or bad, provided it is not slippery
or so loose and deep as to yield excessively to
his feet ; but as the surface of the road deterio-
rates, more power is required to pull the same
vehicle.

There is some difference of opinion as to the
relative merits of a rigid, and an elastic connec-
tion between the horse and the vehicle ; since the
animal's motion forward is not uniform, but, as
shown by the experiments of Marey and others,
consists of a series of motions of varying velocity,
a number of shocks must occur with a rigid con-
nection which are avoided by a certain amount of
elasticity.

As has been remarked, when speaking of carriages
with and without perches, the springs to some extent
take up such shocks, and a number of devices are in
use, such as the spring swingle-tree of a brougham,
or a dog-cart and the spiral springs connected with
the traces sometimes used with heavy business-
vehicles. With a spring interposed, a forward

distance through which it acts and not by the amount of the pressure
alone.

As the load becomes greater and the inclination of the legs of the
horse must be increased to move it, the strain on them will be in-
creased to their injury.

1 86 RIGID OR ELASTIC CONNECTIONS CH. X

movement of the horse, more or less sudden, in-
stead of being resisted by the entire weight of the
carriage, is partially taken up by the spring and
then gradually communicated to the vehicle ; none
of the force is lost.

The difference between an elastic and a lono-
connection must be carefully noted. If the traces
are so long that the horse, when commencing to pull
gets into motion before acting upon the vehicle, he
is brought up with a jerk when the trace tightens,
and much of his power is wasted to no purpose. A
slack connection by an unyielding trace is therefore
objectionable. This does not apply to the case of
a horse pulling a canal boat by a long rope, as the
sinking and rising of the rope takes the place of
elasticity, and the force expended in raising the rope
before the boat begins to move, is restored b)' its
sinking again.

From a purely physiological point of view, a long
continued action by a horse, the same in character
and in amount, is undoubtedly more fatiguing than
when it is varied, and the majority of horsemen have
observed that in a o-iven distance, on a road with
some undulations, a horse is less tired than on an
even grade, no matter if that grade is the minimum
one mathematically.

The European roads, laid out by engineers with
the view of having the easiest grades attainable,
nearly all have the grave defect of long steady
slopes for surmounting elevations with scarcely any

CH. X

ATTACHMENT OF THE HORSE

187

resting-places. American roads, otherwise much
inferior, usually have on the hills, places which are
level or of slioht ori'a-de, and there can be no doubt
that it is much better for the horses, to have steeper
ofrades alternatino- with flatter ones than to have a
minimum average o-rade for the whole of a lonor dis-
tance. An objection sometimes made to such a plan,
is that if horses are stopped on a hill they are some-
times disinclined to start again, but often they have
to be rested on the regular grade, and are then much
more likely to refuse than if they have a short level
on which to start.

As a matter of fact, the increase of grade, which
is the result of a location with short flats, is not
great. With a steady grade of i in 25, the rise is
2 1 1 feet in a mile ; if at every half-mile, a level of
200 feet lono- is made, the erade of the remaininor
portion will be i in 23 instead of i in 25. With a
regular grade of i in 40, the rise
in a mile is 132 feet ; a level place
of 400 feet, in each mile will in-
crease the remaining orade to i

vD/

Fig. 81.

Attachment of the Horse. —
There are two ways in general use
of attaching a horse to the traces
by which he draws the vehicle. One is by the
breast collar (Fig. 81), or Dutch collar, as it is fre-
quently called, which was in almost universal use

i88

ATTACHMENT OF THE HORSE

CH. X

on the Continent until of late years ; it is still fre-
quently seen there, and in America is used in some
light trotting- harness. It has the advantages of
being simple, light, and cool in hot weather, and,
with slight adjustment, of fitting any horse.

Its disadvantages are that with a stiff splinter-bar
it rubs the shoulders as they move backward and
forward within it, and, bearing upon the point at
which the shoulder-blade joins the upper bone of the
leg (Fig. 82), cripples the action of the joint. It
does not enable the horse to
hold back effectively without the
addition of a somewhat compli-
cated strapping, or a metal yoke.
It may be necessary in travelling
to use one for a time to relieve
a horse with a sore neck, but
moveable swindle-trees of some
kind must be used with it, or else
a galled shoulder is sure to result.
The other way, is to use the ordinary collar (Fig.
St,), a part of the harness which requires the great-
est care and consideration, sometimes taxing the
ingenuity of the most experienced horsemen and
harness-makers. It must fit ; if it is too long or too
wide it will slip about and rub the skin ; if it is too
short it will choke the horse ; if it is too narrow it
will pinch and gall him. These questions will be
treated more in detail in the Chapter on Harness.
But in this place it is proper to call attention to what

Fig. 82.

C'H. X

ANGLE OF TRACE

189

Major DwvER '=' has so pertinently pointed out, that
the attachment of the trace must be at that part of
the collar which has the least motion when the
horse, in action, works his shoulder.

If the tug to which the trace is attached, is too
low down, the collar will act somewhat like a breast-
strap, the bearing will be against the moving joint,
and the collar will stand forward at the top, away
from contact with the horse's neck.

If the tucr is too hi^^h, the bearinof will be on the
thin part of the neck, where it will act obliquely
against the skin instead of resting on the part which
is of such a form as to o"ive a sort of seat for the
collar. Being- too high is a
less serious fault than being
too low, but it should be as
nearly as possible at the point
(Fig. 83), where the seaf for
the collar exists, and where
the rocking motion of the
shoulder-blade is the least.

A great deal has been
written about the angle of the

trace, and the experiments of Morin, and others,
indicate 1 2 degrees to the horizontal as being the
most effective. As a matter of fact, with the usual
point of attachment to the collar, with an average

Fig. 83.

* Major Francis Dwyer, 6"^^?/^ afid Sadd/es.
Draught, Am. Ed. n.d., part iii.

Chapter on

IQO ANGLE OF TRACE CH. X

horse, and with the usual height of spHnter-bar, 2
ft. 7 in., the angle of the trace of a coach is about
16 deofrees, and therefore somewhat exceeds the
theoretical ano-le. The direction of the trace con-
tinued falls above the front axle and below the hind
axle in the way which is shown by Philipson
[Draught, p. 18) to give the best results. It is
obvious from an inspection of Fig. jt, (showing the
manner in which a wheel is drawn over an ob-
stacle), that a downward direction of the trace from
the vehicle to the collar would be wasteful of power,
and that a moderate upward inclination, tending to
lift the load somewhat, is better.

DwYER has pointed out that the direction of the
trace should be, as nearly as possible, perpendicular
to the collar, but no shoulder is straight enouo-h to
bring a trace, with an angle of 1 2 degrees, at right
angles with the collar. On a well-made horse, the
collar will have an inclination of about 36 degrees to
the vertical, and a trace w^ith an inclination of 12
degrees to the horizontal will not come within 24
deo-rees of beino- at ricrht anorles to the collar, or

O O <z> O

with an angfle of 16 within 20 deofrees. On a horse
with a very sloping shoulder, the collar will be even
less upright, and the strain on the trace will pull
the collar up, on the neck, choking the animal and
chafincr the skin. The correction for this is, ob-
viously to have the splinter-bar low, and to put the
draught-eye of the harness high.

Close observation of passing horses will fre-

CH. X LENGTH OF TRACE I91

qiiently disclose exaggerated cases of diis mistake ;
a small horse with a sloping shoulder, attached to a
carriage with a high bar or swingle-tree, and with the
tug low, will have his collar pulled into an absurd
position.

In Fig. S;^, the angle of the collar is 36 degrees
to the vertical, and that of the trace 1 2 degrees
to the horizontal ; in Plate XXXI. these anoles
are 36 and 16 respectively.

In a trotting-wagon, the swingle-trees are usually'
very high, in order to give the horses ample room
for the action of their hind letrs ; this brines the
traces nearly horizontal, but the draught is so light
that the inaccuracy is not important.

It is a common opinion among coaching men that
there is a great advantage in having the horse c/ose
to his ivork, that is, in having a very short trace.
But this must be taken with some allowance. There
is no absolute mechanical advantage in a short trace.
A vehicle drawn along a surface by a horizontal
cord and a weight, passing over a pulley, will re-
quire exactly the same weight to move it, be the
cord long or short ; variations in the effect can come
only from the action of the animal.

It is, of course, important that the motion of the
vehicle should be as uniform as possible, and that,
once set going, it should continue to move at the
same speed, so that small obstacles can be sur-
mounted or crushed by the instant action of the
horse, before the carriage has time to stop and to

192 LENGTH OF TRACE CH. X

require to be set in motion again. With very long
traces this objectionable stoppage may take place,
which is no doubt the foundation for the wide-spread
belief in the advantage of putting a horse close
to his work. Undoubtedly, on smooth roads the
horses may be harnessed as close to the coach as
will permit them to trot fast without the danger of
being touched by the splinter-bar or of striking
the wheels with their feet ; this means tight pole-
chains to prevent the horses from getting back too
far. But on uneven roads, with holes and ruts, such
close harnessing will strain the horses by subjecting
them to violent shocks from the irreo-ular motion of
the coach. The custom, therefore, in rough coun-
tries, such as Western America, Africa, and Aus-
tralia, is to have a long pole and to harness the
horses loosely by long traces and long pole-chains,
so that while the coach cannot touch them, they are
less affected by the movements of the coach and of
each other. In park driving on smooth roads, with
light loads, low speeds, and well-trained horses, both
traces and pole-chains may be short ; but it is a
common fault with coachmen to have them too short
even under these circumstances and to distress their
horses unnecessarily. Por higher speeds, especially
galloping, and on less good roads, more flexibility is
required and more length should be given. A short-
harnessed team looks ' smarter,' takes up less room,
and is more easily handled than a long one, and,
where circumstances permit, it is proper ; but judge-

CH, X LENGTH OF TRACE 1 93

ment must be used as to the conditions. The leaders
should have their traces long enough only to keep
them well out of the way of the bars, and a sJwrt
pole with a crab the branches of which are of suffi-
cient length to bring the pole-chains into the proper
direction, will, by bringing the leaders well back, add
much to the appearance of a team.

The proper length for a wheel-trace is 84 inches
from the tuo:"-buckle to the centre of the roller-bolt ;
for a lead-trace, 76 inches from the tug-buckle to
the end of the cock-eye (pp. 216, 217). From the
tug-buckle to the front end of the trace, the length
is 15 inches, making the whole length of the wheel-
trace 99 inches, and of the lead-trace 91 inches.

194

CH. XI

CHAPTER XI

HARNESS

Harness. — The essential parts of the harness are
the bridle, bit, reins, collar, hames, and traces. All
other parts are accessory, and may be somewhat
varied, and, in some cases, omitted.

Bridle. — The bridle shown in Fig. 84 is the usual
pattern of a coaching bridle.

For a drag, the front should be a simple pat-
tern of chain ; for a road
coach, patent leather, or
worsted, of the colours
of the coach, plaited
round the leather front.
Where the front joins
the bridle there should
be a plain metal boss,
preferably flat, with initial
or crest. On a drag har-
ness, these bosses should
be on the inner side as
well as on the outer side ;
on a road-coach they are
on the outer side only,
and serve to indicate the oft" side or near side bridle.
Ribbons or rosettes are out of place ; they belong to

Fk;. 84.

CH. XI BRIDLE

195

a lady's harness ; but Howers are correct at all
times, and should customarily be worn. On a road-
coach, only flowers in season should be used ; they
are supposed to be given by the fair friends of the
coachman, along the road. In winter, holly berries
and leaves are suitable. On a drag, any kind of
flowers may be worn, and frequently the owner
adopts an especial flower from which he never varies.
It is well to have it correspond to one of the colours
of the coach. Of course, artijicial flowers must be
used ; natural ones are too fragile. The wire stems
should be pulled through the loop below the buckle
which is at the top of the winker. They are worn
only on the outer side of the bridle. In Fig. 84,
the flower is shown as being put in the throat-latch
buckle because the rein-ring is high and close to the
boss ; if the rinof is on the throat-latch, the flower
should be in the cheek-piece buckle so as not to be
rubbed by the rein.

On occasions of ceremony, such as Meets, it is
usual for the owner and the g^rooms to wear bcni-
tonniercs of the same flowers as those on the horses'
heads, and on the road, the person driving may
do the same. There is one occasion when ribbons
may be used : on the last day of the season of a
road-coach, on the last stage into town, it is cus-
tomary to put on the horses' heads knots of ribbon
of the coach colours, and on the pads, similar knots,
with long- ends.

Winkers should be square, with rounded corners ;

196 WINKERS CH, XI

round winkers, with or without metal edges, belong
to dress harness. They should be much hollowed or
cupped, so as to stand away from the eye. Winkers
are unquestionably necessary in driving-harness ; a
saddle-horse is ridden without winkers, but the rider
is on the back of the animal, where he has good
control over him ; driving-horses have the coachman
and the whip behind them, and without winkers
they will be nervously watchful of whatever hap-
pens there.

Were all horses driven from the first, without
winkers, they would probably work well enough ;
but, in using horses which have been broken to
harness with winkers, it is dano-erous to omit them.
They should not be close enough to the eyes to
heat them, but they should be high enough to
prevent the horse from seeing backward over them.
The split strap connecting the winkers with the
crown-piece, should be exactly of the right length
to make the winkers set properly, neither too close
to the eyes, nor spread apart. Care must be taken
that, in the harness-room, the bridle is not hung on
a sinoie hook, since this hook must come on one
side or the other of the buckle of the crown-piece,
and the bridle will get a crooked set, and not fit
squarely on the head. Attention to details like
these makes the difference between a well turned-
out team and a slovenly one. The centre of the
winker is a proper place for any crest, monogram, or
device that may be used. In drag-harness, there is

CH. XI BRIDLE I97

a face-drop which goes under the front, and usually
has the monogram on it. This is entirely orna-
mental and is omitted in road harness. On one
side, the nose-band has a loop which goes on the
billet of the side of the bridle to keep the nose-
band from slipping round, and on the other side, it
passes between the side of the bridle and the billet,
so that it can be tightened by the buckle which is
under the chin. Ordinarily, the nose-band is more
an ornament than anything else, but, with a high-port
bit on a pulling horse, it may be buckled somewhat
tight to prevent the horse from opening his mouth
too wide, and thereby escaping the action of the
bit ; then, it is useful. When a side-rein is used to
hold back a pulling horse, it may be buckled to the
nose-band, which then acts as a cavesson.

In the wheel-horse's bridle, the ring through
which the leader's rein runs, is fastened on in
several ways. In Fig. 84 it is shown as brazed
to a flat loop or band, which slips on to the crown-
piece, and is kept in its place by the buckles below
it. This brings the ring close under the boss and
above the flower. It can be readily taken off when
the bridle is used in a pair-harness.

Another way is to have the ring sewed on the
throat-latch under its buckle, as is done in road-
coach harness, as in Fig. 85 ; it is then further below
the boss, and the flower may be put through the
buckle over it. Thus arranged, the rein comes
straighter to the pad-terret, but it rubs the sur-

198

THROAT-LATCH RING

CH. XI

face of the winker. The throat-latch in this case
should not be a part of the crown-piece, as is usual
in pair-horse harness, but should be separate, with
a buckle at each end, so that it can be removed
and a plain throat-latch without a ring, substituted

when desired. When using
four-in-hand harness for pair-
horse work, it is in better
taste to remove the parts
which are only necessary for
four horses. It is a good plan
to have the harness so made
that it can be used for either
purpose, and it keeps in
much better order when in constant use, and is fre-
quently cleaned and oiled, than when hung up and
allowed to become dry. Two sets of four-in-hand
harness, thus arranged, will serve the requirements
of a large private stable for pair-horse work, and will
make it possible to turn out two teams for a change
of horses.

Carrying the lead-reins over the heads of the
wheelers has now gone out of fashion ; twenty-five
years ago it was almost universal for drags, but be-
fore that time it was being gradually abandoned on
road coaches.*

Fig. 85.

* In a print, after W. J. Shaver, published in 1841, of the Duke
OF Beaufort's road-coach, the lead-reins are through the throat-
latch rings. This is the earliest print in which that arrangement is
shown, that has come under my notice.

CH. XI HEAD-TERRET 1 99

' NiMROi),' in 1834, comments upon the fashion as
follows {N^ortJicrn Toui\ p. 31) : —

' It was now I found that I had taken leave of
' coaching in anything like its proper form, at least
' for some time to come ; for the horses were slow,
* the coachman slower, and the stupid, unworkman-
like, unsafe practice of running the leader's reins
' through the throat latches instead of the head ter-
' rets of the wheel horses was the order of the day ;'
and again (p. 340), 'Such a thing as a leader's rein
' runnino- through a wheeler's throat latch, instead
' of through his head terret. is not to be seen on the
' Defiance.' The objections to using the head-terret
are, that when a wheeler tosses his head, he disturbs
the lead-rein more than when it passes through the
side ring, which is more flexible, and which moves
without jerking the rein ; that the rein, when over-
head, sometimes gets behind the horse's ear, and
often in wet weather gets the foretop hair tangled
round it ; and that it is difficult to reach up so high
to pass the rein when changing horses. When
a head-terret is used, it is
screwed into a plate sewed
into the crown piece, or,
more frequently, there is
a double rino- (shown at , .,

A, Fig. 86), which to some Fig. 86.

extent prevents the rein

from eettine behind the ear. With a single head-
terret the same result may be obtained by putting

200 THROAT-LATCH RING CH. XI

a loose ring between the buckle and the loop, or
keeper, in front of the terret, as shown at B.

The terrets may be kept on the top of the head
in a road-harness, as well as the rings on the throat-
latch, since leaders that throw their tails over the
reins, or that are inclined to kick, will be less likely
to do either, if the rein is kept that much higher ;
but when the terret is near the boss, as in Fig. 84,
pretty much the same end is attained.

In road-harness the rine is often sewed on lower
down than is shown in Fig. 85. In American* road-
harness these rings are invariably on the inner side
of the bridle, since the lead-reins are not passed
through a terret on the wheelers' pad, and from
the inner side go more directly to the driver's
hand ; but it is much more difficult to pass
the rein throuofh, at a changre. Sometimes
the lead-rein is simply passed through the
throat-latch.

The strap with a ring at the end (shown
in Fig. 84), which is sewed on the crown-
FiG. 87. piece, is to take the short strap holding the
ring (Fig. '^']) through which the bearing-
rein passes, and, when the bearing-rein is not used,
the strap and ring show very little.

The buckle which is sewed on the cheek strap at
the top of the winker should be a little above the

* When reference is made to the 'American' way, the original
fashion, as practised in the West, is meant.

CH. XI

BIT

20I

edge of the winker, so as to permit some flexibility'
to the side of the bridle.

Bit. — A great many different bits are fancied by
horsemen, but, for coaching, the patterns shown in
Fig. 88 are those most in use. The Liverpool bit,

r "

Fig.

A, has a straight mouth-piece, smooth on one side
and slightly fluted on the other, which plays up and
down on the branches of the bit for the distance
of about an inch. The portion of the branch on
which it moves should be sqiiai^e, as well as the hole
in the end of the mouth-piece, so that the branch
cannot turn, or else the coupling-rein will pull the
ring of the bit into a position to press against the
side of the horse's mouth and hurt him. An objec-
tion to havine the branches moveable in the mouth-
piece is that they wear rapidly ; consequently many
coaching men prefer to have them fixed. When
the rein is buckled to the ring, or, as it is called. ' in
the cheek,' the bit acts like a plain snaffle. When

202 BIT CH. XI

it is in one of the holes in the branch, it is said to
be 'in the upper, middle, or lower bar,' and the
lower it is, the more effect it has.

The rein is sometimes buckled round the branch
ijisidc of the ring, and below the mouth-piece (Fig.
89), when it acts, perhaps, like a mild
curb bit ; but this arrangement pre-
vents the play of the mouth-piece up
and down, and does not have any
compensating advantage. The bil-
let being constantly wetted by the
horse's mouth is soon rotted. The
branches of the bit may be joined
at the lower ends by a bar, as shown in B. This
bar prevents a horse from catching the end of the
branch in the bridle of his partner when he tosses
his head, and such bits may be used on the lead
horses. On the wheel horses, this bar might be
caught in the hook of the pole-chain, and it is there-
fore better not to use bar bits on the wheel horses.
Either style of bit may be used on all four horses,
but bits with bars on the wheelers, and bits without
bars on the leaders, in the same team, are decidedly
wrong.

To prevent a horse from taking the branch of his
bit in his lips, the elbow bit, C. is used ; the bend in
the branch serves the same purpose as a lip strap on
a riding bridle. In this bit. the shank, if it passes
loosely through the mouth-piece, must be square, or
else the coupling-rein will pull it out of position.

CH. XI

BIT

203

The Liverpool bit. having straight branches, can be
used either with the fluted side or with the smooth
side of the mouth-piece against the horse's jaw, but
the elbow bit obviously cannot be so used unless the
shank is round, so that the branches can be turned.
For this reason, the Liverpool bit with the straight
branch is the most useful ' all-round' bit.

The Buxton bit, D, is considered a ' dressy' bit and
is used on pair-horse harness : it is proper enough
on a drag team, but not quite so simple and work-
manlike as the Liverpool. The branch is curved to
prevent the horse from catching
it with his lip.

A straight mouth-piece is not
always suited to a pulling horse,
since it rests upon the compara-
tively insensitive tongue, and
does not press much upon the
bars of the mouth. Such a horse
requires a mouth-piece with a port, or, as the French
call it, liberty of the tongue, which is an arch, as at
P, Fig. 90, of greater or less height, permitting the
tongue to go up into it, and the canons, C C, of the
mouth-piece to rest upon the bars. When consider-
ably exaggerated, the port serves another purpose :
it presses upon the roof of the mouth when the rein
is drawn, and, if the nose-band is buckled tight, it
presses very hard. This arrangement is one of great
severity, and should be used only by a person of
judgement, and with a very light hand. The action

Fk;. 90.

204 CURB-CHAIN CH. XI

of all these bits, when the rein is buckled in one of
the holes in the branch, depends upon the curb-chain
which is attached to the upper eye of the bit and
passes under the chin. The tightness of the chain
can be regulated by engaging one or other of its
links in the hooks. Usually, before hooking, the
chain should be turned until all the links lie flat ; if
it is turned so that the links are open, or ' roughed,'
as it is called, it is more severe. There should .be
a hook on each side of the bit, so that the chain can
be entirely removed for cleaning, and these hooks
should have spring points, or the chain will be con-
stantly coming unhooked. The chain should be so
hooked that when the bit is hanging loose, with the
horse's head nearly vertical, three fingers can be
passed between the horse's jaw and the chain, which
will then lie in what is sometimes called the ' chain-
groove,' above the cushion-like thickening of the
lower lip. When the rein is pulled tight, the head
of the horse beingr vertical, the branch of the bit

C!>

should come to an angle of about 40 degrees with
the vertical ; if it approaches nearer to the horizon-
tal, the chain is too loose to have any effect. A
curb-strap, with a billet at each end to buckle in the
eye of the bit, is in many respects more convenient
than a chain, and no hooks are needed on the bit,
but it is not as severe as is a chain.

Since the function of the curb-chain is to provide
a fulcrum on which the branch of the bit acts
in pressing the mouth-piece against the bars, a

CH. XI SNAP^FLE-BIT 205

wide strap fulfils this purpose without hurting the
chin ; for which reason I have always preferred the
strap.

The action of the chain, on a pulling horse, may
be much increased by tying the centre of it by a
piece of cord to the throat-latch, so as to make it
bear higher up on the jaw, or the chain may be
passed once round the part of the nose-band which
lies above it, with the same
effect.

Plain snaffle-bits (Fig. 91) are
rarely used on coach horses. y^^.

If one horse in a team will not
go pleasantly with any other bit, he must have
one ; but it is dangferous to bit a team all round
with snaffles, for if they start suddenly, it may be
difficult to hold them, and an unnecessary risk is
being run ; a curb bit with a light hand is the proper
thing:.

The double-ring, jointed snaffle (Fig. 92) is the

favourite hansom-harness bit, and in severity comes

between the plain snaffle and

the curb. The loose rings are

fastened to the head-stall of the

bridle, and the reins buckled to ^

ru;. 92.

the ordinary rings ; the pull

bends the bit at its joint, and squeezes the loose
rings together, making the bit quite severe. The
action of the various Bits will be discussed in Chap-
ter XV.

2o6

BEARING-REIN

CH. XI

The Bearing-Rein is made in the two forms
shown in Fig. 93. The pulley bearincr-rein, A,

requires a special snaffle, having a roller or pulley
attached to it. The bearing-rein is buckled to a
point or chape on the crown-piece, passes through
the pulley (being made round for the purpose), and
then through the ring of the gag runner, termi-
nating in a ring to receive the flat portion of the
rein. This flat portion is looped over the centre-
hook of the pad (p. 220) ; its length is adjusted by
the buckle shown at the right-hand side of Fig. 93.

CH. XI COLLAR 207

The plain bearing-rein, B, is buckled to a light
snaffle-bit, which is not attached to the bridle, and,
passing through the ring which is attached to the
crown-piece by the strap already described, it loops
the centre-hook of the pad. For the purpose of
adjusting its length, it has the arrangement of rings
and buckles shown in the figure. Form A, is much
more heavy and clumsy than form B, and it is
difficult to see any advantage in it. The double
purchase of the pulley enables a stableman to pull
the rein up very tight, and to make it cruel. (See
Article on Bearing-Reins, Chapter XII.)

The bearinor-rein is sometimes, in America, called
the ' check-rein.'

Collar. — Inasmuch as the collar is that part of
the harness by which the horse does his work, it
is of the utmost importance that it should be of
the proper shape and should fit well, and to get a
collar which will not rub the horse, usually ex-
ercises all the care and ingenuity of the harness-
maker and the coachman. If possible, every horse
should have his own collar ; with the horses of a
road-coach it is indispensable, for which reason
every horse should have a number, which is usually
branded on the hoof, and his collar should have a
corresponding number, in brass figures, on the little
cape which is usually on the top of a road collar,
where they can be seen by the coachman from the
box.

208

COLLAR

CH. XI

Collars are either straight, that is, so made that
when laid upon a table, face down, they will touch
the table at all points (Fig. 94), or bent back (Fig,
95). The latter shows off the horse's neck much
better, giving it more apparent
length, and collars for drao-har-
ness are usually thus made. Since
the metal hames must fit the col-
lar closely, they must be also bent
back, and if there is any difference
in the degree of bending, they will
not fit. For this reason road-
coach collars are usually made
straight, since any straight hames
will fit any straight collar, pro-
vided there is not too much dif-
ference in size. Some coachmen think that straight
collars are less apt to rub the neck.

The hames rest in the groove formed by the roll
which makes the front of the collar, and when this
groove shows also on the inside, or neck side, of the
collar, the collar is called a ' rim collar.' Sometimes
the orroove does not show on the neck side, the
lining being carried round smoothly from back to
front. Such collars are called ' Kay collars,' from
the name of the inventor, and. being neater looking
than rim collars, are well adapted to drag-harness.
In drag-harness, the outside of the collar is always
made of patent leather ; in road-coach harness, it is
frequently of plain, black leather, and sometimes of

Fig. 95.

CH. XI COLLAR 209

russet leather, which last is rather ' smart' looking
when it is dark brown. What are called ' straw col-
lars' are really made either of split rattan, or of a
kind of rush ; they have no particular advantages.

The lining against the horse's neck is of soft
leather, black or russet, or sometimes of thin and
very smoothly worked patent leather. The latter
has the advantage of being easily kept perfectly
clean by sponging, and, in warm weather especially,
is, perhaps, preferable to any other lining.

Cloth, or woollen of any kind, is not good, al-
though many heavy collars for carts, and the like,
are so lined ; it absorbs the sweat, and is difficult
to dry. A collar must be so stuffed as to be soft
and elastic.

The shape of the collar is, of course, of the first
importance ; if it is too wide, it will slip about side-
ways, and rub the shoulders ; as a rule, the width
that permits it to go easily over the horse's head
will be right for the shoulders. A horse with a very
wide head and thin neck requires a collar which can
be opened at the top, in order to put it on, or the
collar must have a lining which can be fitted into
it to reduce its width. This lining should have a
roll at each edge, to prevent it from slipping out of
place.

A collar should be of such a length that the
four fingers of the hand, held vertically, can be
readily inserted between it and the neck when the
horse holds his head in a natural position, or else

2IO

COLLAR

CH. XI

when he lowers his head, the collar will choke him.
If it is much longer than this, it will slip up and
backward. It is impossible to give precise direc-
tions as to the length ; careful observation must de-
termine it for each horse. The proper form of col-
lar, looking at it in front, is shown in Fig. 96. The
top should be sharp, and not
rounded, or it will press on the
withers, and make a sore spot ; a
serious and common fault. To
CTuard ao;ainst this same fault, the
sides, at the points marked AA,
should be somewhat filled out,
but not enough to prevent a solid
bearinofon the neck at BB, where
the draught comes. It is usually
very difficult to make a harness-
maker appreciate the necessity
of attending to the filling at AA, or to the pointed
top.

A pipe collar is made with a hollow about three
inches long and half an inch deep, at the bottom
of the inside curve, so that there shall be no press-
ure at that point on the windpipe.

The upper ends of the rim are covered by a
leather point, or cap, and there is sometimes a
little cape which extends backward and covers the
place where the collar is sewed together. On this
cape, is the proper place for the number of the
horse. In dress-harness the crest is put there, but

Fig. 96.

CH. XI HAMES 2 1 I

not in drag-harness. Sometimes a buckle is sewed
on the collar on each side, back of the hames, and
eight or ten inches below the top of the collar, into
which a strap an inch wide, with holes in each
end, called a housing-strap, can be buckled ; this
passes over the top of the collar, from side to side,
and over the bearing^-rein to keep it from shaking
about ; it is now rarely used.

The collar is really only a pad which goes next
to the horse's neck, and is surrounded by the
hames, which are two pieces of iron, flat on the
inside and round on the outside, to which the
traces are attached. The hames are sometimes
covered w^th black patent leather, but are usually
plated with silver or with brass, to match the rest
of the harness mountings ; black hames are rarely
used in coach-harness. In drag-harness they have
eyes at the lower ends, through which passes the
kidney-link (Fig. 97), to hold them together. The
kidney-link, so called from its shape,
is made open at the top, so that it
can be taken off the hames ; it is
better to have this opening closed by ^^ *^^^
a hingred piece, also shown in Fiq-. 07,
to prevent the points of the links from
chafing the collar, and from catchino- on the edo^es
of the martingale. On the kidney-link is slipped
the ring through which the pole-chain is passed.
This rine should not be left on the link of the
lead-horse harness, where there is 710 pole-chain,

212

HAMES

CH. XI

Fig. 98.

althoug-h it is frequently left there by thoughtless
coachmen.

■ In road-coach harness the lower ends of the
hames have hooks (Fig. 98) and
a chain which joins them. If the
chain is entirely loose it is easily
lost, and it is better, therefore, to
have it fast to one side of the
hames, as is also shown in Fie.
98. It is usually made as shown
in the Fio-ure, but it is better to
have two links between the kid-
ney-link and the eye of the hames ;
the kidney-link then comes more nearly in the
centre. Both chain and link should be very strong.
The purpose of a hook and chain is that the dis-
tance between the ends of the hames, and conse-
quently their spread, can be varied to suit the collar ;
with the drag pattern this can be done only by
changing the link, and, for that reason, links of two
or three different lengths should be kept on hand in
the harness-room.

It is obvious that, with the \oncr link and chain,
the hames must be made in pairs, near side and
off side, since the link and rino^ are on the inner
side.

In heavy diligence-harness, the hames are of
wood, and to the rings to which the traces are
attached, or to others below them, a leather strap
is buckled, hanging quite slack, on the middle of

CH. XI DRAUGHT-EYE 213

which the pole-chain runs instead of being fastened
into a kidney-link.

The hames are fastened together at the top by
the hame-strap, and this must be strong and fre-
quently renewed, since the strain from the pole-
chain comes upon it. The hame-strap must be put
on with its point turned toward the inner side — that
is, to the ojf side on the near horse, and the neaj'
side on the off horse ; because, should a horse fall,
the quickest way to loosen his traces and pole-chain,
and to free him, is to unbuckle his hame-strap, which
is much more readily done when the strap can be
pulled toiuard the operator. This is such a simple
way of getting the harness off, that it is strange
that many experienced horsemen forget it and try
to pull the traces out of the tug-buckles without
success. The hame-strap can be cut in an emer-
gency, with the loss of only an insignificant part of
the harness, whereas cuttino- a trace means serious
damage.

Draught-eye. — At a point about two-fifths of the
whole lenofth of the hame from the bottom, the
draught-eye is welded on, and to it is attached the
trace.

There are several patterns of draught-eye, but
those most in use are shown in Fig. 99 ; A is the
most common ; B is practically the same as A, and
is really a better design, since it is fastened at two
points, and hence is stronger ; C has the same form

214

MARTINGALE

CH. XI

as A, but has in addition a ring, to which the tug
is sewed, and is generally used on road-coaches,
while A and B are used in draor--harness ; D, called

from its shape the olive, is almost universal in French
cab-harness, but is rarely used in other harness,
although it has the advantage that the tug can be
readily detached by turning it a quarter round. It
is not so strong as any of the other forms, C being
the strongest of all, and, therefore, very properly
adopted for road-harness.

It is usual in road-harness to leave the steel end
of the draught-eye unplated ; the brass plating is
apt to wear at that place and look ragged ; the ring
is also steel.

The draught-eyes should be long and should stand
out well, to prevent the trace from chafing the collar.

Martingale. — The bottom of the collar is kept
from rising by the martingale, which passes from
it, between the fore legs of the horse, to the belly-
band. When a horse is holding back, on a hill,
the pole-chain pulls on the kidney-link and hames,
and the martingale must, therefore, pass round the

CH. XI

MARTINGALE

215

collar and inside of one side of the kidney-link,

binding it and the collar together, as in Fig. 100.

It is a common mistake to buckle the billet of the

martingale to the

kidney-link only ; in

this case, should the

hame-strap break,

or be too loose,

the link and hames

may be pulled off

together, entirely

leaving the collar.

Harness-makers
sometimes make
the martinp^ale bil-
let too short to go
round the collar, in
which case, a new
billet must be put
on ; as a temporary expedient a short strap should
be buckled round link and collar.

Another reason for buckling the billet round the
collar is, that if it is on the link only, it is swung
from side to side by the action of the horse, with an
ungraceful motion, as may be often noticed on a pair
of horses approaching the observer. For the same
reason the patent-leather ornament, which is usu-
ally on the martingale, must be firmly sewed to it,
as shown in Fig. 100, and not attached by a ring.
Martingales should not be used on the collars of the

Fig. 100.

2l6

TUG

CH. XI

lead-harness, since the leaders have no part in hold-
inof back the coach.

Near the upper end of the hame is a terret,
through which the rein passes. This terret is usu-
ally made with the ring loose in the foot which
attaches it to the hame.

Tug. — The tug is a strapping of leather (Fig,
loi). The clip, made of iron, is slipped into the

front end of the tug as shown at A, and secured by
rivets, the heads of which show ; or for road-harness,
the tug is sewed to the ring, as shown at B. The
other end of the tue takes the buckle for the trace.

CH. XI TRACE 217

The leng-th of the tug is important : if it is too
long, — and harness-makers are very apt to make it
so, — the buckle reaches back of the pad and the
belly-band and looks very awkward, as is shown
in Plate XXV. For a fifteen-three horse of good,
average shape, the length from the head of the clip
to the middle of the buckle, should be 20^4 inches ;
to the end of the buckle, 22 inches.

Trace. — The wheel-trace is made of two thick-
nesses of leather, and should have a narrow strip,
shaved on both edges, inserted between the two
thicknesses to swell it out in the middle, which im-
proves its appearance, and diminishes its liability to
rub off the hair. Road-traces do not usually have
this inside piece.

The stitching of the traces should be coarse, — that
is, the stitches should be far apart, about ten to the
inch, and made with strong thread ; in fine stitch-
ing, the holes are too close together and cut the
leather unnecessarily. Road-harness may be stitched
throughout more coarsely than drag-harness.

The front end of the trace is pierced by five holes,
an inch and a quarter apart, for the tug-buckle.
The rear end is fitted in several different fashions :
for a drag it has a running loop (Fig. 102, A), which
is put on the roller-bolt with the loose end on the
outer side ; for a road-coach, what is called the
P^rench loop (B) is generally used ; it has the ad-
vantage of simplicity, and, if the loop of the nisiWc

2l8

TRACE

CII. XI

trace is made somewhat small, it will be impossible
to get it on over the step iron, which is on top of
the outside roller-bolt, and there will be no danger,
therefore, of trettinor the traces on the wronor side

Fig. I02.

of the harness. (See Harnessing, Chapter XII.)
It will not rattle against the under side of the roller-
bolt step as does the metal slide of the loop (A).
Road-coach traces frequently have chain ends about
20 inches long, which terminate in a ring, by which
the chain is looped over the roller-bolt. These

chains are not as good as the F'rench loops, since,
notwithstanding the swivels in them, they frequently
take a partial turn and bring the edge of the trace
against the horse.

CH. XI PAD 219

A good arrangement for trace-ends, lately intro-
duced in England,* is shown in Fig. 103. On pull-
ing the end of the short strap out of the metal loop,
the trace is released from the roller-bolt. This is
important in the case of a fallen horse, since to un-
buckle the trace at the tug-buckle, or to get any of
the ordinary trace-ends off the roller-bolt, is almost
impossible.

The near horse's traces should have the short
straps both toward the near side, and the off horse's
toward the off side, so as to be easily reached. This
short strap can always be pulled out, no matter how
much strain there is on the trace.

The lead-traces terminate in cock-eyes (Fig. 104),
which hook on the hooks of the lead-bars. Traces

104.

should be of such length that even when they are
buckled in the shortest hole, the point of the trace
will not project more than two inches beyond the
last loop on the tug ; few things look more slovenly
than six or eight inches of trace flapping about in
front.

Pad. — The bridle, reins, collar, hames, and traces
constitute the absolutely essential parts of the har-
ness, and street-car and omnibus-harness, and some-

* Williamson & De Negri, London.

220 PAD CH. XI

times road-coach lead-harness, have no other parts.
The pad is used on all wheel-harness, and on the
lead-harness of a drag. It is usually made quite
straight as seen from the side (Fig. 123), and has a
centre-hook to take the bearing-rein, and a terret
on each side for the reins to pass through. In
wheel-harness the centre-hook is surmounted by the
centre-terret, throuo-h which runs the lead-rein.

In drag-harness, it is a good plan to have this
centre-terret made to screzu into its place, so that it
can be taken out and replaced by a small ball when
the harness is used for a pair. Sometimes, the
centre-terret alone, on its stem, is put on the wheel-
pad, and no centre-hook on either wheel-pad or lead-
pad, — on the supposition that no bearing-rein is to
be used ; but it is better to have the centre-hook ; a
bearing-rein may be at some time required. The
pad has a broad strap or belly-band, by which it is
kept in its place. This belly-band is usually one flat
piece going round the horse, and buckling on the
near side of the near horse, and the off side of the
off horse.

The shape of the pad is important. It is fre-
quently made too flat, or too open, on the under
side, and rests upon the spine, in which case it will
inevitably rub the skin, especially if drawn forward
by the bearing-rein ; it should stand up, as in Fig.
105. To the end of the pad proper is attached the
point-strap, which buckles into a strap running up
from the tua--buckle. In draof-harness this is made

CH. XI

PAD

221

as shown at A in Fig, 105, and also in Fig. 123 ; in
road-harness it is usually made as at B, where one
long strap goes through both the ring of the pad

Fig. 105

and the loop on the buckle ; this is usually called the
Newmarket tug-bearer, or Newmarket strap. A
false belly-band is sewed into the under loop of the
buckle, and buckles on the outside ; its purpose is
to keep the buckle from jumping up when the horse
is moving, but it is of doubtful utility, and its point
is apt to catch the whip thong.

Pad cloths are never used with coaching-harness ;
they are proper only with dress-harness.

Since the lead-rein passes from the ring on the
bridle through the pad-terret and then, at a con-
siderable angle, up to the coachman's hand, it tends
to pull the saddle forward, and to prevent this, the
back-strap and the crupper are added. This does
not apply to the lead-harness, from which the back-

222

BACK-STRAP

CH. XI

Strap and crupper are sometimes omitted ; but they
are necessary if bearing-reins are used, and on
drag-harness, at least, it is best to have them on all
the horses. Road-coach lead-harness is often made
without them.

Back-Strap. — The back-strap of the wheel-har-
ness is usually double (Fig. io6), but in the lead-
harness it should be made as in Fig. 107, because
the loose point of the double strap is likely to catch

Fig. 107.

the fork of the lead-reins, which is annoying and
might cause an accident. There is no objection to
using this single strap on wheel-harness also. The
crupper-dock itself should be large ; it is then less
apt to wound the tail and is a good preventive
against kicking ; a horse when he kicks always puts
his tail tight down, and if he cannot do so, he is very
apt to give up the attempt to kick. Coaching-har-
ness is usually made with the split end of the back-
strap sewed to the crupper, which is simpler than if
it is buckled to it, but sometimes a horse makes a
difficulty about having his tail pushed through the
crupper, and to obviate this, it is well to have a
spare back-strap with buckles, or one which is split

CH. XI BREECHING 223

very far up, which will serve the same purpose.
The back-strap should be short enough to keep
the pad well back ; when the pad is close to the
withers and to the collar the apparent length of the
horse is diminished.

Hip-straps or trace-bearers are not used on coach-
harness, but sometimes, when driving a young horse
on the lead, they are useful, because if he kicks, he
takes his trace up with him and is less apt to get
over it. It is not considered ' good form' to use
them, but this is, perhaps, one of the cases where
simplicity is purchased at the cost of suppressing
what is really useful.

For a kicking wheeler, a kicking-strap may be
made fast to the splinter-bar close to the outer
roller-bolt, and, passing over the horse's back, be
buckled to the pole two or three feet in front of the
futchells ; it should pass under the back-strap and
be attached to it by a small strap.

The thorough coachman must be always prepared
with the knowledge and, as far as is possible, with
the appliances, to overcome all difficulties.

Breeching. — In early days, when coaches had no
brakes, the wheel horses always had breechings to
enable them to hold back in descending hills not
steep enough to require the skid, and they are now
sometimes seen on road-coaches in hilly parts of
England.

The breeching consists of a strap somewhat nar-

224 REINS CH. XI

rower than the trace (under which it is buckled in
the tug-buckle), passing behind the horse to the tug-
buckle on the other side, as nearly horizontally as
possible ; it is held up by a split strap which passes
through or under the back-strap, over the horse's
hip. It may be doubled by a wider strap where it
passes behind the horse.

Since the breeching is not now in fashion, it is
hardly necessary to describe it more in detail, but
it may be said that if for any reason a breeching is
used, it must be carefully put on, neither too high
nor too low. It is apt to chafe a horse not used to
wear it, and the modern brake and the shoe should
be together quite sufficient.

In the Sporting Magazine of 1830, ' Nimrod'
speaks as if the breeching should be attached to the
pole-pieces, and criticises the custom in Germany of
attachingf it to the breast-collar. His remarks suo--
gest the arrangement that can still be seen on heavy
wagons in New England cities, where a long yoke
crosses the point of the pole, and to this yoke, and
not to the trace-tugs, the ends of the breeching,
lengthened by straps, are fastened.

Reins. — The reins are made of russet leather
and should all be of the same width throughout.
One inch is a good width, suiting the average coach-
man. Some men with long, thin fingers prefer to
have them a little wider, while other persons, women
especially, like them an eighth of an inch narrower.

CH. XI REINS 225

They should be somewhat thick, the four together
measuring ^ of an inch, and should be made of firm
leather. The outer, or draught-rein, runs straight
through from the hand to the bit ; the inner, or
coupling-rein, terminates in a buckle which runs on
the draught-rein, the latter having a number of holes
to take the tongue of this buckle. The reins buckle
to the bit by billets and buckles. Usually these
billets have three holes in them so that their places
in the bit can be changed ; but it is better to have
only one hole, and to make all changes in the length
of the coupling-reins by the buckle which runs on
the draught-rein. This is important for road-har-
ness, because a horse keeper by buckling in the
wronor hole of the billet will chanofe the leng-th of the
couplings. An objection to a billet long enough
to have three holes is, that the branch of the bit
may get caught in the loop when the rein is in the
middle bar. The billets ought to be frequently
examined, and when one is found to be worn, all
should be replaced, since the breaking of a rein-
billet is sure to cause an accident.

The lengths of the reins are as follows : The
lead draught-rein should be 282 inches (23 ft. 6 in.)
in length from the double of the bit-billet to the
end : that is, from the bit to the end. At a dis-
tance of 81 inches (6 ft. 9 in.) from the bit is the
middle hole of fifteen which are punched, one inch
apart, to take the coupling-rein buckle. The hand
of the coachman will be 242 inches {20 ft. 2 in).

2 26 REINS CH. XI

from the bit, leaving 40 inches (3 ft. 4 in.) of rein to
hang" down behind the hand.

If this rein is made of tJwee lengths of leather,
the first splice should be 96 inches (8 feet) from the
bit, which will bring it behind the holes in the rein,
and the second splice 192 inches (16 feet) from the
bit, or 14 inches behind the pad-terret of the wheel
horse, which is as near as it should be to the terret.

If the rein is made oi four pieces, the first splice
will be in the same place, 96 inches, the second one
152 inches (12 ft. 8 in.), which will bring it between
the head-terret and the pad-terret of the wheeler,
and the third splice 220 inches (18 ft. 4 in.) from the
bit, which will bring it opposite to the coupling
buckle of the wheel-rein.

The lead coupling-rein should be 85 inches (7 ft. i
in.) long from bit to buckle, and, when buckled into
the middle hole of the draught-rein, it will extend 4
inches beyond the bit end of the draught-rein.

This length brings the fork of the lead-reins at
the proper place ; if it is further back, it may catch
on the tail of the leader and cause an accident.

The wheel draught-rein is 162 inches (13 ft. 6 in.)
in length from bit to end ; at 98 inches (8 ft. 2 in.)
from the bit is the middle hole of the fifteen. The
hand will be 121 inches (10 ft. i in.) from the bit,
and 23 inches from the coupling buckle ; and 40
inches of rein will hancr down behind the hand.

The splice is 86 inches (7 ft. 2 in.) from the bit.

The wheel coupling-rein is 104 inches (8 ft. 8

CH. XI

REINS

227

in.) long, and will then project 6
inches beyond the draught-rein.
If the leather used does not per-
mit of so long a rein in one piece,
the splice should be about 86 inches
(7 ft. 2 in.) from the bit.

The diagram (Fig. 108), drawn
to a scale of 14 inch to the foot,
shows the position of the terrets
and of the coupling-buckles.

Care must be taken that there
shall be no splice in that part of
the rein which passes through a
terret, because, besides interfering
with the rein's free runninor, the
splice is likely to rip by its sew-
ing becoming worn. Saddlers are
often careless about this, and fur-
nish reins the splices of which
correspond to the terrets or come
into the hand.

In the diagram the proper places
of the splices are marked : for two
splices by a single line ; for three
splices by a double line.

Really good reins are expen-
sive, since the pieces of which they
are made must be cut out of the
choicest part of the skin. They
must be firm throughout ; any

LEAD

Bitn

ooCollaf

Pad

I J Buckle

WHEEL
Bit

Bit

Hand

oHead

Collar 9( I

PadcJt OPad

BucMeU

Bit

Hand

Eiid End

Fig. 108.

228 REINS CH. XI

soft places will stretch. The greatest wear on the
lead-rein is where it passes through the pad-terret
of the wheeler.

According to the dimensions given, about 40
inches of the ends of the reins will hang down be-
hind the hand, which is as it should be ; if there is
more than 40 inches, the ends will drop over the
edge of the foot-board on the off side, and be likely
to catch on the roller-bolt when the coachman is
getting up. The buckles of the coupling-reins will
be about 23 inches in front of the hand, near enough
to be reached for the purpose of changing the coup-
lines, and not near enoucrh to brino- the buckles
into the hand when taking the horses up short, —
a serious fault with coupling-reins which are too
lone, and one which results in eettine a handful of
buckles at a critical moment, when pulling up sud-
denly. This is a very common fault of reins by
even good makers. It is better to have the buckles
too far away from the hand than too near to it ;
there is always a groom or a guard on a coach who
can change the couplings if necessary.

It must be said, however, in favour of long coup-
ling-reins, that should the horses run away they
may sometimes be stopped by seizing the wheel
coupling-reins in front of the buckles and pulling
the wheelers' heads together.

A loop is frequently sewed upon the coupling-rein
about 10 inches in front of the buckle, through
which the draught-rein passes. On the wheel-reins

CH. XI SHORT WHEEL-REIN 229

it does no harm, but it should not be on the lead-
reins, because, if the coupling buckle is in the posi-
tion given by the directions above, this loop will
bring the fork of the reins too near the pad-terrets,
and if the loop is at the proper place for the fork,
the buckle must be put back lo inches, with the
result of havincr that much more weight of rein to
no purpose.

This loop is a somewhat modern arrangement,
and on pair-horse harness keeps the reins together
at the proper point, while permitting the buckle to
be near enough to the coachman's hand to enable
him to alter it, and its use for a pair has probably
led harness-makers to put it on four-horse harness.

The keeper or loop, in front of the coupling
buckle, should not be nearer to the buckle than 2^/^
inches or else it will be difficult to change the place
of the buckle quickly : for the same reason, the
holes should be lonor and not round.

The reins, at the end behind the hand, usually
have buckles, by which they can be fastened to-
gether ; a substitute for this arrangement will be
described in Chapter XII.

Four-horse reins are never made of black leather,
nor round, nor have they hand parts sepai-atc from
the rest of the rein, as is sometimes the case in pair-
horse harness.

In the early days of English coaching, a sJiort
wheel-rein was used. It was made just long enough
to come into the hand, and hunor- on the second and

230 LEAD-REIN CH. XI

third fingers. Its buckle was not in the middle,
where it would have been in the way, but a few
inches to one side, on the off rein. It went out of
use about 1825, being- considered dangerous, be-
cause, should a wheeler fall, the coachman might
be pulled off his box ; and it was, no doubt, fre-
quently too short or too long, and in either case
inconvenient.

According to ' Nimrod' [Bssays, p. 208), the ma-
jority of coachmen in the early part of this century,
drove with a short wheel-rein, and he discusses the
question p7'o and co/i through four pages, but it is
now only a matter of history, since it has gone
entirely out of fashion. According to him [Bssaj's,
p. 285), Sir Philip Agar used a short wheel-rein
when he drove his coach at a trot round the fox
which stood in the centre of
Tattersall's old yard ; a feat
referred to in several of the
coaching books.
|ll The wheel horses are kept to-

i~":r~H: '^^jaLa^M gether by the pole-chains, but
■ since the lead horses are quite

free, one of them, by shying sud-

|l denly, can pull his coupling-rein

"-—' ,g'-rr^'^'^™* xvith the buckle and a part of

® the draught-rein, through his

Fig. ioq. ^ , , ,*" .

partner s pad-terret, where it

becomes jammed, with every chance of causing an

accident. To prevent this, a piece of steel, about

CH. XI

LEAD-REIN

231

2,^2 inches long, covered with leather (Fig. 109), is
slipped on the coupling-rein in front of the loop (as
is frequently done on the snaffle-rein of a riding
bridle to keep the martingale ring from catching on
the buckle), and this bar is too lonQ- to oro through
the terret. It must be strong, because a horse in shy-
ing, will bring it with great force against the terret.
It may be put upon the coupling-rein in front of the
loop, when there is a loop in front of the buckle (it
is obvious that with the loop a bar at the buckle
would be of no use) ; but it will not be so strongly
fastened at the loop as when it is supported by
the buckle ; this is a good reason for omitting the
loop.

Another device for the same purpose is shown in
Fig. 1 10: a piece of steel, somewhat narrower than
the rein, curved in section so as to increase its stiff-
ness, and covered with leather, is fastened at one

Fig. 1 10.

Fig. III.

end, by letting the tongue of the buckle pass through
the projecting leather, and at the other end by a loop
which holds it on the draught-rein. It will be seen
from the Figure that if the coupling-rein should
be pulled through the terret, it will be stopped, by

the steel bar getting across the terret.

The strain

232 LEAD-REIX CH, XI

evidently comes upon the loop, and this must be
fastened on strongly. This bar can be also put on
the rein when there is a loop at some distance in
front of the buckle, as in Fig. 1 1 1 . In this case the
main loop must be very strong.

What is known as Ward's terret, from the well-
known English coachman who introduced it, is
shown in Fig. 112. It is used on the lead horses
only, and has a bar across its centre with
iC^~^^^ an opening in it through which the rein
can be passed edgewise into its place.
The space in which the rein is shown, is
too small to permit the coupling buckle
to be pulled through it, but the billet
and buckle for the bit will pass through the larger
space.

It may be noted that dar buckles, often used on
dress-harness, but rarely on coach-harness, are dan-
gerous on the coupling-reins, since, should a leader
behave badly and run back, or turn round, the front
edge of the bar buckle may catch in the throat-latch
ring of the wheeler behind him, especially if the
coupling-rein is too long and the buckle, conse-
quently, far back. This happened once in my expe-
rience, fortunately without any serious result, since,
as we were leaving a house through an awkward
gateway, the men were still near the horses' heads,
and one of them instantly cleared the rein.

A method ot buckling together the wheel-reins
and lead-reins is used in Hungary : —

CH. XI POLE-CHAINS 233

The lead-reins are made in the usual way, but the
wheel-reins terminate in buckles, and are buckled
to the lead-reins precisely as a coupling-rein is at-
tached to a draught-rein (Fig. 113), with a distance

Fig. 113.

of about ten inches between the buckles. In drivino^,
the portion of the wheel-rein which is between the
buckles, and that part of the lead-rein which is oppo-
site to it, come into the hand. For the method of
using this rein see page 253.

Pole-Chains. — Pole-chains, and not leather pole-
straps, are always used on a coach. Originally
they were fastened to the pole-head, as they still are
on farm wagons ; but now they are separate from
the pole, and may be therefore considered as part
of the harness. On a road-coach, if the pole-head
and the fittings of the bars are black, the chains
are black also, and are kept in condition by being
painted or varnished. On drags, they are always
of polished steel, and on some road-coaches they
are also of polished steel. The approved forms are
shown in Figs. 114. 115 ; they should have straight
open links, and not links like a curb-chain. For a
road-coach, one end has a ring, and the chain being
passed through the ring of the pole-head, passes

234

POLE-CHAINS

CH. XI

afterward through its own ring", making a loop.
The hook end is then run through the ring of the

Fig. 115.

kidney-Hnk, and hooked into that hnk of the chain
which will make it of the proper length (Fig. 116).

A stout india-rubber ring, which
has been already put on the chain,
is pushed over the bow of the
hook to keep it from unhooking.

Fig. 116

The hook must be always put on. back up, to pre-
vent the bar of the bit, if a bit with a bar is used,

CH. XI POLE-CHAINS 235

from catching in the point. The chain should be
somewhat short, otherwise the hook may come down
to the pole-head before the horse is poled up tightly
enouQfh.

This chain may be used on a drag, but a chain
with two spring hooks (Fig. 115) looks better. It
may be somewhat short, so that the hook can be
hooked into any link ; but for a private coach, it is
better to find the exact length required, by experi-
ment with the chain (which, when bought, is always
too long), to cut off enough links to make it the
proper length when both hooks are in the pole-head,
and to have the hook properly fastened into the end
link. No links must be left beyond that one in
which the hook is fastened ; few thinofs are more
slovenly on any kind of a carriage than loose links
dangling and jingling.^'

The spring hooks must be put on the pole-head
with their backs up, to prevent the bar of the bit
from catchino- in them ; but since the rino-s on the
pole-head are usually vertical, the hooks will be
horizontal, which serves the same purpose. Spring
hooks are frequently so made that the small eye

* Pole c/iaiiis should be used only on a carnage driven by the
master or mistress, such as a coach, mail-phaeton, or lady's phaeton ;
never on a carriage driven by a coachman, such as a landau, coupe,
or victoria, when straps should be used. This is a custom based upon
the fact that the working originals of coaches and mail-phaetons
had chains ; an adherence to it marks the difference between well
and badlv turned-out vehicles.

236 COCK HORSE HARNESS CH. XI

opens when the tongue is pushed open (Fig. 117),
and are thus hooked into the chain ; they are very
hkely to pinch the fingers when put-
tine them on, and are not so strong
"^^ J J- as the hooks shown in Fig. 115.

Cock Horse Harness. — Sometimes, on a road
where a stiff hill has to be surmounted, an extra
horse, usually called a 'cockhorse,''^' ridden by a
man, is required. A good pattern of cock horse
harness is shown in Plate XXIV. The riding saddle
has one wide girth of leather or web. The upper
eye of the tug-buckle has a short strap and buckle
sewed into it, which buckles on one of the usual
saddle girth straps under the flap.

There being no necessity for changing the length
of a cock horse trace, it is better to make it in one
piece from the draught-eye to the bar. There is
then no buckle under the saddle-flap, where it is
always a discomfort to the rider. A simple loop is
sewed under the flap to support the trace, and the
false belly-band, which is of no use, is omitted. The
trace should be 6 ft. 6 in. lono-, from collar to bar.

* John Bellenden Ker says, ' Ghack-horsc, now cock-horse,
' literally fool-horse, in the sense of one who lets another ride him.
' The cock-horse among school-boys, is the one who is fool enough
'to carry another astride on his back.' ArcJiaology of Nursery
Rhymes, vol. i. p. 274. G/uick, according to Ker, is old Dutch.
Gek is fool in modern Dutch. Ker's derivations are often fanciful ;
this is given merely as a matter of curiosity.

CH. XI COCK HORSE HARNESS

'■:>7

The rope, which passes between the leaders, and
is hooked to the pole-hook on top of the main bar,
should be lo feet long-, includincr its two hooks. It
is a good plan to wrap the rope for a distance of two
feet with sheepskin, with the wool-side out, where it
comes against the shoulders of the leaders, to pre-
vent chafing them. The hip-strap, shown in the plate
immediately behind the saddle, is perhaps hardly
necessary. A strap, 3 feet long, with a spring hook
at each end, should be provided, to fasten into the
kidney-links of the leaders' collars, across from one
horse to the other, on which the rope may rest when
the cock-horse is not pulling. It is well to have a
rinpf, about three inches in diameter, in the middle
of this strap, through which the rope is passed.

The cock horse bridle is like the bridles of the
other horses.

If two extra horses are required, they have the
regular lead-harness, with the addition of a saddle
on the near horse, and with a set of bars attached
to the rope ; or they may have traces
long enough to reach back to the
tug-buckles of the leaders, as in an
equipage a la Daiunont, in which case Fig. ni

the tug-buckles of the lead-harness must be made
with eyes to take the hooks of the traces (Fig. 118),
exactly like a tandem harness. These traces must
be 10 ft. 8 in. long from tug-buckle to hook.

Compare Plate VI., Rowlandson, in which the
regular leaders are thus harnessed.

238 GENERAL REMARKS ON HARNESS CH. XI

GENERAL RE.\L\RKS ON HARNESS

As has been before remarked (p. 14), a coach is
a sporting vehicle, and the harness should be plain
and look serviceable. The illustrations which have
been given, are taken from a set of harness carefully
made as a standard pattern, and can be safely copied
for a draof-harness.

The loops through which the loose points of the
various straps pass behind the buckles, are some-
times replaced by ' pipes' or continuous loops, but
there is more coaching style about the separate
loops.

The winkers, the front (whether it has a chain on
it or not), the face drop, the outside of the collar,
the ornament on the martingale, and the top of the
pad are all made of patent leather ; '•' the rest of the
harness is made of plain, black leather, firm in
quality, but with a smooth, velvety surface, not
showine minute cracks when bent over the fins^er.
The reins are of russet leather (usually called rein
leather), even in thickness and quality throughout
the whole length, and since such leather is difficult
to obtain, four-in-hand reins are necessarily expen-
sive.

English russet leather, especially such as is used
for riding bridles (usually called tallow-tanned), is

* Patent leather is modern : in the first quarter of this century it
was unknown.

CH. XI MOUNTINGS OF HARNESS 239

better than American russet leather ; but American
black leather, such as is used in the rest of the
harness, is more even in surface and wears better
than the English.

The mountings and buckles of the harness shown
in the illustrations, are those known to harness-
makers as the English wire mountings, and are
the simplest and best ; no fanciful mountings are
admissible on coach-harness.

Whether the mountings of a drag-harness are of
silver or of brass is a matter of taste, but for a
road-coach they are always of brass ; carrying out
the old road traditions.'''

All the mountings of harness, carriages, whips,
&c., should be of the same metal in any one stable,
and those of the coach must conform thereto.
White mountings may be nickel-plated as well as
silver-plated, and nickel has the advantage of being
hard and of keeping its polish with but little
cleaning ; since all cleaning of the mountings
with powder is apt to injure the leather, this is
an advantage.

Among yellow metals, aluminium-bronze, one part
by weight of aluminium to nine of copper, is strong
and does not tarnish readily, but it is difficult to
procure, while the common patterns of mountings
in brass can be had everywhere.

* ' NiMROD,' Northern Tour, p. 333, 1835, speaks of plated furni-
ture being old-fashioned for a road-coach.

240 SPARE PARTS OF HARNESS CH. XI

Bits, chains, kidney-links, and the cock-eyes of
lead-traces are always of bright steel. The loops
of the wheel-traces are of the same metal as the
mountings.

All the steel about coach and harness should be
white, hard, and close grained ; some steel is soft
and blue, and will always have a leaden look, no
matter how well it is polished and burnished.

Spare Parts of Harness. — The following spare
parts of harness should be carried in the coach : —

A hame-strap, useful for many purposes besides
its legitimate one ; a kidney-link, a curb-chain, or,
better, a curb-strap, which is more useful, in the
case of a curb-hook's breaking ; a simple bearing-
rein, with its bit and the short straps by which the
rings are attached to the crown-piece (Fig. 87) ; a
chain-trace, — that is, a chain 6 feet long, with straight
flat links like a pole-chain, and a ring at one end,
so that it can be put, as required, round the
roller-bolt, or hooked to the lead-bar, the straight
links going into the tug-buckle ; a strap 6 inches
lone and of the same width as the reins, with a
buckle at each end, to be used in repairing a broken
rein ; and two or three pieces of cord of different
sizes.

Strono", round, black linen shoe-laces, with the
Usual metal tags on the ends, are very useful for
temporary repairs ; the tags can be quickly passed
through holes made in the leather. The coachman

CH. XI

SIDE-REIN

241

will not find it amiss to have one always in his
pocket.

When there is any chance of having a pulling
horse, a side-rein should be carried. The simplest
is a strap to buckle to the bit, and long enough
to pass through the hame-terret of the other horse,
and then to go into the tug-buckle. Since this pulls
on one side of the horse's mouth, it should be used
only when nothing else is at hand. The proper rein
is shown in Fig. 119. The short strap, which is
neater when round, is buckled .to both sides of the
bit, and the ring on the end of the side-rein plays
upon it, so that the rein draws evenly.

In an emer-
gency, a side-
rein may be
made with a
piece of cord an
eiohth of an inch
in diameter, as
shown in Fig.
120. One end of the cord is tied to a rine, then
passed through one side of the bit, back through
the ring, then through the other side of the bit,
double knotted into the ring, and the long end made
fast to the other horse's tug-buckle. In lack of a
ring, a loop may be made on the cord itself.

Fig. 119.

Fig. 120.

Care of Harness. — On being taken off the horses,
after even the shortest drive, all parts of the harness

242 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI

should be thoroughly wiped with a cloth, no dust
being left under the buckles, or in the loops, every
strap being unbuckled and cleaned throughout its
whole length. The inside of the collars and parts on
which sweat has lodged must be well cleaned with
water, and dirt on other parts which the cloth will
not remove must be ivashed off, without wetting the
leather more than is necessary. The mountings,
should then be polished, using as little powder as
possible, care being taken not to smear the leather-
round the mountings, or to scratch it with the powder.

The harness-maker usually furnishes thin plates,
of metal which fit round the monogram, or crests
and protect the leather from the cleaning powder.

The leather should then be blackened and
polished. Much the best thing for this purpose is
the black preparation of wax and turpentine sold by
harness-makers, or by shoemakers for polishing kid
shoes. It is expensive, but protects the leather
from the effects of wet, gives a good surface, and
does not rub off upon the hand or glove ; ordinary
shoe-blacking is dirty. The same preparation, with-
out the black ingredient, is the proper application for
reins and for whatever is of russet leather, such as
saddles and boot-tops, and is usually called saddle-
paste. It must be applied sparingly, and well pol-
ished by rubbing, or it will be sticky.

Every now and then, and especially after a wetting
in the rain, harness should be oiled thoroughly with
neat's-foot oil, well rubbed in and well rubbed off..

CH. XI CARE OF HARNESS 243

No varnish should be used ; it hardens the leather,
and soon cracks, and looks shabby.

Patent leather should be wiped and polished with
a soft rag and a little oil, or vaseline, but the wax
preparation should not be used on it.

In damp weather a fire is essential in or near the
harness-room. Cleaning should not be done in the
harness-room, but a light, airy place of sufficient
size for the purpose is necessary to secure the best
results. Iron rods terminating in hooked ends of
o^ood size, covered with leather, and of such a leno-th
as will bring the pieces of harness to a proper
height for a man to work at them when the rods
are hungr to hooks in the ceilino^, will be found more
convenient for holdino- harness while it is being-
cleaned, than the trestles or horses which are o-en-
erally used. There should be rods of two lengths,
a short one to hold the collar, &c., and a longer one
to hold the bridle. When not in use they may be
unhooked and hung against the wall out of the way.

The steel pole-chains, bits, and curb-chains should
be washed and dropped into a covered vessel con-
taining lime-water, which is made by dissolving in
water as much common lime as the water will take
up, and pouring off, for use, the clear liquid. In
this they can remain for any length of time without
rusting, and the chains in every-day use may be
kept in the vessel, and taken out only when wanted.
They are then roughly dried and put into a long
bag with a little sawdust and fine sand, and shaken

244 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI

until they become bright. For this purpose, a can-
vas bag" about thirty inches long, with a strong
handle at each end, is convenient. The curb-chains
are usually polished by rolling between the hands.

The bits should be taken out of the lime-water
after the harness is cleaned ; wiped, polished, and
put in the bit-case. If they have rusty spots, it
may be necessary to rub them with very fine emery
paper, but if this is done they must be afterward
burnished.

Steel articles when received from the maker, have
a high polish, which makes them more capable of
resisting the action of dampness in producing rust.

The ordinary, stable method of cleaning, with
sand or emery cloth, will not produce this polish, but
leaves a surface full of minute scratches, and very
liable to rust. The only way of regaining a surface
at all resembling the original one, is by burnishing,
which consists in rubbing with a smooth and very
hard, steel instrument. This consolidates the surface
somewhat, or, at least, rubs down the edges of the
scratches, obliterating the lines made by the emery.
Usually a sufficiently satisfactory
result can be obtained by rubbing
with a hard, steel chain, fastened to
a pad, so as to be held in the hand
(Fig. i2i). For large, fixed pieces
of steel, like the pole-head, a long
steel chain can be pulled backward and forward
across it. In any case, considerable force and

CH. XI

CARE OF HARNESS

245

pressure must be applied, but steel cannot be made
to look well without the burnisher.

When harness is put away, it should be hung
against the wall on racks made for the purpose.
Iron racks, made open so that the air circulates
through them, are sold by makers of stable fittings.
A orood arranorement is shown in Fio-. 122.

The crupper dock hangs upon a
small semi-circle which can be raised
or lowered, so that the back-strap
will hang taut to the pad.

The pad rests upon a bracket of
the proper shape. The collar with
its tugs hangs on a curved bracket
at the top. Under the pad bracket,
the bridle hangs on a bracket, also
made to the proper curve. If the
bracket has a rim to keep the bridle
from slipping off, this rim should
be cut through at the top, so that
the face-drop will lie in the notch,
and the bridle be kept straight, a
precaution to which reference has
been already made when describing
the bridle. When a bridle is hung
on a hook, this face-drop is, of ne-
cessity, on one side or the other of
the hook, and the bridle will be bent out of shape.

The traces and the reins are hung on small hooks
alongside of the harness.

Fig. 122.

246 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI

Harness is frequently protected by glass doors,
but if the room is clean, dry, and well-closed, this
is hardly necessary.

The bits, chains, and all steel articles, should be
arranged in a bit-case with glass doors, which is
lined with a bright-coloured baize or cloth. In this
bit-case, the flowers may be kept, and it can be
made a handsome feature in the harness-room. If
there is an open fire, the bit-case may be placed on
the wall above it.

In a well-regulated stable, the harness-room may
be made an attractive place ; the floor should be
covered with matting, and some coaching prints on
the walls will add to its cheerfulness.

Small spare parts of harness, clippers, bandages,
and new cloths should be kept in a cabinet, di-
vided into a number of shallow drawers ; in deep
drawers the articles most wanted are invariably at
the bottom.

CH. XII 247

CHAPTER XII
HARNESSING

With a road-team, it is usually considered ad-
\dsable to put on each horse's collar about half an
hour before he is to go out, that it may get warm
against his neck, and so be less liable to chafe him
in his work. Unless, however, it is fastened back
in some way, such as by drawing in front of it, the
neck part of his rug, it will slip forward the first
time that the horse puts his head down, and will
not stay in its place to get warm.

The collar having been put on, the hames are
buckled on it afterward. The practice of putting
the harness on all too-ether, with the hames buckled
on the collar, — almost universal in private stables
on account of its convenience, — is not a good one ;
the collar with the hames in place, is frequently
too narrow to go easily over the horse's head,
and by forcing it on, the horse is hurt. After the
harness is laid on the horse's back, the crupper
put under the tail, and the belly-band temporarily
buckled to keep the pad from slipping off. the
hames are fastened upon the collar. The martin-
gale is then buckled to the collar (see Fig. 100),
and the belly-band passed through it.

The traces are laid over the back, crossed, the

248

HARNESSING

CH. XII

outside trace on top, so that in putting-to it will
come off first ; the habit that some coachmen have,
of tying a knot in the trace to keep it from drag-
ging on the ground is not a good one, because the
knot twists the trace.

The bridle is then put on, the reins passed
through the terrets, the draught-rein buckled to the

bit, and the coupling-rein
to the throat-latch or to
the nose-band, under the
chin. Passinor the rein-
billet through its loop, but
not through its buckle, is
sufficient to hold it.

The rein must then be
looped over the centre-
terret in the manner shown
in Fig. 123. Care must
be taken that the rein
which has no buckle at the
end is put on the near
horse. The reason for
this is, that, when at a
change, the reins are
thrown over from the near
to the off side so as to be
taken up by the coachman, the heavy buckle end
might hurt a person standing on the off side. It is
therefore a rule, that, even when there is to be no
change of horses, the reins should be thus put on,

Fig. 123.

CH. XII PUTTIXG-TO 249

and it is in this way that they are distinguished
from each other. In some stables, it is the custom
for the reins of a pair to be put on the other way,
that is. with the buckle-ended rein on the near horse,
but, in a four-in-hand stable at least, it should be
the rule to put the buckle-ended rein on the off
horse, so as to avoid mistakes in harnessing.

On the lead horses, the long rein is pulled
through the terrets in the way shown in Plate
XXV. ; if the bi^jht of the rein, in front of the
collar-terret, is too long, it may be loosely looped
on itself behind the collar-terret.

After being harnessed, the horse is turned about
in his stall, and fastened by snapping the pillar-
reins into the bit. His mane is then brushed and
his foretop pulled down smoothly imder the bridle
front.

PuTTiNG-TO. — The coach having been run into the
proper position for driving out, and thoroughly
dusted and looked over, the pole is put in, the
pole-pin put in its place, and the lead-bars hung
on the pole-hook, with the heads of the screws
up ; they are up so that, should one
come out, its loss would be noticed \\t^

from the box-seat. ^ r^-Sr-"^

Pig. 124.

The chains are put on the pole-
head in the manner shown in Fig. 124, and laid
across each other over the pole.

The wheel horses are then brought to their

250 PUTTING-TO CH. XII

places. If possible, they should be led up along-
side of the pole from behind, instead of being
brought with their heads to the pole and then
pushed round, during which movement they are apt
to strike against the splinter-bar, or to slip on the
floor. The hooks of the pole-chains are hooked to
the kidney-link rings ; the whole length of the chain
allows the horse to go back far enough to permit
the traces to be put over the roller-bolts.

The outside trace is first put on its roller-bolt,
to prevent the horse from turning his croup away
from the pole, and afterward the inner trace. In
unharnessing, the inside trace is taken off first.

Since the pole-chains keep the horses somewhat
close to the pole, the distance from the collar to the
inner roller-bolt is less than that to the outer one,
and with traces of the same length the collar will be
pulled toward the outer side, and will bear harder
on the outer side of the neck, sometimes rubbing
the neck at that spot. To obviate this, the inner
trace should be shorter by one hole than the outer
one. The usual distance apart of the holes in
traces (about 1 1^ inch) is rather an over-correc-
tion, but it brings the collar more nearly right than
when the traces are of the same length. A better
way of making the correction is to cover the inside
roller-bolts with several thicknesses of leather to
increase their diameter and thus take up more of
the length of the trace. The inner roller-bolts
might be set back from the line of the outer ones

CH. XII PUTTING-TO 25 1

about an inch, which is as nearly as possible the
difference required. It is still better to have move-
able swingle-trees (see page 23). The leaders'
traces are all of the same leng^th ; the lead-bars,
being moveable, adapt themselves to the position
of the collars.

If chain-end traces are used, they must be put
on so that the chain passes from
the outside in, as shown in Fig.
125.

After the traces are on the roller-

tlG. 125.

bolts, the hook of the pole-chain is
passed through the kidney-link ring, so as to bring
out the chain through the rino- from the side next
to the pole, and hooked into such a link of the
chain, down near the pole-head, as will make the
chain the proper length (see Fig. 116). For very
good roads there should be two links to play, —
that is, the chain should be as tight as though it
had been pulled up as far as possible, and then two
links let out. It is better to have the chain too
loose than too ticrht. In hookino- the chain, the
point of the pole sJioidd not he lifted, because this
will bring its weight on the horses' necks. For
inferior roads, the chains should be looser, as few
things distress horses more than being jerked about
by the coach, in consequence of poling up too
tightly, and it is a very common error. One ob-
jection to an evener in place of a stiff splinter-bar
is, that with an evener the cruidino- of the vehicle

252 PUTTING-TO CH, XII

must be clone by the pole-chains, which must be,
therefore, tio-ht, or else the carriasfe will run from
one side of the road to the other.

Since the chain of a road-coach is first attached
to the pole-head, it cannot be readily put on with
the wrong end up, but this may be done with the
chains of a drag which have snap hooks at both ends.
The mistake should never be made of putting the
hooks into the kidncy-liiik ring, as is frequently done
with a pair of horses by ignorant coachmen. When
the chain is attached first to the pole and then
passed through the ring, a man, standing in front
of the horses, can pull with force upon the end of
the chain and get it tight. If it is already in the
ring and must then be passed through the pole-
head, he has to stand under the horse's head, where
he has no pull upon the chain, and where he is
beslobbered by the horse.

The wheelers' coupling-reins then should be
buckled to the bits.

The leaders should be brought to their places ;
their traces hooked on, the outer ones first ; and
their coupling-reins buckled to the bits. Care must
be taken that the horse which carries his head the
higher has his rein on top of the other coupling-
rein, or else the horse which carries his head low
will be continually pressing with his rein upon the
mouth of the other horse and worrying him. For
the same reason, a ring should never be put upon
the coupling-reins where they cross.

CH. XII

PUTTING-TO

253

The lead-rein must then be seized by the end
and passed through the throat-latch ring and pad-
terret of the wheeler (the loop of the wheel-rein
having been first taken off the pad-terret), and the
near side reins thrown across the wheelers' backs
to the off side (see page 248). If the lead-rein has
been properly laid in the lead horse's terrets (see
Plate XXV.), it will pull out freely when drawn by
its end.

The leaders' inside traces may be hooked straight
to their respective bars, as shown at A, Fig. 126, or

» , ^ i-...---i i

they may be crossed, or lapped. When they are
crossed, both of the near horse's traces go to the
near ends of the lead-bars and the off horse's traces
to the off ends, as at B, which equalises the draught
of the horses, if one is more free than the other.
It cannot be recommended, because it is better to
make the horses work evenly by proper bitting and
coupling. For the same reason, it is unnecessary
to have either a link or a chain between the bars.
In lapping, one horse is hooked up straight, — that

2 54 PUTTING-TO CH. XII

is, with both his traces to his own bar, — and the
inside trace of the other horse is passed inside of
the first horse's trace and hooked to its proper bar
(Fig. 126, C). Lapping serves two purposes: it
prevents the leaders from pulhng apart, and it keeps
the inside traces away from the sides of the horses,
so that in muddy weather they will not chafe ; on
the other hand, if a leader kicks over his inside trace
he o-ets his leo^ over both traces, or if one horse falls

o o

it is more difficult to disentangle the pair.

For park driving it looks better to have the traces
straight ; neither crossed nor lapped.

After all the reins are on the off side, they should
be pulled through the terrets to about the right
lenorth, straiof^htened, so that there are no twists in
them, the ends buckled, and the loop, or bight,
drawn through above the trace and tug-buckle from
the front toward the back, leaving the points in front
(Fig. 127).

The whip should then be caught up with a double-
thong, and laid across the backs of the wheelers,
behind the pads and quite well over toward the
near side, so that the weight of the handpiece of the
whip will not cause it to fall off It is a good plan
to pull the butt of the whip backward between the
two parts of the back-strap, which will keep it in
place.

If the thong of the whip, by touching his side,
worries the near wheeler, the whip may be laid from
front to back across the roof-seats on the off side,

CH. XII STABLE-SHUTTERS 255

where the coachman can easily reach it after he is in
his seat. It should not be put in the whip-socket ;
the ceiling- of a coach-house is rarely high enough to
permit it, without bending or breaking the whip.

Fig. 127.

In driving from the stable to the place of starting,
the stable-shutters should be up, that is, closed.

In a road-coach they should be let down upon
arriving at the place of starting. There is a differ-
ence of opinion as to whether they should be opened

256 BEARIXG-REIN CH. XII

or should be kept closed in the case of a drag, but
it is more in conformity with road practice to let
them down anci to pull up the glass, which keeps
the dust from the inside of the coach. It is not,
perhaps, a matter of much importance, except so
far as uniformity is desirable at Meets, and ' stable-
shutters down' is the rule at the Meets of The
Coachinof Club at New York.

At the New York Meets, since the rule is to have
a front load only, the grooms are in the rumble, and
there is no one inside ; at the London Meets there
is no rule as to loads, and the coach is sometimes
full on top and the grooms are inside ; in which case
the windows must be open, although it is stated by
an Officer of one of the London Clubs that it is
understood that the stable-shutters shoulci be closed.

In driving to races, picnics, and the like, the
grooms are frequently inside, or there is an extra
servant there for serving lunch, in which case the
windows must be open.

For the sake of uniformity, therefore, it seems
better to have the windows open ; with the glass up
or down as may be desired. When exercising, or
trying horses, or giving lessons, there seems to be
a certain propriety in having the stable-shutters
closed.

BEARIXG-REIN

There is a great difference of opinion among
coachmen as to the use of bearino-reins, and while
for road work, either public or private, they have

CH. XII BEARING-REIN

257

been generally abandoned, they are b)^ many still
thought to be necessary for park driving, and espe-
cially at Meets. Where uniformity in the appearance
of a team is important, as at formal Coaching- Meets,
the use of bearing-reins certainly ensures uniformity
of position of the horses' heads, since some horses
when standing, drop their heads, and may even
catch their bridles on the pole-head, and on su'ch
occasions the use of bearing-reins, if they are ad-
justed with intelligence, may be excused. In this
connection a consideration of their action is not
unimportant.

In the first place, the bearing-rein should always
have its own snaffle-bit, independent of the driving-
bit, to which it should never be attached, since it
would seriously interfere with the proper action of
the driving-bit.

In what is usually called the 'bit and bridoon,' or
* double bridle,' for a saddle-horse, the functions of
the two bits are essentially different. The bit, which
has branches of some length and a curb-chain, has
its own head-piece and its own rein, — the curb-rein.
The bridoon, which is a plain snaffle, is attached to
its own head-stall, and placed high in the horse's
mouth ; it has its own rein, — the snaffle-rein.

The snaffle-reins are held, by most horsemen, on
top of the forefinger of the left hand, or, in handling
a green horse, separately in the right hand, and are
used to raise the horse's head ; in some cases they
are held so high as to make their action almost

258 BEARING-REIN CH. XII

exactly like that of a harness bearing-rein. The
curb-reins are on the lower fingers of the left hand,
and are used to restrain the horse, and to bring his
head in, the bit being put as low in the mouth as
possible without touching the tusks. By a judicious
use of the two bits the horse's head can be ' placed'
in the position which gives the greatest control over
the animal, and ensures what is usually called ' light-
ness of mouth,' which is, in most cases, a matter
of the muscles of the neck and jaw, and not of the
bars of the mouth.

A bearing-rein and a driving curb-bit, both prop-
erly adjusted, will, to some extent, imitate the
action of the two bits of the saddle-horse, except
that there is no elasticity in the bearing-rein such
as there is in the rider's hand. The position of the
horse's head should be carefully studied, and the
bearing-rein buckled at such a length as will prevent
the horse from dropping his head too low, and at the
same time will not hold the head in a constrained
position. This will require judgement, as a bearing-
rein which seems tight when the horse is standing
still, will frequently be entirely too slack when he
is moving. It may be said, however, that it should
be always somewhat slack when the horse is in
motion. With this rein properly adjusted, with the
driving-bit as low as possible in the mouth, and with
the curb-chain of such a length that the branch of
the bit, when pulled upon by the rein, will come
back to a position about half-way between the

CH. XII BEARING-REIN 259

vertical and the horizontal directions, the conditions
will be as nearly as possible similar to those of a
saddle-horse, and, with a crood hand, somethine of
the same effects ought to be obtained.

As is described in Chapter XV., Article on
'Bitting,' the best results with a harness-horse are
obtained when the horse has been already carefully
handled on foot, and the flexions, at least partially
executed, so that the action of the two bits in
driving will resemble that of the riding bridle. If
adjusted and used in this way, the bearing-rein may
be considered unobjectionable, and even useful, for
parade purposes and in the show ring ; under other
circumstances, and in any but the very best hands,
it is better dispensed with.

On the road, and especially in going .up-hill,
horses work much better with their heads free ; at
any moderate pace and with a heavy load a horse
throws his weight forward into the collar and puts
down his head, a fact recognised in some countries
in the practice of tying down a horse's head, from
the notion that it adds to his power for draught.
On a level, hard road with a light load, a horse does
not require to have his body thrown forward, and
can assume the gathered position, with head up and
in, and with hind legs under him, a position with
which the bearing-rein does not interfere.

It is hardly necessary to add, that a very tight
bearing-rein which keeps the head constrained, and
elevated above a natural position, is to be strongly

26o BEARING-REIN CH. XII

condemned, but some horses have a habit of putting
their heads down and boring on the bit so as to be
very fatiguing to the coachman.

On such a horse, it is well to put a bearing-rein,
and let him pull on his own tail, instead of on the
arms of the coachman ; but, if he is to be kept in
the team, he should, if possible, be broken of the
habit by changing his bit, or by such mouthing and
handling as the skill of his owner permits.

One of the reasons for usine bearino-reins on
parade occasions, is, that many teams which go
pleasantly enough on the road, pull uncomfortably
when being driven close behind another coach, or
when excited by the continual stopping and start-
ing, unavoidable in crowds or at such places as the
entrance to a race-course. In such cases, bearing-
reins will save the coachman much annoyance and
fatio-ue ; but it must be said that a team which
will do all this kind of work, and look stylish, with
heads in the proper position, without bearing-reins,
is a better team and pays a higher compliment
to the coachman's hand, than one which requires
them.

The bearing-rein will in many cases prevent a
horse from kicking, which he will not usually do
unless he can get his head down. As to the bear-
ing-rein keeping a horse from falling, it is entirely
impossible that it should do so in any sense of sup-
porting him ; although as far as it assists in gath-
ering him and keeping his hind legs under him, it

CH. XII BEARING-REIN 261

may have a useful eft'ect with a horse that is incHned
to go in a slovenly way.

On a journey, or in driving a strange team without
bearing-reins, it is a good plan to have in the coach
at least one bearing-rein with its proper bit, to be
slipped on a troublesome horse if necessary, and
for this reason it is wise to have centre-hooks on the
pads of all harness, even if they are not habitually
used. In the absence of the centre-hook, the rein
can be attached to the pad by a short strap, such as
should be always carried among the spare articles.
If bearing-reins are used, the lead-harness must, of
course, have cruppers.

As to appearance, the less leather there is about
a horse's neck the better ; and this is especially
true of short-necked horses.

In nearly all cases, a properly adjusted bearing-
rein will be somewhat slack when the horse is
moving, and it will shake about in an unseemly
way, noticeable from the top of the coach, if not
from the ground ; which is the reason for having
the housing-straps formerly used.

Bearing-reins are made in two ways, as already
described and as shown in Fig. 93. It is sometimes
considered that the double, or pulley-rein, is easier
for the horse, because the bit plays backward and
forward upon the round part of the rein when the
horse tosses his head, but it is much heavier and
more complicated than the single rein, which, in my
opinion, is to be preferred for its simplicity.

262 BEARING-REIN CH. XII

An objection to the pulley-rein is, that a careless
man can exert twice the power in reining up the
horse with it, that he can with the single rein.

Bridles sometimes have a light strap, with a small
snap-hook on the lower end, sewed under the ro-
sette, to hold the bit of the single bearing-rein,
which will drop out of the horse's mouth when the
rein is not hooked to the centre-hook.

That instrument of torture, the overdraw-check
(the ' Kemble Jackson' ), while it may be useful, when
judiciously applied, in getting the highest speed out
of a trotting horse by keeping his head high and
his breathing organs unobstructed, has never been
proposed for any four-in-hand team, and, except on
a trotter, is seen only on the horses of careless or
ignorant owners. The star-gazing position of the
head which it enforces, should alone be sufficient
to prevent its use.

According to Bracey Clarke and other authori-
ties, the bearing-rein was little used until after 1800,
and by 1835 it began to go out of fashion on the
road-coaches.

Cracknell, who drove a fast coach on the London
and Birmingham road about the latter date, is said to
have been one of the first to give it up, and, in so
doing, to have brought upon himself the displeasure
of his proprietor. Mr Chaplin, who considered the
practice of driving without it to be dangerous.'""

* CORBETT, p. 239.

CH, XII COUPLING 263

In the coaching prints of the first part of this
century the bearing-rein is always shown, but it is
not found in those previous to 1800.

In conclusion, it may be said, that all coachmen
should have their attention called to the abuses of
the bearing-rein and to the serious pain and dis-
comfort resulting to a horse from having it too
tip'ht, although it must be noted, that these abuses
are confined almost entirely to pairs and single
horses, a subject with which we are not at present
dealing.

If bearing-reins are not used, the coachman must
always keep his eye on his wheelers when they are
standing still, or one of them may drop his head
and, getting his bit caught on the pole-head, pull
off his bridle. For this reason the bearing-rein is
not out of place on a pair used for shopping or
visitine, but it should be loose.

In this connection, Mr Flower's admirable pam-
phlets on Bits and Bearing Reins may be recom-
mended to the attention of all horsemen.

COUPLING

In all harness, the outside rein, usually called the
draueht-rein, runs from the hand to the outer side
of each horse's bit. In some rude farm harness the
inner sides of the bits are attached to each other
by a short rein, which couples the horses together,
so that when one horse is pulled to one side he
leads the other with him. This is obviously a crude

264 COUPLING CH. XII

arrangement, serving only to guide the horses, but
not to restrain them.

In better harness, therefore, each draught-rein has
attached to it, a rein which passes to the bit of the
other horse, so that a pull on the off side rein, for
instance, will be communicated to the off side of
each horse's mouth. It is obvious that to do this
evenly, the inside, or coupling-rein must have a cer-
tain definite length from the bit to the point at
which it is buckled to the draug-ht-rein. Owinor to
its crossing over between the horses, the coupling-
rein must be longer than that part of the draught-
rein which is in front of the coupling-buckle, or
else the horses' heads will be brought too near to-
gether. Usually, with horses of the same size, and
at the proper distance apart, the coupling-rein will
be four inches longer than the draught-rein for
the leaders, and five or six inches lons^er for the
wheelers ; and, if the saddler has made the reins
properly, the coupling-buckle will then be in the
middle hole of the fifteen holes which are punched
in the draueht-rein. If the horses, when driven in
this way, are found to be too far apart, the taking
up of each coupling-rein one or two holes shorter on
each draught-rein will bring them nearer together,
supposing always that the horses are of the same
size and that they hold their heads alike.

On driving them, however, it will be very likely
found that one of the horses holds his head in, with
his neck bent, and the other holds his head out and

CH. XII COUPLING 265

forward. The coupling-rein of the former will be,
therefore, slack, and the horse beinor less restrained,
will go away from the pole until his inside rein be-
comes tight. To counteract this, it will be neces-
sary to shorten, or take up Jiis ccmpliiig\ remember-
ing always that Ids coupling is that which goes from
his bit to the draught-rein of the other horse.

It may also happen that one horse is more eager
or free, than the other, and will be too far ahead ; in
which case the taking up of his coupling will bring
him back, — that is, it will draw more tightly on his
bit and restrain him.

In both cases, however, the shortening of the
coupling-rein will bring the horses' heads nearer
together ; and, if their distance apart was originally
correct and is to be maintained, luhatevcr is taken
up in one coitpling nmst be let out in tlie othei\

This is shown in the diagram (Fig. 128), where the
relative distances are exao-o-erated to show the action
more clearly.

Fig. 128.

When the horses are working exactly alike, the
reins are arranged as shown by the black lines ; A

266 COUPLING CH. XII

and B are the two sides of the off horse's bit, C and
D those of the near horse. The draueht-reins AM
and DN run straight to the coachman's hand. The
coupHng-reins are BN and CM, buckled to the
draught-reins at N and M.

Now, if the off horse bends his neck so as to
bring his head nearer to his body, both the reins
which run to his bit will be too slack, and he will
run forward and do more than his share of the
work, while the near horse is held back. To
prevent this, the off horse's coupling-rein BN is
shortened by running it up the draught-rein to N',
the last hole, until it comes just tight to the bit ;
but this obviously leaves the off draught-rein AM,
as slack as it was before, so that the coachman has
to draw his hand back to bring it to bear upon the
bit at A'. In so doing, however, he draws back the
coupling-rein CM, and pulls the head of the near
horse to the inside. To prevent this, the coupling-
rein CM must be let out on its draught-rein exactly
as much as the other coupling-rein has been taken
up, which is equivalent to pulling back the draught-
rein, whereupon the coupling-reins will have the
positions shown by the dotted lines, with the buckle
of C rein in the first hole, and all the reins will act
evenly on both horses, notwithstanding that the
mouth and bit of the off horse is nearer to the
coachman's hand than that of the near horse.

If the horses are too far apart, but otherwise are
working evenly, the coupling-reins must be short-

CH. XII ' COUPLING 267

ened equally ; or lengthened equally if they are too
near together.

The fact that a horse, when he holds his head in,
and curves his neck, is thereby practically lengthen-
ing his rein and consequently doing more than his
share of the work, must be carefully remembered ;
simple as it appears, it is not always noticed by the
coachman.

Reins are frequently made with three holes in
the inside billet, or in both billets, the object being
to prevent wear by changing the places where the
bit touches them (see Article on Reins, in the
Chapter on Harness). These holes can be used to
alter the length of the coupling-rein, and some coach-
men seem to think that there is a difference between
shortening it in this way and in moving the buckle
up the draught-rein. A little reflection will show,
however, that it is only a question of the distance
between the part of the draught-rein where the
coupling-rein is attached, and the bit, and that it is
perfectly immaterial whether this distance is length-
ened or shortened at one end or the other, of the
coupling-rein. It is better to have only one hole in
the billet ; as a matter of fact it is rarely changed
for the purpose of preventing wear, and if there is
more than one hole and the billet is buckled in the
wrong one, the coupling is thereby changed without
the knowledge of the coachman. A renewal of the
billets when they show the slightest sign of wear is
the best precaution, and a most important one ;

268 COUPLING CH. XII

nothino- can be more danorerous than a damaeed

o o o

rein.

In a coach team, the wheelers should be coupled
far enough apart to enable them to travel parallel
to the pole and not to be pulled in with their heads
too near together, but since they are kept in a some-
what fixed position by the pole-chains, care must
be taken that their coupling-reins are short enough
to make the bits bear evenly on both sides of their
mouths ; it is quite possible for the coupling-reins to
be so long that the strain will be almost entirely
on the draught-reins. This will not happen with
the leaders, because not beine held together ex-
cept by the reins, they will spread as wide apart
as the reins permit.

Leaders should have their couplings short and be
brought somewhat close together, in which position
they look much better and work just as well ; at the
same time, they should not be driven with their
heads almost touchingr, as is sometimes seen. If
their coupling-reins are long and the horses move
close up against each other, the inside reins, be-
coming thereby slack, will not command them
quickly in case of necessity. On bad roads, in hot
weather, or for slow, heavy work up-hill, they should
be further apart.

Although what may be called the geometrical
piHnciples of the coupling-reins, as shown in the
diagram, are simple enough, a great deal of ex-
perience and judgement is required to adjust them

CH. XII COUPLING 269

to the best advantage, and the lack of such judge-
ment is the weakest point of many coachmen.

Ordinarily, the horse that is the more eager and
free will require to be brought back by his rein, but
horses have minds and tempers of their own, and
purely mechanical considerations are sometimes
insufficient. A high-spirited horse, for instance, will
be fretted by being restrained and by seeing his
partner a few inches ahead of him ; if his coupling-
rein is let 07tt he may stop pulling on the bit and
go pleasantly. This is much more frequently the
remedy than the inexperienced coachman imagines,
and is always worth trying, care being taken, how-
ever, that the horse does not do more than his
share of work. Of course, in addition to changing
the couplings, the different place of the rein in the
bit. and the tia-htenine or loosening: of the curb-
chain, discussed in the Article on ' Bitting.' in
Chapter XV., are necessary to be considered.

It seems almost needless to reiterate remarks
about the importance of the couplings, but so many
teams are badly put together, that it is well worth
while for the beofinner to master the mechanism of
the matter thoroughly, and then to exercise his
common sense in applying his knowledge. A team
well put together is a delight, and one badly put to-
gether cannot be well driven by the very best of
coachmen.

As mentioned in the Chapter on Harnessing and
on Putting-to. the horse which carries his head the

270 BUCKLING THE REINS CH. XII

lower must have his rein luidcrueath, or he will
be continually bearing on the rein of his partner.
The same horses behave differently about the car-
riage of their heads on different days.

Inasmuch as the coachman sits on the right side,
the near horse's coupling-rein may have to be a
hole longer than that of the off horse.

To ensure the coupling and the bitting of a team
being correctly done, the diagram devised by Mr
Tiffany (Plate XXVI.) is useful. A number of
blanks can be printed and filled up as occasion
requires. The diagram in force at the time is
posted on the order-board of the stable.

BUCKLING THE REINS

The question as to whether the reins should or
should not be buckled together at their ends is
frequently discussed among coaching men, and each
practice has its advocates.

The arguments agfainst bucklino- are : First, that
in case the lead-bars should become loose, either
through the breaking of the pole-hook, or of the
eye of the main-bar, or of the bar itself, the lead-
reins may be pulled out of the hand, and if buckled
together will tear off the pads and the bridles of
the wheel horses. Secondly, that an appreciable
amount of time is lost at a change, in buckling the
reins before getting up, and that they must be un-
buckled before arriving at a change.

The aru-ument in favour of bucklino- is, that a rein

PLATE XXVI.

The lioles for the bucMes ai'e counted ft-om the bit end of rein.

NOTES

NEAR LEADER

N9 2S 3^^uxu^

OFF LEADER

N9 1S jD^djeL.

cy:

NEAR WHEELER

N9 S^ 2^-^nccyii^

OFF WHEELER

N? 10 2^a€yt(yl^

0=0

Diagram proposed by Mr AV. G. Tiflauy
for noting the Bitting and Couplings of a Team.

CH. XII BUCKLING THE REINS 2/1

may slip out of the fingers and drop off of the foot-
board beyond recovery, in which case a serious ac-
cident is almost inevitable. It is also suggested
that the catching of the lead-reins in the pad-terrets
might check the leaders sufficiently to permit the
guard or the servants to get to their heads and stop
them, and that, moreover, a coachman has no rio-ht,
if he can prevent it, to let two frightened horses,
with the bars at their heels, run down the road to
the danger of the public.

To this it may be answered, that should the reins
pull the harness off of the wheelers, there would be
four frightened and unmanageable horses instead of
two. It seems hardly possible, however, that the
reins could tear off the pads and still remain buckled,
so as to tear off the bridles, and the loss of the pads
would not render the wheelers unmanao-eable.

As to authorities in print : all appear to prefer
buckling, except Corbett, who in An Old CoacJi-
inaii s Cliattcr. p. 245, after discussing the matter,
says : ' And now, gentle readers, I leave you to
' take your choice, premising that, for myself, I lean
'to unpinned ribbons.'

Reynardson {Dowji the Road, p. 186) says : ' For-
' merly [that is up to about 1825] all reins were buck-
' led. Gradually it became the fashion not to buckle,
'and then to have no buckles, on fast coaches.' He
ends by saying, ' it is a safe plan to buckle.'

' NiMROD,' in his Essay, T/ic Road, printed in
1832, objects strongly to the practice of not buckling.

272 BUCKLING THE REINS CH. XII

and says : ' This is ncuu and it is a mere piece of
'affectation, and should be put a stop to.' Also:
' It is evident, that with the reins unbuckled at the
' ends, should either of them drop out of his hands,
' all command of his team is gone.' And again in
his Essays, in discussing the merits of short and
long wheel-reins : '•' ' In quick opposition work also,
' lonor reins are the best, as there is no occasion to
' buckle them until the coachman is up, and it is
' immaterial whether they are buckled at all — a
' consideration /// inimitc and half time. Indeed, I
' know one or two swells who have banished the
' buckles altogether from the leaders', as well as
' the wheelers' reins, on the ground of their being
' in the way of expeditious changing ; but this must
' be awkward for their horse-keepers, as without
' the buckles, they cannot tell the near from the off
' rein when harnessing their horses, and then the
' coupling-reins would be as often wrong as right.'

Leaving the reins unbuckled was apparently for
the purpose of shortening the time required to make
the changes.

The question seems to be, whether it is more
important to guard against the consequences of
the rein's being dropped or of the leaders' breaking
away. There is certainly much more chance of
the former's happening than of the latter. The
off wheel-rein may easily slip out of the hand^

* In early coaching days short wheel-reins were used (see p. 229).

CH. XII BUCKLING THE REINS 273

especially in cold weather, and if it once leaves the
finsfer it is sure to q-q overboard.

The weight of argument and experience seems
to be in favour of buckling the wheel-reins, at least.
From its position in the hand, it is hardly likely
that a lead-rein could be dropped. If the reins
are to be buckled, it should be done before o-ettino-
up, since it is at the moment of starting that the
rein is the most liable to slip away.

I long ago devised a way of satisfying all the
conditions, and have used it for many years. It
is to have (see Fig. 129) the usual loop, or keeper,

on the near rein, but without n—^x

any buckle, and on the off ^ — —

rein a somewhat long point,

with a hollow cut in each

P ic 120
edge of the rein behind the

point, so that when the end of the rein (which fits as

tightly into the loop as will permit it to be forced

through) is once in, a considerable force is required

to pull it out, and it is, for all practical purposes,

the same as if buckled.

If a rein is dropped, it cannot get away, but it
will be released by a strong pull, and at a change
the reins can be separated by a single jerk.

This device has the still greater advantage,
equally important in driving one or two horses as
in drivine four, that should the driver be thrown
off, he cannot be dragged by the reins, which will
immediately come apart.

274 CH. XIII

CHAPTER XIII

DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF HARNESS

Tandem. — Since tandem driving is not included in
the plan of this book, and is, moreover, fully de-
scribed in Hints to Yoiinz Tandem Drivers, and in
the Badminton volume on Driving, only the mode
of harnessine for tandem will be described. The
shaft horse has the usual gig-harness, with the ad-
dition of rines on the throat-latch for the lead-reins
to pass through, and pad-terrets with horizontal
bars across their centres to divide the lead-reins
and shaft-reins. The lead-harness is light, and the
traces are lono- enough to reach to the tucr-buckles
of the shaft horse, these buckles having eyes on
them, as shown in Fig. ii8. If the lead-traces
are hooked to the points of the shafts there is
more danger of the leader's pulling the shaft horse
down in turning, than when they are hooked to the
buckles.

Lead-traces should not be extravagantly long, lo
ft. 4 in. is sufficient ; any team looks better and is
more handy, if compact, and, should the leader be-
have badly, the longer the trace the more likely he
is to get his leg over it. Lady Georgiana Curzon,
in the Badminton volume on Driving, describes an
arrangement of light lead-bars, which seems to

CH. XIII

THREE ABREAST

275

lessen the dano-er of his so doinof. The leader
should have a hip strap.

The question which is the more difficult to drive,
four horses or a tandem, is frequently discussed ;
almost any kind of a horse can be driven in a
team, but a tandem leader must have reasonably
decent manners, or he will be impossible ; on the
other hand, more strength is needed to drive four
horses than to drive two, and a coach can be up-
set, whereas a cart can twist about in almost any
space.

The position so frequently described, of a tandem
leader's turning round and lookino- the driver in the
face, can be usually corrected by backing the shaft
horse until the traces become straight again.

Since the handling of the reins is much the same
as that for four horses, Tan-
dem-drivinof is not a bad in- oe
troduction to Coaching.

Three Abreast. — Three
horses driven abreast in the
lead require the arrange-
ment of bars shown in Fig-.
35 ; when they are at the wheel, their traces are
attached to a long splinter-bar which has six roller-
bolts. The best way of running the reins is shown
in Fig. 130.

In the South of Italy, a third horse is often used
as an out-rigger to a pair ; he is put on the near side,

Fig. I xo.

276

SPIKE OR UNICORN

CH, XIII

with his traces attached to a bar which is lashed to
the splinter-bar (or sometimes to the foot-board) of
the carriage. He has one forked rein which serves
to restrain, but not to guide him. He is guided by
a short rein running from his bit to the end of the
pole.

Three horses at the wheel make a eood team for
a station omnibus ; for travelling- with a coach, three
on the lead not only give additional power, but en-
sure still having a team of four in case anything
happens to one of the horses. It is a favourite
team with Swiss and Italian vettMrini (Fig. 131), but
is a little less handy in sharp turns and narrow
places, than four horses. An objection to this ar-
rangement of three horses is, that in warm weather
the middle horse suffers from the heat.

Fig. 131.

Spike or Unicorn. — It may be sometimes conve-
nient to drive two horses at the wheel and a single
leader, in which case it is necessary to have for this
leader a pair of long reins and a single lead-bar

CH, XIII SIX HORSES 277

with the eye large and set horizontally, or with a
regular Q , so that it will go on the pole-hook ; all
his harness is the same as that of one of the leaders.
The long reins may with advantage be passed on
the inner side of the wheelers' bridles.

Should one of the horses of a team of four give
out, thereby forcing the team to become a spike,
the sino-le lead-bars should be taken off and the
leader's traces hooked to the main-bar.

If the hooks of the main-bar are too thick to
permit the cock-eyes of the lead-traces to go on
them, one of the single-bars must be used, attached
to the pole-hook by a strap, since its eye is turned
the wrong way to go on the hook.

Six Horses. — When six horses are put to a coach
in three pairs, the middle pair is called the swing
pair. This designation is also used in the Artillery.

The harness is exactly the same as for four horses.
The lead-reins pass through the throat-latch rings
and the pad-terrets of the swing horses, and then
through those of the wheel horses to the hand.

The swing-reins run exactly as do the lead-reins
of an ordinary team, but the throat-latch rings on
the wheelers must be doubled to take the additional
reins, those from the leaders going on top, and the
wheel pad-terrets should have a bar across them to
keep the lead-reins and swing-reins apart.

Either a pole or a chain may be used to connect
the lead horses to the coach.

278 POSTING CH. XIII

The pole has, at its hind end, an eye which goes
on the main pole-head hook under the lead-bars, and
at its front end, a head, or crab, of the usual form,
with bars to which the leaders' traces are attached.
This pole should be much lighter than the main
pole, since there is no strain upon it, except the
direct pull, and the bars also should be somewhat
lighter, half the weight of the pole and all the
weight of the bars being supported by the necks
of the swingf horses.

An alternative similar arrangement consists of a
light chain covered with leather, or a rope, like that
on a cock horse harness (see Plate XXIV.), instead
of a pole, with lead-bars. It should be suspended
by a chain, or straps, from the collars of the swing-
pair, and the leaders when at rest must be kept
well forward to prevent the bars from hanging
down. It is also well to have a strap from one tug-
buckle of the swing horses to the other, on which
this chain may rest.

The swing pole or chain and the bars may be
dispensed with altogether, by using for the leaders
long traces going to the tug-buckles of the swing-
pair, as shown in Plate VI.

Posting. — In posting, the near horse of a pair is
ridden by a postilion, who leads the off horse.* The

* In a plate published by Edw. Orme, Bond St., London, 1816,
entitled Paris Diligence, a postilion, on the near wheeler, is driiniig
three leaders.

CH. XIII POSTING 279

off side harness is the same as that of a pair, with
the exception of the reins, but the near side harness
has a saddle Hke that shown in the plate of the
cock horse harness.

The bridle, collar, and traces are as usual, except
that a long trace without a buckle is preferable to
the ordinary one, on account of its not making- a
lump under the saddle-flap. The saddle is plain,
and has an iron loop on the tree behind, to take
the back-strap, which must be shorter than in an
ordinary harness.

The off, or 'hand horse,' as he is called, from the
fact that he is led, has a sino-le leadino-rein, which
goes to the near side of his bit, and a short rein
from the off side of the bit to a point on the lead-
ing-rein, about fifteen inches from the bit ; in other
words, the leading-rein is forked, so as to be at-
tached to both sides of the bit ; the buckle of
the short piece runs on the main rein, in order
that the proportionate lengths of the forked ends
can be so adjusted as to give an equal bearing
on each side of the mouth. The near horse has a
simple rein for the postilion, like that of a riding
bridle.

If four horses are required in posting, the leading
horses are harnessed as already described for the
wheelers, except that the traces are sufficiently long
to reach to the tug-buckles of the wheelers as de-
scribed on page 237.

Before the days of railways, posting was the best

2 So POSTING CH. XIII

method of travellinof in England and on the Con-
tinent ; there is an interesting description of it by
the Duke of Beaufort in the Badminton volume on
Driving. On a journey, either a private travelHng
carriage belonging to the traveller was used, or a
vehicle was hired from a postmaster. In England
the postmasters were usually hotel-keepers, and not
employed by the Government, except in some cases,
to handle the mails, the horses being their private
property ; they were required, however, to have a
license and to put up a sign : ' Licensed to Let Post
Horses.' They paid a duty of three half-pence per
mile for each horse used, and there was an elaborate
system by which the toll-gate keepers checked off
this duty.

The stages varied greatly in length, but the dis-
tances were all noted in the posting and road-books,
published in those days. The charges were not uni-
form, but were from sixpence to ninepence a mile,
for each horse, and sixpence for the post-boy, which
was paid him at the end of the stage, where he was
succeeded by a new boy.

According to the Penny Cyclopcedia, 1840 (Article
Posting)^ the stages at that date were from 8 to 1 2
miles in populous districts, and from 15 to 20 in
others ; the rate of speed from 8 to 9 miles an hour ;
and the cost of a pair, with fees and turnpikes
amounted to about 22 pence (44 cents) per mile,
so that posting with four horses, double the cost of
a pair, was an expensive way of travelling. The

CH. XIII POSTING IN FRANCE 28 1

charge was the same whether a carriage was fur-
nished or not.

On frequented roads, some one was usually on
the watch for carriages approaching the post house,
and since one or two pairs always stood ready har-
nessed, a change was rapidly effected. The speed
was frequently ten miles an hour, but depended,
naturally, upon the hurry of the passenger and his
liberality to the post boys.

On the Continent, in France for instance, the
whole system was under the control of the Govern-
ment, and a book, Livre de Poste, giving a map of
all the routes, distances, charges, and general regu-
lations, was published annually by the Government
Printing Office. The right to furnish horses to
travellers by relays was restricted to those persons
{maitrcs de poste) commissioned by the Govern-
ment.

The charge for each horse was 2 francs per
10 kilometres, equal to about 3^ pence per mile
(6|- cents). One franc per 10 kilometres was estab-
lished by law as the fee for each postilion, but the
custom obtained, and was recognised by the author-
ities, of giving twice that amo].mt, or the same as
for each horse, 31 pence per mile.

Somewhat elaborate regulations were contained
in the book as to the number of horses required
for certain sizes of carriao-es, and the number of
passengers was also taken into account.

282

POSTING IN FRANCE

CH. XIII

Tables of charges based upon these items were
given to obviate the necessity of computation, for
instance : —

Number of

21 KiLOM.

Horses.

22 KiLOM.

23 KlLOM.

4 at 2 francs. 2 at 2 francs.

25.20 francs. 26.40 francs. 27.60 francs

One person additional .
Two persons additional .

28.35 francs, i 29.70 francs. ' 31.05 francs.
31.50 francs. '. 33.00 francs. 34.50 francs.

On certain steep portions of the road a traveller
was required to take, and to pay for, one or two
extra horses.

Ordinarily a carriage was taken by the post-
horses, only on the main road, from one station to
another ; but arrangements could be made to go off
of the main road to a country-house or to have
horses sent there to take the carriage.

In a town, the carriage was loaded at the door,
having been brought round by men, or by a single
horse, a short time before the hour fixed for start-
ing, at which hour the postilions and horses ap-
peared.

The regulations Required that postilions should
go at a speed of not less than from 6^ to 8 miles an
hour, depending upon the road, but there was no
upper limit of speed prescribed. No postilion was
allowed to pass another on the road, except when
the carriage in front was stopped intentionally.

CH. XIII DAUMONT 283

Five minutes were allowed for changes in the
daytime, and a quarter of an hour at night.

Plate X. gives a good idea of French posting, and
shows the dress of the postilions, with the heavy
leather boots into which the feet were slipped, thin
shoes and all, at the moment of mountino-.

The English postilion was dressed in a dark
jacket and a bright waistcoat, a high, white, beaver
hat, breeches, and top boots. He had an iron guard
strapped on the outside of his right boot to save his
leg from being bruised by the pole.

While regular posting has given way, in England,
to travelling by rail, there are still a few job-masters
in London who, for special service, provide horses
and postilions, harnessed and dressed, in the regu-
lar old-fashioned style.

Daumont. — When four horses, ridden by two
postilions in posting fashion, are attached to a
private landau, or barouche with handsome harness,
the equipage is called a Daiunoiit, or a la Daumont.
Thirty years ago, it was not an uncommon gala turn-
out, but it is now confined to royalties on occasions
of ceremony. The harnessing is precisely the same
as for posting, but the pole of the carriage is usually
of iron and bent down in the middle so as to be
below the leg of the wheel horse postilion to avoid
bruising it.

The postilions wear round caps instead of hats.
When the same carriage is used with two horses

284 DAUMONT CH. XIII

instead of four, the equipage is called a Dcnii-
Dauinont.

A Denii-Dauniont is a handsome 'turn-out,' and
the occupants of the carriage have a clear view,
unobstructed by servants in front of them.

The carriage is made, of course, without any
driving seat, but, for full dress, there is a rumble
occupied by two footmen.

This equipage takes its name from the Due
d'Aumont, a French leader of fashion, both before
and after the Revolution. He was born in 1762
and had estates near Rouen, where he had superb
stables, fitted up with mahogany, marble, and Bohe-
mian glass. During the Restoration he introduced
this style of carriage. La Rousse [Dictionnaire Uni-
versel du xix-^'"^ Siecle, article. 'Aumont'), says that
the usual spelling is a la Dauinont, but also, en
a' Aumont and en Danuiont. Eugene Sue in one of
his novels, writes : ' Je demande si Ton attellera en
grand'guides ou a la d'Aumont.'

CH. XIV 285

CHAPTER XIV

DRIVING

Getting up. — The horses having been put-to (as
described in Chapter XII.) and the coach driven to
the door, or ready in the stable yard, the coachman
is prepared to start.

Before getting up to his seat, he should walk
round his coach and horses, beofinninor on the off
side, going behind the coach and coming forward on
the near side, then in front of the horses, and to a
position abreast of the off wheeler. While doing
this, he should make a rapid but thorough inspection
of coach, horses, and harness, to see that every-
thing is right, especially noting whether the reins
are buckled to the bits in the places where he in-
tends to have them, and whether the draueht-reins
are outside, since sometimes the reins are turned
over, and the coupling-reins are put outside. If the
horses are in, for the first time, or have had their
places changed, or if the harness is new, this in-
spection is all the more necessary.

Then, standing opposite to the pad of the off
wheeler, he draws the reins from above the tug-
buckle (see Fig. 127), where they have been looped
by the man who has brought the coach round, or,
if the coach is still in the stable yard, by the groom

286 GETTING UP CH. XIV

after piitting--to, and then taking the near lead-rein
in his left hand, draws it until it comes tight from
the leader's bit. He then drops his hand, slipping it
along the rein until his arm hangs straight down by
his side. He draws the off lead-rein with his riaht
hand until it comes tight, and, passing it into the
left hand, pulls it forward with the right until the
buckle ends of the rein are even ; this makes ex-
actly the proper amount of slack in the off rein
and ensures both reins being of the same length
when the coachman gets on the box. He then
passes both reins into his right hand, holding them
at the same point at which his left hand grasped
them. He does precisely the same thing with the
wheel-reins, and holds them all in his right hand in
the proper fingers, that is, with the near lead-rein
on top of his first finger, the off lead-rein and the
near wheel-rein between the first and second fingers^
lead on top, and the off wheel-rein between the
second and third fingers.

This may be also done more simply by taking
all the reins in the left hand and drawingr them as
tight as the shortest will permit, then tightening the
others in succession, and finally pulling out the off
reins ten or twelve inches, after which they are
passed properly divided, into the right hand.

If the reins are of the proper length, as noted on
page 226, the ends will not hang ciown too far behind
the hand. If they are longer than there specified,
the ends should be thrown over the right arm, from

CH. XIV GETTING UP 287

left to right, to prevent them from catching on the
roller-bolt in getting up.

These instructions may seem somewhat minute,
but none too minute for a beginner, who will find
the first method a good one ; the second method
may be used later ; but the coachman should adopt
a uniform way of taking up his reins, so that he
can always do it quickly and neatly, and not stand
fumbling with them in an uncertain way ; and he
should always so take them that he will have little
to do when he gets on the box.

An expert can judge, at first sight, pretty fairly
of a coachman by the way he gets up.

If the reins have been carefully put in their
place above the tug-buckle (Fig. 127) and have not
slipped, they can be taken out ready to go into
the fingers without in any way changing them ;
when the coachman notices that they have been so
placed, he can take them up instantly, and neatly.
This is a reason for tucking the reins into their
place from the front backiuard, as shown in Fig. 127,
since they remain there more securely than when
merely pushed through from the back.

When the coachman has the reins in his right hand,
with the same hand he takes the whip (which has
been lying on the wheelers' backs, see p. 254), steps
back, puts his left foot on the hub of the wheel, his
right foot on the roller-bolt, his left on the step, and
his right on the foot-board, using his left hand to help
himself and keeping his right arm straight down.

255 GETTING UP CH. XIV

The moment that he reaches the foot-board he
should sit down, but, if he is driving a road-coach,
before doing so, and while he is partly facing his
passengers, he should raise his hat slightly to them.
It is awkward to remain standing while shifting the
reins to the left hand, and there is a risk of being
thrown off of the box. On a road-coach, the coach-
man should not get up until within a minute of the
time of starting.

As soon as he takes his seat on the cushion, he
passes the reins to his left hand in the same order
in which he had them in his right. He catches up
his whip, if it has become unwound, and arranges
the driving-apron. He then adjusts the reins to the
proper length. The man at the leaders' heads
should keep the horses far enough forward to have
their traces nearly as tight as if they were pulling,
otherwise the coachman cannot readily judge how
lonor his lead-reins should be. The reins should be
taken in the hand at such a point that all the horses
when they are started shall have their traces equally
tiu-ht.

Many authorities think that the wheelers alone
should start the coach, the traces of the leaders
being slack, but there does not seem to be any
good reason for this.

Certainly, the leaders alone should not start the
coach while the wheelers' traces are slack, but when
the team starts, the leaders should feel their traces
before they tighten their reins, or from the sudden

CH. XIV STARTING 289

check to their mouths, they will be apt to stop, or
to back, with the result of having the pole run on
them, whereupon they will jump forward to be
brought up again by the short rein. With leaders
inclined to rear at starting, it is best to give a good
deal of rein, so that they shall feel their traces and
have some work to do from the very beginning ;
they can be easily brought back later.

Once in his seat, with his reins adjusted, the
coachman must glance over his team to see that
no rein has a twist, that the coupling-reins are
crossed, and that neither of the inside lead-traces
is twisted ; from the box, he is better able to notice
these points than from the ground.

All is now ready for the start. The groom should
be in front of the leaders, and facing the coach.
The head man should be at the wheeler's head on
the off side. Just before starting, the brake should
be taken oft,'=' ver)^ quietly, the whip having been
passed into the left hand ; the brake-handle should
never be touched while the whip is in the right hand,
because to do so causes a wide movement of the
whip, which may be noticed by the horses.

The coachman then intimates, by a nod, to the
groom at the leaders' heads, that, if he is holding
the leaders, he is to let go ; the man steps to the
near side and moves back a few paces so as to be

* For a discussion of this question of the brake, see further on,
under Stopping.

290 STARTING CH. XIV

opposite to the man who is at the wheeler's head ;
and as the back of the coach reaches them, both
men get up at the same time into the rumble.

The start should be made as quietly as possible ;
the movement of the man from the leaders' heads,
combined with a slight yielding of the coachman's
hand, is generally a sufficient intimation to the
horses. If anything must be said to make them
start, a short exclamation should be used, such as
' Right !' uttered sharply and only once. Some-
times ' Pull up !' is used, but this seems to be
hardly appropriate, since to /;/// tip, means to stop.

In giving a rule for starting a team, it would be
difficult to satisfy all coaching critics. Some au-
thorities prescribe dropping, or yielding, the hand,
to give the horses the signal, others tighten the reins
slightly. ' Nimrod' {^Northern Tour, p. 340), speak
ing of a doubtful-looking team at a change, says :
* But dropping my hand to them at starting, they
'all went away.' Beaufort (p. 10) says: 'An un-
' workmanlike trick, which the coachman cannot be
' too careful to avoid, is that of slackening his reins
' and pushing out his hands before him when he
' wants to start ; a trick, however, which is much
' affected by many men who find themselves on a
'driving-seat which they do not adorn.' Howlett
teaches that the hand should be dropped or yielded
at starting.

Possibly, these differences are more imaginary
than real ; since the proper action depends a good

CH. XIV STARTING 29 1

deal upon what has gone before it. I incHne to the
opinion, that the proper way is, just before starting-,
to feel all the horses' mouths by tightening the
reins very gradually, so as to not excite any one
of them, and thus to gather the horses, and indicate
that something is to be required of them ; then, at
the instant of starting, the hand should be yielded,
decidedly, but not too far, three or four inches, for
instance, to let the horses get off It must be said,
however, that with another team, which has been
differently handled, a tightening of the reins will
have the same result ; and, in fact, no coachman can
exactly predict what a team entirely strange to him,
will do at the start ; and he may have to employ
both methods in rapid succession.

Gathering the horses and then yielding the hand,
is more in accordance with the general rules of
horsemanship, and the coachman's own team should
be accustomed to that way of starting. The excla-
mation : ' Right !' or whatever word may be adopted,
will, usually, if heard by all the horses, make them
start ; the clucking noise frequently made for this
purpose is not always heard by the leaders, and it
excites other horses which may be near the coach.
The reins are, after all, the proper means of com-
munication between the coachman and his horses.

The touch of the whip is too exciting to be used
in starting, unless a sluggish horse decidedly holds
back, and it is successful only in practised hands.

It need hardly be said, that the favourite news

292 STARTING CH. XIV

paper expression, ' the coachman cracked his whip
and started off,' is entirely due to the imagination
of the reporter ; no one ever cracks a four-in-hand
whip.

On a road-coach, it is the business of the ouard
to see that the passengers are seated, and when
all is ready for the start, he comes forward, on the
off side as far as the wheelers' shoulders, and says
' Right, sir !' to the coachman.

Since on a drag there is no guard, the coachman
must be sure that no one on the coach is standing
up when he is about to start, and if there are per-
sons on the back of the coach where he cannot
readily see them, it is well, as a warning, to say
' Sit fast !' before starting.

If a coach has only one servant with it, or if one
of the two is driving, the man on the ground should
hold both the wheelers and the leaders, by grasping
the coupling-reins of the wheelers and the lead-
reins together, with his hand passed under the off
wheeler's neck. He can thus restrain the whole
four ; but if he holds the leaders only, by their heads,
and the wheelers start, they may push the leaders
over the man and set the whole team off.

If a team standing still, starts suddenly, when no
one is on the box, a bystander should seize the
heads of the luJicclcrs and not run to those of the
leaders, as people generally do. If the wheelers
are held, the leaders cannot well run away with
them.

CH. XIV MOVING OFF 293

Moving off. — There are larger opportunities for
awkwardness in the start than at any other time ;
even the most practised coachman will sometimes
not know, until the team straightens out whether he
has his reins exactly right, and for this reason a few
moments spent in making sure that the reins are
exactly where they should be, are not wasted.

A beginner may sometimes have the following
experience : when he gets into his seat he has great
difficulty in catching his double thong, the loop will
run down too far on the stick, and he finds his rio-ht
hand full of loose thong ; after he has arranged this
and has pulled his reins about a good deal before
getting them to his liking, he nods to the men to let
go. probably forgetting to take off the brake.

The leaders, which always should be quick at
starting, jump forward, and one of them, brought up
suddenly by his draught-rein's being held too short,
rears, or else stops while his partner rushes forward
to the extent of his longer rein. The wheel horses,
moving forward, run the point of the pole into the
stern of the stopping leader, with the result of
making him move forward again, if he does not
kick. If he Qroes on, one lead-rein beino- shorter
than the other, brings both leaders off to the side of
the road, so that one of them goes up on the kerb-
stone or on the grass ; and in his frantic endeavours
to oret those two reins straig-ht, the coachman lets
the off wheel-rein slip through his fingers and run
out a couple of inches, not improving the situation.

294 MOVING OFF CH. XIV

By this time the second groom may have reached
the horses' heads, and straightened the animals out
until the reins can be pushed through the fingers
to their proper places, and a second start made
in somewhat improved fashion, although some one
rein will keep slipping in the most provoking
manner.

When the coach does get fairly under way, one
of the grooms whispers in as confidential a man-
ner as is possible from his distant seat : ' Brake's
on, Sir !'

These difficulties overcome, the tyro next finds
that in the scrimmage he has o-ot his near wheel-
rein on top of the off lead-rein, and the two reins
seem to be all edges while he is endeavouring to
get them right.

If the team pulls at all, as is quite likely after
this little flurry, the two middle reins keep slipping
out from between his first and second fingers, with
the result of having the leaders off to the right-hand
side of the road ; at last all calms down and things
go more smoothly.

At such a moment, the beginner is apt to think
that driving is not so amusing as he believed it to
be when he came out of the house, drawino^ on his
gloves, and admiring the ' smart' looking ' turn-out'
before him.

All this is intended to emphasise the importance
of having everything as nearly right as possible
before giving the signal for starting, with the reins

CH. XIV MOVING (JFF 295

the right length and so drawn up that each horse's
mouth is just felt, thus ensuring their being evenly
held, or evenly released, as the hand is moved.

Since, in taking up a load, the coach is usually
close to a step or kerb, it follows that immediately
after starting an inclination must be made to the
right or left, and this is most neatly made by taking
a point with both the lead-rein and the wheel-rein
on the proper side (see Figs. 136, 137), which may
be done before giving the signal to move. This
leaves the whip hand free for a prompt use of the
whip on a wheeler, sometimes necessary at the mo-
ment of starting, and as soon as the desired incli-
nation has been obtained, the points are dropped
and the reins are again even. In driving away from
the door of a house in confined grounds, nice hand-
ling is required, — for instance, to go round a curved
road, to the left out of a narrow gate, and then to
the right into the road or street, and to keep the
wheel tracks in the middle of the drive and not have
them almost on the erass, first on one side and then
on the other.

If of two ways of going up to a door one is more
difficult than the other, it is best to go /// by the
difficult way, when the horses are already moving
and well in hand, and to go out by the easier way.

In going through a gateway, the leaders should be
taken back and the coach guided by the wheelers ;
then if the lead-bar touches the post, the bar will
yield and slip by, whereas if the traces are tight, the

296 HAND ON THE REINS CH. XIV

bar will tear the post, or else the bar or the trace
will be broken.

Having got fairly on the road, a few minutes are
spent in noticing how the team is going, and, if it is
a strange team, what are its peculiarities ; the places
of the reins in the hand can then be determined,
and that having been done, the reins should be kept
in the left hand as far as possible unchanged, with
the right hand always free.

The idght hand should not remain on the reins
an instant longer than the time required to make
a change of some kind.

For example, in making a point with a lead-rein,
it should be done promptly, taking enough rein and
not too much, and, after putting the point in its
proper place, the right hand should be taken off
immediately ; or, if an inclination is to be made to
the off side of the road, the two points must be
made, or the reins shortened, for that side, but the
right hand should not be put on the reins and kept
there, since this action is likely to pull the reins a
little out of the left hand, and the moment the rig-ht
hand is taken off, the horses will run over to the left,
and all the beauty of the movement will be spoiled.

It seems hardly possible that there should be a
difference of opinion as to whether or not the reins
should be kept in the left hand in an unchanged
position ; an unchanged position must not be under-
stood to mean that a dead pull should be kept upon
the horses' mouths ; the whole hand can give readily

CH. XIV HAND ON THE REINS 297

to the mouth just as it does on the rein of a saddle
horse.

Some coachmen are constantly changing the posi-
tion of the reins in the left hand, in the mistaken
belief that they are keeping the horses' mouths
light ; in reality, they are only worrying the horses.

As to the wheel-reins, for example ; when they are
once evenly adjusted, the horses are going straight ;
if one or the other is lengthened the pair will go to
one side or the other, which is not desired, and ex-
actly the same is true of the leaders, as a pair. That
the lead-reins may require to be let out or taken
back is more likely, but even this need not often
happen on a level road.

The more successful the coachman is in keeping
his reins unchanged in his left hand the better,
always remembering that this does not mean or
necessitate a dead pull upon his horses' mouths ; on
the contrary, he should constantly give and take his
luhoic hand, so as to prevent his horses from pulling.

As a matter of fact, a man must be a very good
coachman and his team an even one, to keep the
reins unchanged in his left hand ; the reins will slip
more or less and require re-arrangement by the
riufht hand. Slicrht chanees of direction can be
readily made by the left hand alone (see page 311).

The perfection of driving is to have the least
visible motion of hands or reins, and a cultivation
of this quiet way is strongly recommended to the
beginner ; it will worry his horses less, save him

298 HAND ON THE REINS CH. XIV

from fatigue, and be considered much more elegant
by good judges, and even by those who admire it,
without knowing exactly why. A fussy coachman is
not necessarily a good one, although many people
seem to think so.

It was once said in my hearing, of a certain four-
in-hand man, that his horses must be very well
trained, because they always went along of them-
selves ; as a matter of fact, he drove all sorts of
horses, but knew how to put them together and how
to drive them.

As to authorities on this matter, the followino-
quotations are interesting. ' Nimrod' {^Noi'thern
Tour, p. 274), speaking of David Roup, a coachman
for the famous Captain Barclav, says : —

' His seat on his box is perfect ; his reins well laid
' over his fingers, and as firm as if they were stitched
' there ; his hands as quiet as if he were asleep, the
' riofht hand never stirrino- at all till it was wanted,
' when it was used as it should be ; and taken alto-
* orether, there was a combination of streno^th, with
' ease and smoothness, about his performance that
'pleased me as much as it surprised me.' This was
written in 1834, the best period of coaching, by an
excellent critic.

CoRBETT {An Old CoacJwiaii s Chatter, p. 256)
says : ' I was once talking on this subject to
' Charles Tustin, with whose name I have already
' taken liberties, when he remarked that a coachman
' should take up his reins at the beginning of a stage

CH. XIV

POSITION OF HAND AND ARM

299

' and never have to alter them in his left hand till
' he throws them down at the end of it. Some
' drivers I have seen, appear to think it a sign of a
' light hand to be constantly fiddling with their reins.
' I believe it is more a si^n of a fidofetino- hand, and I
' am quite sure, from experience, that hot-tempered
' horses settle down much better without it. The
'less their mouths are meddled with the better.'

This subject has been treated here at some
length because there are excellent coachmen who
hold views opposite to those here expressed, and
who advocate a constant playing with the reins and
shiftine of them.

Position of Hand and Arm. — According to the
instructions given for getting up. the reins are

Fig. 132. PLACES of reins in hand.

shifted from the right to the left in the same posi-
tions in which they were held in the right hand ; that
is. the near lead-rein on top of the fore-finger, the

T,00 POSITION OF HAND AND ARM CH. XIV

off lead and the near wheel-reins between the first
and second fingers, the lead on top, and the off wheel
between the second and third fingers (Fig. 132).

There is undoubtedly a disadvantage in having
one rein on top of the other between the first and
second fingers, but in what is called a full Jiand, see
Fig. 147, where one rein is in each space, the off
wheel-rein cannot be held strongly enough by the
little finger, and the method of holding the reins,
shown in Fig. 132, is that universally adopted in
England and sanctioned by the best practice. (See
the end of this Chapter for other Continental
methods.) The thumb should not be closed down
upon the lead-rein, because that tires the hand, and
because it should be always ready to receive the
loop of the lead-rein when making a point ; for the
same reason the fore-finger is kept a little distance
away from the second-finger.

The reins are held, not by squeezing them on their
fiat surfaces, but by the pressure of the third and
fourth fingers on their edges. If they are too wide
and too thick for the size of the hand, the two
middle reins will not touch the finders, which will,
as it were, arch round them ; if they are of a proper
width the fincrers will touch all the edees and hold
them fast. This is an obvious reason for havinof
them all of the same width. With a light team, the
pressure of the reins upon each other, and their
friction against the glove are quite sufficient to
keep them in place with the hand easy and open.

CH. XIV POSITION OF HAND AND ARM 3OI

While reins should not be glassy or slippery, it is
a mistake to have them sticky with wax ; it will be
difficult to shift them slightly, as may be required.
The more experienced the coachman, the less he
will care for sticky reins ; just as a beginner on
horseback likes a sticky saddle, while nothing is
more disagreeable to an old horseman.

The normal position of the arm is nearly hori-
zontal, the hand slightly lower than the elbow,
opposite to the centre of the body, and about four
inches away from it. The hand must be slightly
bent at the wrist toward the body, so that the
knuckles point straight to the front. This gives a
lightness to the hand, from the play of the wrist,
which cannot possibly be had if the hand is held
out straight. The lead-rein will, in this position,
run nearly over the knuckle. The back of the
hand must be vertical, neither turned up nor down ;
it is then ready to be rotated on the wrist, as may
be required.

If the hand is held much higher than about the
height of the waistcoat pocket, there will be no
room to raise it further in making a sudden stop ;
if it is too low it will be difficult to keep it in the
middle line of the body, and the right hand will
have too far to go to take hold of a rein in front of
the left ; if it is tight up against the body, there will
be no room to draw it back in stopping or in short-
ening all the reins together ; if it is much further
forward than four inches, it will be too far from the

302 POSITION OF HAND AND ARM CH. XIV

right hand, will not be opposite to the centre of the
body, and will induce the coachman to lean forward.

In fact, it may be said that the normal positions
of hand, arm, or body should be intermediate ones ;
that is, they should be such as will permit prompt
motion in any direction.

During a long drive, for the purpose of resting
the arm, the hand may be permitted to go down
and forward as far as it will, for a time.

Naturally, men of different mould and stature,
will adopt somewhat different positions of the arm,
but for the average man, the position just described
is the correct one, since it permits latitude of motion
in all directions and ensures the coachman's sitting
straight to the front, which is very important.

The proper position for the hand and arm is
shown in the photograph facing this page, but it
is only the average position ; a variety of causes
may lead to a change of position. With a very
lio-ht team and on a short drive, especially where
appearance is important, the hand can be held
somewhat high with the wrist rounded in. This
crives liehtness and sufficient strenorth for the pur-
pose. With a pulling team, on a long drive, the
hand and arm uiust come down somewhat. One
extreme may be when showing a highly dressed
team in the exhibition ring ; all the horses will be
very light, going well up to their bits and not
pulling a pound apiece ; then a high hand, sensitive
to the slightest touch, is proper ; the coachman is

PLATE XXVII.

POSITION ON THE BOX.

CH. XIV POSITION OF HAND AND ARM 303

perfectly familiar with his team, and knows exactly
what he can do with them.

The Other extreme may be with a heavy, lug-ging
team which the coachman has never before seen,
with bad mouths and perhaps no one horse bitted
as he should be. The coachman must then keep
his hand down and his arm rather straight, or he
will be tired out in a short time.

It is just the difference between riding a highly
trained horse with a very light hand and steering a
pulling brute across country with a snaffle-bit. No
doubt a fine horseman with crood hands can take
the puller with one-half the exertion that a bad
horseman can, and at the end of the day will have
him pulling less than when he began ; in the same
way an accomplished coachman will drive a bad
team with less exertion than a poor one will, but
he cannot keep his hand and arm as high as with
a licrht team.

The hand need never be higher than the elbow,
that is, with the forearm horizontal ; even this is
rather too high for ordinary work ; any greater
elevation is an affectation. Every now and then
the fashion comes up, especially in pair-driving, of
holding one or both hands up under the chin, but
for this there is no reason. In road work, and with
any but the most finely dressed park team, the
hand should come down to about the lower button
of the waistcoat, which will eive the forearm a de-
cided inclination downward ; and the hand must be

304 POSITION ON THE BOX CH. XIV

at least three to five inches away from the body ;
if it is not, there will be no room to draw it back
for a sudden stop, and the body will have to be
thrown back ; a most ungraceful motion.

The evidence seems to show that the coachmen
of 1820 to 1840, whom we suppose to have been
the best, held their hands somewhat low and out,
with a straight arm, as it is sometimes called.

The left hand should be kept opposite to the cen-
tre line of the body, so as to be ready to move in
either direction, and not to be too far away from the
riaht hand ; but it is sometimes a relief in a lonor drive
to drop the arm almost straight down by the left side
for a short time. In doing so, however, it must be
remembered that the off side reins are shortened,
and it will be necessary to pull them out a little, to
prevent the team from going over to the right.

The driving-seat must not be so steep that the
coachman hardly sits upon it, but only leans against
it, which is fatiguing, because the weight of the body
does not sufficiently assist the pull of the arms with
a troublesome team, and the coachman may be even
pulled off the box should a wheeler fall ; neither
must it be too flat, as that brings the knees in the
way of the reins and diminishes the effect of the
legs in resisting a pull. The cushion shown in Fig.
37 and in Plate XXVII. is of a proper shape, and
is such that the knees are somewhat bent and the
feet rest comfortably on the foot-board, without the
ankle's being strained, which will happen if the lower

CH. XIV ON THE ROAD 305

part of the leg is at too much of an angle with the
foot-board.

The coachman should sit straight, and square to the
front, his shoulders back, and his knees and feet close
together, his toes not projecting beyond the edge of
the foot-board. It is hardly necessary to add that
he should never cross his legs or have one foot in
advance of the other. If he sits with his feet drawn
back, off of their proper place on the foot-board,
he is merely preparing himself to be thrown on his
wheelers' backs, in case of striking a stone or a post.

The whip is held by the right hand, at the ferule
(which is ten inches from the butt), and at an angle
of about forty-five degrees from the horizontal, and
forty-five degrees to the front. In this position the
thong is above the near wheeler, and the whole whip
is out of the way of a person on the box. If it is
nearer to this passenger, a sudden touch on a branch,
in passing, will drive the whip back into his face before
the coachman can stop it. If it is too low the loop
of the thong may touch, or catch on, passing vehicles.

Ox THE Road. — On a road which is not crowded,
the coach should be kept near the centre, where the
surface is usually hardest and smoothest, and where
the coach will not incline to one side. On a crowded
road, the proper side should be kept, or constant
deviations in meeting vehicles will be necessary.
The best place, in very crowded traffic, is just to the
rigfht of the centre line of the road ; advantaoe can

306 INCLINE TO THE RIGHT CH. XIV

then be taken to slip along past the vehicles which
are in front, whereas if the coach is far over to the
right it will be hopelessly hemmed in by the vehicles
about it, some of which may be going at a walk.
In driving through very crowded streets, this is of
the utmost importance if time is to be made.

Of course the side of the road just mentioned
refers to America. In England it must be reversed.
In France it is the same as in America.

In turning out, when meetina- another vehicle, the
rieht hand should take hold of the off reins, with the
third fineer between them, about six inches in front
of the left hand, and then be drawn toward the left,
while at the same time the left should be allowed to
go forward somewhat, so that the hands nearly
meet (Fig. 133).

If the right hand is moved outward or azoay from
the left, it will inevitably pull the reins out of the left,
so that when the movement is completed the reins,
in the left hand, will not be even, and will require
re-adjustment.

This is a mistake that the majority of beginners
make, and it is a serious one. If the right hand is
not fully six inches in front of the left on the reins,
it is more liable to pull them out.

The reason for letting the left hand go foi^ward is
that the pace shall not be diminished, as will be the
case if no rein is given to compensate for the pull.
In fact, it must be remembered that the horses
should be permitted to go to the rigJit, instead of

CH. XIV

INCLINE TO THE RIGHT

?>o7

being pulled to the right, and with some horses it is
better to make the whole movement by letting the
left hand go forward, not taking the right hand back.

Fig. 133. INCLINE TO THE RIGHT (OFF REINS SEPARATED^.

Some good coachmen put the whole hand on the
off reins, with the nails downward, taking both reins
in one grasp, between the under side of the hand
and the thumb (Fig. 134), but it is better to take
the reins with the third finger between them, be-
cause the hands and reins are then exactly in the
position to make a point with both off reins into the
spaces on both sides of the third finger of the left
hand, if it is desirable to do so in order to continue

3o8

INCIJNE TO THE RICxHT

CH. XIV

for more than a few seconds, the movement toward
the right, or to put the right hand on all the reins
in case the horses pull.

Fig. 134. INCLINE TO the right (OFF REINS TOGETHER).

It may be added, that the hands should be always
kept with the backs vertical, and with the fingers
pointing toward each other, in order to make the
fingering as simple and as rapid as possible.

Having the reins separated by a finger, permits
either rein to be allowed to slip, if this is necessary
to make the movement more accurate.

The right hand must be taken off of the reins as
soon as the movement to the side of the road is
accomplished, and it may be necessary to use it
immediately in the same way on the near reins to
return to the centre of the road.

CH. XIV

INCLINE TO THE LEFT

509

In turning out to the left, the converse of this
must be followed, and the right hand passed in front
of the left, taking the near reins, separated by a
finger, and pulling them toward the right hand. It

Fig. 135. INCLINE TO THE LEFT.

is sometimes said, that the right hand never should
be crossed over the left to seize the reins ; but it is
not really crossed over ; only put in front ; it is
impossible to take hold of the near reins with the
right hand without putting the right hand in this
position.

Since the right hand, when on the near reins and
in front of the left, naturally pulls toward the left
hand, there is not much likelihood of disturbing the
reins, but too much stress cannot be laid upon the

,TO

INCLINE TO THE LEFT

CH. XIV

fault of drawing- the right hand away from the left and
the reins with it. — the source of much bad driving.

The method just described occupies the right hand
and prevents, for the time, the use of the whip, for
the whip never must be used zahiie the whip hand is on
the reins. There is another method which is neater
and which leaves the whip hand free ; this is, to take

Fig. 136. POINT OF TWO NEAR REINS.

a point or loop with both lead-rein and wheel-rein
of the proper side in the left hand and to hold it,
forwarding the hand slightly to make up for the
point, until it is necessary to return to the original
direction, when the points are simply allowed to run
throup-h the finoers. All this time, the rigrht hand is
free to use the whip on a wheeler, if necessary, or
to increase for a moment, the effect of the point.
This is much the better way of making the move-
ment, but it requires strength in the fingers, par-

€H. XIV

INCLINE T(3 THE RIGHT OR LEFT

ticLilarly for the off side reins. In turning out to
the left to pass a succession of objects on the road,
it is especially useful, as it also is in obliquing
across a street, after having stopped at that kerb
which is on the side against the traffic.

There is another way of making a slight incli-
nation to the right or left, with the left hand only.
If the left hand is turned so that the back of it is

POINT OF TWO OFF REINS.

Fig. 137.

uppermost and at the same time the hand is drawn
off toward the left side of the body, the off side reins
will be shortened, the near side reins slackened, and
the team will q-q over to the rio-ht. If the left hand
is turned at the wrist so that the thumb comes
toward the body, and the hand moves at the same
time toward the right, the near side reins will be
tightened and the team will 0-0 to the left. This is
a very neat way of getting over from one side of the
road to the other.

312

TURNING A CORNER

CH. XIV

Turning a Corner. — The next movement to be
considered is that of turning a corner.

Fig. i-iS.

30. POINT TO THE LEFT.

FlO. 139. POINT TO THE LEFT.

Turning to the /r/? is done by taking the near
lead-rein between the third and fourth fino-ers of the

CH. XIV POINTS TO THE LEFT AND TO THE RIGHT 313

rio-ht hand about seven inches in front of the left

hand (Fig, 138), and looping- it at that point under
the thiunb, holding it there (Fig. 139) until the leaders
have got straight in the new direction, and then
letting the loop slip gradually until the rein is
straightened out into its original position.

In turning to the right, the off lead-rein is taken
in the same way (Figs. 140, 141), and looped be-
tween the Jirst and second finger and afterward al-
lowed to slip through. If this rein is put under the
thumb,' the last part of the loop will snap out with
a jerk, but from under the first finger it slides out
smoothly, since it is all the time in the space in which
it belong-s.

The length of rein taken up to make the point
depends upon the sharpness of the turn and the
promptness with which the team responds to the
rein. In turning an accustomed corner, horses re-
quire a very slight hint ; but for a very sharp turn,
especially if it is less than a right angle, or, as it is
sometimes called, a back corner, it is well to take,
first a small point to intimate to the leaders what is
expected of them, and then to make another point
a few seconds later.

In making a point, the left hand must not go for-
ward to meet the riofht, but the rieht must come all
the way back to the left, for the reason that the
forwarding of the left hand lets the wheelers rush
forward just at the moment when they should go
steadily round the turn.

314 POINTS TO THE LEFT AND TO THE RIGHT CH. XIV

No harm is done by bringing the right hand all
the way back, since in a turn, the leaders should be

Fig. 140. POINT TO THE RIGHT.

Fk;. 141. POINT TO THE RIGHT.

a little back, so as not to pull on the point of the
pole ; and what is taken in the point is equivalent to

CH, XIV OPPOSITION 315

half that amount taken back on both reins together,
and is usually quite sufficient. If the approach to
the turn is up-hill and the leaders are working
strongly, while the road beyond the turn, is down-
hill, it may be necessary to take the leaders back
before making the point ; to do this, the lead-reins
should be taken entirely out of the left hand, by
seizing them with the right (with a finger between
them) an inch or two in front of the left hand, pull-
ing them out sideways and replacing them in the
left by carrying the right hand behind the left.

Opposition. — In many cases, pointing the leaders
is not all that is necessary to be done in making a
turn ; the wheel horses usually incline to follow the
leaders too quickly, anci, by making too short a turn,
to force the coach against a corner, or a post. To
prevent this, the wheel-rein on the side away from
the turn must be shortened.

If the turn is to the left, after making the point
with the near lead-rein, the off wheel-rein must be,
for the purpose of making the opposition, piLshed
back from in front, throuo-h the finorers, or, still bet-
ter, looped in its proper place between the second
and third fingers (Fig. 142).

If the turn is to the right, the two centre reins,
which are the off lead and the near wheel, are short-
ened by looping them together between the first
and second fino-ers, and then allowintr as much of
the wheel-rein to slip, — which it will readily do with-

OPPOSITION

CH. XIV

out disturbing the lead-rein, — as will give the proper
amount of opposition. Fig. 143 shows this after the
wheel-rein has been allowed to slip so as to diminish

Fig. 142. OPPOSITION of off wheel rein.

Fig. 143. opposition of off wheel rein.

its action. All this is done without keeping the right
hand engaged.

HowLETT teaches, that a turn to the right, for a
sharp corner, should be made by bringing up the
near wheel-rein between the two lead-reins, and

CH. XIV

OPPOSITION

6^/

hanging it over the root of the thumb before making
the lead point (Figs. 144, 145), letting it slip off when

no lonsfer needed.

Fig. 144. HOWLETT'S OPPOSITION.

Fig. 145. DITTO, WITH left point.

The corresponding fingering for the turn to the
left, is to push back the off wheel-rein as described
above.

For very sharp turns, going into gateways and
the like, this opposition of Howlett's is useful, and
he himself employs it with great effect.

3l8 OPPOSITION CH. XIV

Another way is. to point whichever lead-rein is
required, and then, putting- the right hand on both
the reins of the other side, in this way to control the
turn ; the third finger of the right hand being be-
tween the reins, the wheel-rein can be drawn more
tightly than the other. If this turn is to the left,
the hands will be in the position shown in Fig. 135 ;
if to the right, as in Fig. 133, the proper point being
made at the same time in the left hand.

This method occupies the right hand during the
whole of the turn, but it is very simple.

It must be stated generally, that it is desirable to
use such methods of finQ^erincr as will leave the rioht
hand as free as possible, since the coachman may
be called upon, during a movement, to use his whip,
which he cannot do if his hand is on the reins. The
awkward spectacle is not uncommon of a coachman
trying to hit a wheeler while his hand is on his
reins ; under these circumstances, to hit a leader
is obviously impossible.

In turning to the right, when the opposition is
made by using the two centre reins, they can be
shortened by pushing them back instead of looping
them, and afterward they can be allowed to slip out
to their proper lengths ; in turning to the left, it
is obvious that a corresponding result will be at-
tained by pulling the same reins out to a sufficient
distance, but this necessitates brineine back the
hand almost too far against the body in order to
make up for this lengthening.

CH. XIV OPPOSITION 319

With handy horses this is a neat way of working,
but any method which keeps these two reins abso-
hitely together has the disadvantage of giving too
much opposition in proportion to the amount of
point.

After this description of these various methods,
it may be repeated, that, in turning to the right the
two reins which are between the first and second
fingers, — namely, the off lead and the near wheel,
— should be looped in that space together, by one
motion of the right hand. In turning to the left, the
near lead must be pointed first and the off wheel
afterward, each in its proper place, and in both
cases the opposition is quickly and simply effected.
This is only when an opposition is required ; in
easy turns, as out of one wide road into another,
with no vehicles in the way, a point of the lead-rein
is all that is required, and if sufficient point is taken,
steadying * the team with the left hand will keep the
wheelers in their places. If, however, the turn is
into a narrow gateway, especially to the right, the
coach will be close to the corner or to the gate-post,
and the wheelers, unless properly controlled, will
be almost certain to turn too short, especially if it
is a turn with which they are familiar.

Generally the most difficult place to enter grace-
fully is one's own gateway.

* Steadying a team is an accepted coaching expression for holding
the horses back somewhat.

320 DOWN-HILL CH. XIV

This use of an opposition was called by the older
coachmen pointing the leaders and shooting the
wheelers, and must have been very necessary in
entering the cramped archways of old coaching inns
out of narrow streets.

It is almost unnecessary to add that for such
turns all possible room on the opposite side of the
street must be taken ; but sometimes it is not to be
had.

In turning a corner up-hill, particularly if the road
beyond the turn is still steeper than that on which
the coach is, it is sometimes an advantage to let out
the outside lead-rein instead of making a point with
the inside one, so as to encourage the leaders to
make some extra exertion.

Down-Hill. — It is obvious that the leaders should
never have their traces tiofht when oroino- down-hill,
and judgement is required to know how much to
take them back. They must not come back far
enough to let the bars, or the pole, touch them.
They should have their traces just hanging, and the
bars entirely clear of their hocks, and this position
should be attained immediately before the coach
begins to descend, since few things look worse than
to see the leaders pulling for several yards after the
coach has begun its descent.

It will not be necessary, however, to shorten the
lead-reins always, or much. Usually a general pull
upon all four reins will bring back the leaders suffi-

CH. XIV SHORTENING THE REINS 32 1

ciently ; it will depend largely upon how the leaders
and wheelers are working in relation to each other.

In a well assorted team, the leaders should be
somewhat more free than the wheelers, and their
reins will be therefore a little tighter than those of
the wheelers, so that a general tightening of all the
reins will be sufficient to shorten the lead-reins.
Should the w^heelers be pulling and the leaders, in
consequence, have slack reins, it may be necessary
to take up the lead-reins a little.

Even with very light-mouthed horses, however,
all the reins should be tight enough to enable the
coachman to ' feel ' the horses' mouths all the time.

The horses should always be 'in their bridles,'
or, in other words, up to their bits ; else they will
not instantly feel, as they should, the slightest in-
dication from the hand. This is not at all incom-
patible with slight pressure, and constitutes that
liehtness of hand which is so desirable.

As a general principle, after the reins are once
adjusted to the proper place in the left hand, they
should remain there unmoved and held tightly in
the bend of the tJiird and fonrth fingers, as if they
luere fastened together at that point, in front of which
all the fingering must be done.

The reason for pushing in any or all of the reins
from the front is. that when the right hand is in
that position it is just where it is needed to make
any movement, or to do any fingering ; while be-

3~~

SHORTENING THE REINS CH. XIV

///;/<■/ the left hand, it is out of the way and has to
be brought forward to be of use.

The fingering to be good, must be very quick ;
a single second lost may mar it.

In driving at night, it is more difficult to select a
rein behind the hand than to find it in front.

When, however, all the reins are to be shortened
together, they may be taken between the first and
second fingers of the right hand behind the left, and
the left slipped forward on the reins to its new
place. It would be difiicult to do this from the
front, especially if a good deal of shortening is
necessary, because the reins are too flexible to be
pushed readily, and they separate when they get a
short distance from the left hand, so that the right
hand cannot take hold of them all together.

As examples that authorities do not always agree
as to what is proper, the following extracts are
ofiven : —

CoRBETT (p. 249) says : ' But I have seen what is
' even worse. I once beheld a gentleman perform-
' ing in Hyde Park, who, finding himself seriously
' incommoded with the slack of his reins, stretched
' out his right hand over the left, seizing the reins
' in front of it, and then, like sailors hauling a rope
' hand over hand, proceeded to pass his left hand
' to the front and take hold of them in front of the
' right hand. I have frequently seen this manoeuvre
' practised by coachmen driving one or a pair, but
' only this once did I see the trick played on a

CH. XIV CENTRE REINS SLIPPING 323

' four-horse box, and I should think, when it was
' completed, that the reins must have very much
' resembled a pack of cards well shuffled and ad-
' mirably calculated to land the coach in the ditch
' after dark.'

' Nimrod' [Essays, Malet, p. 345) says: 'There
' is an excellent way of handling reins not gen-
' erally adopted. That is, when you want to take
' a pull at your horses, to open the fingers of the
' right hand and to put the reins into them. Then
* pass the left hand, with the fingers open, in front
' of the right hand, and receive the reins into it
' again. Thus you get extra power over your team
'without disturbinof their mouths.' *

Who shall decide ? At all events, it is well to
have charity toward those who think differently
from ourselves.

One of the first troubles that the beginner will
encounter is that of havincr his centre reins, the
off lead and the near wheel, slip through his
fingers. He will discover that this has happened
by finding his leaders going to the near side of the
road, while his wheelers are eoino- to the off side,
and it need hardly be said that at all times, except
in turning, the horses must be exactly in front of
each other and the team perfectly straight. This
inequality of the reins must be corrected by push-
ing the two centre reins in from the front, and it

* This is what French writers call /a reprise des guides.

324 STOPPING CH. XIV

must be prevented by holding the edges of the
reins more tightly in the bend of the third and
fourth fingers (see p. 300).

When a team pulls so hard as to be nearly
unmanageable, it usually happens that these two
centre reins slip, and the leaders get far over to
the left. For this, the remedy, for the moment, is
to take tJiese tzvo reins in front with the rio-ht hand,
and pull the team up by them, which will, at least,
have the result of eettinof the horses straio^ht and
of keeping them in the road.

With new reins, this slipping is a frequent trouble.

Stopping ; Pulling-Up. — In stopping straight, —
that is, not inclining" to the riorht nor to the left,
— it is only necessary to put the right hand on all
the reins, with the third finger between the near
and off pairs of reins, and to pull slowly with
both hands, raising the left higher than the right
(Fig. 146).

The right hand must be put far enough forward
to enable it to be brought back the distance neces-
sary to stop the team without disturbing the posi-
tion of the body, but it should not be advanced so
far, as to require the body to lean forward to make
the motion. Above all, in pulling-up, the coach-
man should never lean backward, but he may
straighten his legs ; all the pull should be taken
without moving the body, and by raising the left
hand and lowering- the right. If this cannot be

CH. XIV

STOPPING

325

done, it shows that the reins have been too loose
before commencing to pull-up.

With very free leaders it is sometimes well to
brino- them back a litde before making a halt, since
the wheelers can then more readily stop the coach
at the last moment ; but this must be done with
caution ; if the leaders stop too soon, the pole will

Fig. 146. sTOPpii

run into them, the coachman not always remember-
ing that the coach keeps running on. This should
be especially borne in mind at a place where the
horses expect to stop, as at a change, or at the
end of a drive, when the leaders will often want
to stop before the exact spot is reached, and the
slightest check to them then, will precipitate their
Pulling-up with the leaders huddled back

action

326 STOPPING CH. XIV

upon the bars and the point of the pole, is ex-
tremely awkward.

In stopping, and at the same time, inclining to one
side, as in coming from the middle of the street to
the sidewalk, a point should be taken with the two
reins on the proper side (Figs. 136, 137), and the
right hand kept free to use the whip. This is
especially necessary in coming up to an accustomed
stopping place, since some one of the horses is
likely to stop too soon and may require to be
touched with the whip. At the moment of stop-
ping, the right hand can be placed on the reins in
front of the points to finish the movement, and the
points then allowed to slip out.

The stop should not be made abruptly, but the
coach should glide to its place and come to rest,
with a gradual diminution of speed, exactly at the
proper spot. Coming up at full speed and pulling
the horses on their haunches, is bad coachino-, and
happily has pretty much gone out of fashion even
with pair-horse coachmen. A coach is a heavy
vehicle for two horses to stop by the back of their
necks, — for the leaders can do nothing to assist,
— and if it runs on beyond its place the conse-
quences may be disastrous, especially on wood or
asphalt pavement, which is apt to be slippery. Too
much speed in coming up may necessitate the use
of the brake, which is very 'bad form,' because
it shows that the coachman cannot stop the coach
with his horses. The rattle, sometimes heard at a

CH. XIV GETTING DOWN 327

halt, of the brake-handle over the teeth of the
rack, is enough to set those of a coaching man on
edofe.

Getting Down. — After the coach has come to
rest, the brake should be put on very quietly and as
hard as possible (see discussion of this, further on),
and the coachman, shifting his reins to the right
hand, in which he retains his whip, should get down
immediately, in exactly the reverse way from that in
which he got up. He tucks his reins, all kept closely
together, into the tug-buckle bearer, in the manner
shown in Fig. 127, and lays his whip across the
backs of the wheelers behind the pads.

He should get down ininicdiatcly, because there is
nothinor more for him to do on the box, and because
the head eroom, or the oruard, has to wait for him
to do so, before putting up the ladder for the pas-
sengers to descend. On a road-coach, the profes-
sional coachman who is to drive away from the
office, should be standing at the wheelers' off side
as the coach comes up and receive the reins and
whip from the person who has been driving, but the
horse-keeper should not do so ; he ought to be at
the wheelers' heads. With a private coach, if the
head coachman has come from the stable to drive
the coach away, it is he who receives the reins and
whip, and, keeping them in his hand, mounts the
box as soon as the people are all off the coach.
If the head coachman has been on the coach, or is

328 GETTING DOWN CH. XIV

occupied with the ladder, or if one of the grooms is
to drive away, the reins remain tucked into the
harness until they are taken out by the person who
is to drive away, and, if they have been kept to-
gether when tucked in, they can be seized exactly in
their proper places when taken up (p. 287.)

There is a difference of opinion among authorities
as to whether the brake should be put on after the
coach stops, on a level ; all agree that it should be
on if the coach is standing on an up or down grade.
I must express myself strongly in favour of putting
it on after stopping, since there are good reasons
in favour of so doing and none that seems to me
of any real force, against it.

In getting down from a coach, the passengers
cause a little shaking of the vehicle, which is apt to
produce a slight forward movement, and this, com-
municated to the horses, causes them to step for-
ward, with the result of displacing the ladder while
some one may be descending ; this, the brake pre-
vents. At a chanore, the coachman is on the orround
and frequently women only are left on the top of the
coach. The consequences, should the horses get
away under these circumstances, might be frightful,
and they are very much less likely to do so with the
brake on. At a change, the wheelers just put-to,
may push over the horse-keeper at their heads, or
there may be some carelessness in holding them.
Several instances are on record of accidents of this
kind, and I once witnessed one, fortunately attended

CH. XIV TAKING DOWN THE WHIP 329

with no serious results, which made a deep im-
pression upon me. For a road-coach, there should
always be a block with a long handle, ready to be
put under the wheel, at the changes, but this is
sometimes forgotten, and a habit of putting on the
brake diminishes danger. The only reason for not
putting it on appears to be that it is thought to
look rather shnu.

CoRBETT (p. 55) says, apropos of an accident
which happened from the horses' running away from
a change place at Colchester, July 1839 : ' Probably
' this accident would not have occurred if the coach
' had been fitted with a brake, which the coachman
' ought to put on tight before leaving his box.'

What should be done with the whip, on getting
down, is also a good deal discussed. On some
road-coaches the coachman throws it across the
horses' backs before getting down ; this requires
practice, and the whip is very likely to fall on the
ground, and get muddy, or broken ; on others, the
coachman throws it to a man waiting to receive it.
It ought not to be put into the whip socket, or
bucket, which indeed many coaches very properly
are without. In the socket, it is in the way of get-
ting up and down, and is likely to be broken by
some one's taking hold of it. It should be taken
down by the coachman ; and there seems, on the
whole, no better way of disposing of it than to lay
it across the wheelers' backs, unless, as has been

330 OTHER METHODS OF HOLDING THE REINS CH. XIV

before mentioned, a near wheeler dislikes having
the thong hanging against him, in which case it must
be disposed of by standing it, with its butt on the
ground, behind, and leaning against, the lamp iron
on the off side of the coach.

At a change, it is usually kept in the hand, unless
the coachman assists with the horses.

Other Methods of Holding the Reins. — The
method of holding the reins and of fingering, thus
far described, may be properly called the English
method, since, with slight variations, it is that which
has been in use in England for at least a century,
the only essential change having been the substitu-
tion of the long wheel-rein for the short one, de-
scribed on p. 229. Although this method is accepted
as the best, there are others which should be noticed.

Fig. 147. FULL HAND.

In what is called the 'full hand,' Fig. 147, the
order of the reins is the same as in the English
method, but instead of there beincr two reins be-

CH. XIV

CONTINENTAL METHODS

ITALIAN VETTURINO.

tween the first and second finQ^ers there is a rein
in each space. The reins are
entirely separated, but the off
wheel-rein, on top of the little
finger, is not firmly held owing
to the want of strength in that
finger, which is a serious objec-
tion to the method. This used
to be the manner of holding the
reins in France not lono- ao;o,
and is given as being the proper
way, in Montigny's Manuel, pub-
lished in 1865.

Among the professional coach-
men of Switzerland and Italy,
where there is a great deal of
four-horse driving to diligences
and private travelling-carriages,
many varieties of fingering can
be seen, and the diagrams (Fig.
148) show several methods which
are certainly widely different ; it
will be noticed, however, that in
none of them is there a rein over
the little finger. The reins are
never used in both hands except
for some momentary purpose.

The two Italians (whose meth-
ods are illustrated by diagrams
A and B) are experienced drivers and masters of

DILIGENCE. ST MORITZ

diligence. st moritz.
Fig. 148.

CONTINENTAL METHODS

CH. XIV

their art. The arrangement of the reins shown at
B is the most illogical of the four ; yet it is that of
an extremely good coachman.

The method of the St. Moritz diligence, C (also
shown in Fig, 149), approaches nearest to the
English in having the lead-reins adjoining and the
wheel-reins adjoining ; in all the others, the near
reins are next to each other and the off reins next

Fig. 149. ST. MORITZ diligence.

to each other; in the American method (see suc-
ceeding pages) this latter arrangement is adopted,
as is inevitable in all two-handed driving. In the
English method more importance is attached to
being able to regulate the work of the two pairs
of horses, and of all the methods, it is the best
adapted to fine work, inasmuch as the reins are
in the positions most convenient for making the
points both for the leaders alone, and for leaders
and wheelers combined, and for taking off the
lead-reins in order to equalise the work of the
horses.

CH. XIV AMERICAN METHOD 2>33

As an instance of how many different ways of
doing the same thing may be suggested, the follow-
ing method given in Jouffret's Cojidiiite en Guides
deserves mention : The near lead-rein is over the
first finger, the end coming out in front between
that finger and the next ; the near wheel is on the
second finger, coming out in front, below that finger ;
the off lead-rein is over the third, and the off wheel
over the little finger, both reins hanging down. A
worse arrangement of the reins for any useful pur-
pose it would be difficult to imagine.

In Walker's Manly Exercises, ed. 1835, ^ plate
by Alken shows the near lead and the near wheel-
reins togctJier on top of the fore-finger, but another
plate in the same edition shows them in the accepted
position, although the back of the hand is horizontal
instead of vertical. The first drawing is possibly a
mistake of the artist or the engraver ; there is no
mention of that method in the text.

American Method. — An American staee-driver
holds his reins in the manner shown in Fig-s. i qo
and 151. The near lead-rein is on top of, and
the near wheel-rein underneath, the fourth fino-er
of the left hand, the ends coming up in the hand
and falling backward over the thumb. The off
lead-rein is on top of, and the off wheel-rein un-
derneath, the second finger of the right hand,
the ends hanging downward in the interior of the
hand.

334

AMERICAN METHOD

CH. XIV

When the coachman wishes to take all the reins
in one hand, or to ' club' them, he passes those in

Fig. 150. AMERICAN METHOD

Fig. 151. AMERICAN METHOD.

his right hand into his left, so that the off lead-rein

CH. XIV AMERICAN METHOD 2)35

is on top of, and the off wheel-rein underneath, the
first finger, the ends hanging down through the
hand. The reins in this way cross in the hand, and
can be pressed upon each other very tightly so as
to prevent their slipping. The racing jockey ofi;en
crosses the reins in his hand in the same way. With
thick fur gloves, such as are worn by stage-drivers
in the mountains in winter, this hold of the reins is
strong without being fatiguing.

For six horses, in the American fashion, the
order is as follows : in the left hand, the near wheel
under the fourth finofer, the near swine under the
third, and the near lead under the second, the ends
going up ; in the right hand, the off lead over the
first finofer, the off swinof over the second, and the
off wheel over the third, the ends hanoring- down.

The American stage-driver drives habitually with
both hands, the whip being held in the right, close
to the butt, and resting on the reins.

In turnincr a lone corner the near or off reins are
frequently pulled to the proper side without changing
their relative lengths, an operation called ' chop-
ping' ; but in turning sharper corners, the hands
are brouoht near too-ether, and with the thumb and
finger of one hand, the lead-rein on the proper side
is shortened by pushing or pulling it back ; it being
allowed to slip out after the turn is completed.
This serves the same purpose as making a point.

If the road is bad or up-hill and the turn not very
sharp, chopping is generally used, as it does not

SIX HORSES

CH. XIV

take the leaders back, but permits them to pull
through the whole turn.

For the same reason, a coachman turning on a
steep place will let out the rein of the leader on
the outer-side of the turn, instead of taking up the
inner-side rein, so as to permit the leaders to do
still more work (see p. 320).

For further comments upon the American method,
see Chapter XX.

Fingering for Six Horses. — With six horses, ac-
cording to the English method, the reins are held as
shown in Fig. 152 ; the lead-reins and those of the
swing, or middle horses, in the same places as those

Fig. 152. SIX horses.

of the leaders and wheelers of four horses, and
those of the wheelers, which may be considered as
a pair added, are placed below all the others, on
the two sides of the third finger. The lead points
are made exactly as with four horses, and if the

CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING 2>2>7

swing-reins require pointing, it is done in their
proper spaces. In fact, usually only the lead and
wheel horses are driven ; the swins: horses follow in
their proper places, of necessity, although in making
sharp turns they sometimes require guiding.

For six-horse driving the leaders must work
evenly and be quite free, since they cannot be
reached by the whip. In making a turn they must
be held back somewhat, but, if a chain is used be-
tween the swing horses instead of a pole (see p.
278), they must not be so held back as to permit the
bars to drop too low.

When more than four horses are required, three
harnessed abreast on the lead, with two at the wheel,
will do nearly as much work as three pairs, because
more easily handled.

Turning and Backing. — The space in which a
coach and four horses can be turned, depends on
the angle at which the fore carriage will lock, and
on the length of the perch. The angle of lock is that
made by the pole with the centre line of the coach,
when the front wheel is turned as far as it will go
against the body, or against the stop which prevents
it from touching the body. In a coach, it is usually
about twenty degrees, rarely as much as twenty-two.
The lareer it is, the smaller the circle in which the
coach will turn.

As breaks are built of many different patterns,
their angles of lock vary, but they usually lock much

ANGLE OF LOCK

CH. XIV

further round than a coach, and consequently can
be turned in a smaller space.

By the following method the angle of lock of a
coach is found by a simple measurement, without
any computation : —

Place the coach on a level floor and block the
hind wheels, put the pole in its place, and mark
upon it a point ii ft. 8 in. (140 inches) from the
perch-bolt. With a pole of the usual length this
point will be near its end. Put the fore-carriage
hard on the lock (Fig. 153), and with a plumb-bob.

Fig. 153.

or any convenient substitute therefor, drop a line
to the floor from the point marked on the pole
and mark that spot on the floor ; then, taking care
not to disturb the position of the hind wheels,
put the fore-carriage on the other lock and mark
on the floor, the spot vertically under the point
on the pole ; measure the direct distance between
the two marks ; the angle given in the following
Table, opposite to that distance, is the angle of
lock.

CH. XIV

ANGLE OF LOCK

339

Example : The first position of the pole being
indicated by the black lines, and the second by the
dotted lines, the coarse dotted line will be the
distance, ^ 8 feet, and the angle of lock will be 20
degrees on each side of the central position of the
pole.

Table for Angle of Lock. Point on Pole ii Ft. 8 In.

Ft.

In.

Degrees.

Ft.

In.

Degrees.

Ft.

In.

Degrees.

i8>^

^S%

22%

I9>^

i6>^

23>^

20>^

17^

24>^

2I>^

The length of the perch also affects the space in
which the coach will turn : the shorter the perch the
less will be the width required.

The following^ Table shows how much the diam-
eter of the circle made by the outer front wheel is
affected by different angles, and lengths of perch : —

Perch 6 Ft. 6 In.

20°

22°

24°
37 I

30°

Diameter of circle, ft. in. . . .

43 0 39 9

31 0

Perch 6 Feet.

20°
40 I

22°
36 II

24°
34 9

30°

Diameter of circle, ft. in. . . .

29 0

340 TURNING AND BACKING CH, XIV

With a coach locking- at an angle of 20 degrees
and having a perch 6 ft. 6 in. long, a turn can be
made in a street which measures 44 feet in width
without the outside leader touching the kerb ; if
the leaders are pulled well to the inside of the
turn before reaching the kerb, it may be done in
a few inches less.

Fig. A, Plate XXVIII. /•= shows the tracks of the
wheels and the position of the horses' feet in such a
turn. The dotted lines are the tracks of the front
wheels and the full lines those of the hind wheels ;
the round foot-prints those of the fore-feet and the
longer ones those of the hind-feet.

If there were no leaders, the space required would
be only a few inches less.

To turn in a road of less width than 44 feet,
backing must be resorted to, and the narrowest
street in which a turn can be made with a coach
that locks at the usual angle, 20 degrees, is 24 feet
between the kerbs.

The manoeuvre must be executed as follows : —

The coach should be brought into a position
about 16 feet from the off side kerb and parallel

* The diameter of the circle in which a coach will turn, may be
thus found. In Fig. A, the lines of the front and hind axles, when
on the lock, meet in the centre of the circle, the perch is the sine of
the angle of lock, and the distance from the perch-bolt to the centre
is the radius, to which half the length of the axle must be added to
get the radius of the circle of the outside front wheel. The angle
of lock is the same as the angle at the centre.

PLATE XX VIII

TURNING DIAGRAMS

CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING 34I

to it (Fig;. B, Plate XXVIII.), the horses turned to
the rieht until the coach is on the lock, and then
backed until the hind wheels touch the kerb, which
they will both do if the coach has been kept hard on
the lock. The leaders must then be drawn to the
left, and, in a street 24 feet wide, they can pass
the kerb without touching it. As the leaders can
be brought back more than a foot behind the posi-
tion which they occupy when straightened out, it is
possible to squeeze round in 23 feet. About the
time that the leaders reach the kerb, the wheelers
must be pulled to the left, not letting them go for-
ward until the coach is hard on the other lock, and
the leaders having been kept turning, the coach can
then be drawn off in the new direction, which will
be parallel to the kerb and 16 feet from it.

In making a turn in this way, the coach is backed
through an entire quarter circle. If the street is
wider, say 30 feet, it is better to draw close to
the right-hand kerb, and then to drive obliquely
across the street (Fig. C, Plate XXVIII.) nearly
on the left lock, until the leaders' feet reach the
kerb ; the coach will stand partly across the street.
Then putting the horses over to the right until the
coach is on the right lock, they are backed until the
hind wheels touch the kerb, which they will soon
do, since before beginning to back, the coach was
already partly in the proper position. In a 30-foot
street it will be necessary to back through less than
an eighth of a circle instead of a whole quarter,

342 TURNING AND BACKING CH. XIV

which is important, since the majority of horses dis-
Hke backing ; they have also to back only on a part
of the street which inclines toward the eutter, so
that the coach runs down-hill.

In Fig. C, the leaders could be brought back
somewhat more on approaching the kerb, so that
the coach could go further on, and then on being
backed, it would come more nearly square to the
kerb behind it. The letter ' a' shows the first posi-
tion of the horses; 'b,' the second position just
before backing;.

When, therefore, the street is only 24 feet wide,
the movement must be commenced parallel to the
kerb and about 16 feet from it, in order to eet
round, but for a width of 30 feet or more, it is better
to bring the coach somewhat across the road before
going on the lock, so as to diminish the distance
through which it must be backed ; in a width of
less than 30 feet there is no advantage in obliquing
across the road, since the coach will not go far enough
away from the kerb (on account of the leaders'
reaching the other side) to back square against it,
and the movement would have to be repeated.

If the coachman, starting to make a simple turn
in a 44-foot street, finds that he is not going to get
round without backing, he should commence his
backing movement as early as possible, so as to get
the advantage of the slope of the side of the road.
It is difficult for the horses to back a coach up even
a slio-ht orrade.

CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING 343

In the movements thus described, the coach is
supposed to be put on the lock by one movement
of the front axle from a straight line, but in turnino;
into a curve from a straight line, until the constant
angle of the axles is reached, the hind wheels will
follow the front ones, not in a circle, but in a
curve called the 'tractrix,' because it results from
their being draiun by the front wheels by means
of the perch, and, on returning from a circle to a
straight line, it will be some time after the front
wheels have taken the straio-ht line before the hind
wheels will take it. The further apart the axles
are, the more marked this will be, and this is a
reason why a long geared carriage, like a landau,
runs harder than a short one, after making a turn,
the hind wheels coming into the straight line very
slowly.

In backing movements, the mistake is usually
made of not turnino- the front wheels enough to
one side, and the coach does not, therefore, in its
movement, respond to the expectations of the
coachman.

In driving up to a door, it may be desirable to
back into a position closer to the kerb than could
be taken at first, owine to some obstacle's beingr in
the way, and it will be found, that unless a very
decided angle is made with the front wheels, the
result will be unsatisfactory and very little ground
will have been gained in the proper direction.

Should there be an obstruction on the street at a

344 TURNING AND BACKING CH. XIV

point which must be passed just before reaching a
door, the best way is to drive beyond the obstruc-
tion, going close to it, and to draw in to the kerb
as soon as possible, gradually bringing the horses
parallel to the kerb. When all four wheels are
parallel to the kerb the coach can be backed straight
into its place.

If, for example, the obstacle projects 6 feet into
the street and is lo feet from the centre of the
door, the hind wheels will have to go 20 feet be-
yond the obstacle before they will come straight,
and the coach must then be backed 14 feet to
bring it opposite the centre of the door.

In backing the horses, they should not be forcibly
pulled back, but they should be gatJicrcd, by slight,
varying pressures, not exactly jerks, and not by a
dead pull, and in turning the leaders through the
long sweep that they make in going from one lock
to the other the handlincr should be the same ; a
dead pull would bring them back ; they should be
coaxed round as it were.

In ordinary coaching, backing round in a narrow
place will not be often required, but if the coach-
man finds himself in a road the far end of which
is closed, he will be, or should be, mortified if he
is not able to turn around promptly and gracefully
without help from his grooms, or uncertainty as to
the result ; there are sometimes lone stretches of
road without places sufficiently wide to turn, in the
ordinary way, in which the coachman may have to

CH. XIV DRIVING APPARATUS 345

drive helplessly on when he knows that he should
have turned round lono- before, to eet his load home
in time for dinner.

At race-courses, country-clubs, and similar places
it is frequently necessary to back the coach into
position under a shed, or in an enclosure of small
size, and although that operation usually falls to the
lot of the professional coachman or groom, it is to
be assumed that the owner will not expect his ser-
vant to do anything of that kind which he himself
cannot do as well, or better, and he may be assured
that no small amount of practice and judgement is
required to accomplish the feat even moderately
well, — which may also be said of moving a carriage
without horses, in a coach house ; some coachmen
do it with quickness and certainty, and others only
after many failures.

Driving Apparatus. — A little device designed by
me in 1892, will be found convenient for practising
and for illustrating^ methods of fineerine.

Two pulleys, each with two rollers, have hooks
by which they can be attached to eyes screwed into
any convenient wood-work, or to clamps fastened
on the edge of a heavy table, or on the balustrade
of a piazza.

Over these pulleys, straps an inch in width, repre-
senting the reins, are passed. Each strap termi-
nates in a ring, to which is hooked a wire stem,
long enough to carry eight weights of one pound

;46

DRIVING APPARATUS

CH. XIV

each. In Fig. 154. two pounds are represented as
on each rein.

One pound barely keeps the rein tight.

Two pounds on each rein represent the pull of a
very light team.

Fig. 154.

Three pounds, a light but strong-going team that
will not tire a man in good condition.

Four pounds, as much as is at all pleasant for a
long drive.

Five pounds, too much to be pleasant, even when
in good condition.

CH. XIV DRIVING APPARATUS 347

Above five pounds represents a lugging team,
and with eight pounds, or, in all, thirty-two pounds,
a man's arm would soon mve out.

Since seventy pounds is a fair tractive force for
a coach, on a good road, it often happens with a
pulHng team, that a large part of the traction is
through the reins and the coachman's arms ; in
speaking of the strength required to hold a team,
it must be remembered that no man on the box can
exert more strength than the amount required to
draw the coach, for as soon as that is reached, the
horses draw wholly by their mouths instead of by
their shoulders, and the coachman's arms merely
take the place of traces.

In using the apparatus, the conical weight should
be put on top, to prevent the weights from catching
on each other as they move up and down.

In discussing methods of fingering, this apparatus
is convenient, since all the movements of the hand
and fingers can be made, exactly as they are made
on the coach-box. Any new fingering can be, by
practice, easily acquired, and when one has not
been driving for a time, the fingers and arm can be
brought into condition by a little daily work with
heavy weights.

The space between the lower roller and the
smooth round pin which connects the sides of the
frame, permits the addition of a third rein in case
practice in six-horse driving is desired.

Several interesting little matters, such as the

348 DRIVING APPARATUS CH. XIV

tendency of certain reins to slip more than others,
will be discovered by the expert in practising with
the weights.

This apparatus can be simplified by substituting
for the pulleys and weights, india-rubber bands,
such as are sold by stationers for packages of
papers. Such a band, five-eighths of an inch wide,
and of a thickness of fourteen to the inch, will,
when somewhat stretched, eive a resistance of
about a pound, and any number may be attached
to the end of the rein. This makes the apparatus
portable, and a hundred or more pulls upon it
every morning, when one has no opportunity of
driving, will keep the fingers and the arm in good
condition.

CH. XV 349

CHAPTER XV
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING

Although a boy may acquire confidence and
learn a great deal about horses and driving, by
' knocking- about' and iindino- out things for himself,
the beginner should not fail to take lessons from the
most competent teacher that he can find. That man
who thinks he can deduce from his ' inner conscious-
ness' all the knowledge which is the result of the
long experience, and the accumulated ingenuity, of
generations of performers, is assuming a great deal.
Every art is perfected by the successive inventions
of its masters, which, observed by or communicated
to one another, are slowly formed into a system
much more perfect than it is possible for any one
man to create for himself. A self-taught man inevi-
tably contracts bad habits which he will find very
difficult to abandon, even when he knows the better
way, and the longer he drives without competent
criticism the more fixed these bad habits become.

There is no teacher so good as a professional
teacher ; he is paid to do what even a very skilful
friend is not willing to do : — find fault, in addition to
giving instruction. A pupil should make up his
mind to do precisely what his instructor tells him,
as long as he is driving with him ; to drive with a

350 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING CH. XV

teacher and to be constantly objecting to or criti-
cisinof his methods is a mistake, althouQrh not an
uncommon one.

In addition to takinof all the resJ^ular lessons that
he can get, the beginner will find it greatly to his
advantage to observe carefully any skilful performer
alongside of whom it may be his good fortune to be
placed ; even when a man is well advanced, he will
often learn much by watching another who does not
drive as well as himself, if only by noticing mistakes.

The time required to become a fairly good four-
in-hand coachman will depend upon a variety of
circumstances. If the beginner is young and strong,
and has already had a good deal of experience with
horses, two or three months of conscientious work
under a good teacher will put him well on the way,
but only years of practice will make him a master
of the art.

It must be remembered that there are two parts
in all driving ; one is general, relating to everything
connected with the management of horses ; it is the
same, whether one, two, or four are in hand, and
may be likened to general strategy ; the second
resembles tactics, and must be separately learned
in every branch of the service. A movement well
planned and well executed is likely to be successful ;
one well planned but badly executed is doubtful ;
one badly planned but well executed may come out
right, but one badly planned and badly executed is
sure to be a failure.

CH. XV GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING 35 1

No experience in general practice is thrown away ;
a mere knowledge of how to finofer four reins in the
most accurate manner does not make a coachman ;
and a man who has not been brought up among
horses, and acquired his general knowledge through
rough-and-tumble methods at the time in youth when
discretion does not outweig-h rashness, will find it
difficult, even under the most favourable circum-
stances, to attain the highest proficiency, since he
will be likely to lack that confidence and coolness
which are of the first importance to a good coachman.

It is for this reason that the old professional
coachmen of England were so admirable : put to
their work when boys, sometimes under pretty rough
masters, they early became familiar with all the de-
tails of a complicated art, and acquired an instinc-
tive method of meeting every difficulty. Instinctive
is the proper expression, because there is frequently
no time to think, — the action must be quicker almost
than the thought, like the closing of an eye against
a missile, independent of any conscious intention.

One reason for beginning in the right way is that
having adopted a method, it is most important to
adhere to it, and obviously no one should wish to
adhere for ever to a bad method. Unless a coach-
man has a way which has almost become a second
nature of doing each thing, he is likely to be con-
fused in an emergency, by trying to do two different
things at once, and failing in both.

It will be found that competent professional

352 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING CH. XV

teachers usually have an absolutely fixed way of
doing each thing, and are intolerant of any deviation
from it, which is only natural, since they cannot
teach with authority anything in which they have
not an implicit belief.

One often hears coachmen, those especially who
are devoted to road work, speak sneeringly of what
they consider ' fancy' four-in-hand driving, such as
backing round in narrow places and turning diffi-
cult corners, and insist that to go ahead on a
reasonably plain road is the only duty of a coach ;
and when asked what they would do in a difficult
situation they will answer that a coach has no
business to be in that kind of a place. The accom-
plished coachman, however, will hardly be willing
thus to restrict himself, and will prefer to be able
to execute all movements which are mechanically
possible.

As the temperaments of men differ, so will their
methods of driving : one man, with great skill and
a somewhat rash disposition, will not hesitate to
take orreat chances, confident that he can oet out
of a 'scrape,' which he will probably do in a bril-
liant manner ; another, with good judgement and
foresight, will attain his end without getting into the
difficulty at all. In the long run, the latter method
is preferable, as it is usually better to keep out of a
' fix' than to get out.

The coachman should train himself to be a good
judge of pace : some men never know how fast

CH. XV JUDGEMENT OF PACE 353

they are going, and either lose time, or overwork
their cattle. Four horses to a coach, on a eood
road, get over the ground faster than they seem to
do, to an unpractised observer. In driving a road-
coach over an unknown road, as is sometimes the
good fortune of a coachman, all that he can know
of a stage is, that it is so many miles, to be done in
so many minutes, with a hint that there is such a
part up-hill and such a part down-hill ; and, unless
he is able to judge accurately of the rate at which
he is going, he must do the stage badly, arriving at
the end of it either too early or too late. Various
suggestions are made as to the means of estimating
the speed, such as looking at the wheels, &c. ; but
the only true way is to acquire, by careful observa-
tion, a knowledge of the manner in which horses of
different qualities and sizes go at a certain pace,
whereupon the ability to judge will come insensibly.
Perfect judgement in this respect is not given to all
men, and in race-riding it is justly considered one of
the most important and one of the rarest qualities
that jockeys possess.

Of importance, also, in a minor way, is the ability
to decide upon how much time will be required to
cover a certain amount of road in attempting to
overtake and pass a vehicle, so as not to be forced,
after commencing such a movement, to pull up,
when half through it, in order to permit something
coming in the opposite direction to go by.

Galloping the horses to a coach may be resorted

354 GALLOPING CH. XV

to, either for the pleasure of the motion, or because
with a team, some of the horses of which cannot
trot fast enough, it is better to gallop them all than
to permit only one or two to do so ; horses which
will not trot evenly can often be made to share the
work equally by galloping them all together.

A horse cannot trot at the top of his speed without
soon becoming distressed, whereas he can gallop
the same number of miles an hour, still going within
his speed, since the majority of horses can gallop
faster than they can trot. A gallop rests him, and
a tired horse will break into a gallop much slower
than his ordinary trot.

In galloping, except down-hill, the leaders' traces
should be kept tight, because their pulling on the
point of the pole will keep the coach straighter
than if the wheel horses alone pull by the splinter-
bar, when the coach is apt to swerve about and get
to swinging from one side of the road to the other.
What is called rolliiiQ^ in a coach, commences in
this way, the lateral motion soon inducing a rocking
motion of the body, which may cause an overturn
if it becomes too great. Care must be taken,
therefore, that all the horses, and especially the
wheelers, gallop evenly ; as a rule, while the horses
must be sufficiently steadied by the reins, they
should not be held too tightly, especially if, as in
the case of galloping to make time, they are doing
nearly their best. In galloping, great caution must
be exercised that the team does not get ahead of

CH. XV GALLOPING 355

the coachman ; for no man can stop four good
horses on a level road, if once they get beyond
his control. At the slightest indication that this is
about to happen, they must be pulled down to a
slower pace, without a moment's hesitation. What
these indications are it is difficult to describe, but
the experienced coachman recognises them by a
kind of instinct ; to the inexperienced man they
frequently come too late.

Should the horses get away, on a road which has
no traffic on it, and which can be seen for some
distance ahead, there is one remedy which sounds
somewhat desperate, but which, in good hands, is
the proper one : this is, not only to let them go, but
to urge them on, all the energy of the driver being
concentrated on guiding them ; pulling on them will
only exhaust him, and with no result. Horses, un-
less they are frightened, and therefore crazy, will
not run far at the top of their speed, pulling a coach
with the brake on, but they must be made to go at
the very top of their speed, or they will not tire
soon enoucrh. If the coachman, when he finds that
they are beginning to slacken their speed, has the
good fortune still to have a piece of unobstructed
road ahead of him. he may give them a little of the
whip all round, when the pace will soon take out
of them all desire to run further, and they can be
stopped with the impression on their minds, that
they have been made to do something disagreeable
and fatiguing, which was not by any means fun.

356 GALLOPING CH. XV

If nothing is broken, nor has hurt or frightened
the horses, a runaway thus managed will not injure
them for future driving ; but it will be prudent to
take them carefully over that particular bit of road
on any future occasion ; they may think that they
are expected to repeat the performance, and a horse
has a good memory.

It must be borne in mind that the chance of
success in the application of this method depends
entirely upon the horses being driven all the time
that they are running ; if they are allowed to get
out of hand and to gallop along, each one on his own
account, a leader or a wheeler may come back on
his bar, and get to kicking, with every probability of
a general smash up.

In all this, a clear road has been assumed ; on a
crowded road with sharp turns, a regular runaway
will usually result seriously, and it is, therefore, far
better to avoid it than to make the best of it. This
is one reason for the excellent old rule of going
slowly off the top of a hill ; since pulling horses are
frequently inclined to start off suddenly when they
are relieved of the weioht of the coach, and then to
get beyond control.

Horses will sometimes run away at a trot ; that is,
without breaking into a gallop, they will get beyond
the control of the coachman long before it may
appear to any but an expert observer that they are
so.

It may be remarked that galloping is not always

CH, XV USE OF THE BRAKE 357

faster than trotting, although it usually looks so ;
it is quite easy to gallop a team at a slower pace
than their best trot.

Coachmen differ much in the use that they make
of the brake, and it would be difficult to lay down
positive rules about it. The brake should not be
used for stopping, except to avoid an accident under
some unexpected circumstances ; on a steep descent
it should be put on hard enough to take most of the
strain off of the pole-chains, and on a long hill which
is not steep (say about three per cent., that is, one
foot rise in thirty-three) it should be put on lightly,
so that the horses can go along at a good speed
without having to pull or to hold back ; toward the
foot of an incline the end of which turns, or cannot
be distinctly seen, it is well to have the brake a little
on, both to moderate the pace and to be prepared
for an emergency.

It is a bad plan to use the brake so much that the
horses o-et out of the habit of holding back, since
upon occasion it is of great importance that they
should be able and willing to do so. Many pro-
fessional four-horse coachmen on the Continent, use
the brake to keep the traces tight in going down a
moderate hill, so that the horses shall be always at
the same distance from the hand ; but it is a bad
plan, both because it keeps them at work all the
time, and because it does not permit the collars to
lift from the necks, — a great relief to the wheelers
in warm weather.

358 GROOMS GETTING DOWN CH. XV

The brake may be used, howev^er, to advantage
in descending a slippery slope, even if the grade is
but slight ; a horse, when holding back, is apt to
pull away from the pole, and in that position is
likely to slip sideways on a smooth pavement.

The person sitting on the off side roof-seat of a
coach should never touch the brake unless he is
asked to do so by the coachman.

In driving in a crowd, the horses should always be
kept 'in their bridles,' or, in more exact language,
' up to their bits.' If this is not done, they will not
respond promptly to an indication of the reins. In
fact, horses well driven should always go up to their
bits, quite a different thing from pulling or taking
hold too much. In crowded streets, it is quite neces-
sary to take care that the near leader be not struck
by the wheel of a carriage which, overtaking the
coach and passing on the left-hand side, turns in
too soon in front of the leaders ; unless the horses
are well in hand they cannot be pulled off to the
right quickly enough to avoid the blow.

The orrooms should not cret down and o-o to the
horses' heads whenever there is a block or a slio;-ht
stop. It indicates an habitual nervousness on the
part of the coachman or a want of confidence in his
skill, on the part of his men. There are occasions
when it is necessary, and then active men who can
get to the spot quickly, are invaluable, but the fin-
ished coachman rarely requires such aid. In driving
away from a difficult place, the men may linger a

CH. XV GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING 359

little near the horses' heads until the horses are
fairly started, but out of the way and without inter-
fering, merely so as to be at hand should their as-
sistance be absolutely required ; for instance, in
leaving a race-course, where there is a crowd, and
perhaps a narrow passage or gate, and when the
horses are excited, by waiting, and by the people
around them ; but as a rule, when three persons
are required to manage four horses, something is
wrong.

A helpless-looking man seated on the driving
cushion, with his whip in the socket, his reins all of
different degrees of tightness, with a man at each
leader's head, endeavouring to make way through
an admiring crowd, is not an edifying spectacle.

A little quick thought will sometimes get a coach-
man out of a difficulty.
On a certain occasion, as
I was drivino; a coach to t

a private race-meeting, I
noticed, in approaching
the course, that the en- "*
trance to it had been
made by pulling down
two panels of fence at a
corner, making a sharp
turn in, as shown in Fig. 155, the full black line
being the track which the vehicles were expected
to follow. A friend asserting that it would be im-
possible to dri\'e in there with a coach, I offered to

Fig. 155.

360 BITTING AND HANDLING HORSES CH. XV

bet that I could do it at a sharp trot, and, following-
the line indicated by the dots, did so easily. Since
the turn was made in a ten-acre field, there was no
particular difficulty in the feat.

Another time, when driving a pair of strange
horses to a phaeton and approaching, on an upward
slope, a narrow gate into a park, a carriage came
suddenly out of the gate and made it necessary to
stop. Upon attempting to start up the slope, the
horses baulked, and refused to oro on ; the eroom,
jumping down, ran to their heads with the intention
of leading them, an operation which, besides being
awkward even if successful, would very likely have
led to an altercation between the horses and the
ofroom. The latter beincr ordered to stand aside,
the horses were merely turned round down the hill
and a^ain turned at a distance sufficient to eive
them some headway, and then went through the
o-ate at a trot, without the slio-htest hesitation.

Bitting and Handling Horses for Driving. —
The bits described and figured in the chapter on
Harness, are those most in use for driving, although
there are many other patterns which for special
reasons, are favourites.

For saddle purposes, the bits are : first, the plain
snaffle, which is a jointed bit (like that shown in
Fig. 91), but with cheek-pieces, or horns, added to
the rings, so that they cannot be pulled through the
horse's mouth. This is the mildest form of bit, and

CH. XV

BITTING

;6i

is used on race horses and sometimes on hunters.
With horns, and with loose rings to be attached to
the cheek-pieces of the bridle (Fig. 92), it is an ad-
mirable hunting bit. Without horns and as shown
in Fig. 91, it is used, in a riding-bridle, as the bridoon,
or accompanying bit to the curb, but it then has a
thinner mouth-piece. Secondly, the curb-bit, which
for saddle purposes has lighter branches than the
driving-bit, with one ring at the top, to fasten it to
the bridle, and one ringr at
the bottom, for the rein.
The mouth-piece usually
has the form shown in
Fig. 88, B, with a port or
liberty of the tongue. The
best form of this bit is
shown in Fig. 156,

which the canons of the
mouth-piece are thick and the port somewhat thin-
ner, so as to crive room for the tongue while not
bringing the port too near the roof of the mouth.

In Fig. 156, the port is inclined forward, from the
line of the branches, so that when they take their
proper position under the pull of the reins, the
tongue will have really the most liberty, which will
not be the case if the port is in the same plane with
the branches.*

* I am tempted to add an extract from a letter written to me in
June 1872 by Benjamin Latchford, the well-known bit and spur

362 BITTING CH. XV

Major DwYER, in his valuable book, Scats and
Saddles, Bits and Bittinp\ orives what he considers
the proper dimensions of the different parts of the
bit, namely: i^ inches from the under side of the
mouth-piece to the centre of the upper ring, show-
ing clearly, that for the average horse this brings
the curb-chain in its proper place on the under
side of the jaw ; and 31^ inches for the length of
the lower part of the branch from the under side of

maker of London. ' Dear Sir, — Yours of 24th May last is now be-
' fore me ; I have noted its contents. Mine is a lifelong experience
' in, and of, the Bitting of Horses : take that for what it is worth,
'and, believe me, you are the first and only one (as far as I can
' recollect) that can see as I do the true position of the horse's head
' with the bits, and the bits with the horses' heads. If you simply
' question any breeder, trainer, breaker, hunting or driving gentle-
' man, park or road rider, or jockey (as I have done hundreds of
'them), you will find the idea is that the horse's head is naturally
' horizontal, and the cheeks and the bits perpendicular, and that the
' part in a line with the cheeks is the position to give ease and freedom
' to the tongue ; however absurd, I have always found it the prevailing
' idea among them. Your drawings exactly accord with my proper
' construction of a bit with a port mouth of any sort, — i.e., the port to
' be one-eighth of a circle (or 45 degrees) forward from the perpen-
' dicular cheek of the bit : as you know, the horse's head is nearly
' perpendicular ; the bit fastened to the leather hangs perpendicular ;
' consequently the mouth-piece with a port of any kind, lies a crooked
' bar on the tongue, unless set forward one-eighth of a circle as your
' drawing is, in which case the tongue has the benefit of it when not
'in use, and the greater benefit when in use.' The letter to which
this was an answer, accompanied an order for a bit, and I was much
pleased to find my ideas on the subject endorsed by so good an au-
thority.

CH. XV

BITTING

363

the mouth-piece to the ring to which the rein is
attached. The measures are not from the centre
of the mouth-piece, but from its underside, because
that is the point about which the bit rotates on the
bars of the horse's mouth.

Major Dwver's opinions are supported by such
good arguments and iUustrations, unfortunately too
long to be quoted here, that they may be safely
adopted.

It is not so easy to give dimensions in inches for
the ividth of the bit as for the length, since the
widths of horses' noses differ greatly, but a good fit
in width is even more important than the proper
length of the branches ; no horse will work really
well with a bit which is not of the proper width ;
a fact so rarely recognised that out of any twenty
harness-horses taken at random, ten will be found
to have bits too narrow or too wide, usually too
wide. The bit must be of such a width that when
the curb-chain is hooked properly and the rein
pulled back, the outside of the
lower lip will fill the space
between the branches without
being pinched by them. If it is
much wider than this, it may
be pulled sideways in the
mouth, and instead of the can-
ons of the mouth-piece (C C,
Fig- 157) resting fairly on the bars of the mouth,
which are narrow, the point of junction of the canon

Fig.

157-

364 BITTING CH. XV

and port, or, still worse, even the middle of the
port, P, will bear upon one of the bars. As a rule,
the width of the port should be about one-third the
whole width of the bit ; bits will vary from four to
five inches, the latter width beinor rare.

The width of a bit may be reduced by using a
leather washer on each side of the lips, but this
still leaves the port too wide for the changed width
of the bit.

The washer prevents the horse from taking hold
of the branch with his lip, but if he has this trick,
it is better to put on an elbow bit (C, Fig. 88), or a
lip strap. Of course, with a straight mouth-piece
without a port, the use of the washer is quite satis-
factory. A straight mouth-piece is rarely used on
a ridinof bit, and leather washers never.

The high port, referred to on page 203, when
combined with a tight nose-band, which prevents
the horse from opening his mouth, is very effective
by pressing against the roof of the mouth ; but it
must be used with a light hand, or with the rein
in the cheek.

The Pelham bit has a mouth-piece without any
port, but with a joint in the middle (Fig. 158).

In addition to the rincrs for the reins, which are
at the ends of the branches, there are rings at the
ends of the mouth-piece, and when the reins are
buckled to these rings, the bit is practically a snaffle.

This is a favourite ridinor-bit and is used with two
pairs of reins, so that it acts as a curb or a snaffle, at

CH. XV

BITTING

365

Fig. 158.

the pleasure of the rider. Battersby (p. 69) recom-
mends it, with much justice, as a bit for cavalry,
supplying, as it does, a snaffle-bit more convenient
than the separate watering-bridle now
in use. There is an advantage to a
cavalry man in having two reins, in
case one should be cut.

The ordinary driving-bit is, in one
sense, a Pelham, since, although it has
•no joint, there is a ring at the mouth-
piece for the rein, but, instead of having
a ring only at the end of the branch,
there are two or three eyes in the
branch, to either one of which the rein can be
buckled (Fig. 89).

A, in Fig. 88, is usually called the Liverpool bit,
and sometimes, by French writers, the German bit ;
B and C are only modifications of it. D, the Bux-
ton bit, is on the same principle, but has its branch
curved, to prevent the horse from taking hold of it
with his lip.

The Mexican, or South American, bit, which is the
same as the Turkish bit, has no curb-chain, but in
its place a ring, which is attached to the top of a
high port and goes under the chin of the horse ;
it is very severe.

These classes comprise the bits that are in com-
mon use, but the number of forms and names is
very great ; more than ninety are figured in Latch-
ford's Lorincr.

366 HANDLING CH. XV

Handling. — While driving-horses in England are
usually thoroughly handled by the dealer before
being offered for sale, in America they are ' broken
to harness,' as it is called, and only so far prepared
that they can be driven with safety, but with little or
no finish, and, for a man who likes to have his horses
light and handy, are rarely very agreeable to drive.

On a private coach the pleasure of driving de-
pends greatly upon the manners of the horses, and,
unless the owner employs some professional trainer
who can handle and prepare them for him, he ought
to be able to put some work upon them himself to
make them anything like perfect.

A London dealer has at least one man in his
employ, to show and to handle horses, who is a
master of his business, and who, without any sys-
tem that he could describe, will in a comparatively
few lessons make a pleasant horse out of a green
one. The man himself has had good training and
large experience, and has patience, courage, and
hands. Usually he puts a new horse, assuming it
to be ' broken to harness' in the ordinary sense of
the phrase, to a dealer's break (Fig. 58), alongside
of an old horse, 'the schoolmaster,' and soon de-
cides upon the bit and the details of harnessing
which suit the horse best. After a few lessons he
puts him alongside of the horse with which it is
desired to mate him, and, drivinof them too^ether
with great judgement and skill, makes them fit to
show and to sell.

CH. XV HANDLINCx 367

An amateur, if he has equal knowledge and
skill, can do the same, and on our side of the water
he usually must do it for himself.

The breeder of a horse should begin to accus-
tom the colt at an early age to be haltered, to bear
a surcingle strapped on, to be led about, and to
have his feet held up and struck as if he were being
shod. All these things can be easily done with a
little weak foal, which will not resent them, if rea-
sonable care and p-entleness are used, and thus the
way is well prepared for the after operations of
breaking, — a word expressive of the difficulty of
doing anything with a horse which has been allowed
to run wild until he is so strong that only brute
force can subdue him to obedience, — but which
should be replaced by the word training, where
the horse has been properly handled as a colt.

Assuming that a coaching owner receives a horse
as a fairly well broken animal, he will find it ad-
vantageous to handle him in the manner about to
be described.

It is frequently supposed that the work done to
prepare a saddle-horse, is wasted if applied to a
driving-horse, and no doubt much of it would be ;
but a certain portion of it is most useful. The
elaborate systems of training saddle-horses, mainly
for military purposes, since the time of Grison and
FiESCHi, in the middle of the sixteenth century, have
been gradually superseded by simpler methods, or,
at least, by methods requiring fewer appliances and

368 baucher's method ch. xv

assistants, and the Frenchman Baucher brought
out, in 1842, a method, not, of course, entirely new,
which is, more or less, the basis ' of all the best
practice of the present time.

Baucher's method consists in placing the horse,
by the use of the bit and the whip, or the spur, in
such attitudes as to give the rider control of the
horse's movements and to make him light, the
trainer working first on foot and afterward mounted.

The attitude assumed by a horse when he resists,
or puts himself in a position of defence, is with his
legfs extended somewhat backward and his neck
and head advanced. In order to prevent him from
exercisine this resistance, his hind leo-s should be
brought under his body, his neck raised and bent,
and his nose brought in. In this position he is
said to be gathered, and is ready to respond to the
indications of his rider, or driver, and cannot exert
that resistance which makes a horse heavy on the
hand.

This correct position is of more importance in a
saddle-horse than in a driving-horse, but as the stiff-
ness of the body affects that of the neck, a driving-
horse well gathered, will respond more readily to
the hand and to the bit, when being driven, than
an untrained horse, is more agreeable to drive, and
in every way more handy.

This handling is the basis of what is known as
' High-School' riding, which has always been popu-
lar on the Continent, but never so much so in

CH. XV baucher's method 369

England or America, and it may be briefly de-
scribed, as modified by successors of Baucher,
notably by Fillis, as follows : —

The horse, in an ordinary riding-bridle, curb,
and snaffle, is brought to the place of the lessons,
preferably a riding house where there is nothing to
distract his attention. The system, when exactly
followed, requires that preceding this he should
have been exercised with a cavesson and the lunge,
and we will assume that this, or something equiva-
lent, has already been done by the breeder of the
horse.

The trainer, standing on the near side of the
horse, takes the reins of the snaffle together in his
right hand, close to the bit and under the chin, the
ends, with the w^hip. being held in the left hand,
and leads the horse forward a few steps at a time.
Should the horse refuse to move forward, the whip
must touch him just behind the girth, where the
spur would touch him if he were mounted. This
lesson is repeated, by the trainer walking on the
other side, reversing the position of his hands.
The next thing is to make the horse yield, or bend
his neck. This is done by taking the snaffle-reins
in the left hand /;/ front of the horse's nose, holding
the hand high ; and the curb-reins together in the
right hand, eight inches from the bit, drawing the
snaffle up and forward and the curb backward until
the horse drops his head slightly and opens his
mouth. This action on his part must be rewarded

370 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV

instantly by yielding the right hand, and should then
be repeated, the left hand being used to keep the
head up. (It is a fault of Baucher's method, soon
recognised by some of his followers, and especially
by FiLLis, that he made his horses carry their heads
too low ; this must be carefully avoided.) This
operation is called the ' tiexion of the neck and of
the jaw,' and, although by some writers these flex-
ions are treated of separately, they are usually
obtained simultaneously.

There are two purposes in this part of the train-
ing. While a well-made horse may be supposed to
assume proper positions when free and following the
instincts which prompt his action, all horses are not
well-made, and even those which are, have their
equilibrium altered by being put to draught or by
having a man on their back. The horse's head and
neck, overhano-ine the shoulders as thev do. throw
weight on the fore-hand, which tends to make the
fore leofs slow in their movements, and also causes
the horse to luo-, or to bore on the bit. Raisino-
and drawingr back the head and neck, as are done
by these flexions, improve the position in these re-
spects, but, above all, accustom the horse to yield
to the pressure of the bit, when he finds that by so
doing he avoids the discomfort produced by it.

Not by any means the least advantage of the
process is that it educates the hand of the operator,
and gives it that lightness without which no good
riding or driving is possible.

CH. XV BAUCHER S METHOD 371

As the neck comes in and up, the hind legs of the
horse tend to come in more under his body, in order
to preserve his general balance.

These preliminary flexions were made by Baucher
with the horse at rest, but it is important, as Fillis
has pointed out, to combine them with a forward
motion, so as to prevent the horse from contracting
the habit of retaining himself a result which is an
objection justly urged against Baucher's method.
The horse should be. therefore, kept moving for-
ward while the flexions are beino- made, even when
the trainer is on foot, and later on, when the trainer
is mounted, the horse should be uro-ed forward all
the time, by the pressure of the legs.

The flexions thus described may be considered
the only flexions of the neck necessar\' for driving
purposes ; for saddle-horses, lateral flexions, turning
the head to the rio-ht and to the left, are added ; but
they can be easily overdone, and sometimes result
in teachingr the horse a means of defence, which he
uses to the disadvantage of the rider.

After the neck is suppled, the next thing is to
bring the horse's hind legs well under him. If a
horse is obser\-ed when free in a held, it will be seen
that in his quick movements, especially in turning,
he brino-s his hind leers forward, so as to throw a
considerable portion of his weight upon them, and
this position will be quickly recognised by a mounted
man, as making the horse more pleasant to sit and
more responsive to the action of the rider than if he

372 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV

has his legs stretched out behind him. This placing
of the hind legs is best accomplished by the use of
the spur.

The horse being- mounted, his head and neck
having been brought as completely as possible into
position, the tightening of the rider's legs and press-
ure back of the eirths should induce him to move
forward. Since, in so doing, his hind legs propel
him, this pressure is usually first answered by the
advance of one of his hind legs under his body,
followed by that of the other. His forward move-
ment being somewhat restrained by the bit, but
not enough to stop him, he will step forward in a
position slightly different from that which he would
have assumed if he had been merely led forward by
the head. Thus, the combined action of the legs
and the hand, opposed to each other, will gather
the horse, throwing more of his weight on his hind
legs and lightening his fore-hand. It has been
assumed that merely pressing with the legs will
produce the desired result, and with some horses it
will do so, at the first attempt ; but in many cases
more vigorous means are needed, and for that reason
the heel is armed with the spur, which, however,
must be used at first with great caution, for fear of
exciting the horse and producing a defence.

Whatever may be the reason, a slight touch with
the spur will induce the horse to lift and to move
forward the hind leg on the side on which he is
touched, and this fact is the basis of the whole use

CH. XV BAUCHER S METHOD 2>7 Z

of the spur, except when it is employed vigorously
as a punishment, a proceeding- not at all to be recom-
mended, a blow of the whip being much better.

Since the effect of the spur is to cause the horse
to move his hind-quarters away from it, a pressure
of the left spur will turn the croup to the right, and
one from the right spur will stop or reverse that
movement.

Inasmuch as the turning of the horse's head to
the right or left by the rein, will determine his
motion in these directions, the rider, when the horse
is accustomed to obey all these indications, has the
means of entirely controlling him. By the bit, he
restrains him, places his head in a position to
respond to the action of the hand, and turns his
fore-hand to either side ; by the leg and spur, he
moves him forward, brino-s his hind leofs under him,
and turns his croup to the right or left ; and by
skilfully combining these effects he can produce
what movements he desires, and all the accurate
and exaggerated movements which characterise
Haute Ecole ridinof.

If, in backing a horse, he is forced backward by
mere pressure on the bit. his motion will be awk-
ward, his hind lees beino- stretched out to resist the
force which is urging him. The proper way to make
him back is to begin by restraining him slightly, and
then touching him with one spur to make him lift one
hind foot ; a slightly increased pull on the reins will
generally make him move to the rear, bringing that

374 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV

hind foot to the ground somewhat back of the posi-
tion which it previously occupied. A touch with the
other spur will raise the other hind foot, which, re-
sponding to the pressure of the reins, will be also
replaced further back ; the front feet will follow, and
by alternate attacks of the spur the horse will be
made to walk backward, all the time in a balanced
position.

This is one of the regular lessons, but it must be
used with discretion, because when a horse learns to
walk backward, he will sometimes do so as a means
of defence. All harness-horses should back freely
when called upon.

Just as regular gymnastics improve the action of
the most perfectly formed man, this training improves
that of the most perfectly formed horse ; it is not
an argument against the system to say that the
horse, having been made for his own purposes of
life, cannot be improved for man's uses.

While, therefore, the driving-horse may not re-
quire much training beyond the flexions of the jaw
and neck, the further training of his hind-quarters
will give him lightness and grace of carriage, which
are very desirable.

It is also true that if a horse is excited by the spur,
the whip, or the voice, and at the same time some-
what restrained by the bit, his energy of movement
will be partly put into the JicigJit of his action, instead
of its being all put into the forward movement, with
the result of increasing his brilliancy.

CH. XV OLD METHODS 375

The English system of riding being based on
hunting and racing, its principal object is to get the
horse forward as fast as possible, without much at-
tention to his manner of eoinof. The Continental
system is based upon the requirements of military
service, and, in the training of horses, the methods
used are adapted to making the horse quick, handy,
and obedient.

In the eastern part of the United States, the
English fashion prevails, but in the West, in Texas,
and in Mexico, the Spanish style of riding, with its
accompanying horse equipments, is adopted, because
it is suited to the purposes for which the horse is
there largely used : herding and catching cattle.

English professional horse-breakers being, by
nature and selection, good horsemen, succeed in
giving their horses good manners, without working
upon any system which they distinctly recognise as
such ; but the amateur who wishes to accomplish
the same results, should have a good system to
work upon.

Before Baucher's time, the suppling of a horse
was produced mainly by riding him, and gradually
obtaining all the required results more or less simul-
taneously. The horse was carefully urged forward
by the rider's legs, and restrained by the rein, until
he partly assumed the gathered position. He was
then ridden in a circle, which was gradually made
smaller as the horse became more handy, the head
being drawn in toward the centre by the inner rein.

7 6 OLD METHODS CH. XV

and the croup turned out by the pressure of the
inside leg, until the horse moved nearly sideways,
his fore legs being at or near the centre of the
circle. In this way his hind legs were suppled, and
he became much more responsive to the demands
of his rider. This movement is called sJionlder in.
The next movement was that of croup to tJic wall
(the work was assumed to be done in a riding
house) ; in this movement, the horse, with his hind-
quarters turned to the wall and his body nearly at
right angles to it, was moved sideways by the spur,
while his head was turned by the rein to look
slightly in the direction toward which he was going.
These two movements constituted the whole edu-
cation of the horse for ordinary purposes ; the use
of the pillars, for teaching the ' airs' of the ' high
school,' such as the cronpadc, the ballotadc, &c., are
outside the limits of our present subject.

To a certain extent, the same results are obtained
by all the methods, and the advocates of the older
ones contend that the horse is not restrained in his
forward action by them as he is by training under
the Baucher system. But the old method required,
from the first, that the trainer should be an accom-
plished and determined horseman, because he en-
countered difficulties which one less experienced
could not overcome, and much was left to his tact
in using means the exact effect of which he imper-
fectly understood ; whereas, Balxher has laid down
every step with accuracy. As a fact, the horses

CH. XV GOOD HANDS '^']']

trained by his method, for exhibition purposes in
Jiautc ecolc riding, are far superior in accuracy of
action to anything that was dreamed of by the
trainers before his time, and the fact that many of
the early lessons of the method can be applied on
foot, to a horse that is too young to ride, commends
it to the breeder.

It is not at all my intention to attempt to teach
here, in the limits of these few pages, any sys-
tem of handling, or dressing, a horse, but only to
suggest that if the driving man will undertake
to improve his horses by either of the methods :
Baucher's or his successors', he will reap great
benefit from so doing in the improvement, not only
of the animals, but especially of his own hands.

The secret of eood drivinof is to have orood
hands, and while good hands may be to some
extent a gift, they are to be acquired mainly by
practice and thought. In the saddle, no man can
have good hands who has not a perfectly firm seat,
so that the action on the reins may be absolutely
independent of the movements of the body. The
action of the hand in driving is coarser than in
ridinor, where the hand, holdinof ligfht reins, is closer
to the horse's mouth, and the action of the animal
under the rider indicates to him instantly the horse's
intentions ; but the principles are the same, and
a good hand in the saddle means a good hand
on the driving-cushion. Regularity and accuracy
of pace can be much better cultivated under the

^yb BAUCHER CH. XV

saddle, and every riding lesson, judiciously given,
will improve the horse for driving.

The training of a horse which is to be finally
put into a team, may be advantageously continued
by driving him single, to a dog-cart, where, the
whip replacing the spur, some of the same effects
obtained under the saddle may be repeated ; and
the method of training by driving on foot with
the long reins, described by Captain Haves in his
Illustrated Horse Breaking, may be also used with
p-reat advantage, at all stacjes of the work.

In our American climate, with so many winter
days on which riding out of doors with any pleasure
is impossible, the amateur will find that the hours
passed on the tan of the riding house, in training a
favourite horse, according to some good system, will
be among the pleasantest of his ' horsey' pastimes.

All professional riding-masters have intentionally,
or unconsciously, made use of one or other of the
old methods, or of a combination of them, generally
imparted by tradition.

When Baucher's book (translated into English
by John Sergeant and George H. Boker, of
Philadelphia, in 1851) first appeared in America, '='
some amateurs who had been workinof somewhat
blindly on the old systems, recognised its value,
especially when illustrated by the beautiful perform-

* The first edition of Baucher's book was published in I'aris in
1842.

CH. XV PHILADELPHIA RIDING CLUB 3/9

ances of two horses trained by Baucher, and ridden
by one of his pupils, Caroline Loyo, in the old
Walnut Street Circus. A riding school in Sansom
Street above Eighth Street, long since torn down,
was the scene of the first applications of Baucher's
method, by several enthusiastic horsemen, Judge
Cadwalader, John D. Bleight, and others, and
out of those pleasant meetings for companionship
and discussion grew the TJic Philadelphia Riding
Club, the first, and for many years the only home
of that kind of equestrian practice in the United
States.

;8o CH. XVI

CHAPTER XVI
HORSES FOR COACH OR DRAG

Horses for coach or drag will vary according to
the taste of the owner and the depth of his pocket.
For a drae, horses of fifteen-three hands, all four of
the same size, will be generally found the most useful.
Of these the lightest and quickest should be selected
for the lead, and the strongest put at the wheel.
It is not difficult to find four horses of the same
height, of which two will weigh forty or fifty pounds
apiece more than the other two. The team shown
in Plate XXIX, corresponds to this description.

The extreme type of racing thoroughbred does
not look in place to a coach, but the half-bred horse
of the English hunter style is in every way suitable,
although he is not always easy to drive when multi-
plied by four. The nearer that this latter type is
approached, the better, as far as appearance goes.

The half-bred mare shown in Plate XXX,, fifteen-
three hands, by a thoroughbred sire out of a trot-
ting dam, hunted many seasons and driven as a
leader, is as nearly as possible perfection in all her
points.

The hackney, as now produced in America and
in England, makes an admirable coach-horse when
large enough, and if his recent introduction into

c-^

CH. XVI HACKNEY 38 1

America has had no other advantage, it has raised
the standard of form in the driving-horse. The best
horse will be one resulting from judicious crosses of
the hackney and the trotter, improving the form
of the latter by giving him a finer head, a better
carriage of it, and a less sloping rump, and by
heightening his action without too much diminishing
his speed.

The free forward action, with sufficient height,
which some exceptional trotters possess, is the per-
fection of gait for either the road or the park, and
in any horse, a trot approaching it, can be often
improved by judicious handling under the saddle.

The Morgan horse, formerly a great favourite in
New England, is in many respects not unlike the
hackney, both in good qualities and defects. He
is 'near the ground,' that is, rather short-legged, as
is shown by his heavy weight compared with his
height, and this form, although in some eyes it
detracts from showiness, is the best adapted to hard
work in harness or under the saddle, as many hard
riding hunting-men know ; legginess is a great fault
in a horse.

This breed, less talked about now than formerly,
has had a strong influence upon the horses of New
England ; it combines the good qualities of fair
speed, great endurance, fine up-headed carriage, and,
above all, good temper ; the defects being want of
size, and a certain coarseness and shortness of neck.
Having rather upright pasterns, the Morgans lack

382 MORGAN HORSE CH. XVI

the springiness and grace required in a saddle-horse,
or the highest class of drag leader, but to road-coach
purposes they are admirably adapted, and several of
the coaches running out of New York have been
horsed by animals selected in Maine.

In the New England States it is usual to describe
a horse by weight as well as by height, and the two
together give a better idea of him than the height
alone.

A large sixteen-hand horse, rather clumsy for a
wheeler, will weigh 11 20 pounds, but from 1070 to
1090 is heavy enough for an ordinary wheeler. A
fifteen-three horse, suitable for lead or wheel, will
weigh from 1000 to 1040 pounds ; and one fifteen-
two, from 950 to 990 pounds. The Morgan horses
of 1855 (described in Linsley's Morgan Horse)
when of fourteen-two hands, weighed from 1000 to
1050 pounds ; of fifteen hands, 1025 to 1076 pounds ;
and the average weight of twenty-two horses is
given at 1040 pounds, their heights ranging from
fourteen to fifteen hands ; these weights show that
the horses were very short-legged, since their bodies
were not clumsy.

For the same breed of horses, from that date down
to the present time, the weights are about the same.*

There is a type of carriage-horse now happily dis-
appearing from the show-ring and the best dealers'
stables, — awkward and long legged, with a head of

* Rider and Driver, January 12, 1895.

CH. XVI HORSES FOR A TEAM ^8

vD'-'J

one kind, legs of another, and body of a third,
which is to be avoided for all purposes.

The horses of a drag-team should have 'quality,'
— that is, a certain fineness and distinction which
are not at all incompatible with strength. Weedy,
long-legged, tucked-up, thin-necked horses are out
of place to a coach, especially at the wheel, however
well they may suit a hansom.

Horses over sixteen hands are unnecessarily large;
their rumps are too close to the foot-board ; those
under fifteen-two are somewhat small for an ordi-
nary coach, although if they are up-headed they may
do for leaders.

For park driving, the leaders may have a good
deal of action, but it does not do for lone drives, and
is not, to my taste at least, as good as the long
and only moderately high action which some trot-
ters have. A coach-team, to be perfect, must have
a sporting appearance, and look as if they were
good for long, continuous work, and not for trotting
all day in a space of a hundred yards. The horse-
shows of the past few years have opened the eyes
of judges and of the public to the fact, that good
action is not incompatible with ability to get over
the ground, and, in a coach-team, the combination
is exactly what should be aimed at.

Lord Algernon St. Maur {^Driving. Badminton
Library, 1889, p. 192) says: 'I dislike carriage-
' horses in a coach ; they are quite different animals
' from coach-horses ;' this is true, but applies more

384 COACH-HORSES CH. XVI

to England and to some years ago, than to America
in the present day. The old-fashioned, large, eight-
spring landaus and barouches required tall, heavy
horses, which were reined up tightly ; but the mod-
ern landau is not a heavy nor very high carriage,
and the wheelers of a coach look well to it if they
have sufficient action ; and in all but exceedingly
large establishments, it is necessary to use the
horses for several purposes. The opinion is, how-
ever, worth bearing in mind, inasmuch as a coaching
man would make a mistake were he to put to his
drag a pair of carriage-horses of the type just
mentioned.

The most nearly perfect team is that which is
the best matched in temper, size, action, pace, and
colour. A cross team of two colours, that is, off
leader and near wheeler alike, is always good, but
four of different colours, require exceptional ' qual-
ity' to bring the team into the front rank. A team
with two horses of one colour on one side and
two of another colour on the other, always has a
one-sided look, and leaders matched and wheelers
matched in pairs as to colour, look too much like
two pairs. These remarks apply, however, to
strongly marked colours, greys, &c. ; bays and
browns may be put together in any way. A cross
team of two greys and two dark horses has usually
a gay and brilliant look.

Some qualities are sufficient to exclude any horse ;
a kicker is no better in one place than another ; and

CH. XVI COACH-HORSES 385

an incorrigible puller should be sold, given away,
or shot, rather than be put in a team. A horse may
pull, from some cause which may be removed ; if
he can be cured, very well ; but a regular puller
spoils all the pleasure of driving, worries the other
horses, and makes impossible any fine handling of
the team.

Some coachmen advocate having the leaders taller
than the wheelers, but it is not generally a symmet-
rical arrangement, especially as the leaders, when
seen from the front, will, from the perspective,
always look the larger.

It is the general practice to put the smaller horses
on the lead, where they certainly look the best. In
any case, the Iieavier horses should be at the wheel ;
they have to control the coach in going down-hill,
and in turns, where the leaders are held back ; and
they may be considerably coarser than the leaders
without hurting the appearance of the team. At
races, when a coach is on the grass, a pair of
wheelers that can do more than their share in start-
ing the coach on the soft oTound, will add to the
coachman's comfort and perhaps save a balking
match.

Undoubtedly, the leaders should be the freest ;
it is disagreeable to have the wheelers free and the
leaders slack, 'floating leaders,' as a well-known
coaching man calls them.

Of the two leaders, the lazier should be on the
off side, because it is more easy to get at him with

386 COACH-HORSES CH. XVI

the whip on that side than on the other. If they
are equally free and there is any difference in size,
the taller horse should be on the off side, since he is
likely to be on the side of the road, which is lower
than the centre.

Of the wheelers, the lazy horse should be on the
near side, under the whip, and it is well to put the
stronger wheeler on the gutter side (the off side in
America and the near side in England) so as to pull
the coach out of the low ground to the centre of
the road, after having gone to the side in meeting
a vehicle, and that is also a reason for putting the
taller horse on the gutter side, since he may be
generally assumed to be the stronger.

It is a good plan to accustom the horses to go in
any place in the team ; but if a horse does better
in one place than another, it is well to keep him
there, and this will often be the case, especially in
a road-team, where the horses cannot be so care-
fully selected in the beginning, as for a drag, and
where one horse sometimes fancies a place, and
will, therefore, work cheerfully in it, and unsatisfac-
torily in any other.

As to the pace : horses, to be pleasant to drive,
should be able to go eleven miles an hour. On a
good level road, a team should take a coach along
at nine miles an hour for two hours, but they will
not do this unless they can go a good deal faster ;
a horse continuously pushed to the top of his speed
never travels pleasantly, and soon tires, but if he

CH. XVI COACH-HORSES 387

can do eleven, he will easily do nine, which is quite
within his powers,

A team to a private coach not too heavily loaded
ought to do from eighteen to twenty miles in an
afternoon drive, on fairly level roads, and can do,
day after day, from twenty-four to twenty-six miles,
divided into two parts, with a couple of hours for
rest and feed in the middle of the day.

Horses are usually clipped in the winter ; indeed
at any season, when they require it for appearance,
and it undoubtedly adds much to their comfort
when doing fast work. In our climate, however,
it must not be forgotten that they sometimes re-
quire the protection of a blanket when they are
not moving ; it is thoughtless and cruel to keep
them standing uncovered on a cold day.

The length of the tails of coach-horses is a matter
of fashion. In the early part of this century the
tails of all horses were cut short (or docked), and
p7'icked (by cutting the under sinews), so that they
stood up very high (see Cordery's Picture, Plate I.).
Later, the tails were banged ; that is, cut square
just at the end of the bone, as the tails of race
horses are now ; and the fashion has again come
round to the very short tail, but without pricking.
Undoubtedly, the tail being short makes the horse
look * smarter' and prevents his getting it over the
rein. The very long tails of the trotters of some
years ago would certainly look out of place in front
of a coach.

388 COST OF COACHING CH. XVI

Horses are sometimes trained, formerly more than
at present, to stand, when in harness, with their hind
legs stretched out. It is done to prevent the horse
from jumping forward when he hears or feels some
one stepping into the carriage, — an unpleasant trick,
very damaging to hats and bonnets. A horse can-
not do this if his hind legs are much stretched
out, since he must gather himself before making
the movement. The position is, however, an ugly
one for a coach-horse, and shows at once that he
is a carriage-horse.

COST OF COACHING

As to the actual cost of private coaching it is
difficult to give exact figures, prices vary so much
in different localities, but it may be said, that a well
turned-out coach need not necessarily add much to
the expenses of a good sized stable. Where four
horses are kept for any purpose, it is easy so to
select them accordincr to the hints o^iven in the re-
marks on Horses, that they can be put together
as a team. Four horses in a stable mean, under
any circumstances, two men, and all that is neces-
sary in addition is the coach, which with its vari-
ous appointments can be had for less than three
thousand dollars. As has been remarked in the
Chapter on Harness, two sets of pair-horse harness,
properly made, are right for four horses, and thus
equipped, the lover of coaching can have as much
of it as he desires, without interfering materially

CH. XVI COST OF COACHING 389

with other uses of his stable. Two saddle-horses
do not make bad leaders, in fact, they often make
the best ; and a man and his wife may have their
driving-, their riding, and their coaching, all within
the limits of a modest establishment, while it is
quite certain that any man who cares enough for
his coaching to obtain it in this way, will enjoy it
much more than he who merely buys a team be-
cause he thinks it fashionable or wishes to have
something better than his neighbours.

There is so much already in print about Stable
Management, the Care of Horses, and Stable Ex-
penses, that these subjects need not be touched
upon here.

590 CH. XVII

CHAPTER XVII
THE WHIP AND ITS USE

While coachmen differ somewhat in their ideas
as to the weight, stiffness, etc., of a whip, there are
certain dimensions and characteristics which may be
considered as standard, and from which the devia-
tions are, after all, very slight.

The whip best adapted to four-in-hand driving
has come down to us from the palmy days of Eng-
lish coaching, when thousands were made for, and
used by the most accomplished coachmen.

It has a straight stick, crop, or cross, with the
thong attached by what is called the quill (from its
being made of goose quills), which, being in form a
prolongation of the stick, is stiff at its root, gradually
merging into the thong proper ; the quill and the
first part of the thong forming a bow or portion of
a circle (see Fig. 159). -^

This quill is characteristic of the English whip,
the whip of other countries having a stiff stick to
which the thong is attached by a loop. The stick,
or crop, is made of an elastic wood : holly, yew,
blackthorn, lancewood, or white hickory.

Holly is by far the most generally used, and is
obtained from second growth shoots, six or seven
years old. The sticks are carefully selected, the

CH. XVII STICK OF THE WHIP 391

straightest of course being preferred, but those
which are somewhat crooked can be steamed and
straightened by the maker. They are cut to nearly
the length required, and stored, seasoned, and dried
with great care, being examined at intervals, and
kept straight, the whole operation requiring, with
the best makers, a period of about five years.
They are then trimmed to their final shape, stained,
varnished, and mounted. The varnishine is of o-reat
importance in protecting the stick from the effects
of dampness, and every maker has his special way
of doing it, the work of some makers being far
superior to that of others.

The stick should be springy but not soft, and must
be proportioned to the weight of the thong ; a four-
horse whip requires to be stiffer than a pair-horse
whip, which has a short thong.

The whole length of the stick should be five feet,
measured from the metal butt of the handle to the
end, which end is marked by the knot always worked
on the quill. Five feet, one inch and a half, is the
extreme length that the stick should have.

The stick usually has a handle, but some sticks
show the wood throughout from butt to knot ; they
do not, as a rule, balance as well in the hand as
those that have handles. Rabbit-bitten hollies are
much fancied ; they are found in holly plantations
frequented by rabbits ; these animals eat the bark
near the ground, and leave it in irregular patterns
on the portion which is used as the butt of the

392 HANDLE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII

Stick. The natural knots of the holly are usually
the proper distance apart to look well on the stick ;
they are filed to the proper shape, and if there are
not enough of them, artificial ones are made by
leaving- elevations when reducing the size of the
stick. In some whips, the knots are left quite
prominent, in others they show slightly ; this is a
matter of taste. The majority of coachmen like to
have a few knots close to the upper end of the
stick, to keep the thong from sliding down when it
is caught up.

White hickory, worked perfectly plain, without
any knots, makes a beautiful stick and looks like
ivory. It is particularly pleasant to handle if
properly proportioned, but unless the thong is very
soft, it is liable to slip down the stick. Owing to
the stick having no knots, the thong can be quickly
freed from it for use,

A good holly stick should have a diameter of
six-tenths of an inch where it leaves the collar or
ferule, and of three-tenths of an inch at its upper
end. A hickory stick, being heavier and stiffer,
should be very little over a quarter of an inch at
the upper end.

Some coachmen fancy a ' dog-legged stick ;' that
is, one with a crook more or less square, a short
distance above the ferule, but it is certainly not
handsome, and usually it is not pleasant to handle.

The handle, or hand-piece, of the whip, is ten and
a half inches longr, includinof its ferule, or collar.

CH. XVII HANDLE OF THE WHIP 393

and its cap. To make the handle, the stick is cut
down to a cyHndrical form about four-tenths of an
inch in diameter from the butt to the point where
the collar is to be. and an iron tube eight and a
half inches long, fitting this cylindrical part tightly,
is pushed on, and cemented to it. This tube is
of such thickness as to weigh about one ounce.
Tow is evenly wound round the tube until it has
assumed the shape, and nearly the size, that the
finished handle is to have, larger at the butt than
at the collar ; over the tow, paper is pasted, and
over this the final covering of the handle is put on.
The ferule, or collar, which has been slipped on the
stick before wrapping, is pulled backward to its
place on the covering and cemented, and the cap
at the butt is cemented on.

The large end of a well-proportioned handle is
nine-tenths of an inch in diameter, the small end
six and a half tenths. The cap will be as much
larger as the thickness of the metal makes it, and
the same is true of the collar, which tapers enough
to fit over the leather of six and a half tenths and
the stick of six-tenths of an inch diameter.

For a four-in-hand whip the handle should be
covered with pig-skin. It may be put on plain
with a neat seam down its length, the usual way
for a drag whip, or it may be wound helically
round, which is right for a road-coach whip, and
is somewhat less slippery when wet.

The butt-cap and the collar should be perfectly

394 THONG OF THE WHIP CH. XVII

plain, and made of silver or of brass, akuays of the
same metal with which the harness is mounted.
Their proportions affect the appearance of the whip,
and they should be neither too light nor too heavy.
The collar is the proper place on which to engrave
a name or a monogram.

A stick which has no handle. — a rabbit-bitten
stick, for instance, — has a butt-cap, but no collar.

The thong is of white leather made from horse-
hide, other leather, such as sheep-skin, being too soft
and absorbent ; it must be plaited tightly without
being very hard, and is usually tapered regularly
from the quill to the small end. A thong is some-
times made with a slight belly or swell, commencing
about two feet from the quill ; it is easier to catch
than a tapered thong, but not so good to hit with.

The butt-end of the thong is stiffened by several
pieces of quill worked into it, and the stick is pushed
into the tube thus made, until its point comes oppo-
site to the knot worked on the thong (Fig. 162'-') ;
the pieces of quill, and the ends of hide of which
the thong is made, come down on the sides of the
stick, and are bound to it by waxed silk.

The quill has a bend or turn up, which is put on
the stick opposite to the seam on the handle, and the
whip must be always so held that the seam is down
and the bend of the quill up. There is something

* In Fig. 162 the knot shows at the point where the broad pieces
of leather commence to separate. The two pieces of cpiill also show
below the knot.

CH. XVII THONG OF THE WHIP 395

forlorn about a whip without a quill, or a whip held
upside down, in which position it can neither be
properly caught, nor properly used on a horse.

The stamp of the maker, which is on the stick
above the collar, opposite to the seam and on the
same side as the turn up of the quill, indicates the
side of the whip which is to be uppermost in the
hand. The pleasant feeling of a whip in the hand de-
pends largely upon the make of the quill, and a whip
is ruined if the quill is allowed to get out of shape.

Good thongs can be had only from the best
makers. The thong terminates in a point, called
by whip-makers the lasJi. It is sometimes made of
whip-cord, but is much better of the same material
as the thong, since the cord, when wet, is apt to
wrap round parts of the harness.

Silk points, of any colour, are entirely out of place
on a coach whip, or, in fact, on any whip thong.

A finished whip should have the following quali-
ties : It should feel light in the hand, springy, not
as if it were too heavy at the point, and not 'dead.'
With the thong caught up (as described further on)
it should balance at a point twenty-one and a half
inches from the butt, or about one-third of the total
length of the stick ; accurately, 36 per cent. If the
balancing point is further from the butt, the whip
will feel heavy in the hand.

The spring, or stiffness, must be measured by the
feeling, but for the purpose of establishing a nu-
merical standard, several whips of the best quality

596

SPRING OF THE WHIP

CH. XVII

were experimented with, and were found to have
a deflection of about eight inches at a point four
feet two inches from the collar, or near the knot,
when a weight of ten ounces, avoirdupois, was hung
at that point, the whip being supported at the collar.
The followine Table orives the details of these
experiments : —

Description of Whip.

No. I.

No. II.

No. III.

No. IV.

No. V.

No. VI.

No. VII.

Diameter of handle in
looths of an incii :
At the butt ....

At the collar .

Diameter of stick in
looths of an inch :
At the collar ....

At the upper end . .

Length of handle,
inches

9)(

io>^

10^

loK

^0%

Length of stick, in-
cluding handle, to
knot, feet and inches

5 0/2

5 0/,

5 o'A

5 ^'A

5 iX

4 io>^

A^A

Length of thong, from
knot, feet and inches

12 8

12 6

12 10

13 9

12 2

II 9

Deflection with weight
of lo ounces at a
point 4 ft. 2 in. from
collar, inches . .

6/^

8/2

6>^

Total weight of whip,
ounces, avoirdupois .

%)i

Distance of point of
balance from butt,
inches

2iyz

23X

Percentage of this dis-
tance in total length
of stick

No. v. has no handle. Nos. VI. and VII. are jointed whips.

CH. XVII BALANCE OF THE WHIP 397

Nos. II. and III. may be considered standard
whips.

No. v., a light rabbit-bitten whip with no handle,
^ths of an inch in diameter ten and a half inches
from the butt (the place of the collar), had a de-
flection of nine and a half inches. This is an
extremely pleasant whip to handle with a properly
proportioned light thong. It is really a tandem
whip.

Nos. VI. and VII. are jointed whips made to
carry on a board, as spare whips (Fig. i6o), and
such whips, owing to the screwed joint, are apt to
be less springy than an ordinary whip ; these two
examples, however, are very good. On them, the
point of attachment of the ten-ounce weight came
somewhat above the knot on the quill, owing to the
shortness of the stick.

The pressure upon the thumb, of even a well-
balanced whip, is considerable, at least as much as
twenty ounces when the stick is held at the collar,
owing to the centre of gravity of the whip being
twice as far from the butt as is the collar. The
twisting strain on the hand is caused by this lever-
age, of ten inches against the breadth of the hand,
which is only four. This strain is usually severely
felt by the beginner, for which reason a light whip
is desirable. If the butt-cap is weighted to im-
prove the balance it makes the whole whip too
heavy.

In buying a whip, the beginner should avail him-

;98

HANGING UP THE WHIP

CH. XVII

self of the aid of an expert who can select for him
one that is really good, as a
standard by which future pur-
chases can be made ; a man who
has been using whips not of the
best quality will be astonished,
upon getting hold of something
exactly right, to find how far
superior it is to those which he
has been handling.

Inasmuch as a good whip can
be soon ruined by being im-
properly taken care of, it is im-
portant to keep the quill and
upper part of the thong in shape,
by hanging it on a spool (Fig.
159) fastened against the wall.
The spool should have a V-shaped
groove, and pulling the thong
tightly into the groove will pre-
vent the whip from slipping ; it is
better also to tie the point round
the thono- and stick together, as
shown in the Figure.

If the proper part of the thong,
as shown in Fig. 159, is jammed
in the groove the weight of the
stick will give, and will keep,
the proper backward curve to
159. the quill.

CH. XVII WHIP CASE 399

In default of a spool, a short loop of twine should
be tied round the stick below the knot, and the whip
hung by that (Fig. 159) ; but a whip should never be
kept leaning against a wall or in a corner.

A jointed whip, the pieces of the stick of which
screw tooether, should be carried in the coach. It
is fastened upon a board, as shown in Fig. 160.
Two whips may be put upon the same board.

Fig. 100.

For carrying whips on a journey, the leather case
divised by me for my own use, shown in Fig. 161,
is very convenient. It is 6 ft. 5 in. long, 4^ inches
wide, and i ^ inches deep, outside dimensions ;
made of sole leather, with a bottom of hard wood,
14 inch thick, on the iJisidc of the case, to make it
stiff. Tapes, fastened to the bottom, serve to tie
in the whips, six of which can be carried. The
tapes round the handles must be tied so tight that
the whips cannot slip on to their heads when the
case is on end, or else the bows of the thongs will
be bent out of shape.

A whip should always be wiped, or, if necessary,
washed thoroughly after use, to keep the varnish
in o-ood order, and the thono- must be washed with
soft soap (crown soap) and water, and sometimes
rubbed with soap alone to keep it soft. Glycerine,
vaseline, or a mixture of lard and wax, may be used,

400

WHIP CASE

CH. XVII

but to keep a thong in condition,
there is nothing- so good as soap
and constant use. If it is hard
and stiff it will be impossible to
catch it up readily or to keep it
on the stick. Pipeclay should
[I never be used on a thong ; it
makes it stiff and rots it. There
is a condition into which a thong
gets during the first part of a
drive in rain or fog which is just
right, but afterward it often be-
comes too soft, and finally, when
dried, it is stiff and
requires soaping or

o-reasino-.

When a thono- is
worn, it is best to
put on an entirely
new one, with its quill
complete. Thongs
are sold by whip-
makers put up as
I shown in Fig. 162,
and a coachman can
learn, without much
difficulty, by examining a finished
whip, to braid one on to the stick
for himself The two wide strips
of leather, which hano- below the

Fig. 162.

i6j

CH. XVII

SPLICING A THONG

401

knot, must be slit so as to give four strips, round
and between which to braid the black thread.

A thong, otherwise good, which has been cut
or broken, should be spliced as shown in Fig.
163:—

The unbraided strands ' a' and ' b' of the ends of
the broken thong, being tied round the parts of the

Fig. 163.

thong, as at A, the two knots are pulled tight to-
gether as shown at B. The ends are then cut off
and the knot rolled between two hard surfaces.

In Fig. 163, A, the end 'a' is left in a position to
show the knots under it, but before pulling the
knots together, it must be pulled '■''■ tightly into the
space between the two parts of the thong, as at
'b,' and it then covers the knots and is jammed
when they are drawn together, as shown at B.

* After tucking the last ends, ' a' and ' b,' into the space between
the two parts of the thong, it is convenient to seize them with a pair
of nippers in order to pull them as tight as possible.

402

SPLICING A THONG

CH. XVII

A point may be put on in the same way, but it is
more usually done as in Fig. 164 : —

The end of the thonof beino- unbraided, one of the
four strands is tied round the others, and pulled

tight to keep the thong
from unplaiting, and the
end of the point having
been unplaited is pushed
close against the end of
the thong. Each strand in succession is laid on
top of a strand of the thong, and that thong-strand
having been turned back, the point-strand is tied
round it and the body of the thong, in a single knot
and pulled tight. After all four are thus tied, the
ends are cut off and the knot rolled.

Another way of splicing a thong is to make with
the two ends, what sailors call a 'shroud knot,'
which can be learned from any book on sailors'
knots. In this knot the pieces of thong are un-
plaited and butted against each other, and each
strand is tied with a single knot around the main
part of the thong to which it does not belong, one
half of all these knots coming above the joint and
one half below it. The knots are all pulled tight
and the ends cut off.

The whip used in the West, and elsewhere than
in England, has a straio-ht stick of an elastic wood,
from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 feet long. The thong is from
8 to 10 feet long, rather heavy, and has usually a

CH. XVII DOUBLE-THONG 403

belly near the stick end ; it has nothing resembling
a quill, but in its place there is a loop.

The stick, or 'stock,' frequently has metal bands
at intervals for its whole length, but it has no handle
proper, the lower part being swelled out to fit the
hand. A leather loop is fastened on the upper end
of the stick by wrapping, and to it the thong is at-
tached by its loop, exactly like a hunting-whip or
like the thong of the long whip, or cJiambidere, of
the circus rinof-master.

The short stick is convenient in narrow forest-
roads, where trees are close to the track, but the
whole whip is stiff, and entirely inferior to the
English whip. It is difficult to strike a wheel
horse with it without using the whole length of
the thonof, since a ' double-thong-' cannot be made
with it.

The whips used in Africa with teams of eight or
ten animals are described as being exceedingly long,
with a very heavy thong, and are used with both
hands, one man driving and another flogging.

Catching a Double-Thong. — Owing to the length
of the thong of a four-horse whip, it is convenient to
carry it looped on the stick, and for that purpose it
is caught up in what is called a double-thong (Fig.
165), with a loop of the upper part hanging on
the end of the stick and the rest of the thong
coming down to the hand.

A learner who desires to master the trick of

404 DOUBLE-THONG CH. XVII

the double-thong should, if possible, get some one
to teach him ; it is extremely difficult to do it from
a description ; but the mechanism of it is as fol-
lows : —

If the whip is held in the right hand, pointing
slightly upward and to the front, and moved sharply
to the right and a little upward, with the thong loose.

Fig. 165.

the thong will turn over the stick, and
slipping along it over the top, will come
to rest in its original position, having
gone over the stick from left to right.

If, however, the point of the thong is held against
the collar of the stick by the thumb, and the opera-
tion repeated, the point not being free to run out, but
being suddenly arrested, the bight of the thong will
swing back to the left and will wind itself round
the stick from right to left, the upper turns being in
the direction of a right-handed screw and the lower
turns in that of a left-handed screw (Fig. 166, A).
Since the upper part of the thong has made a turn
over the stick, there will be one more turn in the
right-handed part than in that near the hand. If
these lower turns are pulled out, leaving only the
upper turns, the thong will lie as shown at B,
Ficr. 166.

CH. XVII DOUBLE-THONG 4O5

In practice, to catch the double-thong-, the hand,
after being moved to the right, somewhat sharply
but steadily, that is, without a jerk, so as to give

a swinor to the bitrht of the thone, must
be turned upward a little, and sud-
denly stopped, so that the thong will come on the
proper point of the stick, the upper turn being just
below the knot ; if it is above the knot it may strain
the quill.

In all this movement, the point of the whip should
follow a line like this ^— ■*-^, supposed to be marked
on a wall in front of the operator, but it is the turn
of the wrist at the end of the movement which
catches the thong, and that is really almost the
only motion made by one who is very expert.

The motion of the stick must be uniform, until
the stop at the end, and the thong must be left to
curl round the stick of itself. The thong should
not be struck at by the stick, as is frequently
done.

In all movements of the whip, whether catching
the thon^: or in hittino- a horse, it must be held
easily in the hand, and the wrist must be free and

406 DOUBLE-THONG CH. XVII

loose. It should be grasped by the whole hand
with all the fingers underneath ; to extend the
fore-finger up the stick, results in an objectionable
stiffness.

The knack of catching the thong dextrously, or
even at all, can be acquired only by practice, and
while sometimes a lucky man will hit upon it very
soon, another will try without success for months,
when it will suddenly come to him.

After the double-thong^ is cauo-ht, the ri^ht hand

o o o

must be moved to such a position that the bight of
the thonof will come under the thumb of the left
hand ; the loiuer turns can then be pulled out by
raising the right hand (for the left hand, with the
reins, must not be moved), and the thong having
been pulled down tight from the lowest of the
upper turns, must be held against the stick by the
thumb (Fig. i66, B). Some men take two or three
turns of the end of the thong round the whip handle
before placing the thumb upon it, but it is better to
acquire the habit of keeping it straight, since the
operation just described takes some time, and it is
not advisable to prolong it.

If the lower turns are not pulled out, the thong
will come unwound too readily.

If there are knots close to the end of the wrap-
ping of the quill, the thong, if it is soft and clinging,
ought to remain in its place, but it is likely to slip
down, and this can be prevented by putting two or
three more turns on the stick by a motion of the

CH, XVII DOUBLE-THONG 407

wrist. If more than two turns are put on, they will
show in the loop, and when it is desired to hit a
wheeler hard, they will hold the thong more securely
together (see Fig. 167).

As long as the consecutive motions of catching
the double-thong are properly performed, it does

Fig. 167.

not make much difference in what position
the whip is held ; that is, it can be caught
to the right or to the left, directly in front
or overhead, and it may be necessary at
times to catch it in any of these positions,
depending upon whether or not there is anything in
the way, but in general, unless there is some reason
to the contrary, it should be caught, with the point
high and in front, or directly over the horses, for
the reason that this is the direction in which the
coachman's eyes should be always kept, and if he
is tempted to look at his whip he will still be
lookino- in the ritrht direction.

What is sometimes called the 'whitewash act,'
resorted to by coachmen who have not mastered
the double-thong, consists in holding the whip ver-
tically downward on the right side of the coach,
and stirring it round and round until the proper
number of turns are obtained ; it is effective but
not eletrant.

408 USE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII

When the wind is strono- from the near side of the

coach, or the thono- not in the best condition, the
turns may slip down the stick ; they may be pushed
back to their places by drawing the stick under the
thumb of the left hand, which must not be moved ;
but it is better to catch the thong up afresh in the
regular way.

Use of the Whip. — To hit a near wheeler, the
hand must be somewhat advanced, and the stroke
delivered by turning the thumb down and the outside
of the hand up, striking the horse on the shoulder,
or as far forward as possible. For an off wheeler
the hand is carried forward to the right and down,
underhanded, the back of the hand going down and
the fingers up. The horse should be hit on the
shoulder, and with the loop of the thong parallel
to the line of the pole-chains, that is, as extended
as possible, when the thong will be less Ukely to
catch on the point of the trace, or on the point of
the belly-band chape. Both of these strokes are
made with the loop of the thong.

An off leader is easy to reach : the thong is
untwisted by swinging the whip on the right-hand
side and letting go the point just as the last turn
comes off. The unwound thong is then directed,
with the hand in the same position as for the off
wheeler, toward the hind legs of the horse below
his trace. It takes an extremely long thong to hit
a leader in front of his pad, and he should not

CH. XVII HITTING A LEADER 4O9

be hit above his trace, which may make him kick ;
moreover, if the thong is muddy, it leaves a mark.

There are three ways of hitting a near leader :
The usual one is to swing the thong over the top of
the coach (being sure that it is swung high enough
to avoid striking any one on the back seat), and
then throwinor it out alongside of the near wheeler
so as to touch the leader from the outside. An-
other way, is to pass the whip, unwound, of course,
to the left side of the coach, and to describe a
vertical circle with the thong, throwing it forward as
before, but not permitting any part of the thong to
g'o back behind the driving-seat. This resembles
what Scotch fishermen call a ' Spey-cast' with the
rod ; used where trees are behind the angler ; it is
difficult, and requires long practice. The neatest
way is to hit the horse from the off side, under the
bars, the point of the thong passing in front of
the wheelers and behind the off leader, catchino-
the near leader on his off hind leg. If the stroke
is delivered as if aimed at the kidney-link of the ofi
wheeler it will be successful. This is also a difficult
stroke, but so neat that it is worth acquiring, and
it will be hardly noticed by persons on the coach,
whereas, owing to their necessary amplitude, the
other two motions are conspicuous.

Some good coachmen recommend, and practise,
throwinor the thong- on the leaders' backs between
the heads of the wheelers ; possibly in certain con-
fined places it may be necessary, but it is a bad

4IO 'HOLD AND HIt' CH. XVII

Stroke ; one is almost certain to touch a wheeler in
bringing the thong back, or to get the point caught
in the harness or on the pole-head.

In touching any horse, and especially a leader,
the maxim ' hold and hit' must be remembered,
which means that the coachman must have a hold
on the horse's mouth, because if the horse is hit
while his rein is loose, he will rush forward before
he can be properly restrained. No crack or whistle
must be made with the whip ; only that horse alone
which is hit, should know anything about it.

After a stroke the thong must be brought back by
lifting the point of the stick, so that the thong will
fall on the inside of the rigrht arm, whence it can be
allowed to slip down to the hand. There will be
several feet of thong hanging down behind the
hand, and this must be pulled through the right
hand by the left thumb, until only a few inches
remain under the rio-ht thumb, when a double-thons"
can be caught.

In bringing the thong back, it must not touch
any horse, or trail on the ground so as to get
muddy.

In striking an off wheeler, the loop of the double-
thong may catch either in the point of the trace or
in the point-strap which is buckled into the false
belly-band, and it will be difficult to get it out ; it
may sometimes be released by letting the point of
the thong go entirely off of the stick, and then
pulling it through single.

CH. XVII USE OF THE WHIP 4I I

After striking a leader, the point may catch be-
tween the hook and the spring of the lead-bar, and
it will be generally necessary for one of the servants
to get down and release it ; but a series of gentle
jerks, or pulling back the leaders, so as to slacken
the lead-trace, will sometimes brino- it out. To
order a servant to get down for the purpose of
clearing the thong, the coachman says, sharply,
'near side' or 'off side,' as the case may be. If
the point is wet, especially if it is of whipcord, it
will often lap round the hook of the lead-bar or
some part of the bar ; which is called : ' getting a
bite ;' a little jerking and coaxing will usually free
it. Another expression used for having the thong
caught is : ' getting hung up.'

Should the loop of the thong catch on a tree, the
whip must be quickly let go entirely, and picked up
afterward ; an attempt to pull it away may not only
break it, but possibly inflict a blow upon the occu-
pant of the box-seat. The balls or ornaments on
gateposts may catch the whip unless it is held high.

In approaching a spot where the horses may be
troublesome, such as under a railroad bridge, the
whip should be unwound, and only the point of the
thong held in the hand, ready for instant application
to a leader. In meetinor a steam-roller, for instance,
the leaders are very apt to shy, and a quick touch
to the off side of the off leader will keep the leaders
in the road.

There is an unwritten rule of the Reicnion Road

412 USE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII

Club, of Paris, that any member neglecting this pre-
caution, of unwinding his whip, shall pay a fine of
one franc to every other member who may happen
to be on the coach.

The whip should never remain in the socket
(many coaches have no whip-socket, which is a good
plan) ; it should always be in the hand ready for
use, since the wheelers may need to be turned by it
more quickly than they can be turned by the reins ;
for a sharp forward movement of a wheeler, owing
to his pulling on the end of the splinter-bar, will
promptly take his side of the coach round.

In galloping, it is usually better to guide with the
whip than by the reins, because pulling a horse to
one side will take him out of his even stride or
cause him to chano-e his leading- leof.

It is in the management of the whip that an
amateur coachman is of necessity weakest, private
teams generally requiring more to be restrained
than to be urged, so that if he does not keep his
right hand quiet, his horses may ' get too much
for him ;' consequently, it is a good plan to spend
some spare time on foot, or on a coach-box, prac-
tising upon imaginary animals.

In addition to the regular whip, old coaching
chronicles tell of the 'short tommy,' or 'docker,'
and the 'apprentice:' the former appears to have
been a whip with a short stick and a short thong,
with which, on a bad hill, the coachman of a night-
coach, after putting his whip under his right leg,

CH. XVII USE OF THE WHIP 413

would ' lay into' his wheelers, while the guard,
running- alongside, persuaded the leaders with a
similar weapon, A plate by Sturgess in Harris's
Old Coaching Days (p. 78) illustrates the operation.
The ' apprentice' was more like a cat-o'-nine-tails.

On a coach which has no whip-socket, when it is
necessary for any temporary purpose to get the
whip out of the hand, the handle is put under the
right leg, the stick projecting horizontally to the off
side, an eye being kept on it, that it does not catch
in a tree.

Reynardson tells a story, also illustrated by
Alken, in Down the Road (p. 1 34), of * stamping
the foot-board,' in which an old coachman, being
in the habit of rattling his feet on the foot-board
whenever he used the ' short tommy,' got his horses
so used to the signal that as soon as they heard the
noise they jumped into their collars, without it being
necessary to apply the instrument.

The catching up of the whip in a double-thong
seems to date from the early part of this century,
but not to have become general until much later.
The pictures of the last century do not show it
(see Plate VI.). In Alkex's well known plate TJiree
blind '7ms and a bolter, published in 1833, and in a
plate by J. L. A., published by Watson in 1824, the
whip is 7wt caught up. In a picture of a coach-and-
six, by CoRDERY, in 1803 (Coachmakers' Company,
London), the double-thong is shown. The books
are silent on the subject.

414 THE SALUTE CH. XVII

The Salute. — When road-coaches meet, the
coachmen salute each other with the whip. In
early days, it was customary to move the whip-hand
to the right, keeping it low, as shown at A, Plate
XXXI. ; later, it became the fashion to raise the
hand to the level of the face, as at B ; and finally,
about fifteen years ago, the manner shown at C,
which resembles a soldier's 'present sabre,' was
adopted. Corbett (p. 248) calls the oldest fashion :
'a neat meeting,' and the second one: 'a muffish
meeting.'

A person driving a private coach should always
make a salute with the whip to a road-coach, when
meeting one. If there are ladies with whom he is
acquainted, on a coach, he should raise his hat,
passing his whip into his left hand.

It is hardly necessary to say that a man when
driving should always take off his hat to a lady of
his acquaintance ; it is in bad taste merely to raise
his whip in place of so doing. If he has not hands
enough to spare one for his hat, he should continue
to practice driving, until he can find one.

CH. XVIII 415

CHAPTER XVIII

THE MEN: THEIR DUTIES AND DRESS

On a private coach there should be two servants :
a first and second groom, or coachman and groom.
The head man sits on the off side in the rumble, the
other man on the near side. When the owner is not
driving, as, for instance, when the coachman brings
the coach from the stable to the door, the second
man keeps his place in the rumble on the near side.
After coming to the door, the second man goes
immediately to the heads of the leaders and stands
in front of them facing the coach, taking hold of their
heads if necessary, and straightening them forward ;
the leaders, on stopping, are very apt to hang back
and to be too near the end of the pole. Their
traces should be nearly tight, and while they stand,
the man at their heads should see that they are al-
ways in their proper places. The coachman quietly
puts on the brake, gets down immediately, with the
reins and whip in his right hand, draws the reins
through the point-strap above the tug-buckle (in
the manner shown in Fig. 16S), lays the whip across
the backs of the wheelers, and then stands at the
wheelers' heads on the off side.

Should there be only men going on the coach,
and the ladder is not required, the man who is at

41 6 DUTIES OF THE MEN CH. XVIII

the wheelers' heads remains at his place ; if the
ladder is to be used, it is his duty to take it down
and put it in position, and also to get out any rugs,

aprons, etc., that may be
required. As soon as he
has finished these duties he
returns to his station on the
off side.

Meanwhile, the second
man, at the heads of the
leaders, must be looking
toward the coach, and at a
YiQ 1 63 nod from the person driving

he moves to his right, that
is, to the near side, and takes three or four steps
toward the coach ; at the same time the head man
takes a step forward, which brings him opposite to
the second man.

As the coach passes them, they take hold of the
irons supporting the rumble, and putting up the
inside foot first, mount to the back seat as nearly
as possible simultaneously.

On stopping, they immediately descend, and take
their places, as before, at the horses' heads ; but it
a lady is to get down, the head man brings the
ladder.

Both men should be on the alert to get down
in case of an accident or if their services are really
required, but they should not jump down and run
to the horses at every temporary block in the street.

CH. XVIII DUTIES OF THE MEN 417

as if the coachman were not competent to manage
his horses.

All the men about a four-in-hand establishment
should be carefully instructed, that should a team
suddenly start, the proper way to stop it is by
seizing the heads of the zo/icci horses; there is
always an impulse on the part of bystanders to
rush to the heads of the leaders ; if they succeed
in stopping them, the point of the pole runs into
the leaders' rumps, resulting in confusion worse
confounded. It is the wheelers alone that can
hold the coach ; if they are stopped, the leaders
can do but little. Therefore, the proper thing is
to reach the wheelers first, and bring them under
control.

When wheelers are troublesome, the man at their
heads can hold them by taking all four of their
reins in his hand, about two feet from the bits, and
every man should be shown how he can hold all
four horses at once, by taking in his hand, or in both
hands, the leaders' reins in addition, — a much safer
way than merely standing at the leaders' heads
when there is no one to look after the wheelers.

In large establishments, the head coachman fre-
quently brings the coach to the door, but goes no
further, in which case, the two grooms come round
in the rumble, and take their stations as above
described. Under these circumstances, the head
coachman is not in livery. He places the ladder
and discharges the duties, described above as be-

41 8 DRESS OF THE MEN CH. XVIII

longing to the head man, and the principal groom
remains at the wheelers' heads.

When, as at races and picnics, a stable-man out
of livery is taken inside the coach to help with
the horses, he does not do any of the duties just
described, but assists immediately in taking out
the horses, holdingr them, runnincr the coach into
position, etc.

Dress. — The men should be dressed in breeches
and boots, with sinMe-breasted coats not too lono- in
the skirt, waistcoats of the striped material especially
made for the purpose, known as 'Valencia,' or of
any coloured material that is desired. The waist-
coats should have sleeves, so that the men will look
neat if their coats are taken off to do any work ; the
waistcoats should be high enough to show an edge
in the opening of the coat when this is buttoned.

The scarf should be white ; there is a regular
form of coachman's scarf, sometimes combined with
a collar, which is sold by dealers (Fig.
169). The scarf and collar must be
always scrupulously clean, and it looks
well for the two men to wear small horse-
shoe scarf-pins exactly alike.

The higfh silk hat should be in the mean
Fig. 169. ^

of the fashion, and not exaggerated,

but always of the best quality and never shabby.

The oil-cloth covers, sometimes provided for rainy

weather, are not satisfactory : they rub the hat when

CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE MEN 419

they are being put on, and are heavy. A good silk
hat is not much hurt by rain, if, after coming home,
it is wet all over and wiped with a wet cloth. After
it is quite dry, it should be brushed with a hard
brush, and then with a soft one or a velvet pad ;
some coachmen keep a hatter's iron in the harness-
room to improve it still further.

Cockades are worn in the men's hats only when
the owner of the coach is, or has been, an Officer
of the Army or Navy, or in the Diplomatic Service.
It is usually considered that the cockade with a fan
belongs to military officers, and the cockade with
only the oval body, to Civil Servants of the Gov-
ernment.'='

Tan-coloured dog-skin gloves complete the cos-
tume ; the orloves should not be white.

A coachman's coat has flaps on the hips where
pockets would be ; a groom's coat has not. The
buttons are silver or gilt, corresponding to the
mountinors of the harness, and should have, raised
on them, a monogram or crest ; a perfectly plain
metal button suggests a livery stable. The tails of

* The cockade probably originated with the button used to fasten
up the brim of the hat, and seems to have been confined at first to
the mihtary servants of Army officers ; it has, for a long time, been
a badge of party, as the white, the red, and the tricolour cockades of
French history and the black or white cockades of the Houses of
Hanover or Stuart. The cockades of Embassy, and Legation ser-
vants have different colours : for Austria they are black and yellow,
for Belgium, black, yellow, and red, etc.

420 DRESS OF THE MEN CH. XVIII

a livery coat, where they lap over, should be sewed
together for a distance of about five inches below
the buttons, to prevent them from spreading apart
when the man is seated. The overcoat is double-
breasted, with two rows of buttons, and should be
long, — half-way between the knee and the ankle.
It is usually of the same colour as the other coat,
but it is perfectly proper to have it of drab cloth,
whatever the other coat may be.

The men should always have india-rubber coats,
preferably black and with a cloth finish, not with a
rubber surface, which looks common.

For ordinary carriage purposes, the men have
trousers of the same colour as the coats, but trousers
should not be worn on a coach, with livery coats ;
always breeches and boots.

In a well mounted establishment the men should
have, in addition to their liveries, morning suits,
consisting of a sack coat, waistcoat, and trousers of
grey or light brown material, that known to tailors
as ' Chipping Norton tweed,' being the most suitable.

These clothes are worn when the coach is taken
out in the morning, or on a journey, or for trying a
team. Instead of ordinary trousers, breeches and
gaiters, all of the same stuff, may be worn, but
trousers are the best on a journey, not being so con-
spicuous when the men are walking about a town.

The hats worn with these suits are Derby or
pot-hats, either of the colour of the cloth, or black,
but both of exactly the same shape. The white tie

CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE MEN 42 1

and collar are of course necessary. The coat
belonging to this suit may be put on after ar-
riving at a race-course or a horse-show, in place
of the livery coat, and it looks very ' smart' on
such occasions over the breeches and boots. The
pot-hat must be worn with it, having been taken
out in the coach.

The colour of the boot-tops is a matter of taste,
and varies with fashion from time to time, but the
regular old dark brown is much the best, the pink
and the white having a less sporting look.

The breeches, to look well, must be made by the
best maker and carefully put on, the buttons not too
much to one side, but half-way round between the
front and the side. They should not be too tight,
but must not be at all baggy above the knee, as
hunting-breeches are now made. In fact, livery-
breeches and hunting-breeches are altogether dif-
ferent articles. Breeches made of leather, are
handsome and last for a long time, but they are
expensive, require a great deal of care, and should
be in duplicate, because when they get wet it is
difficult to dry them in time for next day's use.
The pipeclay with which they are cleaned, rubs off
on the cushions and is a little untidy.

Breeches are perhaps better made of moleskin,
an elastic cassimere, which comes for the purpose.
This may be pure white, but it usually has a slight
grey tinge, which is quite as pleasing as a dazzling
white. They are kept clean by washing, and must

422 DRESS OF THE OWNER CH. XVIII

be dried on a breeches-stretcher, or they will soon
get out of shape. A careful man will have an
apron to keep his breeches clean, when doing any
work in the stable after he is dressed.

It is usual in Europe, for coachmen and grooms
to have their own boots and breeches, which they
take with them in changing a place. It is a custom
that miofht be introduced to advantage in America,
inasmuch as these articles are expensive items if
they have to be furnished frequently for new men.
Of course, wages have to be adjusted to compen-
sate the man for providing this part of his dress.

The owner's dress for coaching hardly demands
remark ; it is the same that he would wear for any
driving. For the coat, a dark grey is suitable, and
shows dust less than black. The tails should be
sewed together as described for the men's coats.
A high hat should be worn in the afternoon, but a
pot-hat is proper in the morning (unless the occasion
is a formal one), and is also proper in the country
at any time of day, or on any kind of coaching
trip.

In the early days of The Coaching Club, in New
York, the members wore white hats at the Meets ;
but later this was changed, and now black hats are
worn. Ten or fifteen years ago it was considered
the proper thing for a lady, on a coach, to wear a
bonnet, but now the rule is relaxed and hats are in
the majority.

Tan-coloured gloves are the proper thing for

CH. XVIII GLOVES 423

driving- ; light or white gloves never. If a coach-
man wishes to be happy, he will have large gloves,
easy about the wrist, and with very long fingers. If
they are short, the bending of the hand will pidl the
glove against the ends of the fingers, which they
will tire and make perfectly numb in cold weather.
A glove is sometimes left unbuttoned at the wrist,
but this permits the glove to slip about and to
catch on the cuff of the coat ; it is much better to
have it large at the wrist, or the buttons so moved
as to make it easy. Some men like a thin glove,
but the majority of coachmen find a thick, soft
glove the most comfortable, and for hard work,
I like a soft lined glove. It is somewhat a question
of thin or fat hands.

A pair of cotton, or thin woollen, gloves should
always be carried either in the coach or in the
pocket of the waterproof cape, to put on over
the other gloves when it rains ; when wet, leather
gloves are slippery and most uncomfortable.

After gloves have been wet, a thorough rubbing
with crown soap well worked in will make them all
right again.

For cold weather there is nothing better than the
ordinary drab cloth box coat, easy, but not too
large, double-breasted, buttoning up close in the
neck. It may have covered buttons to match the
cloth, or pearl buttons, plain and not too large.

A cape, either of drab cloth or of some water-
proof material, large enough to lie outside of the

424

DRIVING CAPE

CH. XVIII

top of the apron and over the back of the driving
cushion, so as to shed the rain off otttside, is con-
venient for showery weather. Any shape of water-
proof thing which leads the rain down inside of the
apron and into the lap is maddening.

A cape with sleeves (Fig. 1 70) I have found
useful. It can be thrown over the shoulders like
a cape, while driving, and the arms, one at a time,
thrust into the sleeves afterward ;
the sleeve is short and very large
at its upper end, so that the hand
readily slips into it, but it fits
tight around the wrist. To put
on, while driving, an ordinary
coat with long sleeves, is a dan-
gerous experiment ; for some
moments the coachman is per-
fectly helpless.

For public coaching a some-
what more ' down-the-road' style
of dress may be adopted. It is proper for the
coachman to wear a white hat, which may be rather
low in the crown and wide in the brim, but not
extravagantly so.

Russet-leather shoes with white linen spats are
not out of place in summer ; blackened leather
shoes, which soil the apron, are objectionable.

A white huntine scarf and collar, with some kind
of a coaching pin, is the best neckgear.

A dark-grey coat is good ; as is also, for cold

Fig. 170.

CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE WHIP CLUB 425

weather, a drab box-coat with large pearl, or ivory-
buttons, on which a coachingr device is eno-raved.

In wet weather, an apron which can be buckled
round the waist, reaching to the ankles and meet-
ing behind, is a good protection, and if the coat or
cape is put on over it, it is hardly possible for the
rain to penetrate ; it must be confessed that in this
o^arb, the coachman, when on the eround, looks
somewhat like an old woman.

In the early part of this century in England,
when ' the road' was the fashion, not only the pro-
fessional coachmen but the amateurs who imitated
them, affected many eccentricities of dress. Coats
of many capes, very low broad-brimmed hats, and
voluminous wrappings about the neck were the
rage, and Lord William Lennox {^CoacJiing, p.
202) gives the following description of the dress
of a member of ' The Whip Club' : ' A light drab-
' coloured cloth coat, made full, sinele-breasted, with
' three tiers of pockets, the skirts reaching to the
'ankles, a mother-o'-pearl button of the size of a
' crown-piece ; waistcoat blue and yellow stripe, each
* stripe an inch in depth ; smallclothes, corded silk
' plush, made to button over the calf of the leg, with
' sixteen strings, and rosettes to each knee ; the
' boots very short, and finished with very broad
' straps, which hung over the tops and down to the
' ankle ; a hat three inches and a half deep in the
' crown only, and the same depth in the brim. Each
' wore a large bouquet of flowers at the breast.

426 CLUB UNIFORMS CH. XVIII

' resembling the coachmen of the nobility on a
* Drawing-room or Levee day.'

In the present day the ' Driving' and ' Coaching
Clubs' of London. New York, Philadelphia, and
elsewhere, have a distinctive uniform for Meets,
but it is simple, consisting of a plain dark coat of
green, brown, or blue, with gilt buttons with the
club device, a uniform waistcoat, and plain trousers
of any colour. Usually a dress-coat of the same
cloth, for evening wear, is prescribed.

CH. XIX 427

CHAPTER XIX
PUBLIC COACHING

Driving a coach on the road between fixed points,
according to a regular time-table, with changes of
horses, in imitation of old-fashioned business coach-
ing, has a great fascination for the coaching man,
and with eood reason. It bears much the same re-
lation to taking an afternoon drive at one's leisure,
that playing an instrument in an orchestra bears to
practising solos at home. In the latter case mis-
takes are easily corrected, movements may be re-
peated ; if one passage is not interesting another
can be selected ; but in an orchestra, when once
started, the performer must go on, time must be
kept, everything must be according to rule, with no
chance to correct omissions or mistakes.

In fact, a coachman never detects how little he
knows until he undertakes to drive a fast road-
coach, or a musician until he tries his hand in con-
certed pieces. In an afternoon drive in the park,
if the reins are not quite right, if one horse pulls,
if any one of many inaccuracies troubles the coach-
man, he can stop, try experiments, and re-arrange
matters, and as he has no time to keep, he is not
afraid of losing any ; but on a fast road-coach it is
very different : it is usually all that the teams can

428 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XIX

do, to oet over their o-round in the time allotted ;
there is no opportunity to slow down in order to
cool a fretful leader ; if he will gallop, he has to
g-allop, or else to be handled with such skill as to
bring him down to a trot without materially dimin-
ishing the pace ; for minutes are precious. In a
coach timed at ten miles an hour including changes,
very close to eleven miles an hour must be made
while moving, and a minute or two lost, by stopping
or going slow, is hard to make up ; so that whether
the team is going pleasantly or most disagreeably,
there is nothing to do but to make the best of it,
and to notice carefully how things may be improved
on the run back, or on the next day. Horses have
to be shifted from one stage to another to make the
best use of them or to counteract their peculiarities.
Some horses go best in town, others in the country,
a bad wheeler may make a good leader, changing
sides may turn a troublesome horse into a good
one, and all these matters are interesting- and re-
quire judgement on the part of the coachman.

Quickness at the changes, smartness of the service
generally, attention to small details by all persons
employed, are points which interest the proprietor
and please the connoisseur ; and the coachman
never knows but that in his load of strangers there
may be a master of the craft, who will express his
opinion, on the spot or at a future time.

The mere driving is of itself much more interest-
ing than that of a simple afternoon outing : every

CH. XIX PUBLIC COACHING 429

mile of the road must be carefully studied ; a little
piece down-hill must be used to make time and to
compensate for a loss on another part, where for
some reason the pace has to be reduced ; a sharp
turn at the bottom of a hill must be remembered,
and the horses kept well in hand as they approach
it ; the exact minute of passing each point must be
learned by experience, in order that there shall be
no uncertainty as to whether or not the coach is on
time ; the pace on certain parts must be sometimes
modified, depending upon the weather, so that a
long hill may be taken slowly on a hot day with the
wind behind, even at the cost of increased speed
over some less trying stretch. A careful study of
these conditions makes a road more and more
interestinof the oftener it is driven over.

Added to all this, the variety of passengers that
the coachman finds on a public coach is very enter-
taining, and there is something so exhilarating in the
motion behind four horses, through the fresh air,
that even stupid people wake up and for once
make themselves ao^reeable.

If a coachman is lucky enough to get a day's turn
on a strange coach, on a road new to him, it is most
interesting. His only guide as to time will be the
pace as determined by a study of the time-table, and
he must, therefore, depend upon his own judgement
of the rate at which his horses are going, and upon
an occasional hint from the guard, as to whether or
not he is keeping his time.

430 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XIX

Under such circumstances the loss of even a few
minutes makes it necessary for a coachman to use
all his skill to enable him to pull up at his change
on time.

In Eneland the construction of o^ood roads toward
the latter part of the last century, the love of coun-
try life and its amusements, and the thickly popu-
lated state of the country, made travelling by coach
a pleasure as well as a business.

The same kind of talent now bestowed upon rail-
way management, was then devoted to coaching,
and in connection with the Post-Office system, the
Government exercised, with an almost military uni-
formity, a rigid supervision over the service. Able
and highly-placed people were interested in it, as a
business. Country gentlemen furnished horses for
this important service, and went frequently over
their roads, often themselves driving, for the pur-
pose of seeing that everything was done properly.
A fierce competition as to speed and punctuality
sprang up on the important roads, and every de-
tail was duly considered by the most competent
persons, often under Government penalties as to
performance of contracts. It was this series of
conditions, lasting through a period of nearly fifty
years, that made English coaching the thorough
and complete system that it was : the standard
for what has now changed from a serious business
to an amusement.

That many men fond of fresh air and horses

CH. XIX DRIVING CLUBS 43 1

should have availed themselves of the opportunities
which the public coaches afforded of gratifying this
fondness was natural, and many an amateur, as
skilful as the best professional, passed pleasant
hours on the driving cushion.

After 1835, however, the locomotive came rapidly
upon the scene, and one by one the coaches disap-
peared, the coachmen dropped into other employ-
ments, and four-in-hand driving bade fair to become
one of the lost arts. Its traditions were kept up,
however, by the Driving Clubs, the earliest of
which. The Bensington Driving Club, was formed
in 1807. Other clubs, the histories of which are
pleasantly told in the volume on Driving, of the
Badminton Librar^y, were formed and dissolved,
but the ' B. D. C lasted until 1854. There seems
to have been a short gap until 1856, when The
Four-in-Hand Driving Club was formed, but ac-
cording to the annals, this gap was filled by a
solitary coachman, Sir Henry Peyton, who, with
his yellow coach and grey horses, was a well-known
fip-ure on the London streets.

From 1856 until 1870 The Four-in-Hand Club
kept Coaching in memory, and in 1870 The
Coaching Club was formed in London with a larger
number of members, and both clubs now maintain
a vigorous existence.

The Brighton Road, always famous in the annals
of coaching, had on it, in different years, some road-
coaches, notably 'The Age,' driven first by Clark,

432 COACHING REVIVAL CH. XIX

and in 1862 by the Duke of Beaufort ; and others
run in 1866. and afterward, by a band of amateurs,
among them Messrs Angell, Haworth, Chandos-
PoLE, and Hoare, whose names appear frequently
in coaching annals.

About 1869 and 1870, at the time of what is
usually called the ' Coaching Revival,' amateur
coaching increased in England, and has since then
spread to America, and to the Continent.

Although four horses were used a great deal in
America in Colonial days and later, both for public
coaches and for private travelling, there does not
seem to be any mention in the memoirs of the period
of driving as an amusement. The roads were too
bad to make driving much of a pleasure, and lovers
of the horse preferred to enjoy themselves in the
saddle.

In i860, a coach, built by Mav & Jacobs, of Guil-
ford, England, was sent to Mr Bigelow Lawrence,
of Boston ; this was probably the first regular Eng-
lish coach in America, unless some had been sent
out in Colonial times. This coach afterward went
to New York.

It was not until after 1865 that a few four-in-hands
driven to brakes or barouches were seen at races in
the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia ;
but from that date they rapidly increased in number,
and the establishment of 'The Coaching Club,' at
New York, in 1875, aided materially in increasing
the taste for the sport.

CH. XIX PUTTING A COACH ON THE ROAD 433

In 1876 Colonel A. DeLancev Kane, who in the
previous year had driven in England, working the
road from London to Virginia Water, put on the
first amateur road-coach in America, running from
The Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham Bridge.
This was succeeded by others in different parts of
the United States, some of which are mentioned
below.

Putting a Coach on the Road. — It is well
understood among coaching men that the person
who has been working a certain road has a rioht to
that road, and it is not in accordance with coaching
etiquette for any one else to put a coach upon it,
or upon any important part of it, without having
first obtained permission of the original proprietor,
or the assurance from him that he does not intend to
occupy the road that season. This matter having
been arranged, or a vacant road selected, the next
thing is to go over the road and to study it carefully.

In modern public coaching the distance to be run,
is usually such that a coach starting at a convenient
hour in the mornincr can have time for lunch at the
end of the route and get back to its starting-place
late in the afternoon ; or a longer route is chosen
which requires all day, the coach going down one
day and back the next.

In the first case, starting at ten, a thirty-mile drive

at ten miles an hour will allow two hours for lunch,

with a return to the starting place by six o'clock.

434 COACHING ROUTES CH. XIX

The hours of some well known coaches are mven
as examples ; the distances are one way : —

Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham Bridge,
Down lo A.M. to 11.30 AM, 15.5 miles.

Up 4 P.M. to 5.30 P.M.

Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Yonkers,

Down 11.30 A.M. to 1. 1 5 P.M. 18 miles.

Up 3.25 P.M. to 5.10 P.M.
Holland House, New York, to Ardsley Casino,

Down 10 A.M. to 12.30 P.M. 25.8 miles.

Up 3.30 P.M. to 6 P.M.
Berkeley Hotel, London, to Guildford,

Down II A.M. to 2 P.M. 28.5 miles.

Up 4 P.M. to 7 P.M.
Northumberland Avenue, London, to Box Hill,

Down II A.M. to 2 P.M. 25 miles.

Up 4 P.M. to 7 P.M.

Northumberland Avenue, London, to Virginia Water,

Down 10.45 ■^•^^- to 2 P.M. 26.5 miles.

Up 3.30 P.M. to 6.50 P.M.
Northumberland Avenue, London, to Windsor,

Down 10.30 A.M. to 1.30 P.M. ^o miles.

Up 3.40 P.M. to 6.40 P.M.
Northumberland Avenue, London, to Dorking,

Down 10.45 -^•^^- tc) 1.45 P..M. 29 miles.

Up 3.15 P.M. to 6.15 P.M.
New York Herald Office, Paris, to Cernay-la-Ville,

Down 10 A.M. to I P.M. 29 miles.

Up 3.05 P.M. to 6.05 P.M.

CH. XIX COACHING ROUTES 435

New York Herald Ofifice, Paris, to Pontoise,

Down lo A.M. to 12.45 P-^^- -6-3 rniles.

Up 3.30 P.M. to 6.15 P.M.
New York Herald Office, Paris, to Maisons-Laffitte,

Down 10.30 A.M. to 12.30 P.M. 19.4 miles.

Up 3 P.M. to 5 P.M.
New York Herald Office, Paris, to Versailles,

Down 10.45 -^■^^- to 12.30 P.M. 14.5 miles.

Up 4.30 P.M. to 6 P.M. (Different Road) 12.5 miles.

The following routes are arranged for one day
down and another day up : —

Plaza Hotel, New York, to Tuxedo Park,

Down 9.45 A.M. to 5.15 P.M. 47.5 miles.

Up 10.30 A.M. to 5.30 P.M.
White Horse Cellar, Piccadilly, London, to Brighton,

Down II A.M. to 5 P.M. 54 miles.

Up 12 A.M. to 6 P.M.
New York Herald Office, Paris, to Fontainebleau,

Down 1 1 A.M. to 6 P.M. 60 miles.

Up I I A.M. to 6 P.M.

On these long routes there is always a stop of
from 35 to 40 minutes for luncheon.

The lengths of the stages, of course, depend
largely upon the places where stabling can be ob-
tained for the change-horses. If they are of less
than five miles, the time lost at the changes will
not be made up by the increased speed which the
shorter stages permit, to say nothing of the larger

436 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX

number of horses and men to be kept, and if they
much exceed eight miles, they cannot be travelled
so fast. An ideal road is one with good stabling
ever}^ seven miles. On a twenty-eight mile road
this would require four teams, or sixteen horses,
but as each staee should have at least one extra
horse to fill vacancies caused by lameness or acci-
dent, twenty horses in all would be required as a
minimum, and, if the pace is at all fast, four more
horses, to rest the others, would be necessary-.

It is usually considered that a fast coach, running
out and in, should have a horse to each mile of
road ; that is, for a coach going once a day each
way, between two places thirty miles apart, thirty
horses will be required.

This will work out as follows, each team doing two
stages a day, one each way : —

Stages five miles ; one rest-horse to each team.
30 ms., 6 stages ; 24 horses -f 6 rest = 30.

Stages six miles.

30 ms., 5 stages ; 20 horses -f 5 rest = 25.
A horse to the mile would give two rest-horses to
each team.

Stages seven and a half miles.
30 ms., 4 stages ; 16 horses -f- 4 rest = 20.
A horse to the mile would give 2,j4 rest-horses to
each team.

CH. XIX LENCxTHS OF STAGES 437

Beginning- with five-mile stages, a horse to the
mile will give one rest-horse to each team, and
when the lengths of the stages are increased to
six, and to seven and a half miles, the number of
rest-horses to each team is increased to two, and to
three and a half, respectively.

It may, therefore, be a matter for consideration
whether to have shorter stages or more rest-horses,
a question obviously controlled by the location of
the chang-e-stables.

The Maisons-Laffitte coach of 1894, doing 191^
miles, with four teams, in two hours each way, or 39
miles in the day, ran for six weeks with twenty
horses, several of them being replaced for a day or
two by hired horses owing to slight causes of unfit-
ness. This was a fast coach, always well loaded,
running six days in the week, and in warm weather ;
five miles of the road not very good.

It is sometimes a question whether or not the last
team down the road should do the last two stages as
one, a fresh team bringing the coach back over those
two stages. This arrangement will require the same
number of horses, but the location of the stable for
the last change must be such as to reduce those two
stacres together, to a distance of not over twelve
miles.

A twenty-eight mile road, for example, would
be usually divided as follows : first stage 7 miles,
second stage 8 miles, third stage 7 miles, and fourth
stage 6 miles, each team doing one stage each way.

438 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX

The last stage should always be the shortest, if
possible, since the team which does it has the least
time to rest between its two turns of work.

This might be modified as follows : first stage
8 miles, second stage 8 miles, leaving 12 miles to be
done by the last team, which will, however, have a
long rest ; that is, until it is required to take the coach
back the next day ; this last stage being done back
by the fresh team which came out the day before.

This is not an uncommon arrangement, and has
the advantage of suppressing one stable with its
attendant helpers ; but, as a rule, the horses of the
long stage are not quite so pleasant to drive, espe-
cially in warm weather ; they are somewhat tired
toward the end of it, but they will be entirely
rested by their long stop in the stable and come out
fresh the next day.

To give an example from actual practice. The
coach from Paris to Maisons-Laffitte in 1894. was,
in the beginning of the season, arranged as follows,
the proprietors of the previous season having so
run it: First stage: Paris to Suresnes, 5.6 miles,
35 minutes, town team ; second stage : Suresnes to
Bougival, 5.3 miles, 33 minutes; third stage: Bou-
gival to Maisons-Laffitte, 8.5 miles, 52 minutes, a
five-minutes' stop being made on the terrace at
St. Germain. The last team remained at Maisons-
Laffitte, a fresh team bringing the coach back after
lunch to Bougival.

It was found, however, that the last team, after

CH. XIX LENGTPIS OF STAGES 439

the stop at St. Germain, was not so pleasant to
drive as on the first part of the stage, especially as
it had surmounted a long, steep hill to reach that
point. The arrangement was therefore altered ; and
a stable was equipped at St. Germain, so that the
last change was made there, and the horses which
did the last staee to Maisons-Laffitte took the coach
back to St. Germain, no horses or men remaining
at Maisons-Laffitte overnight. A man from the St.
Germain stable was taken in the coach to Maisons-
Laffitte to attend to the horses while they spent
their two and a half hours there at noon ; he was
assisted by a local stable-man, and replaced by a
local man at St. Germain.

This arrangement was a decided improvement ;
the last team was fresh and pleasant to drive both
ways. It took no more horses, and only required
accommodation in an additional stable for the noon
rest, and the services of one additional man, or ot
two local men for half a day each.

As this coach ran in warm weather and was fast
(19.4 miles in 109 minutes driving time, or 10.7 miles
an hour), the fresh horses at St. Germain were very
welcome, and since the original time-table provided
for a stop of five minutes there, no time was lost by
the change.

The examples of twelve miles for a last stage,
and of this Maisons-Laffitte time-table, are the ex-
tremes, since the former gives a somewhat long
stao-e and those of the latter are very short.

440 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX

A long stage, with two teams to work it. may be
convenient in the middle of a route, if the stables are
so situated that a uniform division is not possible.

Inasmuch as street work in a large city is more
trying to the horses than work in the country, and
since the horses of the end stage have only a short
rest between their work, these two stages (in a city,
and at the end), should be shorter thai^ the stages
of the middle ground.

The divisions have been, thus far, considered as
if the road were of the same character throughout,
but four miles of bad or hilly road may be as tiring
as eieht of the best, and the distribution of stagfes
must be made accordingly. On a hilly road, where
the pace must be slow, a long stage may be made,
for ' it is the pace that kills.'

Four Swiss vcttiirino horses will take a large car-
riage thirty-five miles a day, over heavy mountain
grades, at a slow walk when going up, and they will
travel twenty-five miles a day regularly, but they go
very slowly ; while an average coach team, timed at
ten miles an hour, will find two seven-mile stages
a day quite enough.

An active team to a drag should be able to do
nine miles an hour steadily for two hours on good
level roads without fatio^ue, but that is too much
work to be continued, at that pace, day after day.
Three hours at seven miles an hour, would not be so
much work, although the distance would be greater.

On a hilly road, the time of any one stage need

CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 44 1

not be each way the same ; if it is all up-hill one
way, it will be all down-hill the other, and the time
lost in going up and that gained in coming down
must be properly apportioned to the other parts of
the road.

Owing to the wide-spread fondness in the United
States, for trottins^, an averag-e team of American
horses will undoubtedly get over the ground at a
faster pace without galloping than the horses usu-
ally to be found in England or F'rance, nevertheless
it may be desirable to arrange for one galloping
stage on a road. Such a stage is usually very
attractive to the passengers, and on it horses may
be used which cannot, or will not, trot pleasantly.
This stage should be rather level ; it is hard work
for horses to gallop up-hill, and it may be timed
pretty fast, — thirteen or fourteen miles an hour, if
it is not more than six or seven miles lone.

When Mr Tiffany was working- the Brighton
road in 1873, he had a galloping stage, from The
White Hart, at Reigate, to The George, at Crawley,
a distance of nine miles, which he did in thirty min-
utes, stopping once at a toll-gate.

W^hen a coach runs out and in, the same day,
the arrangement of the teams is simple, since the
morning team out is the afternoon team back, the
last team having the time for rest at mid-day that
the coach has for lunch ; but if two coaches run in
opposite directions on the same hours, each the
whole length of the road, with a stop in the middle

442 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX

of the day of only half an hour for lunch, — not time
enough for a team to rest, — the arrangement is more
complicated.

If long stages are adopted, each coach can take
its teams one after the other straight through, each
team working only once on one day and returning
the next. This is simple, but not adapted to a fast
coach, because the stages will be either too long
to be done at a high speed, or each team will be
doing less than a good day's work, it being assumed
that a team can travel a greater distance in two
hours than in one.

If short stages are adopted, and each team works
once each way, over its own ground, while the
early morning and afternoon teams will have suffi-
cient rests between their turns, those working in
the middle of the day will not.

If. for instance, the two coaches start from the
different ends of the road at lo a.m., and arrive at
6 P.M., meeting at two o'clock at a point where only
a half-hour's stop is made, the team which brought
one coach down from i to 1.45 would have to take
the other up, starting at 2.15, without sufficient rest.
It will be, therefore, necessary to have at this centre
point another team for each coach, that team which
comes in, resting until the next day. The two
stages joining at this place would have to be longer
than the others to equalise the work. If the whole
road, for instance, is fifty-six miles long, or each
half twenty-eight miles, divided into four seven-mile

Hours —

II 12 I

Teams —

A B C D

Hours —

5 4 3

Teams —

A B C E

CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 443

Stages, and supposing for simplicity that each stage
requires one hour, the arrangement will be as
follows : —

3456

G H I J

I 12 II 10
F H I J

Team A 10 to 11] Team F i to 2 rests all dav

^ ^ rests 6 hrs. r- . <. n ^

5 to 6 j ,, G 2 to 3 rests all day

,, B II to 12] , ,, H 12 to I ]

Uests 4 hrs. ^ rests 2 hrs.

4 to 5 J 3 to 4 J

, , C 1 2 to I 1 . . I 1 1 to 1 2 1 ,

h-ests 2 hrs. , ,^ , rests 4 hrs.

2 to 4 J 4 to 5 )

,, D I to 2 rests all day ,, J 10 to 11 ")

,, , , crests 6 hrs.

E 2 to 3 rests all day 5 to 0 j

This requires ten teams, four of which, D, E, F,
and G, do only one turn a day.

It is evident that to equalise the work the middle
stages should be longer than the others, and they
mieht be divided as follows : 6, 6, 6, and lo, making
28 miles, with the times modified to suit the changed
distances.

The fact is, that the additional teams are necessary
because there is no long stop in the middle, or be-
cause the road is done in two hours less total time
than it would have been if there were a long stop,
although the actual drhnng time is the same.

Of the two coachmen required to work such a
road, one coachman, going over the whole road
each day, will go out Monday, Wednesday, and

444 TIME-CHART CH. XIX

Friday, and come in on the other days, the other
coachman going in the opposite direction, and each
one will drive the end teams every day, but each
one will always drive the same middle teams.

In arranorinor the time-table of a road it is con-
venient to make a time-chart, such as is used on
railroads.

One is shown in Plate XXXII. ; the names of the
places and the distances, are at the top, the hours
and minutes at the sides. If a coach were to start
from A at lo o'clock, and run straieht through
without stopping, to F, thirty miles, arriving there
at I o'clock, its course would be indicated by the
dotted line representing a speed of ten miles an
hour.

If it makes four stops of 3, 3, 5, and 3 minutes
each at B, C, D, and E, its course will be indicated
by the full line, the flatter angle of which indicates
its superior speed while running. If we suppose the
road to be varied in its character, so that, between
C and D, the pace must be slow, the time required
for that stage must be taken from the adjacent
stages making them faster, or from the whole of
the rest of the route.

This is shown, in a somewhat exaggerated man-
ner, by the line . If the road is

up-hill from C to D, the speed coming down from
D to C can be greater than on the other portions
of the road, as shown by the return line.

sanoH

n 2

PI
>

4>.

■;

}

1
i

;

/■

i
\

1
!

:;: -^

° "^ o o o o o
HOURS

CH. XIX

TIME-TABLE

445

By constructing a diagram of this kind, it will be
easy to see exactly how the time should be arranged,
and at what moments the coach should pass any
other points : x, y, z.

The diagram should be made upon the engraved,
divided paper which can be bought of any dealer in
engineering supplies.

After the road has been laid out in this way, a
a Time-table is prepared, as follows : —

Start from A at lo a.m.

X
H

O
Si

a
o

I
2

A to B .
B to C .
C to D .

Stop 5 minutes.

4
5

D to E.

E to F .

Total

The ' Hour of Coach' is the time of arriving at
each station. The time in minutes of each stage is
from arrival to arrival, except in the first line, where
it is from the time of starting from the initial point.

In the old English mail-coach days the guard was
provided with a Time-bill something in this form,
except that it had a column in which the actual times
of arrival had to be entered by the guard so as to
show how the time had been kept. For this pur-

446 TIME LOST IN CHANGES CH. XIX

pose he was furnished with an official time-piece
or large watch. A number of these Time-bills are
printed in Harris's Coaching Age, pp. 277-292.

The following Table shows how much the driving
speed has to be increased to make up the time lost
at changes, with seven-mile stages : —

At 9 miles an hour. i mile in 6 min. 40 sec.
7 miles in 46.6 min., no stop r=r 9.0 ms. per hour

7 ,, ,, 45.6 ,, I min. stop =9.2 ,, ,,
7 ,. ,,44-6 ,, 2 ,, ,, =9.4 ,, ,,
7 ., ., 43-6 ,, 3 .. .. =9-6 ,, ,,
7 ., ,. 42.6 ,, 4 .. -. -^9-9 .. ..

At 10 miles an hour. A mile in 6 minutes.
7 miles in 42.0 min., no stop := 10. o ms. per hour

7 ,, ,,41.0 ,, I min. stop ^10.2 ,, ,,
7 ,, ,, 40.0 ,, 2 ,, ,, ^10.5 ,, ,,
7 .. -- 39-0 ., 3 .. .. = IO-8 ., ■-
7 .. -, 38.0 ,, 4 .. .. = ii-o .. M

At 1 1 miles an hour, i mile in 5 min. 27 sec.
7 miles in 38.15 min., no stop =11.0 ms. per hour
7 .. .. 37-15 '. I min. stop = 11.3
7 ,. ., 36.15 .. 2 ,, ,, = II. 6
7 ,. .. 35-15 .. 3 .. .. = 12.0
7 .. .. 34-15 .. 4 ., ,- = 12.3

The importance of making quick changes is evi-
dent, and also of not losing time by stopping for the
purpose of altering couplings or of changing the
bitting.

The horses intended for the road are usually
brought together at one point, as they are bought,
and tried so as to arrange them in teams ; it is an

CH. XIX COACHMAN AND GUARD 447

advantage to have them all of the same type, so
that however they may be shifted about, they will
look well together. The town-team should be the
best looking, and made up of handy, quick, fear-
less horses ; a sluggish team, requiring the whip, is
neither pleasant nor safe in the streets. As soon as
possible the horses should be put out on the road
and exercised over the ground on which they are to
work.

The men required will be : a professional coachman
and a guard, whose duties are described further on,
and if perfection is desired, two horse-keepers for
each change ; but one horse-keeper and a local hos-
tler at the change-place can do the work, provided
it can be so arranged that the latter will not be
called off by his other duties at the change-time.
If there are two horse-keepers, one of them must
decidedly out-rank the other and have authority
over him, or there will be endless friction between
the two ; and the chief man must have the entire
responsibility of the feeding. Their duties are ob-
viously those of ordinary stable-men, but they have
to be drilled in all the points of making a quick
and neat chano-e, so that the changes will be made
in the same way at all the stations.

The material furnished to each stable, such as
buckets, sponges, forks (and, by the way, a steel
fork should never be allowed in a stable, only
wooden four-pronged forks being used), brushes,
halters, rugs, etc., should be entered in a book, in

448 CHANGE-STABLES CH. XIX

which should be noted all purchases and losses,
or the articles will rapidly disappear. Every man
should have a strong canvas bag for his kit and be
required to keep all his tools in it. Each horse
should have a number branded on his fore hoof,
and his collar, with a corresponding number per-
manently fastened on it, must always go with him
when he changes his stable, otherwise changes of
collars will give endless annoyance due to sore
necks. The best way to mark a collar is by a
brass number on the small cape, which, for that
purpose, should be put upon the top of a coaching
collar (p. 2IO).

Whether or not the horses should have loin rugs
to be thrown over them while they are standing,
depends upon the climate, the time of year, and
somewhat upon the fancy of the owner. They are
more important at the ends of the road, where the
horses stand for some time while the passengers are
getting on the coach. At the changes, if the time is
kept punctually, they are not so necessary, since the
horses should be brought out only a few minutes
before the coach arrives, and they can ha\^e thrown
over them, their stable rugs, which, when the coach
appears, can be pulled off and laid aside, ready to
be put on the horses which are taken from the
coach ; rough canvas rugs are good for this purpose.

If loin rugs are used, they should be uniform
throughout the road; they certainly look 'smart,'
but they are apt to fall off if the horses caper while

CH. XIX TRYING THE HORSES 449

being led to their places, and sometimes cause a
difficulty. They must be laid on binder the reins.

It is a good plan to have in each stable a diagram
showing the coupling and bitting of the team, such
as is described in Chapter XII. (Plate XXVI.).

Ten days or two weeks will be required to try
the horses and the road thoroughly, and just before
the opening day the whole road should be driven
over at least twice, keeping the time and making
the changes exactly as they are to be made in
future.

It is usual on the opening day to have a party of
invited guests, generally persons interested in coach-
ing, and on this occasion everything should be done
in the most careful manner and with scrupulous
attention to punctuality.

Coachman's and Guard's Duties. — The profes-
sional coachman of a road-coach drives the coach
from its stable to the office from which it starts and
takes it back from the office to the stable, at the
end of the day. He has charge of the horses, and
should frequently go over the road to be sure that
they are properly cared for and to arrange any
transfers of horses from one sta^e to another, which
may be necessary. He examines and pays the
accounts for wages, feed, and shoeing. If he rarely
drives the coach he has plenty of time for all these

duties ; but if he is called on to occupy the cushion

450 COACHMAN S DUTIES CH. XIX

several days in the week, he must have exception-
ally good horse-keepers. It is convenient for him
to have a light wagon in which to go over the
road, for which the extra horses will serve, and he
may sometimes go down on the coach and, stopping
at one of the change-places, attend to the business
of that and an adjoining station.

Of some of the London coaches, in late years,
the professional coachman is the proprietor, and
takes subscribers who pay for the privilege of
driving on certain days, in which case the pro-
prietor also goes on the coach, sitting on the back
seat, and sometimes drives a staee or two if it
is agreeable to the subscriber. At times the sub-
scriber takes only one or two stages, out or in, at
his convenience.

The duty of the guard is : to receive the way-bill
from the booking-office, to show the passengers
their places, to see that they have their tickets or
to collect the proper fares from those who have
not, to take charge of baggage or parcels, to assist
at the changes, and to transact all the business
connected with the passengers ; ordinarily he has
nothing to do with the horses.

Usually at noon, the coach stops at an inn, where
the horses are put up immediately upon being taken
out, and the coach is drawn into the yard or left
standing in the road near the door ; but if the
stable is at some little distance from the stopping-
place, or if, for any reason, the coach cannot remain

CH. XIX GUARDS DUTIES 45 1

where it stops, it is convenient to have the guard
drive well enough to take the coach to its stable
and brincr it back aeain, and enards who know
anything about horses are glad to get that much
practice.

The guard must be able to blow the horn zee//,
not producing those melancholy sounds sometimes
heard. To do this requires good instruction and
much practice. The calls are given in the Chapter
on 'The Horn,' and the propei' ones should be
blown at the changes and stopping ; as to this,
guards are frequently careless. As a rule, the
guard can sound a call better when standing in
his place on the hind boot, holding to the strap
fastened for that purpose, to the roof-seat.

In the country, the horn should be used to ask
for the road, of vehicles going in either direction,
and also, according to the taste of the proprietor,
to enliven the journey. Guards are apt to give
too much horn ; it interferes unpleasantly with con-
versation on the coach. In a city it should be used
with judgement, and the calls needed to warn other
vehicles should be short, of a few notes only. The
horn is a great help to driving in a crowded street ;
but its use should not be abused ; it is particularly
annoying to other persons driving, when suddenly
blown, in passing, so close to a horse as to alarm
him. It is the duty of the proprietor to see that
the guard does not thoughtlessly commit this fault.
In driving through small towns, there is no objec-

452 COACHMAN S AND GUARDS DRESS CH. XIX

tion to a free use of the horn ; there are apt to
be obstructions in the streets, and the inhabitants
usually welcome the passage of the coach, with its
accompanying music, as a cheerful break in the
day's monotony.

Coachman's and Guard's Dress. — The dress of
a gentleman coachman has been already described ;
the professional of a road-coach need not dress
very differently. He should always wear a white
hat when driving, but when on the coach going
to inspect the stations, this is not necessar)^ His
dress should be plain and neat, and should have
that unmistakable coaching or ' horsey' look which
is difficult to describe. If the weather is cool, a
drab overcoat, single-breasted, with pearl buttons,
with flaps to the pockets, buttoning up rather high,
and reachinor to within eio-ht inches of the orround,
is very ' smart.'

The guard's dress should be a sino-le-breasted,
drab frock-coat, the skirt several inches above the
knees ; with buttons on the back, and side pockets
with flaps ; or it may be double-breasted and easy,
having somewhat the style of an overcoat. It should
button tolerably high in the throat, and show a white
collar and scarf, or a regular hunting-scarf The col-
lar of the coat may be of a bright colour. Trousers
of the same colour as the coat are correct, or else
somewhat tight breeches, with gaiters, all of the
same cloth ; the latter are neater than trousers.

CH. XIX GUARD S DRESS 453

With Qraiters, laced boots look best. The hat should
be light grey, with low crown and wide brim, but not
exaggerated ; it may have a dull felt surface or a
nap. Tan-coloured driving gloves should be worn.
A russet-leather case like a cartridge-box, about
seven inches by four and a half, is carried on the
left side by a strap over the right shoulder. It
holds the way-bill or other papers, and has a pocket
for the key of the coach. A small case for an
open-faced watch is usually fastened on the front of
it, but it is better to have the watch on the side next
the body, where it can be easily seen by tipping the
case outward away from the side of the body, and
where it is not likely to be broken. If the watch
is on the outside, it should be upside down, so that
the guard can easily read the time when the case
is turned up.

The mail-coach guards in England formerly wore
red coats, the Government livery, and the fashion is
still retained on some of the road-coaches of the
present day, but in America it means nothing, and
seems to be hardly appropriate.

Booking-Office, etc. — The booking-office should
be at a place where some one will always be in at-
tendance to take orders and money for seats. For
this reason, an hotel, or a public office which is
always open, is selected. For many years the
starting-place of the road-coaches, in London was
The White Horse Cellar (Hatchett's), in Piccadilly,

454 COACH OFFICE CH. XIX

an hotel and bookinof-office in the old business
coaching days, and later a public parcels-office.
About 1889 the coaches abandoned the Cellar and
started from the Hotel Metropole, or the Hotel Vic-
toria, in Northumberland Avenue ; the ' Guildford'
Coach starts from the Berkeley Hotel, Piccadilly,
In New York, the ' Pelham' Coach, and afterward
the ' Yonkers' and others, started from the Hotel
Brunswick in Fifth Avenue ; the ' Tuxedo' Coach
from the Plaza Hotel. In Philadelphia, coaches start
from the Bellevue Hotel, In Paris, all the coaches
start from the office of The New York Herald,
Avenue de 1' Opera.

A book, properly bound, with the name of the
coach on the outside, should be provided, one page
being devoted to each day. These pages should be
headed with the day of the week and of the month,
and it is better to do this for the whole season, when
the book is first opened.

The following is a good form of page : —

MONDAY, June 7, 1897.
Coachman : Mr Thompson Dols.

Box : Mr Jones 4 Pd.

1 : Mr Smith 3 Pd.

2 : Mr Broian 3 Pd.

3 : 3Ir

4 : Mr Robinson ojit 2 Pd.

and so on for the other six seats, the sum at the
foot being the amount for which the agent selling
the tickets is responsible. When the settlement is

CH. XIX

BOOKING SEATS

455

made, the amount may be receipted for on the page
of that day.

A ticket should be given to each passenger bear-
ing the name of the coach, the date, and the number
of the seat.

The seats are usually numbered as follows : —

Box Seat I Coachman

4321

5 6 7 8

Guard

In Paris, it is the custom to have the numbers of
the front seats run from left to right.

This diagram should be printed on the ticket, the
seat sold being marked thereon. It is usually on
the time-card also.

It should be an inflexible rule that a seat is to
be paid for when it is booked ; places merely en-
gaged, without payment, are frequently given up at
the last moment, to the loss of the coach and to the
disappointment of other applicants.

It is also a good plan to permit places to be
booked for any date, no matter how far ahead ; it
avoids any possibility of complaint of favouritism.
In other words, the coach book should be open for
the entire season to any one who chooses to select
a date and to pay. It is proper, however, to re-

456

TIME-CARDS

CH, XIX

serve the opening- and the closing days of the sea-
son, or any day like that of a coaching Meet ; across
the page should be written, ' no seats can be booked
for this day.'

For the information of passengers a time-card is
prepared and given with the ticket. Two speci-
mens are printed below : —

From Monday, April lOth, until Saturday, June 3d, 1899.

The New York and Ardsley Coach,

FIHIKIEI

WILL LEAVE

9!)

H OLLAN D HOUSE,
DAILY, (Sundays excepted) at 10.00 A. M.

TIME TABLE AND FARES

FARES

$ .75

2.7

1.00

3.6

1.50 :

1.75

4.2

2.00

2.25

3.8
1.6

1.7

2.50

2 75

3 00

25.8

LKAYIXG

Holland House

*Harlem

Washington Bridge
*Kins:sbridge. . .
Van Cortlandt. .

f *Yonkers

I Getty House
Glen wood . .

*Hasting5 ....
Dobbs Ferry . .

Ardsley

Ardsley Club.

TIME
A. M.

10.00
10.30
10.53
11.15
11.20
11 40

11.45
11.50

p. M.

12.10
12.20
12.30

§ .25

RETURNING

will leave

Ardsley Club

Ardsley

Dobbs Ferry . . ,
.50 *Hastings . . . . ,
.75 Glen wood

f *Yonkers . . 1
\ Getty House . . i

Van Cortlandt. .

*King;sbridge . . .

Washington Bridge

*Harlera

1.00

1.25
1.50
2.00

2.25

3.00 .Holland House.

TIME
P. M.

3.30

3.40
3.50
4.10
4.15

4.20
4.40
4.45
5.07
5.25
6.00

The Fririleges of the Ardsley Clul: are Extended to Passengers on the Coach,

Single Fare, !?8.00. Round Trip, !?5.00. Box Seat, $1.00
extra each way. This coach stops to take up and set down
pas.sengers wherever hailed, except between Holland House
and 50th Street.

BOOKING OFFICE, HOLLAND HOUSE.

n. b.— passenge rs are cautioned to be on time.
* Change Horses.

CH. XIX

TIME-CARDS

457

This Coach is worked with seven teams daily (including Sunday),

GIVING FINE VIEWS OF THE

River Thames, Windsor Castle, and Cliveden Woods, &c.

On and after 6th APRIL, 1

THE MAIDENHEAD COACH

LEAVES

HOTEL VICTORIA. NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE,

at lo 4S a.m.

AND RETURNS FROM

THE THAMES HOTEL, MAIDENHEAD,

at 3. AS p.m., every day (Sundays included).

Inter-
mediate
Fares.

6 0

7 0

8 0

10 0

DOWN JOURNEY

Daily (Sundays included).

NORTHUM'LAND AVENTJE, " Hotel Victoria"

KEW. STAR AND GARTER

*ISLEWORTH, "Coach & Horses"

HOUNSLOW, RED LION

*CRANFORD BRIDGE. " Berkely Hotel"

HARLINGTON CORNER

LONGFORD. PEGGY BEDFORD
*COLNBROOK, "The George"

SLOUGH. "Crown Hotel"

TAPLOW. RAILWAY STATION
♦MAIDENHEAD, "Thames Hotel"

UP JOURNEY.

MAIDENHEAD. "Thames Hotel"

TAPLOW, RAILWAY STATION
*SLOTJGH, "Crown Hotel"

COLNBROOK, "The George"

*LONGFORD. PEGGY BEDFORD

HARLINGTON CORNER

*CRANFORD BRIDGE. "Bedford Hotel"
♦HOUNSLOW. "Red Lion"

ISLEWORTH, " Coach & Horses"

NORTHUM'LAND AVENUE. " Hotel Victoria

Mile-
age.

Time
Table.

10 . 45

U . .30

11.45

12. 5

12.20

12.32

12.40

12 . 55

1 .25

1 .50

2. 0

5.40
5.55
7. 0

* Cliange Horses.

Single Journey, 10/-. Beturn 15/-.

Box Seat, 2'6 extra each way.

The whole of the Coach to Maidenhead and back, £8 8s.

Places can be secured at Coach Booking Office,
"HOTEL VICTORIA," Northumberland Avenue.

Some cards are much more elaborate, that of the
'Guildford,' for example, being in three folds, and
having on the sides, descriptions of the road.

Blank way-bills should be also provided ; a good
form, one half the proper size, is given on the next
page. The way-bill is filled up in the office as far
as the seats are booked, and any additional fares
are put on it by the guard. A way-bill is not very

458

WAY-BILL

CH. XIX

necessary on a short coach where a majority of the

passengers go through, at least the whole of one

way.

THE CRESCENT

SERVICE FROM PARIS TO PONTOISE

WAY-BILL

Destination.

5
6

7
8

1 1

Box Seat

Outside Seats

Guard

Coachman

Inside Seats

Parcels

Remarks.

PLAN OF COACH

II 1 lO

1 9 1 gd 1

1 1

! 8 1 -^

1 9 1 S 1

1 4 1 3

\A ^ 1

j Coach-
man

Box 1
Seat

1 1

Paris i8g

CH. XIX CHANGES 459

Changes. — Just before arriving at the change, the
ends of the reins must be unbuckled ; if the device
described on p. 273 is adopted, it is necessary only
to pull them apart.

If the passenger on the box-seat is accustomed to
coaching, he will quietly pull up the ends of the reins
and unbuckle them, when the chancje is in sio^ht, or
when the euard sounds the call for the chano-e, and
if this passenger happens to be a lady, there is a
manifest reason for having the reins scrupulously
clean, so that they will not soil her gloves. It may
be also said that the tongue of the buckle should
play loosely, the hole of the rein should be large,
and the keeper, or loop, should be large and far back
from the buckle, or too much time will be consumed
in unbucklino- and bucklinof.

The coach should pull up at the change-place
easily but promptly, and care must be taken that the
leaders do not stop too soon, as they almost always
want to do.

The coachman throws the reins on the horses'
backs, the off reins to the off side, and the near to
the near side. With a little care they may be so
thrown that they will lie in a fold across the back,
and the ends will not fall in the mud. The reins
must not be thrown down, however, until the coach-
man sees that some one is at the horses' heads.

The coachman then puts on the brake, without
noise, but as hard as possible (see p. 328), and gets
down, taking his whip in his hand ; if he wants to

460

CHANGES

CH. XIX

get rid of it, he should stand it behind the lamp-
iron and leaninor aofainst it, with the butt on the
ground. The horse-keepers, one on each side, pull
the lead-reins throug^h the terrets of the wheelers,
and run them through the leaders' terrets, as is
shown in Plate XXXIII. They then unhook the
traces, the inside one first, and lay them over the
leaders' backs, being sure that they are laid well

over, so as not to fall off
when the horses move.
The leaders should be
led a short distance away
and their coupling-reins
unbuckled ; they may be
trained to stand still where
they are left, or to walk to
the stable if it is close at
hand.

The wheelers' reins are
hung on the centre-ter-
rets (Fig. 171), the pole-
chains slacked ; the traces
unhooked, the inside one
first ; the coupling-reins un-
buckled (since the wheelers
cannot get clear of the bars
unless this is done), and the
horses led out of the way. If a spare man, or boy,
is at hand, he can collect the four horses and hold
them all at once, clear of the coach.

171.

CH. XIX CHANGES 46 1

The wheel horses are then led to their places
from the side or from behind. It is a bad plan
to bring them to the pole, head on, and then
turn them into their places. The pole-chains are
hooked at their full IciigtJi into the kidney-link
ring ; the traces put on the roller-bolts, the out-
side one first ; and the pole-chain passed through
the ring from the inside, outward, pulled down,
hooked into the proper link, and its india-rubber
ring pushed over the hook. The coupling-reins
are then buckled.

The leaders are then led to their places, with the
coupling-reins already crossed and buckled ; the
lead-reins are run through the wheelers' terrets, care
beino- taken that the wheel-rein is first taken ofi^ the
pad-terret, or it will be bound down by the lead-rein.
Then the leaders' traces are hooked to the bars.
The reason for running the reins before hooking
the traces, is, that if the leaders start they can do
no harm, not being attached to the coach, and they
can be stopped by the reins, whereas if they are
hooked to the bars before the reins are run, they
might bolt and cause a serious accident. If the
lead-reins have been properly put into the lead-har-
ness terrets, they can be pulled through the throat-
latch ring and the centre-terret by taking hold of
the end, the whole rein running through freely.
When the near side reins are ready, they are
thrown over the wheeler's back to the off side,
where the coachman is ready to receive them. This

462 CHANGES CH. XIX

is the reason for having the point, and not the
buckle, on the near side reins.

The horse-keeper remains at the heads of the
leaders ; the coachman gathers up his reins, buckling
them and adjusting them to the proper length (see
p. 286), and, taking his whip, gets up. He should
glance rapidly over his horses to see that all is right,
and especially that the coupling-reins are crossed, and
that the draught-reins are outside and not inside,
adjust his apron, take off the brake, and, nodding
to the man at the horses' heads, start off as quietly
as possible.

Horses are more apt to give trouble in starting
from a change-place than when they are leaving the
office at the beginning. In a quick change they
know that they are to go the moment that they are
put-to, and it is usually necessary to let them go
promptly, or they will fret and balk. For this rea-
son, the men should be instructed to move aside
quickly, well out of the way, and since there usually
is, or should be, plenty of room, the horses cannot
do any harm.

The change should never take more than three
minutes ; it can be easily done in two minutes if
every man knows his business.

For a very quick change, if there is room enough
and there are men enough, the wheelers of the
change should be waiting, one on each side of the
road, in such places that they will be abreast of the
coach when it stops. The leaders coupled together

CH. XIX

CHANGES 463

should be abreast of the place which they are to take
in the coach, and standing on the side of the road
away from the stable, so that they will not be in the
way when the old leaders come from their places.

For a three-minute change, the horses may stand
in a row, with their heads out, on whichever side of
the road is the more convenient, usually on the off
side, and in such a position that the coach will stop
alongside of them. In a narrow road, with vehicles
going passing by, they must stand in front. In
some confined places they may have to wait in the
stable yard, but this will obviously add to the time
of makinor the change.

xAiccounts are given in coaching books, of changes
made in old times in less than a minute on very
fast coaches like the 'Wonder.' ' Nimrod' [Norih-
ei'ii ToiLT, p. T^i'^) says that on Captain Barclay's
famous coach, the 'Defiance,' one of the changes
was made in a minute, and that the average did not
exceed a minute and a half. In a road-coach com-
petition at the New York Horse-Show in 1897, two
contestants made a chancre of horses in the rino-
in 58 seconds ; there were two grooms with the
change team, and a guard and a groom on the
coach. With a fast coach, no time must be lost at
the changes ; as will be seen by the Table on p. 446,
the pace has to be very much increased to make up
such loss, especially on short stages.

If there is only one horse-keeper, as was fre-
quendy the case with the old coaches, the coachman

464 CHANGES CH. XIX

and guard must assist if the chang-e is to be other
than a slow one, and the o-uard of the Enorlish mail-
coach was required, by his instructions from the
Post-Office, whose servant he was, to assist, in so
far as it did not interfere with his mail duties.

On the modern road-coach, since the guard has
no letter bags, and rarely any packages, to deliver,
he assists regularly, and with two horse-keepers it is
not necessary for the coachman to do anything. The
coachman usually gets down, however, and receives
the reins as they are thrown over to him. In rainy
weather, if there are plenty of people to assist, he
frequently remains upon the box to keep dry. In
this case he keeps the whip in his hand, and hold-
ing it to the front, the reins are thrown over it one
by one as they are drawn through the terrets, when
by raising the whip, they slip down to his hand.
This was done on the very fast coaches in old
times, and saved, at the change, all the time that was
required for the coachman to gather his reins and
get up.

The question as to whether or not the coachman
should Q-Qt down at the change, has been mooted
lately in some criticisms on road coaching ; either
way is perfectly correct.

Howsoever the chano-e is made, the duties of
each person must be carefully laid down and strictly
adhered to, and the drill for it should be uniform at
all the stations on the road.

CH. XX 465

CHAPTER XX
ROAD COACHING GENERALLY

Speed. — On good roads the proper pace for a
road-coach is ten miles an hour including changes :
if it is made much faster, it may be difficult to keep
time, but if the quality of the horses, and their
consequent cost, is no object, ten and a half miles
may be attempted. Less than nine miles is too
slow to be entertaining either to coachman or to
passengers.

The time of some of the road-coaches running
in the past few years, is as follows : London and
Brighton, 54 miles in 6 hours, — 9 miles an hour ;
New York and Tuxedo, 47^ miles in 5^ hours
(leaving out the time for lunch), — 9 miles an hour ;
London and Guildford, 28^ miles in 3 hours, —
9^ miles an hour; New York and Pelham, is}4
miles in i^4 hours, — 10^ miles an hour ; Paris and
Maisons-Laffitte, igj4 miles in 2 hours, — 9^ miles
an hour ; Paris and Pontoise, 26^ miles in 2^
hours, — a little over gj4 miles an hour. In all
these cases the time of makincr the chang^es is
included, so that the actual driving time is faster.

In old coaching days in England, the mail-coach
rates of speed were from 9.4 miles an hour to 10.3 ;
the majority running about 9.5. The 'Telegraph,'

466 SPEED CH. XX

London and Manchester, ran i86 miles in iS}4 hours,
— lo miles an hour ; the Edinburgh and Aberdeen,
Captain Barclay's 'Defiance,' 129^ miles in 12
hours and 10 minutes (with a 2-mile ferry at which
30 minutes were lost and 30 minutes out for breakfast
and lunch, making the driving distance 1271^ miles in
1 1 hours and 10 minutes), — 1 1.4 miles an hour.'-'' A
part of this road was travelled at the rate of 1 3 miles
an hour. The London and Bristol, 121 miles, and
the London and Shrewsbury, 153 miles, were timed
at 10 miles an hour, and the same speed was kept
up all the way to Holyhead by the Irish mail. The
London and Devonport was also a fast mail.

An interesting table of the mails and the coaches
of those days is given in Corbett's OM Coachman s
Chatter, p. 300.

These speeds over long routes meant going very
fast in some places ; ' Nimrod,' Road, speaks of the
'Regulator' as doing 5 miles in 23 minutes, that is,
13 miles an hour, and of the Devonport mail doing
4 miles in 1 2 minutes, equal to 20 miles an hour !
This was in 1832. Revnardson (p. 84) speaks of
having driven 14 or 15 miles in the hour.

The French malle poste (see Plate VIII.) was
timed at 10 to lo^^ miles an hour ; f it had short
stages of only 5 miles.

In more modern times, Mr Tiffany's Brio-hton

* Harris, Coaching Age, p. 382.

-j- Beaufort, p. 327, and Morin, Report, p. 410.

CH. XX SPEED 467

coach did the 9 miles between Reigate and Crawley
in 30 minutes, stopping at a toll-gate on the way.

The Paris and Pontoise coach, 1891, did the 7.4
miles from Pontoise to Acheres in 32 minutes, at
the rate of nearly 14 miles an hour.

Of drives against time one of the best known is
that of Selbv. on July 13, 1888, from London to
Brighton and back, 108 miles, in 7 hours and 50
minutes, a bet having been made that he could
not do it in 8 hours. This is at the rate of 13.79
miles an hour, including changes. Selby had 8
teams ; the 1 4 changes took altogether 6 minutes
and 1 2 seconds ; which being taken out, makes
the driving rate 13.97 niiles per hour.

On July 12, 1892, Mr Eugene Higgins, having
as his invited guests Messrs James Gordon Ben-
nett, William G. Tiffany and T. Suffern Tailer,
•drove from Paris to The Hotel Bellevue, Trouville,
124 miles, in 10 hours and 50 minutes. There were
13 teams, and, owing to the fact that better speed
was made than had been anticipated and that con-
sequently the horses at the later stations were not
ready, the 1 2 changes occupied 49 minutes, leaving
10 hours and i minute (601 minutes) actual driving
time, which was at the rate of 12.4 miles an hour.

This was a remarkable performance, inasmuch as
the horses were strange, many of them had never
before been in four-horse harness, and the horse-
keepers along the road were entirely unaccustomed
to their duties.

468 SPEED CH. XX

The horses were none of them at all injured by
the drive, and were all returned in good condition
to the persons from whom they had been procured.
The coach used, was built by Guiet & Co., of
Paris, for Mr Tiffany, and is an exact reproduction
of the old English mail. It is shown in Plate VII. ;
its weight is 2712 pounds. M. Guiet, M. Hieckel,
an amateur photographer, and M. Luque, the well-
known artist, were inside passengers, Morris E,
HowLETT guard. The time was from 6 a.m. to 4.50
P.M., no stops having been made except for changes.

In a drive against time, there is some difficulty in
determining the exact distance unless the roadway
is gone over with a very accurate odometer, since
measurements made on even a large-scale map fail
to include some detours absolutely passed over by
the coach. In the account of Selby's drive. The
Field of July 21, 1888, remarks that while the dis-
tance is set down as 54 miles, the road-books call it
51 by the road actually followed. Unless, therefore,
two coaches pass over exactly the same road, it is
not easy to compare the times made by them to
fractions of a mile in the hour.

In this same article. The Field mentions a run,
from London to Brighton, of a coach taking the
report of a speech of William IV., in three hours
and forty minutes, which is faster than Selby's time,
but the run was only one way. It also states that
on May-day, in 1830, the regular coach ran from
London to Birmingham, 109 miles, in 7 hours and

CH. XX SPEED 469

39 minutes, which again is better than Selby's time
of 108 miles in 7 hours and 50 minutes.

Whitley, Coventry Coaching- (p. 13), says that
Jack Everitt drove ' The Wonder' on May-day,
from Coventry to London, 150 miles, in 8 hours
and 35 minutes; this is at the rate of 171^ miles
an hour.

CoRBETT (p. 129) says that the Coventry coaches
on other May-days, travelled the same distance in
less than 7 hours, or at the rate of 15.4 miles an
hour. This was about the year 1823.

In all these cases the coaches were running on
their regular routes, with horses and men in thorough
training ; their superior speed does not in the least
diminish the credit due to the performance from
Paris to Trouville.

Before the railroads to the Pacific were built, the
United States mails were sent through by ' pony
express,' and upon a number of occasions races
were run by the rival Express Companies.

In 1854 Bill Lowuen, a messenger in the em-
ployment of Adams & Co., carried the mail saddle-
bags, weighing fifty-four pounds, from Tahama, on
the Sacramento River in Northern California, to
Weaverville, one hundred miles, in 5 hours and
13 minutes; that is, at the rate of 19.12 miles an
hour. He had twenty-eight horses, stationed along
the road, about four miles apart. Each horse was
held by a mounted horse-keeper, who, when he
heard the approaching messenger's whistle, started

470 PONY EXPRESS CH. XX

ahead at a gallop, leading the fresh horse on his
near side. When the messenger came up along-
side, both horses being then at full speed, he jumped
from his horse to the fresh one without touching the
ground, and pulled the bags after him. It was cold
weather, December, and the last forty miles were
ridden after dark, over mountain trails and through
heavy timber, with a light snow falling. The first
sixty miles were covered in 2 hours and 37 minutes,
at the rate of 22.9 miles an hour, or of one mile in
2 minutes and ^j seconds ; the last forty miles in 2
hours and 36 minutes, at the rate of 16.44 niiles in
an hour, or of one mile in 3 minutes and 36 seconds.
This hundred miles was of course only a small part
of the whole distance traversed by the express at
about the same speed. The nineteen horses which
covered the first sixty miles, averaged 3.16 miles
each ; the nine which did the last forty miles, 4.4
miles each, the pace being slower.

This account is taken from a Western journal
and was furnished by Lowden himself; while not
exactly 'coaching,' it is interesting as a record of
speed with relay-horses.

Whatever may be the rate at which the coach is
timed, punctuality is most important, and the coach-
man should make it a point to start and to arrive
exactly upon time, and to be at his changes at the
moment marked for them. This accuracy is the life
of public coaching, and no delays should be per-
mitted nor any passenger waited for. It is a good

CH. XX PUBLIC COACHING 47 1

plan to print a notice to this effect on the ticket and
on the time-card and to adhere to it rigidly.

The coach should not be taken off its reo-ular
road or its regular time, unless (in accordance with
a notice given in the commencement of the season)
for some special reason, such as the holding of a
race-meeting, at the place to which the coach runs.
A coach which goes here one day and there another,
is not a public-coach at all, but merely a vehicle hired
for excursions. Public coaching is public business,
and as such it must be conducted.

On a public coach, persons known to be compe-
tent whips are sometimes invited by the proprietor
to drive, either a stage or two, or for several days
at a time, and it need hardly be said that the most
scrupulous care in giving such invitations must be
taken, to avoid any possibility of accident. The
coaches run by coaching jobmasters sometimes
have subscribers, who pay toward the support of
the coach, with the privilege of driving on certain
days ; in the selection of subscribers, the same care
ouofht to be exercised.

In Paris, the police regulations in regard to public
coaching are somewhat onerous. The proprietor,
who may be the coachman himself, must be a resi-
dent of Paris, and is responsible for damages in
any legal action. The coachman must be exam-
ined and licensed by the police authorities, and if
he is not himself the proprietor, must be regularly
registered as employed by the proprietor. This

472 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XX

does not apply to a subscriber, when driving, but
in this case the regular, licensed coachman must be
on the coach, and is supposed to have charge of it.

In London, the regulations are more simple, but
there, and in American cities, licenses must be ob-
tained, and the coaches numbered, like all other
vehicles plying for public hire. In London, public
coaches are not admitted to Hyde Park, and there
are, in nearly all cities, regulations, more or less
restrictive, in regard to Public Parks.

On a route which occupies all day, or on a road
where the coach runs to a place and returns, it is
usual to make an arrangement with the hotel at
which the stop is made, to furnish a lunch at a fixed
price, and to send word by telegraph at the time of
starting, or from any convenient place, for what
number of persons lunch is to be provided. It is
customary for the proprietor, or the amateur coach-
man, to sit at the head of the lunch table. The
professional coachman and the guard make their
own arrangements for meals. At some change-
place which is passed in the afternoon, a stop of
six or seven minutes is made for a cup of tea.

The fees given to the professional coachman and
to the ofLiard belonor, of course, to them ; those which
are sometimes o-iven to the amateur coachman are
either handed over to the professionals or to some
charity.

There are many notes in the books as to the
distances driven by coachmen. Corbett (p. 134)

CH. XX LONG DISTANCES DRIVEN 473

says, that on one occasion, a friend of his drove
174 miles without a rest. He also says, that Mr
Kenvon drove the whole journey from London to
Shrewsbury, 153 miles, without resting. Captain
Barclay of Urie, who was famous in the early part
of this century in all athletic sports, as well as in
coaching, drove from London to Edinburgh, a dis-
tance of 395 miles, straight through, with only the
rests allowed for the passengers' refreshment. This
was for a large wager with Lord Kennedy, and far
exceeds any long distance drive on record. Harris,
CoacJiing Age (p. 383), calls it 397 miles, and says
that the time was 45 1/^ hours. ' Nimrod,' Northern
Tour (p. 335), says that the drive was from London
to Aberdeen, which is 495 miles, but this is, probably,
an error ; all other authorities eive Edinbureh. I
have spent a good deal of time in searching for
some original or detailed account of this drive,
but without success.

Driving regularly one hundred miles a day is
hard work, but with a short rest in the middle of
the day. a man in good condition ought to be able
to dri\'e daily seventy miles. Much will depend
upon the horses ; a hard-pulling team taking more
out of a coachman in one stage than easy-going
teams in three stages, and horses lazy, or not up to
their work are very fatiguing.

Beside the mere physical fatigue of driving, the
mental strain is sometimes great, and at all times
the feeling of responsibility and the close attention

474 AMERICAN COACHING CH. XX

required, take a good deal out of a conscientious
and careful coachman. A cool temperament is an
immense advantage to a driving man.

AMERICAN COACHING

The great extension of railroads in the United
States has restricted public stage-coaching to a few
mountain districts in the East, and to California
and the far Western States, where it still flourishes.

The following notes on coaching in the White
Mountains, as conducted at the present time, are
applicable, in the main, to all American coaching.
The coach itself has been described in Chapter VII. ;
there is nothing peculiar about the harness, which is
usually plain and made of single leather, the wheel-
horse harness having breechings. The wheel-reins
run through the pad-terrets, but the /caa^-rems go
straieht to the hand from the wheelers' heads, and
consequently reach the hand at a different angle from
the wheel-reins. Since they do not pass through
the pad-terrets they swing about in a disagreeable
manner. The lead-reins go through rings on the
throat-latch on the inner sides of the wheelers'
heads. If there are six horses, the lead-reins go
through the throat-latch terrets of the swing-team
and of the wheelers, but not through their pad-
terrets ; sometimes the swing-horses have head-
terrets.

With six horses, a chain is frequently used instead
of a middle pole, and the swing-team is sometimes

CH. XX AMERICAN COACHING 475

called the chain-team or the chain-horses. As a
rule, the ends of the reins have no buckles.

The lead-traces are never lapped nor crossed.
The harnessing is somewhat loose ; that is, the
traces and the pole-pieces are long and the horses
travel far apart. The pole-pieces are straps of un-
changeable length (27 inches), and are fastened to
the pole-head, a strap attached to the hames being
passed through them (see Plate XV.).

In the White Mountains no great speed is at-
tempted ; the roads in many places being soft and
sandy, with long ascents. Six horses are frequently
driven, the load being usually three tons : — one ton
for the coach, one for the passengers, and one for
the baggage. The time is about seven miles an
hour down-hill, and five, up-hill.

In the West, on some routes, the pace is often
fast ; the horses, small active mustano-s, beine driven
at a gallop.

It is doubtful whether or not it would be worth
while to attempt any comparison between the Eng-
lish and the American methods of handling the
reins. The professional coachman on each side of
the water is firm in his opinion that the man who
drives as he does, knows how to drive, and that
he who drives differently, knows nothing about the
matter.

One can hardly assert that a man who, ever since
he was a boy, has successfully driven a coach fifty
miles a day, winter and summer, over all kinds of

476 AUSTRIAN DRIVING CH. XX

roads, is not a good coachman and does not know
his business ; so we are forced to the conckision
that both methods must be more or less right. It
is undoubtedly true, however, that many persons
who have learned to drive four-in-hand with two
hands, have afterward taken to driving with one,
whereas no one who began with one hand, has ever
abandoned that method to take to two hands.

It is interesting to note that the Austrian method
of drivinof resembles the American. The reins are
buckled together (as shown in Fig. 113), the hind-
most buckle coming just behind the hand. The
near reins are held in the left hand, the off reins in
the right, and, in turning long corners, chopping is
usual ; that is, the near or the off reins are pulled
while held together, with the result of shavino- the
corner closely with the hind wheel, the inside wheel
horse being sometimes touched with the whip to
keep him away from the corner. For sharp turns,
a point is made by drawing the lead-rein through
the fingers, behind which it makes a short loop,
owing to the buckle which holds it, and after the
movement is completed this loop is allowed to slip
out. For a very sharp turn, the outside wheel-rein
is looped in the same way, to make an opposition.

The fino-erinor is, in fact, almost identical with that
of the American method, but from the reins being-
fastened together it has the disadvantage of much
less flexibility. In the Austrian style, the wheel
horses are poled up tightly, with their traces always

CH. XX AMERICAN COACHING 477

Stretched ; the lead-bars are attached rigidly to the
pole-head, although the draught is by a rope passing
under the pole ; and, in Continental fashion, when
going down-hill the brake is always on and all the
horses have their traces tight. The length of the
team is, therefore, invariable, whether going up-hill
or down-hill, and the reins, when once buckled to-
gether at the proper place, do not require to be
changed, consequently the want of flexibility, above
referred to, is not so objectionable as it would be
for a team harnessed and driven in the English
fashion. In English, and especially in American,
driving, the horses are much more loosely har-
nessed, and the leaders are held back on a descent
and usually on a turn, so that an invariable relative
lenofth of the wheel-reins and lead-reins would not
work satisfactorily.

Coaching in America in the past is not sur-
rounded by that halo of romance which attaches
to English coaching. It was always too severely
business-like and too roughly done. The ' stage-
waggon' (shown in Fig. 172, which is a photographic
reproduction of an advertisement in The Pennsyl-
vania Gazette of April 19, 1764), and the stage-coach
(Fig. 173, from Paulsons Anierieaji Daily Advertiser
of July II, 1812), were gradually superseded by
coaches of more modern fashion. These old coaches
seem to have been described much in the same way
as the English coaches, as the following advertise-

478

AMERICAN COACHING

CH. XX

^ N 0 T I Q IS !• HxsiBV GIVEN,

TH A T the Sabfbibcr, IHttg 'm Third- ArceV next Door tp
th^ Sign of theTHree Rea^cn, 1^ fttjft^i^S toareiucelt
St^e^WaMom, . vkifh gp fr«^ PhSlidriphia to Ttenton Penfi
c«cr^ MoQdaj, T<Mii«|> Tlldi-ai^ aai f lidaqr, «Ad thett d«li«cr
Goodij «fi4 Pafl%o|Br» «» f r«fMU Holman, tn^ Daiuel CttSatf, who
cwry^ them to N«w4Niini^ck, ' M WiUiim Rlchtrds, 9»d SimcA
Mulfnf; whq 'ijeUver the^ ot Amboy^w £tis«bfthrTowiH whero
Aej iHlLW received l^ AMt«w HampCoa, who >a* ooc 9f the
tvtfk tmnmi^t 9o»^ ip cAoy them to and £rom New^ York ; the
faU Boe|i fet out f^om New-Votk on Hifoodayt and Thiumyti
th(^ who pleafe to f«To«& them w&h thw CoJIoip, ma; depend
pn hebg wdl I^nrfd^ Jovatmah fii&fa; ;

Fig. 172.

ment in T/ic Pennsylvania Gazette of June 18, 1783,
shows : —

' The New York Hying Machine. The Sub-
* SCRIBERS beg leave to inform the public, that they
' have established A flying Stage Coach & Wag-
' gon to perform the whole distance from this city
' to Elizabeth Town in one day.

' The COACH will leave the Bunch of Grapes
' Tavern, in Third Street between Market and Arch
' streets, precisely at 4 o'clock every Tuesday and
' Thursday morning, breakfast at Bristol, dine at

CH. XX

AMERICAN COACHING

479

)»gg;i^* to be at ibe riA ol'to« awnec- '

173-

Princeton,* exchange passengers with the Stage
Coach from Elizabeth Town, and return again the
same day to the Bunch of Grapes.

' The Waggon will leave the tavern, at the same
hour, every Monday, Wednesday and Friday morn-
ing, proceed and return as the coach mentioned
above. The price for each Passenger in the Coach
to Elizabeth Town is S/x Dollars and Foiii'- Dollars
for outside passengers : and One Gtihiea each for
a seat in the Waggon.

' Each passenger to be allowed 1 4 lb. weight of
baggage under their seat — But One Guinea must
be paid for every 150 lb. weight, either in the
coach or waggon, and in proportion for any less

* Princeton is 44 miles from Philadelphia, making the day's drive
88 miles.

480 AMERICAN COACHING CH. XX

' or greater quantity. The baggage must be de-
' posited at the Bunch of Grapes the preceding
' evening, otherwise it cannot be received in the
' stages.

' Gershom Johnston
' Philad. June 16, 1783. Charles Besonett

' N.B. The Bahimore Stage Waggon leaves the
' Bunch of Grapes tavern on Monday, Wednesday
' and Friday morning precisely at 5 o'clock, and
' proceeds for Alexandria (in Virginia) a passenger
' taking a seat in the stage at Elizabeth Town, may
' arrive at Alexandria in four days, a distance of
' 240 miles.'

From another advertisement it appears that the
' flying Stage waggon ' had four horses and changed
every 20 miles. Another advertisement, of 1782,
says, ' New Erected Stages. These Machines,
' which are on springs, and very easy carriages,
etc.

In the Pennsylvania Journal for Febuary 4, 1784,
is the following : ' The stage from this city to Balti-
' more on Monday the 19th ult. crossing the Sus-
' quehannah on the ice, broke in, and with difficulty
' the passengers were saved, two of the horses were
' drowned.'

Evidently there was sometimes a competition in
speed, for one advertisement of 1788 says that
' The drivers are prohibited on severe penalties
' from running their horses.'

CH. XX ENGLISH COACHING 48 1

These coaches carried the mail under contract
with the Government, and a oruard in charge of it ;
in fact, the system seems to have been the same
as that of the mail-coaches in England, but less
elaborate.

English Coaching. — The story of English coach-
ing is thoroughly told by Corbett, Malet, Har-
ris, Beaufort, Lennox, and Reynardson, whose
works are mentioned in the List of Books in this
volume.

The characteristic feature of English coaching
was : that there were two kinds of coaches, namely
Mails, which were under special contract with the
Post-Office Department and carried mail guards,
who were the servants of the Government and not
of the coach proprietors ; on these Mails only a
limited number of passengers were carried ; and
secondly Coaches, which were loaded more heavily
and which had a guard of their own, and some-
times, on the less busy routes, no guard at all.

Of course the original purpose of the guard
was to protect the mails, and he was therefore
armed with a blunderbuss ; for this reason, he was
often called ' the shooter.' The mails usually ran
at night.

On unimportant roads there were no mail-coaches,
and the ordinary coaches carried Government mail-
bags. These coaches had places for fifteen passen-
gers ; four inside, and eleven outside ; hence the

482 ENGLISH COACHING CH. XX

expression in coaching songs, of 'eleven and four/
meaning a full load : —

' As he rattles along with eleven and four
' And a petticoat on the box.'

Both the mails and the coaches were the property
of coach-builders, who hired them out to the pro-
prietors of the road or to the mail-contractors, at
so much a mile run per month.

On a long route there were usually several
proprietors, who together furnished the horses,
employed the coachmen, and managed the busi-
ness generally, dividing the profits according to a
monthly settlement.

Some of the large proprietors had as many as
twelve hundred horses, and horsed a number of
lines of coaches and mails. Harris, in TJie Coach-
ing Age and in Old Coaching Days, gives a detailed
account of all this business.

The Encyclopcedia Londonensis, 1826, p. 308, says
that (at that date) 'there are about 170 coaches and
' 4500 horses, employed in England for the mails ;
'all private property,'

The average fares were: outside, 2^^ to 3 pence
a mile, inside, double that ; the mails were some-
what dearer.

The ' road game' is frequently referred to in old
books, and it is not a bad aid to merriment in any
coaching trip. Each person, or party of persons,
chooses one side or the other of the road, and cer-

CH. XX ROAD GAME 483

tain objects as they were passed on the right or left,
counted in a scale of values well understood among
coaching travellers. According to Reynardson, a
donkey counted as 7, a pig as i, a black sheep as i,
a cat as s, a cat in a window as 10, a doe as i, a
magpie as i, a grey horse as 5, and some other
objects, now known to us only by tradition, had
higher values. The party of travellers making the
largest count in a certain time or distance, won the
game.

484 CH. XXI

CHAPTER XXI

COACHING TRIPS

Few more delightful ways of travelling can be
imaeined than that of drivincr a coach throucrh an
interesting country.

When a man starts with his coach and horses,
from his own home, few preparations are necessary
beyond laying out the route and making arrange-
ments ahead at the stopping-places.

It is necessary, if the party is at all large, to have
the heavier baggage sent on by a messenger, day
by day, but where that is not possible, it must be
despatched to some point ahead, and the travellers
must content themselves with modest valises.

With a good team, carefully driven, from 20 to
25 miles a day can be easily made over good roads,
for an indefinite time.

In England and in France, where the roads are
admirable, the inns good, and the stopping-places
near together, coaching trips can be readily arranged.

A coach with the men, and with either one team
or two, can be had from a jobmaster of London or
Paris ; with two teams, twice the distance that can
be made with one team, can be driven each day ;
four horses being sent on by train every half-day
while the others are working.

CH. XXI COACHING TRIPS 485

A good plan for a trip with one team is as fol-
lows : the coach starting about ten in the mornine,
the baggage is sent by rail to the stopping-place
for the night, in charge of a man who engages
the rooms and stablinor and orders the dinner ; a
stop of at least two hours is made at mid-day for
lunch, and to rest and feed the horses ; the hours
ot the afternoon drive may be so arranged as to
have the most time at the lunch place or at the
night place, as their respective interest demands.

Barring accidents, the same horses will do this
work for any number of days, and an unfit horse
can be replaced by rail. One of the men hired
with the coach, should drive well enough to take
it to and from the stable, but if a man is provided
who is to drive on the road, a higher charo-e is
always made for him.

The cost of a trip varies with the locality, but the
following list of expenses of a drive in the West of
England, with a party of five, will give an idea of
the expense : —

Coach, horses (a single team), and two men, ^42
a week (this includes the night-stabling and feed) ;
hotel bills, £^S ; fees at hotels, ^2 ; railway fares
for valet with baggage, ^3 ; fees to coach men, ^3 ;
lunches, and noon-feeds for horses, not included in
the coach hire, £10 ; altogether, ^98, about $484
per week. For a larger party, only the hotel bills
will be increased, the other expenses will remain
the same.

486 COACHING CLUB TRIPS CH. XXI

Coaching Club Trips. — It has been for many
years the custom of The Coaching Chib at New
York to make one or two trips every year, driving
from the city to the residence of a member of The
Club, to spend a day there, and to return on the
third day. A coach belonging to The Club is used,
and teams, sufficient to cover the ground, are fur-
nished by members.

The distance varies from 30 or 40 miles to 80 or
90, and one trip has been made of 317 miles, con-
suming four days, but driving only one way.

The first of these Coaching Club trips was made,
on the invitation of a Philadelphia member, on May
4th and 6th, 1878, from New York to Philadelphia,
through Newark, Elizabeth, Rahway, Metuchin, New
Brunswick, Kingston, Princeton, Trenton, Bridge-
water, and Holmesburg, a distance of 90 miles.
The time was from 6.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with a
stop of 40 minutes at Princeton for lunch, leaving
1 1 hours 20 minutes driving time, at a rate of 8
miles an hour. The hours on the return trip, Mon-
day, May 6th, were from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and on both
days the arrival at the end of the journey was pre-
cisely on time. There were nine teams, the stages
being 10, 11, 7^, 7^, 10, 10, 10, 11, and 13 miles.
The coachmen were Messrs A. DeLancey Kane,
Francis R. Rives, Perry Belmont, Theodore A.
Havemeyer, Hugo Fritsch, George P. Wetmore,
Frederic Bronson, George R. Fearing, and the
Philadelphia member, the present writer.

CH. XXI COACHING CLUB TRIPS 487

This trip was repeated in 1887, the route and the
time being the same, with the exception that the
time taken out for kmch was one hour, thereby
reducingf the drivino- time to eleven hours, and that
there were twelve teams instead of nine. Many
other trips have been made since then in all direc-
tions from New York, but the Philadelphia trip has
been described because it was the first. The long-est
trip was made in June 1894, from New York to ' Shel-
burne Farms,' Vermont, the residence of Dr Webb.
This required four days ; on the first day, June 6th,
the coach went from New York to Pouorhkeepsie,
821^ miles; on June 7th to Troy, 83^ miles; on
June 8th to Rutland, 89 miles ; and on June 9th to
' Shelburne Farms,' 63 miles; a total distance of
317^ miles. There were twenty teams, the horses
used on the first day being sent forward by train the
second day to be driven on the third. Those used
on the second were again driven on the fourth day.
All the horses were sent back to New York by rail
on the fifth day, the drive having been made in one
direction only. The time was kept throughout accu-
rately, no accident happened to any horse and not a
man was out of his place, — proofs that the arrange-
ments had been carefully made and that the disci-
pline was good.

The arrangements for these trips are briefly as
follows : a route having been decided upon in re-
sponse to an invitation of a member to visit him,
every member is asked whether or not he will

488

COACHING CLUB TRIPS

CH. XXI

furnish a team ; the requisite number of teams
having been obtained, each member is assigned a
stage, usually by lot, and he is notified at what time
and place, his horses are to be in readiness, on the
road, for his change. It is customary to assign the
last stage to the entertaining member.

All the members going on the trip, start on the
coach, and each one takes up his own team at its
appointed place and drives it over his stage ; his
men go inside the coach with their blankets and
stable tools.

A card for the seats is so made out that the box-
seat is occupied in turn by each driving member,
thus giving each one an opportunity of seeing one
other man drive.

Stages.

Mr A,

Mr B,

Mr C,

Mr D,

MrE,

MrF,

Mr G,

Mr H,

Mr I,

3
9

Mr J,

Mr K,

6
3

Mr L,

CH. XXI COACHING CLUB TRIPS 489

An example of a card is here given where there
are twelve passengers, of whom eight drive, there
being only that number of stages. C stands for
coachman, B for box-seat.

For the servants, these trips are a useful test ; it
is no slight matter to have four horses in good con-
dition, all the harness complete, nothing forgotten,
at a certain spot some distance from home, ready
exactly on the minute and everything looking neat ;
the head coachman who can accomplish it must be a
competent man.

These trips are usually timed at nine miles an
hour, which experience has shown is quite fast
enough, and a point is made of keeping time closely,
not an easy thing over a road unknown or only par-
tially known, to the members driving.

490 CH. XXII

CH'APTER XXII

THE RULE OF THE ROAD.

The rule of the road is to a great extent a matter
of tradition and unwritten, althoug^h in some cases
it is recognised and enforced by laws and ordi-
nances.

In the United States, and generally on the Con-
tinent of Europe, vehicles which meet, keep to the
right ; that is, they have their left sides toward each
other ; in the case of ships this rule is rigidly pre-
scribed by the laws of navigation. In Great Britain
and in some parts of Europe, the opposite rule is
observed, and vehicles keep to the left, while pedes-
trians, as far as any custom regulating their move-
ments is observed, keep to the right. The reasons
for this variety of customs are not easy to trace. In
all countries when times were less peaceful than at
present, and when nearly every man carried a sword
or a cudgel, a pedestrian naturally presented his left
side to an approaching stranger as giving the best
opportunity of warding off an attack with his left
arm while enabling- him to attack with his rioht.
Inasmuch as those of high rank, however, usually
insisted upon taking the wall side, this custom could
not have been universal, although the desire to keep
to the wall and at the same time to present the left

CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 49 1

side would lead to passing to the right in a narrow
street, by all the persons moving in it.

With persons on horseback it would be different ;
each one would then prefer to have his sword arm
on the side of the person approaching, and not to
be oblieed to strike across his horse in case of an
encounter, so that it is probable that mounted men
observed a different rule, as knigrhts in tiltingf would
of course do.

In early days, when the majority of vehicles were
guided by a man who rode, or walked beside, the
left-hand horse, it was natural that he should keep
his vehicle on the riorht-hand side of the road so as
to see how much room to give an approaching
vehicle. In all countries it is certain that horses
were led and handled from their left side, and the
Enoflish terms, and i\merican terms as well, of near
side and off side indicate that this custom was iden-
tical in both countries.

When carriages with a seat for the driver came
into use, the reins were held in the left hand be-
cause on horseback they were so held, in order to
leave the rio-ht hand free for the sword, and the
driver sat on the right-hand side of the vehicle to
avoid having his whip project over the road, and
then it would be more convenient for him to permit
approaching carriages to go on his right, so that
he could see how near he went to them, and thus
the present English fashion might have been, and
probably was, established.

492 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII

Whether or not the English rule of the road was
in force in early days in America, and if so, when
it was changed to our present rule, I do not know,
although I have made careful researches into the
question. On many old bridges may be seen the
sign, — ' Keep to the right as the law directs,' — but
so far, although aided by the opinion of friends
learned in the law, I have been unable to find the
date or the text of any such statute. It appears
that there is no general enactment in England upon
the subject, but in both countries the custom in
force has so far become law, that decisions in cases
of collision and damage are usually decided by the
Courts as if a statute did actually exist. There
are in both countries numerous local ordinances
regulating traffic on the road.

Apart, therefore, from any historical interest that
may attach to the origin of these customs, they
have to all intents and purposes the force of law
and must be observed by coachmen. The English
rule is embalmed in the familiar lines : —

' The rule of the road is a paradox quite,

' Both in riding and driving along ;
' If you go to the left you are sure to go right,

' If you go to the right you are wrong.

' But in walking the streets 'tis a different case,
' To the right it is right you should bear ;

' To the left should be left quite enough of free space
' For the persons you chance to meet there.'

CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 493

As there is no ' paradox' in the American rule,
no poet seems to have been inspired to embody it
in verse.

While the rule of driving is perfectly understood
in England and adhered to, that of walking is barely
recognised, and the lack of a rule must have struck
all Americans when walking in London. In Liver-
pool and in London there have been somewhat
recently put on the lamp-posts, notices to pedes-
trians of ' Keep to the right,' a sufficient indication
that the public did not of their own motion suffi-
ciently observe such a rule. In American cities the
rule for pedestrians is usually observed with some
strictness.

The rule in driving, of keeping to the right being
universal in the United States, it follows that a
vehicle when overtaken should be passed to the
left, a rule which should be always observed by
both parties ; that is to say, the vehicle which is
moving slowly, upon seeing that another wishes to
pass it, should incline to the right sufficiently to
give the passing one a fair share of the road. It is
ill-natured to neglect to give way for a person who
wishes to go on at a faster pace ; unfortunately it is
a not uncommon form of incivility.

On the other hand, the vehicle, after it has
passed, should be driven on at the faster gait,
and should not on any account be pulled down
to the same pace as that of the overtaken one,
when immediately in front of it. If the driver is

494 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII

not certain that he can go on faster than the car-
riage he is about to pass, he should not attempt
to pass at all.

In a wide road or street the slow traffic should
keep to the sides, leaving the centre for those who
wish to go faster ; only a thoughtless or an ill-
natured driver will go at a walk in the middle ot
the road, thereby preventing those who wish to go
faster from passing him, yet it is a spectacle con-
stantly to be noticed in the public parks. In fact, a
courteous attention to the rights of others using the
road is the duty of all drivers. In passing two
horses, one of which is ridden and the other led,
it is particularly important to go on their left-hand
side ; the led horse is on the off side of the two,
and when a vehicle passes him on his off side he
is likely to turn his croup outward and to kick,
in play, or for defence, and in either case an ac-
cident may ensue. Obviously, a man leading a
horse, should keep well over to the right-hand side
of the road so as to have his led horse out of the
way.

The introduction of street railways has somewhat
unsettled the rule of the road, for the reason that
inasmuch as a car cannot go to the right, the over-
taking vehicle, if it passes to the left, may meet
another one going in the opposite direction on its
proper side, where there is rarely room between
the car and the kerb for two carriages. It is there-
fore usually necessary when overtaking a car to

CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD

495

pass upon its right side where no meeting vehicle
is Hkely to be encountered. This change of rule
is even more necessary when there are two tracks
on a street, because cars going in the opposite
direction and carriages following them on the
track are still more in the way. These move-
ments should therefore be made with much caution.
A car usually goes quite as fast as any one ought
to drive in the streets, and it is a mistake to at-
tempt to pass it even if it is stopped for a moment,
since if it starts while the carriage is alongside
of it, a considerable distance must be gone before
reaching a place in front of it, with the chance, in
the meantime, of being obliged to stop for some
vehicle coming in the opposite direction with the
right of way.

In going round a corner, the proper side of the
road should be kept throughout the whole of the
turn. In turning to the right, the carriage should
be driven somewhat close to the kerb all the way
round, it will then come into the new street on the
proper side of the way, but in turning to the left
out of one street into another, the left-hand kerb
must be avoided, and a wide turn made, so as to
come into the new street on the riorht-hand side,
going from the right side of one street to the right
side of the other. Even fairly good coachmen fre-
quently make the mistake of cutting close to a left-
hand corner, thereby obstructing the traffic which
is coming on the right side of the street, inviting

496 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII

a collision, and making it necessary to continue
crossing obliquely to the right, to get on the proper
side of the road, — a slovenly way of turning a
corner.

The traffic of crowded streets is much facilitated
by a custom, common in London and Paris, but not,
as yet, generally adopted in American cities, of the
coachman signalling his intentions to those about
him. If he intends to diminish his pace, or to
stop, he raises his whip, usually twirling the thong
in a circle, to attract attention ; if he is to turn
to the right or to go over to the right side of the
road, he raises his right hand, having passed his
whip into his left, as an intimation to those behind
him not to come up on his right side ; if he wishes
to turn to the left, he does the same with his left
hand. If there is a footman on the box, he may
make the motion to the left, as soon as he knows
the intention of the coachman. On a coach, it
should be made by the groom who is on the inside
ot the turn, if he knows that the turn is to be
made ; as, for instance, in going round a corner
toward home. When about to turn or to incline
to the left, the coachman intimates his intention to
those who are ^nceting him by pushing his hand and
the butt of his whip, horizontally to the right ; he
can make the same movement to the left, but it is
not so distinctly visible.

In turning completely round, these notices should
be given with more care than in turning a corner,

CH, XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 497

since the movement will be unexpected by those
behind.

Before turning a corner, out of a road which has
several lines of traffic in it, the coachman should edge
over toward the side to which he intends to turn, so
as not to have any vehicle coming up behind him on
the inside of his turn. If, for instance, there are
three lines of traffic going each way on a wide road,
and he intends to turn to the left, he should get into
the left-hand line, and when he turns the corner, the
carriages behind him will move straight on without
his being in their way, but if he remains in the ex-
treme rieht-hand line until he bemns to make his
turn, he must cross two lines of vehicles and stop
them, before he can make his turn.

If he wishes to turn out to the right he should get
into the rig-ht-hand line, and when he reaches his
corner he can turn round it, without in the least
interferine with those cominor behind. These rules
seem simple and trite, but it is only necessary to
w^atch for a short time, the driving in a crowded
road to see all of them violated.

A good horseman keeps his eyes always in front
of him, observing all that is going on, even if he
may be at the same time talking to a person along-
side of him. This habit should become a second
nature to any man wishing to be a good coachman ;
he will then see what those approaching him are
doing or are about to do. He must always be de-
cided as to what he himself intends to do, and not

498 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII

chanee his mind after haviiio- commenced a move-
ment, or else those meeting him will not know what
he intends. This makes an immense difference in
the ease and security with which crowded traffic
is conducted. In the London streets, where nearly
everyone seems to be a born coachman, and where
anyone who does not drive well, is unmercifully
guyed by those around him, it is easy to know
exactly what each person intends to do. and the
traffic moves smoothly even at the most crowded
hours. In Paris, where cabmen and private coach-
men usually drive badly, and without the least at-
tention to each other's rights, it is often extremely
difficult to foresee from his actions, what the man in
front is going to do, and uncertain movements and
collisions are the result.

This is aggravated by the fashion, almost universal
in Paris, of driving with both hands, which makes it
difficult for a coachman to diminish his pace or to
pull up suddenly, owing to his right hand's being
so far from his left that he cannot use it promptly
to shorten both reins together. The reins should
be always held in the left hand, and the right should
be used in front of the left, and only when required
to make some movement.

In American cities, although the police insist upon
a much slower pace than is permitted in Paris, the
state of affairs is but little better, owing to the
prevalent idea that anyone can drive, that no par-
ticular skill or practice is required, and to the fact

CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 499

that there is no recognised standard by which drivers
expect to be judged.

Besides the rules of the road, the courtesies of
the road should be strictly observed. Every vehicle
is entitled to one-half of the road, but it is usual for
a light carriage to yield to a heavily loaded business
wagon, since that cannot so readily leave the best
part of the road, and some English legal decisions
recognise this courtesy as obligatory. A vehicle
going up a hill should to some extent yield to one
coming down, especially at a crossing, inasmuch as
it is more difficult to pull up quickly on a descent
than on an ascent.

Many coaching men seem to have an idea that for
some mysterious reason every vehicle should give
way to a coach, and are not sparing in unfavourable
comments on those who do not accord them an
excessive right of way ; but there are no just
grounds for such pretensions on the part of a
person driving a private coach. The feeling is,
probably, traditional, arising from the fact that
the mail-coaches and those road-coaches which car-
ried a mail, had by law what might be called an
almost violent right of way over all traffic. How
strongly this was felt is shown by many anec-
dotes, among them one told by Stanley Harris
on p. 72 of The Coaching Age, and accompanied
by a spirited illustration by Sturgess, in which, in
the words of a passenger on the mail, * The sol-
' diers wei*e marching down the military road which

500 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII

' crossed the main road. Traffic always stopped
' for the soldiers : the mail could not Q-et throuorh,
' and Elwin, the guard, insisted on the Queen's
' riaht. "Damn the soldiers! drive throuo-h them,
'Watson!" he cried to the coachman. So the
' coachman went for them, and the soldiers had to
' give way, amidst a fair amount of bad language
' from the officers, which was freely and smartly
' returned by the guard and one or two of the
' passengers, especially as the officer had a glass
'in his eye.'

This sentiment undoubtedly extended itself to all
road-coaches, which were more or less identified in
the minds of the public with the mail service, and,
coupled with the fact that a public-coach is running
on time, it appeals to the sympathy of the ' horsey'
public of England, so that a road-coach and even
a private coach receives an amount of courtesy,
perhaps unconscious, not accorded to other vehicles.
The demand for the road, suggested by the horn
of a public-coach, is usually responded to with
alacrity and good nature in England, where it is
thoroughly understood, but with a private coach
it is not in good taste to demand too much.

In a city, it is certainly not well to use the horn
for such a purpose, but on a country road it may
properly take the place of the voice, in intimating
to a driver hidden under the cover of his wagon
that there are other people besides himself using
the road.

CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 50I

In connection with this, one is tempted to enquire
if a wise legislation ought not to prohibit any
driver from shutting himself within a cover which
prevents him from seeing out in any direction but
forward.

502 CH. XXIII

CHAPTER XXIII
ACCIDENTS

While it is often said that a man who has had
many accidents l^nows how to avoid them and how
to ' get out of a scrape' with the least damage, it is
not agreeable to obtain experience in this way, and
to avoid accidents altocrether is desirable.

It is important, first of all, to have coach and
harness in the best order ; it is almost criminal to
use rotten harness or any weak tackle ; next, con-
stant watchfulness is absolutely necessary, and no
man is a p"ood or a safe coachman who does not,
all the time, see what is oroing- on around him, in
front, at his side, and among the horses, no matter
what else is engaging his attention. His ear must
catch the slightest unusual sound about the coach ;
a break is generally preceded by some warning.
He must not court danger by driving too close to
any object or to a doubtful-looking edge of the road.

But apart from the accidents arising from bad
judgement or carelessness, there are many which
even attention will not altogether avoid.

On slippery pavements the best horse may fall ;
against this, india-rubber pads in the front feet or
all round, are the best preventive.

With soft snow on the ground, balls are formed

CH, XXIII ACCIDENTS 503

in the foot, which slip and render the horse quite
helpless ; to prevent this, india-rubber balling-pads
are used, but in their absence, filling the hollow of
the foot with tallow or with common soap is a
satisfactory substitute.

Sometimes an unruly leader, held too tightly at
startinor, will rear, and throw himself and the other
leader down ; but they generally manage to scramble
to their feet without any damage since they are so
loosely attached to the coach.

The fall of a wheeler is a much more serious
matter ; the proper thing is to hold him down until
the other wheeler is got out of the way to avoid
his being kicked by the fallen horse, and then to
release the latter by unbuckling his hame-strap,
which will loosen all his harness and permit his
traces to be unfastened. In cases of this kind, the
trace-end shown in Fig. 103 is useful.

If a leader kicks over the trace, it is, usually,
easier to unhook the trace from the bar than to
unbuckle it at the tug ; and an objection to the
arrangement, otherwise good, of lapping the traces,
is that if the horse kicks over an inside trace he has
his lea- over both traces.

A wheel horse's kicking over his inside trace and
getting his leg between it and the pole, is a serious
matter. The traces will be drawn so tight that it
will be impossible to unbuckle them, and the proper
way is to unbuckle the hame-strap on the top of
the collar ; the trace will then be slackened and can

504 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII

be taken off the roller-bolt, or unbuckled ; there is
no excuse for cutting a trace. On no account must
the pole-chain be unhooked first ; that permits the
horse to get back on the splinter-bar and will make
him kick.

A leader may kick and catch his leg between the
main-bar and the single-bars if they are connected
by a link or chain, — a dangerous arrangement which
cannot be too strongly condemned.

The breaking of any part of the harness, such
as that of the hame-strap of a wheeler, when going
down-hill, or of a rein under any circumstances, is
a serious matter.

The breaking of a trace has usually no bad
result beyond that of delay, which need not be long
if a chain or extra trace is carried in the coach.

The breaking of a pole may occasion a serious
accident if the coach is oroinof down-hill ; should it
happen, if the brake is not sufficient to hold the
coach, it is sometimes possible to keep the horses
going, out of the way of the coach ; but if the pole
is broken absolutely in two, so that the front part
trails on the orfound, an accident is almost unavoid-
able. The soft side of the road may be sought, to
aid in stopping the wheels, care being taken not to
get into a gutter, which may turn the coach over.
A turn across the road, or up a slope, is also a
remedy ; but while this is possible with a pair and
with a vehicle which turns under, it is usually, for
want of space, impossible with a coach.

CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 505

In making- a short turn, the pole may easily be
broken by the lead horses jumping sideways when
the coach is on the lock. When this happens,
the break is usually through the pin-hole, in the
futchells, and if there is only a short distance to go
and not down-hill, by taking out the broken piece,
the remaining part of the pole can be jammed back
between the futchells ; then the pole-chains being
taken up very tight and the leaders prevented from
pulling on the point of the pole, home may be
reached. If a piece of rope is run from the D
of the main-bar to the futchells. the leaders can
pull by the rope without disturbing the pole.

A broken pole can be temporarily mended by
pushing the fractured ends tightly together and
then binding on, by a strong cord, two or four thin
pieces of board, like splints. A rope should then
be carried from the bars to the futchells (as men-
tioned above) to prevent the leaders from pulHng
the pole out of its splints.

For mending breaks there is nothing so good
as an article not often found in civilized places,
namely : a strip of raw-hide. If this is wetted and
bound round a joint, or a splice, it will contract in
drying, and be much tighter than any cord can be
drawn. Skill in tying some of the knots used by
sailors is of great advantage in case of accident.

The breaking of a lead-bar, or the coming loose
of one of its ends, does little damage, unless the
bar falls on the horse's heels and makes him kick.

506 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII

The reason for putting on the bars with the screw-
heads of the furniture tip is, that if a screw breaks
or falls out, its loss will be noticed by the coach-
man. This is not an uncommon accident, and is
best guarded against by using the rivets shown in

Fig- 31-

The breaking of a front axle-arm, or the coming

off of a front wheel, is serious, and if the coach be

going at all fast, an overturn is probable.

The box of a Collincre axle will sometimes work
loose in the wheel and the wheel will gradually slip
off, but an observant coachman should detect the
mishap before any damage is done, especially in the
case of the off side wheel.

I once saw a friend brinof his coach home from a
considerable distance, after the box of a front wheel
had become loose, by ingeniously putting the skid
under the wheel and fastening it by its chain to
the splinter-bar, which was protected from being
scratched by having a horse-cloth wrapped round
it, the coach beinof dra^o-ed on the skid ; of course
the wheel had not come off, but had only started.

As may be gathered from the remarks in Chapter
IX., it is not difficult to capsize a coach, but it is an
unpardonably careless thing to do unless something
is broken, or the horses are running away. The
coming off of the skid or the breaking of the skid-
chain in descending a steep hill, may cause a cap-
size, whence the importance of having this tackle in
good order.

CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 507

On icy roads, the skid will slip and, with the
brake hard on, the tire of the wheel slips also.
The ice-skid (Fig. 49) is good for steady work ;
a temporary substitute for it may be made by put-
ting on the ordinary skid and wrapping a chain-
trace or the chain of the hook, round the skid and
the rim of the wheel so as to present a rougher
surface to the road, as described on p. 89.

It is possible for a wheel horse to catch his bit in
the pole-chain hook so as to pull off his bridle, an
accident likely to be attended with danger ; also, a
leader, in throwing his head up and down, may
catch the branch of his bit in the bridle of his
partner.

Some leaders will kick violently if a rein gets
under the tail, an accident likely to happen in the
fly season. If the horse is dangerous in that way,
one of the men should get down and free the rein,
being careful to seize the tail and lift it off the rein
instead of trying to pull out the rein. If the horse
is not a kicker, the rein can sometimes be set free
by pulling the leaders to one side and the wheelers
to the other in such a way that the diagonal pull
will draw the rein out ; the rein should be slack at
the moment, and a slight flick with the whip on
the horse's rump will cause the tail to be lifted,
and so facilitate the operation.

A way of preventing the horse from getting his
tail over the rein, is to pass both lead-reins through
a ring slipped on them between the leaders and the

508 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII

wheelers, which keeps the reins together, and away
from the tails. This ring must be lashed tightly to
one of the reins or else it will sHp out of place.

Another way is to run the rein of the horse that
whisks his tail, through the throat-latch of the
wheeler diagonally behind him ; but this is obviously
desirable for a short distance only, in an emergency,
since it is apt to interfere with the wheeler's work.

A not uncommon accident, which cannot happen
if the reins are properly made, is that of catching
the fork of the lead-reins on a leader's tail.

Should a leader shy violently, he may pull his
coupling-buckle through the pad-terret of his part-
ner. For the means of preventing both of these
accidents, see the article on ' Reins' in the Chapter
on ' Harness.'

Driving too fast round a turn, and striking the
wheel against a stone, is perhaps the most common
cause of serious accidents, since by the shock the
coachman may be thrown off the coach.

A horse standing unattended, by the side of the
road, should, in passing, be watched ; he may turn
suddenly into the road and throw down a leader.

To have a horse balk, or jib, and refuse to go,
can be, perhaps, hardly called an accident, but it is
desperately annoying and very difficult to manage.
Every horseman has his own method of inducing
the horse to move, which he considers infallible
until he tries to put it in practice, when it usually
fails.

CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 509

Anything which distracts the horse's attention
from the idea which he has in his head, may be suc-
cessful,— for instance, Hfting his foot and hammering
on the hoof as if shoeing him. Violence of any kind
usually makes matters worse.

A pulling horse may be made more manageable
by passing his coupling-rein under the throat-latch
of his partner before buckling it to the bit. This
is called throat-latching, frequently pronounced
' throat-lashino^.'

In old coaching days, wild or troublesome horses
were sometimes 'moped,' that is, a leather screen
or shade was fastened to the bridle and covered the
eyes, so that the horse could see only downward ;
' moping a leader' was an expression frequently used.

Horses must never be left unattended ; no matter
how quiet they may be, something may frighten
them and disastrous results ensue.

During fog, or falling snow, it is frequently difficult
to see the road or what is ahead, and at niofht the
light of the lamps shining on the fog is bewildering.
This may be somewhat obviated by partially covering
the lamps so that the light may shine down on the
road, but not too much ahead.

In driving tired horses, the work must be so
distributed as to favour a weak horse ; under some
circumstances the leaders should be kept as fresh
as possible, since, as a coaching writer tersely puts
it, ' a tired wheeler may be dragged home, but if a
leader cuts it, you're planted.'

5IO

CH. XXIV

CHAPTER XXIV

COACHING CLUBS

Mention has been made of the Coaching Ckibs
in England. Snnilar ones have been formed in the
United States ' for the encouragement of four-in-
hand driving.' The oldest is that in New York,
established in 1875, which has for its title 'The
Coaching Club ;' the following is a list of its mem-
bers from the beginning ; those who have died or
resiofned beino- marked D or R : —

Charles A. Baldwin.
J. D. Roman Baldwin.
F. O. Beach. R.
George A. Bech. D.
Isaac Bell, Jr. D.
August Belmont. D.
August Belmont, Jr.
Oliver H. P. Belmont.
Perry Belmont.
James Gordon Bennett.
A. S. Bigelow.
Frederic Bronson.
Harold Brown.
Neilson Brown.
H. R. A. Carey. D.
Charles Carroll.
Alexander J. Cassatt.
William P. Douglas.
Tracy Dows.
George P. Eustis.

George R. Fearing. R.
Hugo O. Fritsch. D.
Frederick Gebhard.
Robert Livingston Gerry.
William C. Gulliver.
Charles F. Havemeyer. D.
Theodore A. Havemeyer. D.
Theodore A. Havemeyer, Jr.
George Griswold Haven.
Eugene Higgins.
Thomas Hitchcock, Jr.
C. Oliver Iselin.
William Jay.
Leonard W. Jerome. D.
C. H. Joy. D.
De Lancey a. Kane.
S. Nicholson Kane.
GusTAv E. Kissel.
Prescott Lawrence.
N. Griswold Lorillard. D.

CH. XXIV

COACHING CLUBS

Pierre Lorillard. R.
Richard McCreery.
George Von L. Meyer.
Ogden Mills.
Edwin D. Morgan.
William Forbes Morgan.
Edward Morrell.
Richard Mortimer.
Stanley Mortimer.
Frederick Neilson. D.
Thomas Newbold. R.
Harry Oelrichs. R.
E. M. Padelford. R.
James V. Parker. R.
George R. Read.
Isaac H. Reed. D.
A. Thorndike Rice. D.
Francis R. Rives. D.
Reginald Wm. Rives.

Christopher R. Robert. D.
Fairman Rogers.
J. Roosevelt Roosevelt.
F. Augustus Schermerhorn.
W. Watts Sherman.
F. K. Sturgis.
E. V. R. Thayer.
Nathaniel Thayer.
Perry Tiffany.
William R. Travers. R.
Francis T. Underhill. R.
James J. Van Alen.
Alfred G. Vanderbilt.
William K. Vanderbilt.
W. Seward Webb.
George Peabody Wetmore.
Augustus Whiting. D.
Harry Payne Whitney.
WiLLiA.Ai C. Whitney.

Honorary Member.
The Duke of Beaufort. D.

' The Four-in-Hand Club ' of Philadelphia dates
from February 28. 1890.

Its members are as follows : —

J. C. Mercer Biddle.
Edward Brooke.
Neilson Brown.
Edward Browning.
Harrison K. Caner.
Alexander J. Cassatt.

B. Dawson Coleman.
A. J. Drexel.

G. W. C. Drexel.

C. Davis English.
Henry Fairfax.

John R. Fell. D.

S. F. Houston.

H. P. McKean, Jr.

E. Rittenhouse Miller.

Edward Morrell.

P. S. P. Randolph.

Edward B. Smith.

William Struthers.

Barclay H. Warburton.

J. G. Waterman.

J. E. Widener.

512

COACHING CLUBS

CH. XXIV

There are Clubs in other cities of the United States.

In Paris, there is, besides 'La Cerclc des Guides'
which is a French Chib, 'The Reunion Road Chib,'
formed in 1893 with the object of encouraging road-
coaching.

Its members are : —

Chester Arthur.
Frederick O. Beach.
O. H. P. Belmont.
Perry Belmont.
J. G. Bennett.
Marquis Du Bourg.
Frederic Bronson.
Comte de Carcaradec.
Henry R. A. Carey. D.
A. J. Cassatt.
William P. Douglas.
George P. Eustis.
William C. Eustis.
Captain Pryce Hamilton.
T. A. Havemeyer. D.
Eugene Higgins.
C. Oliver Iselin.

William Jay.
DeLancey A. Kane.
De La Haye Jousselin.
Vicomte de La Rochefou-
cauld.
Prescott Lawrence.
Baron Lejeune.
Donatien Levesque.
Forbes Morgan.
Henry Ridgway.
Reginald W. Rives.
Fairman Rogers.
J. R. Roosevelt.
F. K. Sturgis.
William G. Tiffany.
William K. Vanderbilt.
George Peabody Wetmore.

The rules and customs of the Meets of Coaching
Clubs are simple, and adopted principally with the
view of ensuring a certain uniformity.

At the Meets of the Coaching Club in New York,
the coaches take a front load only ; the wife of the
owner, if he has one, takes the box-seat ; there are
two ladies and two men on the front roof-seat, the
back of the hind roof-seat is turned down, and the
two p-rooms are in' the rumble. These rules are not

CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS 513

observed by the London Clubs, where either a front
load or a full load is carried. In the case of mourn-
ing-, when the wife of a member does not, for that
reason, wish to appear at the Meet, a lady takes her
place, or the load is made up of men only.

The only occasion on which the wife of the owner,
if she is on the coach at all. is not on the box-seat,
is when a very distinguished personage, such as
the President of the United States, takes that seat
on the leading coach.

If the owner is unmarried, the lady on the box is
usually one of his own family.

The owner and his servants usually wear bouton-
nieres of the same variety as the flowers in the
horses' heads. There are no lamps on the coaches,
and the grooms' overcoats are not on the rumble
but, if carried at all, are inside the coach. The
stable shutters are down (that is, open), and the
glass windows either up or down.

The owner wears the uniform of the Club and a
black silk hat, as do all the men on the coach.
Some years ago, it was considered dc rigncur for
ladies to wear bonnets, but hats have become so
o-eneral as to be considered correct even on a coach.

It is hardly necessary to add that every attention
should be paid to the proper turning out of the
coach and to the dress and attitude of the servants.

At a Meet of private drags, two servants in livery
should be on the coach ; never a servant in the
dress of a euard, as is sometimes seen in Paris.

514 MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS CH. XXIV

The time of assembling, by which time all the
coaches should be on the ground, is usually fifteen
minutes before the hour of starting. The coaches
take their places in the order of arrival, either in
one or two lines or in a single column, depending
upon the locality. One place at the right, or at the
head, is left for the President of the Club, and the
Vice-President takes the rear. Inasmuch as punc-
tuality is a coaching virtue, the start should be made
on the minute by the President, and the coaches
should follow at intervals of a coach leng-th ; that is,
about forty feet. These intervals should be kept
with great precision, since, if they are alternately
lost and regained, the changes of pace will be much
increased toward the rear of the column, where the
coaches will be frequently compelled to go very
fast, to make up the gaps. It is a good plan for
the leadino- coach, ten minutes or so after the start,
to stop for a few minutes at the first convenient
place ; the horses are very apt to get fretted by the
waiting and by the start, and an opportunity is
hereby afforded of calming them and of changing
the couplings or the bitting, if desirable.

The pace should not be slow ; eight miles an hour
is not too fast, and an even pace should be kept up
all the time, up-hill and down ; this ensures the in-
tervals between the coaches being properly kept,
even if the line is lono-.

If the route chosen permits, it is well to have a
countermarch at some place, around a circle in a

CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS 515

park, for instance ; so that the members may see
each other's coaches ; if this cannot be arrano-ed,
a manoeuvre adopted some years ago by The New
York Coaching Ckib serves nearly the same pur-
pose. At an appointed spot, the leading coach,
and of course the whole column, halts on the ricrht-
hand side of the road ; the rear coach then drives
out, passing to the left of the column and takes up
its place at the head ; the coach which has now
become the rear one does the same, and they all
make the movement in succession, until the Presi-
dent, in so doing, resumes his original leading posi-
tion and then continues the drive. At times, the
drive occupies an hour or so, and the coaches return
to the point of departure and there separate ; at
other times the coaches go to some out-of-town place
for lunch or for dinner, and return independently.

The latter is the custom usually followed at the
Meets of both the London Clubs ; in Paris, the
coaches, after meeting on the Place de la Concorde,
drive out together to La Marche or to the Auteuil
races, and come home independently.

In the early days of the Coaching Club in New
York the Meet took place late in the afternoon, and
after a drive over the whole length of the Park, the
members and their guests returned to the Bruns-
wick Hotel for a formal dinner. In the last few
years, the Meets have been earlier in the day, with
a drive to Clermont for lunch.

Where there are Coaching Clubs, it is usual,

5l6 MEETS OF COACHES CH. XXIV

on certain race-courses, to have places specially set
apart for coaches, those for the Clubs separated from
those for other coaches. At Jerome Park, in the old
race days, the grassy slope at the foot of the Club
House was reserved for coaches, and was a gay point
of rendezvous on that most beautiful of courses.

On several Enelish courses each Club has its
special enclosure, opposite the Grand Stand, and
the penalty attached to a non-appearance at the
established Meets of the Club is exclusion from this
enclosure. Eighty or ninety coaches, including
those of the Clubs, are often drawn up in a line,
opposite the Grand Stand, at Ascot.

A few words as to the disposition of a coach on a
race-course or at any other gathering, such as a
horse-show, a cricket-match or polo-match, will not
be out of place here.

The coach should be driven as nearly as possible
to its place, the leaders occupying the spot on which
the coach is finally to stand ; the leaders' traces
are unhooked, the lead-rexns thrown down, and the
leaders moved out of the way. The bars are taken
off of the pole-head and laid on the ground at one
side, and the coach is drawn forward as far as pos-
sible by the wheelers ; the pole-chains are slackened,
the wheel-traces taken off of the roller-bolts and the
wheel-Yems thrown down. The chains are unhooked
from the kidney-link rings, one end being left hooked
to the pole-head, the pole is withdrawn and the wheel

CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHES 517

horses led out of the way. The coach is then run
forward to its place by hand, the grooms of other
coaches usually assisting, until it is as close to the
rails or rope of the enclosure as is desired. On sod,
or on ground which is known to be soft, it is well to
have, in the coach, four small pieces of board, which
can be quickly laid down in front of each wheel be-
fore the coach is brought to its final position ; the
wheels run on these boards and are thereby pre-
vented from sinkinof in the Q^round, which, from the
movement caused by those who get up and down on
the coach, they will be likely to do, with the result
that it will be difficult to move the wheels out of these
deep ruts when the time comes to start for home.

While one man holds the horses, the other one
pushes the pole under the centre of the coach, so
that its point comes under the splinter-bar ; then,
hooking the chains together, he hangs up the head
of the pole by passing the chains over the roller-
bolts, and lays the lead-bars on top of the splinter-
bar, as shown in Plate XXXIV. He then takes
the halters and horse clothing out of the front boot
and assists the other man in leadinof the horses to
where they are to be put up.

Even for a short stop at a race or at a game, it is
dangerous to keep the horses attached to the coach ;
people become interested in the spectacle ; the
grooms often forget themselves, and if the horses
start suddenly, any one standing erect on the coach
is liable to be thrown off with serious injury.

5i8

MEETS OF COACHES

CH. XXIV

The same is true, of course, of any vehicle,
under similar circumstances, and I once saw a
woman, who was standing on the
seat of a buggy, thrown off by the
sudden start of the horse as the
racing horses passed, receiving in-
juries which caused her death in a
few hours.

After the coach has been pushed
to its place, the coachman puts on
the brake as hard as possible, and,
taking three or four loops of the
bight of his whip thong, round the
stick at the ferrule, he hangs the
whip on the handle of the brake,
as shown in Fig. 1 74.

The whip may be strapped along
the pole, instead of hanging it as
just described, but this is a more
troublesome way of disposing of
it. It must not, under any circum-
stances, be put into the whip socket,
where it will be not only in the way
but almost certainly broken.

If at the termination of a meet-
ing, the rope or rail in front of the
coaches is taken down, it is neces-
sary only to put the horses to, and
Fig. 174. , . . , TT 1 •

to drive straight out. 11 this can-
not be done, thc^ coach must be backed by hand

CH, XXIV MEETS OF COACHES 519

and turned into a position which will allow the horses
to be put-to ; it is well to drill the men in doing this,
so that the coach can be brought into position with-
out any awkward failures.

Starting off from a race-course requires much
judgement, and few things show more clearly the
good or bad coachman. The horses after standing,
are often somewhat fractious and impatient ; other
coaches about them are just getting off, and unless
the coachman does the proper thing he is likely to
get into trouble. He must be certain before he
starts that he has his reins exactly right and that
all his horses tighten their traces tooether, for, on
the soft ground, it usually takes all four to pull the
coach. If they make a false start without moving
the coach, they will be likely to balk or run back,
and then a good start is almost impossible.

Everything should be done in the most quiet
manner ; the brake must be taken off without any
noise, the man at the leaders' heads must draw
the horses gently forward without exciting or jerk-
ing them, in order to tighten their traces, keeping
his eye steadily on the coachman so as to obey any
signal promptly. If all this is properly done, the
team will get into motion smoothly and quickly, and
they should be permitted to go straight on, to give
them no chance to rebel. If it is not properly done,
one leader will be on his hind legs and the other
turning his croup out sideways, while a wheeler will
be hanging back with his collar half-way up to his ears.

520 RULES FOR JUDGING CH. XXIV

It seems hardly necessary to add that a start
should not be made unless there is room to eo
somewhere, but one often sees an inexperienced
coachman try it, with awkward results.

Judging at Horse-Shows. — It has become the
custom at Horse-Shows to make classes for Har-
ness Horses, which classes include the vehicles to
which the horses are shown, together with the har-
ness and liveries ; these appointments, as they are
usually termed, count for fifty per cent, and the
horses for fifty per cent., in making up the number
of points for the award. The Coaching Club in
New York has formulated, as suggestions to Judges
and Exhibitors, certain Rules for Judging, which are
here reproduced by permission of the Club. These
Rules will be found to agree with the descriptions
of coaches and harness given in the earlier pages
of this book, and, being a codification of the best
practice among coaching men, may be taken as a
guide for turning out a coach properly.

The Rules are printed in double column, for con-
venience in comparing drags and road-coaches : —

The Drag. The Coach.

The Drag should have a perch The Road-Coach should be
and be less heavy than a Road- built stronger than a Park Drag,
Coach and more highly finished, especially as to the under-carriage
with crest or monogram on the and axles, which latter should not
door panels or hind boot. measure less than two inches in

diameter.

CH. XXIV

RULES FOR JUDGING

521

The Drag — {continued).

The Coach — {contimieci).

The axles may be either Mail The axles may be either Mail
or Collinges (not imitation). or Collinges (not imitation).

The hind seat should be sup- The hind seat is usually sup-
ported by curved iron braces, ported by solid wooden risers
and be of a proper width for two with wooden curtain, but the sup-
grooms, without lazy-back. ports may be of curved iron, as

in a Park Drag, in which case
a stationary leather curtain is
used. Its seat should be wide
enough for at least two besides
the guard, who should occupy
the near side, with an extra
cushion. He should have a strap
to take hold of when standing to
sound the horn.

The lazy-backs on the roof- The lazy-backs of the box-seat,
seats should be turned down hind seat, and roof-seats should
when not in use. be stationary.

The under side of the foot-
board, together with the risers,
should be of the same colour as
the under-carriage.

The under side of the foot-
board, together with the risers of
the box and hind seat, should be
of the same colour as the under-
carriage.

The body of the Drag and the
panel of the hind boot should cor-
respond in colour.

The body of the Coach and the
panel of the hind boot should
also correspond in colour.

The door of the hind boot The door of the hind boot
should be hinged at the bottom, should be hinged on the off side
that it may be used as a table to enable the guard to open it
when open. from the near hind step when the

Coach is in motion.

522

RULES FOR JUDGING

CH. XXIV

The Drag — (continued).

The Coach — (continued).

The skid and safety hook (if The skid and safety hook must
carried) should be hung on the be hung on the off side in coun-
ofif side. ' tries in which it is customary to

drive on the off side of the road-
way, for the skid should be on
the outside wheel, or the Coach
will slide toward the ditch.

It is customary to trim the out- The trimming of the outside
side seats in either pigskin or seats should be of carpet or any
cloth, and the inside of the Drag suitable material, not leather,
in morocco or cloth. The inside of the Coach is usually

finished in hard wood or leather.

The coachman's driving-apron The coachman's driving-apron

when not in use should be folded when not in use should be folded

on the driving-cushion, outside on the driving-cushion, outside

out. Passengers' aprons if carried out.
to be neatly folded and placed on
the front inside seat.

A watch and case are not A foot-board watch with case
essential, nor is the pocket in the should be provided. The driving-
driving-cushion, cushion should have a pocket on

the near side.

There should be no luggage
rails or straps on the roof between
the seats.

Inside, the Drag should have :
Hat straps fastened to the roof;
pockets on the doors ; places
over the front or back seat where
the lamps may be hung when not
in use ; an e.xtra, jointed whip.

The iron rails on the roof be-
tween the front and back seats
should have a lattice or net-work
of leather straps to prevent small
luggage, coats, rugs, etc., placed
on the roof from falling oft".

Inside, the Coach should have :
Hat straps fastened to the roof ;
leather pockets at the sides or
on the doors ; an extra, jointed
whip.

CH. XXIV

RULES FOR JUDGING

52.

The Drag — {continued).

The umbiella basket, when
carried, should be hung on the
near side.

The Coach — {continued).

The basket shall be hung on
the near side and in front of the
guard's seat. The horn should
be placed in the basket with the
mouth-piece up.

Two extra lead-bars, consist- Two extra lead-bars, consist-
ing of a main-bar and a side-bar, ing of a main-bar and a side-bar,
fastened to the back of the hind fastened to the back of the hind
seat with straps ; main-bar above, seat with straps ; main-bar above.

Lead-bars put on with screw Lead-bars put on with screw

heads of furniture up. heads of furniture up.

The following articles to be
neatly stowed in a convenient part
of the Coach : A wheel jack, extra
hame-straps, a chain-trace, extra
lead-trace, an extra bit, a bearing-
rein, a rein splicer (a short strap
of the same width as the reins,
with a buckle at either end) or
two double buckles of different
sizes, a kit of tools, comprising
a wrench, hammer, cold chisel,
coil of wire, punch, hoof-pick and
knife. Two extra, large rings for
kidney-links, or a pair of pole-
pieces.

It is usual for a Park Drag to The guard should be appro-
be fitted with luncheon boxes, priately dressed, and should have
wine racks, &c., also with a box a way-bill pouch with a watch
on the roof called an " Imperial." fitted on one side and a place
This latter is never carried ex- provided for the key of the hind
cept when going to the races or boot,
a luncheon.

The following articles to be
neatly stowed inside the front
boot : A small kit of tools, an
extra lead-trace and wheel-trace,
a rein splicer or two double
buckles of different sizes, extra
hame-straps.

Loin cloths for team, and the
necessary waterproof aprons,
should be carried in a convenient
and accessible part of the Drag.

524

RULES FOR JUDGING

CH. XXIV

The Drag — (continued^.

The Coach — {continued).

Lamps off. Lamps inside Side lamps in place and ready
coach. for use.

Park Harness.

Pole-chains should be bur-
nished and have spring hooks.
The chains should be of a length
which will admit of snapping
both hooks into the pole-head
ring. If too short, one end
should be hooked in the pole-
head ring and the other in a
link. If too long, one end
should be snapped in the pole-
head ring, and the other brought
through said ring (from the out-
side in) and snapped in a link.

Road Harness.

Pole-chains should be bur-
nished or black, but pole-head
and chains must be alike. Hooks
should have india-rubber rings,
not spring hooks. Chains with
single hooks should be put on
pole-head from inside, out ; then
passed through the kidney-link
and hooked into one of the links
of the chain.

Cruppers, with buckles, on all
horses preferred.

Cruppers, with or without
buckles, on wheelers, but not
necessarily on leaders, unless
bearing-reins are used. Martin-
gale back-strap. Trace-bearers
on the leaders from the hames to
the tug-buckles are permissible.

Loin-straps and trace-bearers
are permissible.

No loin-straps.

Face-pieces (drops).

Face-pieces (optional).

Martingales around the collars Martingales around the collars
of wheelers and not through kid- and not through kidney-links
ney-links alone. alone.

CH. XXIV

RULES FOR JUDGING

525

Park Harness — {cimtinucd).
Martingales on all horses.

No rings on coupling-reins.

Road Harness — (contimicd^.

No martingales on leaders
kidnev-link rings on leaders.

Mountings of coach and har
ness and the buttons on servants
liveries should be of the same throughout
metal.

Mountings, preferably of brass,
but at least all of the same metal

Wheel-traces with metal loop
ends, not chains.

Wheel-traces with French loop
or chain ends. Chain put on
roller-bolt with chain out and

Wheelers' inside traces shorter

than outside traces, unless the than outside traces, unless the
inside roller-bolt is enlarged to inside roller-bolt is enlarged to

give the same result.

Lead-traces straight or lapped,
not crossed.

Eyes on ends of hames through
which the kidney-links pass.

Plain kidney-links. No kid-
ney-link rings on leaders.

Solid draught-eyes on hames.
Clip inside of trace leather, and
showing rivet heads only.

Full bearing-reins, with bit and
bridoon. Buxton bits preferred.

Single point strap to tug-buckle.

Metal or ribbon fronts to

give the same result.

Lead-traces lapped, crossed, or
straight.

Hook ends to hames.

Chain and short kidney-links
or all chain.

Ring draught-eyes on hames.

One or more bearing-reins are
optional.

Metal or leather fronts to
bridles ; if ribbon, the colour bridles ; if leather, the colour to
should match the livery waist- match the colour of the coach,
coats.

526

RULES FOR JUDGING

CH. XXIV

Park Harness — {continued). Road Harness — {continued).

The crest or monogram should A crest or monogram is not

be on the rosettes, face-pieces, generally used in road work, but

winkers, pads, and martingale instead, lead-bars, or a special

flaps. Ribbon or coloured ro- device in brass, are put on the

settes are inappropriate. winkers and rosettes.

Hames-straps put on with the Hames-straps put on with the

points inside, — i.e., to the off side points inside, — i.e., to the off side

on the near horse and the near on the near horse and the near

side on the off horse. side on the off horse.

Reins of single brown leather.

Draught-reins sewed in one
piece, with end buckles only.

Lead-traces with screw heads
of the cock-eyes up.

Traces with screw heads of
cock-eyes and chain ends, up.

All parts of the harness should
be double and neatly stitched.

All straps preferably of single
leather."

Collars to be of black patent
leather, shaped to the neck.

Collars may be of patent, plain
black, or brown leather ; straight,
thick, and full padded.

The hames bent to fit the
collar accurately.

The hames straight to fit the
collar.

Harness black. All straps
should be of proper length, but
not too short.

Harness black or brown.

When the owner or his repre-"
sentative drives, the stable-shut-
ters should be down ; otherwise
up.

CH. XXIV DRIVING COMPETITIONS 527

Driving Competitions. — Driving competitions
are frequently arranged with the view of deciding
which of the contestants has the best seat on the
box, the best method of handhngr the reins and
whip, and the best general style of driving, while
merely going over a simple course ; or an intricate
course, with obstacles, may be laid out for the
purpose of testing the skill of the coachman. In
the first case, a figure-of-eight may be added to the
simple course ; a moderately high rate of speed
should be required.

At the Philadelphia Horse-Show of 1893, the
course was laid out as in Fig. 175.

Start

4«A» •\»S

Fig. 175.

Blocks, 10 inches square and 36 inches high, were
placed in pairs, with a space of 8^ feet between
the blocks, at the points i, 2, 3, and 4. The coaches,
stationed on the short sides of the around, were
twice driven, one by one, at a sharp trot, through
each pair of blocks, following the course shown by
the dotted line, thus twice making a figure-of-eight ;
finishing at the point marked by the star. Striking
a block was counted against a contestant, but the

52!

DRIVING COMPETITIONS

CH. XXIV

Style of driving and the accuracy of the turns were

mainly considered. The ground was 300 feet in

length and 125 feet in width, so that

the turns were portions of circles of

about 100 feet in diameter.

For an obstacle course, the foUow-
ino- is a eood arrangement : Barrels,
painted a light colour, are placed (as
shown in Fig. 1 76) 8 feet apart in one
direction and 50 feet apart in the other,
the coach being driven between them
as shown by the dotted line. After
passing through the last pair of
barrels, a turn is made to the left
and the coach is driven in a straight
line between two rows of stakes 7
feet apart, the pairs of stakes cor-
responding to the pairs of barrels.
With seven pairs of barrels, the
whole space required for the course
will be about 600 feet in length by
120 feet in width. On a course of this length,
two minutes is the time allowed for driving up
one side and down the other, the time being taken
from the moment of starting at the word 'go,'
from a line 75 feet in advance of the first pair
of barrels, to crossing the same line after having
passed through the stakes.

In counting the points to the credit of each com-
petitor, a number is adopted, for example 30 ; from

Fig. 176.

CH. XXIV

DRIVING COMPETITIONS

529

this number are deducted two points for each barrel
or stake touched, and one point for each 1 5 seconds,
or part thereof, above the two minutes ; for each
15 seconds, or part thereof, less than the two min-
utes, one point is added. Four points are deducted
for going outside of a barrel or stake, and four
points are deducted should a groom touch the
horses.

The following is the form in which the judges'
card may be made : —

Competitors

Time

2.10

2.30

1.48

1-55

1.36

2.00

Barrels touched

Stakes touched

Outside

Groom touching horses . .

— I

— 2

+ 1

—6

— 12

—6

—4

— 20

—8

Points to be deducted from 30
Result

—4

— II

—18

—5

—3

—18

—8

In this example, competitor D having the greatest
number of points to his credit, is the winner.

The foreo-oinor are the Rules for the Drivino- Com-
petitions at The Ra7ielagh Club, London. There,
after passing through the barrels, the turn is made
to the right in accordance with the English custom
of driving on the left-hand side of the road.

At one of the Open-Air Horse-Shows in New
York, a pen of hurdles was arranged as in Fig. 177.

D ;

""^-, ,-'

'\ ^<' ,''

c*-

'■' \

■^B

530 DRIVING COMPETITIONS CH. XXIV

The coach is to be driven in from A in the di-
rection shown by the arrow, passing the barrel C ;

then backed into
the space between
B and C until the
horses could be
turned to the right
and finally driven
^^^" ^^^" out toward A in

the direction opposite to that in which it entered.
The fences, between A and D, are 22 feet apart,
and the barrels B and C are 22 feet apart. The
hurdle at D should be moveable, to permit a coach-
man who is unsuccessful in backing round, to drive
out at that end.

In all Driving Competitions, especially when the
turns to be made are sharp, the vehicles used should
have nearly the same angle of lock ; a coachman
driving a break, the front wheels of which turn far
under, has a great advantage in being able to make
a sharp turn without risk of an accident ; breaks
should not therefore be admitted to a competition
with coaches.

COACH CALLS ON THE HORN.

Get Ready.

-„ •' _

The Start.

^EE3

Clear the Road.

i}U- jJ?]

' JVi

Off Side.

ff^jfrrJUrri'i^^u^

Near Side.

t=^

0 m

Change Horses.

ji^-rji-Tj.

Slacken Pace.

^^ ^3

m v m

Z2I

Pull Up.

hU- hip- hi

Higher Up.

3 ^ 3

a little shiver

djcificirix-ir

m _ m

Steady.

%t r

-^-

^1^- ^rif

To the Right.

To the Left.

Heme.

jliirjfrj'fijj'fir^rrjiriJj'j- ii

The Post-Horn Call.

fficirm'i[[aW^^S

(Continued.)

Off to Charlestown.

:n.^^i-'rim;ir-Nr:P^

. pT ^>

BE5

: Continued.)

JL-^

MLTEj'i^'rrirc^i^ri^

The Huntsman's Chorus

fiiirtfnrcriJJJJi^^^

Buy a Broom.

(Continued.

^^^/^imfrr^j irr-fCiri^ff^

Short Call. _

A A f>

Short Call.

CH. XXV

531

CHAPTER XXV
MUSIC FOR THE HORN

In this Chapter are given the most useful calls
for the Coach-Horn, together with three airs adapted
to that instrument.

Since the ordinary, straight coach-horn (Fig. 178)
has no keys, only the six open notes C, G, C, E, G,
C, can be sounded on it ; these notes are written in

Fig. 178.

the key of C, the first note in the list being the C
below the stave. The high C, with which the ' post-
horn call' ends, is difficult to produce.

The actual pitch of the notes sounded when any
call is played, depends upon the length of the horn ;
a horn with a length of about 39 inches, including
the mouth-piece, will give the sound of E flat when
what is written as C is sounded ; one of about
52 inches in length will give B fiat, the pitch of a
cornet.

The shorter the horn, the more difficult it is to
piay, but the more brilliant are the calls ; the longer
horn has a softer tone. A horn 42 inches in leno-th
has an agreeable pitch. A horn 54 or 56 inches in

532 HORN CH. XXV

length may be reduced to the more convenient
length of 24 or 25 inches by being doubled on
itself; its tone is not materially changed.

A horn made of hard brass has a better tone
than one made of copper, and the ' cornet ' bell is
thought to crive a sweeter tone than the conical or
' buofle ' bell. Ribs of brass or of orerman-silver
are sometimes soldered lengthwise on the horn to
strengthen it.

Old coaching books speak of 'the yard of tin,'
meaning the horn ; a horn made of tin and only
36 inches long could not have been a very musical
instrument.

On some coaches, in the early part of this cen-
tury, the guard used a key bugle instead of a horn.
'Paddy Blake' {Neio Sporting Magazine, 1834,
p. 102) speaks of a coachman's having a horn in
his pocket.

Owing to the limited number of its notes, few of
the well known tunes can be played on the coach-
horn, but the calls can be varied indefinitely.

Much practice is necessary to enable a person to
play the horn well ; useful hints and useful exercises
are contained in the three little books by Godden,
by KoHLEK, and by Vinoy, the full titles of which
will be found in the ' List of Books' in the present
volume.

CH. XXVI 533

CHAPTER XXVI

COACHING MEDALS OR TOKENS

Two medals or tokens are mentioned in the
Coaching books ; photographic reproductions of
them are here given.

The first (Fig. 179), known as the 'mail-coach
halfpenny,' was struck soon after the introduction
of the mail-coaches.

It has upon the face a mail-coach, with coachman
and guard, and four horses galloping ; above, ' mail

Fig. 179.

COACH HALFPENNY,' below, 'TO TRADE EXPEDITION
& TO PROPERTY PROTECTION. PAYABLE IN LONDON.'

On the reverse, ' to j. palmer esq. this is inscribed

AS A token of gratitude FOR BENEFITS REC'd FROM

the establishment of mail coaches,' with a wreath
of palm leaves and the letters ^. ^■

The second (Fig. 180) is a copper halfpenny
struck by William Waterhouse, a coaching pro-

534 COACHING MEDALS CH. XXVI

prietor, whose headquarters were, about i 722-1800.
at the Swan with Two Necks/=' Lad Lane, London.

It has. upon the face, a swan with two necks
turned in opposite directions ; above, ' payable at

THE MAIL COACH OFFICE.' bclow, ' LAD LANE LONDON

Fig. 180.

w. w.,' on the reverse, a coach with four horses, and
the legend 'speed regularity & security.'

After a thorough search I have failed to find any
other coaching medals.

Of those just described, one seems to have been
a compliment and the other an advertisement. In
the United States, at a later period, numbers of
stage and omnibus tickets in the form of coins,
were issued, two of which are here shown (Fig.
181), together with an English railway ticket.

The copper 'road ticket' (Fig. 182). for the
Kind's PrK^ate Road, is a badee. erantino- admis-
sion to certain roads which were closed to the
general public.

* It is the custom for the owners of swans to mark them by
one or more ' nicks' on their beaks ; the name of the tavern is no
doubt a corruption of ' The Swan with two nicks.'

CH. XXVI

ROAD TICKET

535

Finally, the coin (Fig. 183) marked ' Warington/
called in the Coin Catalogues ' a racing token.' seems

Fig. 181.

Fig. 182.

Fig. iS-

to be a badge, or an admission ticket to some
enclosure, since it has a number, ' N° 260,' stamped
upon the back.

536 CH. XXVII

CHAPTER XXVII

LIST OF BOOKS

This does not pretend to be an exhaustive Bib-
liography ; it is merely a list of books which are of
interest to the coaching man: —

Adams.

English Pleasure Carriages ; their Origin, His-
tory, Varieties, Materials, Construction, &c. &c.,
together with Descriptions of New Inventions. By
William Bridges Adams. London : Charles
Knight & Co. 1837. 8vo, 315 pages. (Numerous
plates of carriages. The author, brought up as a
carriage builder, afterward became a civil engineer,
and his book is one of the first on carriage building
in which a higher grade of mechanical perfection
in carriages is recognised and insisted upon.)

Apperley, see ' Nimrod.'

Artillery.

Light Artillery Drill Regulations. United States
Army. Washington : Government Printing Of-
fice. 1896.

Ashford.

Whips and Whip-Making. By W. G. Ashford,
Birmingham. Walsall: T. Kirby & Son. 1893.
8vo, 38 pages.

ch. xxvii list of books 537

Bailey.

Bailey s Magazine of Sports and Pastimes. Lon-
don. (Commenced in 1825, continued to the
present day.)

Baines.

On the Track of the Mai I- Coach. By F. E.
Baines, C.B. London : Richard Bentley & Son.
1895. i2mo, 351 pages. (Reminiscences of
Post-Office matters in England.)

Baucher.

Methode d' Equitation basee siir des noitveaiLX prin-
cipes, dfc. Par F. Baucher. Paris: 1842, 8vo.
(And many later editions.)

A Method of Horsemanship, &c. By F. Baucher.
Philadelphia : A. Hart. 1851. i2mo. (An Eng-
lish translation by George H. Boker and John
Sergeant. )

(There are other books by Baucher, but the
important matters are contained in the MetJiode}^

Beaufort.

Driving. By His Grace the Duke of Beaufort,
K.G., with contributions by other authorities.
Illustrated by G. D. Giles and John Sturgess.
London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1889. Sec-
ond edition, i2mo, 426 pages. (One of the
volumes of The Badminton Library, and the
most comprehensive book yet published on
Coaching in general.)

538 list of books ch. xxvii

Berdmore.

Carriao-es, Roads and Coaches. By S. Berd.more.
London : 1883. 8vo.

Blew.

Brij^hton and its Coaches. A History of the
London and Brighton Road. By William C. A.
Blew. London: John C. Nimmo. 1894. 8vo,
354 pages. (There is an excellent chapter on
' The Growth of Coachmanship' at the end of
this volume.)

BrigJiton Road, see Harper.

Clark.

A Treatise on the Bits of Horses. By Bracy
Clark. London: 1835. Second edition, 4to,
63 pages. (The first edition was about 1830.)

Coaching.

A Coaching Souvenir of i8go. Paris to Ram-
bouillet, Paris to Poissy. By C. D. i6mo, 18
pages. (A prettily printed Guide-book to two
coaching roads.)

Co A CHING.

The Delights of Coaching. By An Old Whip.
Imprinted for Murphy & Company, New York,
Cleveland, and St. Louis. 1883. With etchings
by Stephens James Ferris. Oblong i2mo, 56
pages.

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 539

CORBETT.

All Old CoacJiinaiL s CJiattci\ witJi some Practical
Remarks on Driving. By a Semi-Professional,
Edward Corbett, Colonel, late Shropshire Militia.
With 8 full-page illustrations by John Sturgess.
London : Richard Bentley & Son. Second edi-
tion. 1 89 1. 8vo, 304 pages. (This book con-
tains some history of Coaching and a great deal
that is very interesting and valuable about driving-
four horses.)

' Craven,' see Walker.

Cross.

The AtUobiography of a Stage-Coachman. By
Thomas Cross. London : Hurst & Blackett.
1 861. 3 vols., i2mo, 311, 312, 292 pages. (A
somewhat rare book ; the second and third vol-
umes contain interestincr reminiscences of Coach-
ing in the early part of the century.)

Dickinson.

The Dickinson Gallery. Revised Catalogue of an
an Exhibition of Pictures illustrative of the Old
Coaching Days, with an Introduction and addi-
tional Descriptive Notes by Captain Malet. Lon-
don : Dickinson Bros. & Foster. 1877. i2mo,
48 pages. (A catalogue of two hundred and
sixty-three pictures and prints of Coaching sub-
jects.)

540 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

DWYER,

Seats and Saddles, Bits and Bitting, and the Pre-
vention and Cnre of Restiveness in Horses. By
Francis Dwyer. Edinburgh and London. 1868.
i2mo, 265 pages, (There are many later editions.
The Fourth, reprinted in America, by the United
States Book Company, n. d., contains chapters
on Draught which are of the greatest interest
to the driving man. The whole book may be
studied with profit. Major Dwyer, an English-
man, was for a long time in the Austrian military
service.)

Edgeworth.

Essay on the Construction 0/ Roads and Carriages.
1817.

Felton.

A Treatise o?i Carriages, etc. William Felton,
London : 1 794. 2 vols.

The Field.

London. Articles and Correspondence on Coach-
ing in Numbers for Nov. 8, 1890 ; April 16, 1892 ;
April 30, 1892; May 14, 1892; June 11, 1892;
June 18, 1892 ; July 9, 1892 ; July 16, 1892 ;
July 23, 1892 ; July 30. 1892 ; Aug. 13, 1892 ;
Sept. 3, 1892. (The pages of all Sporting Jour-
nals contain articles on Coaching, but the refer-
ences above eiven are useful, because the details
of Driving are there discussed at some length.)

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 54 1

FiLLIS.

P7Hncipes dc Dressage et de V Equitation. Par
James Fillis. Troisieme edition. Paris : E.
Flammarion. 1892. 8vo. 422 pages. (Illus-
trated. The most satisfactory treatise on Equi-
tation yet written, and by a master of the art.)

Fitzgerald.

The Harness Maker s lUnstrated Manual. W.
N.Fitzgerald. New York : 1875.

Flower.

Bits and Bearing Reins. By Edward Fordham
Flower. London: William Ridgway. 1875.
Second edition, 8vo, 31 pages.

Horses and Harness ; a Sequel to Bits and Bearing
Reins. By Edward Fordham Flower. London :
William Ridgway. 1876. Second thousand. 8vo,
20 pages. (These two pamphlets contain admi-
rable illustrations, which should find a place on
every harness-room wall. The author for many
years preached a crusade against the abuse of
the bearing-rein, and with marked effect upon the
fashion.)

Frith.

The Romance of Engijieering : The Stories of the
Highway, the Waterway, the Raihvay, and the
Subway. By Henrv Frith. London : Ward,
Lock, Bowden & Co. 1892. i2mo, 356 pages.

542 LIST OF BOOKS CH, XXVII

DE GaTINES.

Conference Hippiqtie, I. Les Cinq Motcvements
Cles de r Equitation. Par Rene de Gatines.
Paris : Le Goupy. 1894. (A good analysis of
the Baucher method.)

Conference HippiqtLe, II. La Giieriniere, d' Atire
et Baucher. Paris: Le Goupy. 1896.

GODDEN.

Ye Coach Horn Tootlers. By Walter Godden.
London and New York: Boosey & Co. 1894.
Long i2mo, 20 pages. (A collection of twenty-
five coach-horn tunes.)

GUIET.

From Paris to Troiiville in Thirteen Stages. Some
Notes on Coaching, with Reproductions of Photo-
graphs taken during the journey, and a Descrip-
tive Account of the Art of Carriage Building.
By A. GuiET. Illustrated by L. Vallet. Paris :
Guiet & Co., Coach Makers. 1893. Oblong
8vo, 54 pages.

Harper.

The Briirhton Road: Old Times and Nezv on a
Classic Highway. By Cilvrles G. Harper.
London: Chatto & Windus. 1892. 8vo, 272
pages, illustrated.

Harris.

Old Coaching Days. By Stanley Harrls ('An
Old Stacker'). Illustrated by John Sturgess.

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 543

London: Richard Bentley & Son. 1882. 8vo,
279 pages, 12 full-page illustrations. Sub-title:
Road Sketches in Bygone Days. (As its sub-title
indicates, a history of Coaching, with anecdotes
of the road.)

The Coaching Age. By Stanley Harris ('An
Old Stager'). Illustrated by John SturCxEss.
London: Richard Bentley & Son. 1885. Large
8vo, 16 full-page illustrations, 468 pages. (A
continuation of Old Coaching Days, containino-
much interesting matter.)

Haworth.

Road Scrapings : Coaches and Coaching. By
Captain M. E. Haworth. London : Tinsley
Brothers. 1882. Small 8vo, 202 pages. (Anec-
dotes of Coaching.)

Hayes.

Illnstrated Horse Breaking. By Captain M.
Horace Hayes. London : Thacker & Co.
1889. (A very valuable work.)

Riding on the Flat and Across Country. By
Captain M. Horace Hayes. London: 1891.

Haywood.

Accidents to Horses on Carriage-way Pavements.
By William Haywood. Report to London Com-
missioners. 1873.

544 LIST OF BOOKS CH, XXVII

' HiEOVER.'

Stable Talk and Table Talk ; or, Spectacles for
Young Sportsmen. By ' Harry Hieover.' Sec-
ond edition. London : Lono;mans, Brown, Green
& Longmans. 1846. 8vo, 2 vols., 452 and 408
pages. (There is a great deal in these volumes
of importance to the coaching man. ' Harry Hie-
over ' is the pseudonym of Charles Brindley.)

The Sportsman s Friend in a Frost. By ' Harry
Hieover.' London: 1857. 8vo, 416 pages.

Hooper.

Notes on the Construction of Private Carriages
in England, and Reports on the Carriages of the
International Exhibitions of Paris, 18^^ ; London,
1S62 ; Dublin, 186^ ; Paris, 186'/ ; London, 18 Jj.
By George N. Hooper. London : printed by
G. Phipps. 1876. i6mo.

Houghton.

The Coaches of Colonial Ah^zv York. By George
W. W. Houghton. New York Historical So-
ciety. 1890. 8vo, 31 pages.

Howlett.

Legons de Guides. Par Edwin Howlett. Paris :
Pairault et Cie. 1893. Large 8vo, 154 pages.
(Edwin Howlett is well known to American and
French coaching men, as an admirable teacher
of four-in-hand driving. To a natural ability for
instructing, he has joined large practice in driving.

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 545

and in his book he has endeavoured, most success-
fully, to impart what he says to his pupils on the
box. Every word should be carefully studied by
an aspirant for coaching honours, and the author
himself should be sought by any beginner who
may have the good fortune to be within reach of
his stables in Paris.)

Driving Lessons. By Edwin Howlett. New
York: R. H. Russell & Son. 1894. Large 8vo,
159 pages.

The Hub.

A Magazine for Cai'riage Builders. New York.
Monthly, from 1871.

HUTH.

A BibliograpJiical Record of Hippology. By F.
H. HuTH. London : Bernard Ouaritch. 1887.
Small 4to, 439 pages. (A very complete cata-
logue of works on Horses, Driving, etc.)

Inman.

The Old Santa Fe Trail, The Story of a Great
Highzvay. By Colonel Henry Inman, U. S. A.
New York and London : The Macmillan Com-
pany. 1898. 8vo, 490 pages. (Contains inter-
esting passages on Coaching in the West.)

JOUFFRET.

Traite de la Conduite en Guides et de V Entreticn
des Voitiires. Par le Commandant Jouffret.

546 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

Paris : Librarie Militaire de L. Baudoin et Cie.
1889. Large 8vo, 149 pages, 62 wood-cuts.
(Does not contain a great deal about Four-in-
hand Driving, but gives many explanations of
terms, and of parts of harness, which are useful
to a person driving in France.)

Knight.

Hints on Driving. By Captain C. Morley
Knight, R.A. Illustrated by G. H. A. White,
Royal Artiller)^ London and New York : George
Bell & Sons. 1894. i2mo, 180 pages, with
illustrations. (Contains detailed instructions both
for four-horse, and for tandem, driving.)

KoHLER.

The Coach Horn : What to Blow, and How to
Blow it. By An Old Guard. London : Kohler
& Son, 1893. Third edition. i6mo, 23 pages.

Lagard.

La Carrosserie Frangaise. Six Livraisons par An.
Paris : L, Lagard. (Magazine.)

Latch FORD,

The Loriner : Opinions and Observations on
Bridle-Bits and the Suitable Bitting of Horses.
With illustrations. By Benjamin Latchford.
London: Nichols, Son & Co, 1871. Small 4to.
(A useful, short treatise, with a large number of
drawings of bits, and a translation of a treatise
on bitting by Don Juan Segundo, 1832. The

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 547

Loriners' (Bit Makers') Company is one of the
old Guilds of London, dating back to the thir-
teenth century.)

Lennox.

Pictures of Sporting Life and Character. By
Lord William Lennox. London : i860. 2 vols.,
i2mo.

Coaching, with Anecdotes of the Road. By Lord
William Pitt Lennox. London : Hurst &
Blackett. 1876. (Contains interesting coaching
gossip and hints about driving.)

Lenoble du Teil.

Cours TJieoiHque d' Eqititatioji, de Dressage et
d' Attelage. Par J. Lenoble du Teil, Ecuyer ;
Professeur a I'Ecole des Haras Nationaux. Paris
et Nancy: Berget-Levrault et Cie. 1889. Large
8vo, 455 pages. (This book treats of a depart-
ment of driving too much neglected in America ;
the Jiandling and bitting of horses before they
are put to harness, and while they are being
prepared for driving ; the remarks upon this
subject are useful.)

Levesque.

Les Grandes Guides. Par Donatien Levesque.
Paris : Librarie Cynegetique Pairault. 1886.
i2mo, 180 pages. (Only three hundred num-
bered copies printed. An admirable little book
by a good coachman.)

548 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

Les Guides. Par Donatien Levesque. Paris :
Adolphe Le Goupy. 1897, i2mo, 217 pages.

LiNSLEV.

Morgan Horses : A Preinmm Essay on the Origin,
History, and Characteristics of this Remarkable
American Breed of Horses. By D, C. Linslev,
Middlebury, Vermont. New York : C. M. Sax-
ton. 1864. i2mo, 340 pages. (First edition
1856.)

Macniell.

Seventh Report of the Commissioners, on Road
from London to HolyJiead. House of Commons,
13 July, 1830. Folio, 54 pages. (The Appendix
contains reports by Parnell, by Telford, and
by Macniell, and a description of Macniell's
Dynamometer.)

' Magenta.'

The Handy Horse Book ; or. Practical Instruc-
tions in Driving, Riding, and the General Care
and Management of Horses. By a Cavalr)^
Officer (' Magenta'). Edinburgh and London :
William Blackwood & Sons. 1878. Ninth edi-
tion, i2mo, 167 pages. (First edition 1865.)

Malet.

Annals of the Road ; or, Azotes on A/ail and Stage
Coaching in Great Britain. By Captain [Harold
Esdaille] Malet, 18th Hussars. To which are
added Essays on the Road. By ' Nimrod.' Lon-

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 549

don : Longmans, Green & Co. 1876. Large
8vo, 403 pages. (An interesting book on Four-
horse Driving, and especially valuable as contain-
ing (pp. 177-387) a reprint of Essays on the Road,
by ' Nimrod' [Charles J. Apperley], first pub-
lished in The Sporting Magazine, London ; Vols,
ix. to XX. New Series ; the first in 1822, the last
in 1827. These Essays are particularly inter-
esting because they were written by a practical
coaching man at the time when public coaching
was at its best in England. A coaching man
should study them with care, and cannot fail to
learn much from them. A large portion of the
Chapter on ' Driving' in Walker's Manly Exer-
cises is taken from these Essays. An admirable
Glossary of Terms of the Road is appended to
Malet's volume.)

Maudslay.

Highways and Horses. By Athol Maudslay.
London: Chapman & Hall. 1888. 8vo, 471
pages.

Michelin.

Le Pjteumatique, son Application aux Voitnres a
Chevanx et sans CJievanx. Par M. A. Michelin.
Paris: 1896. Pamphlet of 40 pages. (Reprinted
from The Memoirs of The Society of Civil Engi-
neers of France, June 1896. Contains an account
of valuable experiments on the draught of vehicles
with pneumatic tires.)

550 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

Monti ON Y.

Manuel dcs Piqueurs, Cockers, Grooms et Pale-
freniers, a /' Usage dcs Ecolcs de Dressage, et
d' Equitation de Fra7ice. Par M. le Comte de
MoNTiGNY. Paris: L. Baudoin. 1891. Seventh
edition, i2mo, 559 pages. (The first edition was
pubHshed in 1865, under the Second Empire.
This book treats very thoroughly of all stable
matters, and there are instructions for driving
pairs and fours. )

MORIN.

Nouvelles Experiences stir le Frottenicnt dcs Axes
de Rotatiojt, faites a Metz en iSj^. Par Arthur
MoRiN. Paris: Carilian-Goeury. 1838. 4to,
100 pages.

Experiences snr le Tirage des Voitiircs, faites en
18 jy et 18 j8. Par Arthur Morin. Paris : Ca-
rilian-Goeury. 1839. 4to, 102 pages.

Experiences stir le Tirage des Voitiires et stir les
Ejects Destrtictctirs qticlles exerccnt stir les Routes,
exectitees en 18 jy et i8j8, et en i8jg et 1841.
Par Arthur Morin. Paris: L. Mathias. 1842.
4to ; 3 parts, separately paged: I. 188 pages;
II. 124 pages; III. 67 pages, (The edition of
1842 includes that of 1839.)

Voittires employees atix Services public et prive
autres qtie celles des Chettiins de fer. Report
by General Morix on Class VI. of the London

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 551

Exhibition of 1862. Published in the second vol-
ume of Official Reports. Paris : Napoleon Chaix
& Cie. 1862.

Murray.

The Perfect Horse. By William Henry Murray.
8vo. Boston: 1873; New York : 1881.

' NiMROD.'

The Road. By ' Nimrod' [C. J. Apperley].
First published in TJic Quarterly Revieiv in 1832.
(Numerous reprints of this have been made,
among them a i6mo, by John Murray. London :
1853. 63 pages. This covers some of the same
ground as the Essays. The description of the
astonishment of an old fellow who fell asleep
in 1742, and woke up to drive on a coach in
1832, is spirited and has been always deservedly
popular. ' Nimrod' had a happy faculty for
treating sporting subjects, and his famous ac-
count of a run with the Ouorn Hounds has
served as a model for many succeeding writers
in that line.)

' Nimrod s Hunting Tour in Scotland and the
North of England, with the Table-talk of Dis-
tinguished Sporting Characters, and Anecdotes of
Masters of Hounds, Crack Riders, ajtd Celebrated
Amateiir Dragsmen. London : C. Templeman.
1857. Second edition, 8vo, 427 pages. (This is
also called ' N^imrod s N^orthern Tour, and was

552 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

written in 1S34-35 ^^^1 ^^st published in 1835.
The Coaching- part is interesting and vakiable.)

NOBBS.

Old Coaching Days ; Some Incidents in the Life
of Moses fames Nobhs, the Last of the Mail Coach
Guards. Told by Himself. With a Preface by
the Controller of the London Postal Service.
London : No date or publisher. The Preface is
dated December 1861. i8mo, 55 pages. (Some
unimportant anecdotes of Coaching.)

d'Ocagne.

Le Mail-Coach eji France. Par Mortimer
d'Ocagne. Paris: Adolphe Le Goupy. 1891.
i2mo, 32 pages. (A short sketch of Coaching in
France, England, and America.)

Parnell.

A Treatise on Roads. By Sir Henrv Parnell>
Bart. London: Longmans. 1838. 8vo, 465
pages.

Paterson.

Pater son s Roads ; being an entirely original
and accurate DesciHption of all the Direct and
Principal Cross Roads in England and Wales,
etc., etc. Eighteenth edition. London : Edward
Mogg. 1829.

Philipson, John.

Harness : As It Has Been, As It Is, and As It
Should Be. By John Philipson. With remarks

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 553

on Traction, and the Use of the Cape Cart by
' Nimshivich! Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Andrew
Reid ; and London: Edward Stanford. 1882.
8vo, 80 pages, numerous illustrations. (This
treatise is full of valuable information, which the
coaching man should have by heart.)

The Technicalities of the Art of Coach-Body-
Making. By John Philipson. London : John
Kemp & Co. 1885. i2mo, 46 pages.

The Art and Craft of Coach Building. By John
Philipson. London : George Bell & Sons. 1897.

Philipson, William.

Draught. By William Philipson. London :
John Kemp & Co. 1885. i2mo, 23 pages. (A
short scientific treatise on Draught from the point
of view of the resistance of the vehicle.)

Prize Essay on the Suspension of Carriages. By
William Philipson. New York : The Hub
Publishing Co. 1889. i2mo, 61 pages. (With
many plates. Although this is essentially a
coach-maker's book, it is interesting to the driving
man who cares to understand the construction of
his vehicle.)

Paper on Brakes for Retarding the Motion of
Carriages in Descending hiclines. By William
Philipson. Read before the Institute of British
Carriage Manufacturers, August 5, 1888. Lon-
don: 1888. 8vo, 20 pages.

554 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

Q UAR TERL V.

The London Quarteidy Review, October 1877.
Article on Coaching. Anonymous. 1 7 pages,

Reynardson.

Down the Road ; or, Reniiniscejices of a Gentleman
Coachman. By C. T. S. Birch Reynardson.
London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1875. 8^'^,
224 pages. (Eleven good coloured plates by
H. Alken. Agreeable reminiscences, with some
useful hints.)

Richardson.

Practical Carriage Building. By M, T. Rich-
ardson. New York : M. T. Richardson & Co.
1892, 2 vols., i2mo, 222 and 280 pages.

Rider and Driver.

The Rider and Driver. Weekly, First number,
March 7, 1891. New York. Large 4to.

Road.

The Road. The Ridino-, Driving, and Coaching
journal. London. Folio. Monthly. Com-
menced April I, 1891. Edited by ' Fortinbras.'

Sidney.

The Book of the Horse. By S. Sidney. London :
n. d. 1874 (?). 4to, 604 pages. (Contains good
Chapters on Driving and Coaching.)

CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 555

Foii7'-in-Hand Driving as a Firie Art. By S.
Sidney, in The Neiv Quarterly Review. London :
October, 1876. 13 pages.

' Stonehenge,' see Walsh.

StR ALTON.

The World on Wheels ; or, Carriages, ivith their
Historical Associations from the Earliest to the
Present Time, &c. &c. By Ezra M. Stratton.
Illustrated. New York : Published by the Author,
325 East Eighteenth Street. 1878. Large 8vo,
490 pages, 364 illustrations. (A very complete
history of carriages, which, with Thrupp's book,
really exhausts the subject as far as it is of
interest to the driving man.)

Swales.

Driving as I Fottnd it. What to Drive, Hoiv
to D^Hve. By Frank Swales. Illustrated by
Walter Pettie. London, Paris, Washington,
Chicago, New York : Brentano's. 1891. i2mo,
180 pages. (Contains some useful hints, and
good plates of Hands. Some of the chapters
are taken from Stable Talk and Table Talk, now
a somewhat rare book.)

Tailer.

Coaching in France. By T. Suffern Tailer, in
Illustrated American, August 29, 1891.

556 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

Coaching and Coachmen. By T. Suffern Tailer,
in Illnstrated American, September 5, 1891.
(Both of these articles are beautifully illustrated.)

Tally Ho.

The Tally Ho f Notes on Coaching. New York :
Valentine & Co. 1877. Pamphlet of 28 pages,
with illustrations by Grey Parker.

Taxdem.

Hints to Yonng Tandem Drivei's by an Old Hand.
Oxford : T. Shrimpton & Son. 1875. i6mo.
24 pages.

Thrupp.

The History of Coaches. By G. A. Thrupp.
With numerous illustrations. London : Kirby
& Endean ; New York : The Hub Publishing
Company. 1877. 8"^^^' ^^- pages. (The title
' Coaches' includes all carriages. This is a very
complete and important book, and of interest to
every coaching man.)

Tristram.

Coaching Days ajid Coaching Ways. By W,
Outram Tristram. Illustrated by Hugh Thom-
.SON and Herbert Railton. London : Macmillan
& Co. 1888. Large 4to, 367 pages. There is
also a small edition, i2mo, 376 pages, 1893 ; the
same publishers. (Mainly anecdotes and descrip-
tions of English coach roads.)

ch. xxvii list of books 557

Twining.

Travels in America One Himdred Years Ago ;
being Notes and Reminiscences. By Thomas
Twining. New York : Harper & Brothers,
1894. i6mo, 181 pages. (Contains some notes
on travelling by coach.)

Underhill.

Di'iving for Pleasure ; or, the Harness, Stable and
its Appointments. By Francis T. Underhill.
New York. 1896. Large 4to. (Profusely illus-
trated and thoroughly up to date.)

ViNEY.

Methode de Trompe de Mail- Coach. (Preface par
M. le CoMTE Henry d'Yanville.) Par Victor
ViNEY et Alexandre Passevant. Paris : Adolphe
Le Goupy. 1893. Oblong i2mo, 88 pages.
(Contains a collection of the regular coach calls
and a large number of tunes and fanfares.)

Walker.

British Manly Exercises ; in which Roiuing and
Sailing are noiu first described, and Riding and
Driving are for the first time given in a work of
this kind, (jfc. &c. By Donald Walker. Third
edition. London : J. Hurst. 1835. The first
and second editions are dated March i, 1834, and
March 14, 1834. i6mo, 291 pages. (There are
2 plates by H. Alken, and 53 line drawings on

558 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII

copper. Seventy pages of the book are devoted
to driving, a large part of it drawn from 'Nimrod's'
Essays, and from his article in The Oiiarterly
Review. There are other editions of this popu-
lar book ; the tenth (London : H. G. Bohn, i860)
is edited by 'Craven' [John William Carleton],
and has some slight additions and modifications.)

Walsh [' Stonehenge '] .

Riding and Driving. By J. H. Walsh. Lon-
don : 1863.

Ward.

Hints on Driving. By C. S. Ward, the well-
known ' Whip of the West,' London : pub-
lished by the Author. 1870. 4to, 24 pages.
(With a photograph of the author, one of the
most famous Whips of his time.)

Whitley.

Coventry CoacJiing and Coach Roads. By T. W.
Whitley, Coventry. Printed at TJie Herald
Office. 1887. i2mo, 27 pages. (A Sketch of
Coaching in the Neighbourhood of Coventry in
the early part of this century.)

You ATT.

Draught. By William Youatt. 46 pages, 8vo.
Forms the latter part of ' TJie Horse! (By the
same author.) London : Longmans. 1866, and
many other editions. (This is the classical treatise
on Draught.)

ch. xxvii list of books 559

Young.

The Fo7cr-27i.-hand, and Glances at the Literature
of CoacJiiiig. By Jennie J. Young. Lippincott's
Magazme, June 1878.

56o

LIST OF FRENCH NAMES

CH. XXVII

LIST OF FRENCH NAMES FOR PARTS OF
HARNESS

The following French equivalents for the English
names of parts of harness or of a coach are given
for the convenience of persons driving in France.
The list has been revised by Mr Morris E. How-
LETT, of Paris, and may be trusted as giving the
names actually used in a French stable. The gen-
der is denoted by (w) or (/'). The figures refer to
the cuts in the text.

Axle-arm, 13, 14

Back-strap, 106, 107

Bar-bit, B, 88 . .

In the lower bar .

In the middle bar .

In the upper bar

Upper ring (of a bit)

Bar-buckle

Bearing-rein, 93 .

Belly-band

Billet (of a rein), 89

Bit (used for a hit gener-
erally, but especially
for a curb-bit) . . . .

Black leather . . . .

Boss, 84

Essieu {ill)

Croupiere (/)

Mors {ill) a barette {/)

en bas

au milieu

au banquet

CEil {VI)

Boucle {f) a traverse

Enrenement (;//)

Sous-ventriere ( / )

Porte-mors (w)

Mors (w)
Cuir {ni) noir
Cocarde {/), [Bossette
( /) when on a bit]

CH. XXVII

LIST OF FRENCH NAMES

561

Breast collar, 81 . . . Bricole ( /")

Breeching- Reculement (w)

Bridle, 84 Bride (/)

Buckle Boucle (/)

To burnish ..... Polir a la gourmette
Buxton bit, D, 88 . . . Wellington
Canon (of a bit), C, 90 . Canon (;//)
Centre-hook, A, 105 . . Crochet {in) d'enrene-

ment {in)
Centre-terret Crochet d'enrenement

portant clef {f)
Chape, A, 105 . . . . Courroie (/") de man-

celle (/)
Cheek-piece, 84 . . . . Montant (;;/)
In the cheek Au banquet (or en haut),

equally correct
Choke-strap, 100 . . . Fausse martingale {/)

(It is customary, in America and in England, to call, in double
harness, a 'martingale,' the strap which goes from the belly-band to
the bottom of the collar, as shown in Fig. loo of the text ; this is
' fausse martingale' in French, and in America, but not in England,
is frequently called 'choke-strap.')

Clip (of a tug), A, loi
Clipper

Cock-eye, 104 .
Cock horse .
Collar, 94, 95, 96
Coupling-rein

Chape ( /")

Tondeuse {f)

Mousqueton [in) ferme

Cheval (;;/) de renfort

Collier (;;/)

Italienne {/), Guide {f)

interieure, Accouple-

ment (w)

562 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES CH. XXVII

To cross the traces, B, 126 Croiser les traits (;;^)
Crown-piece (of bridle),

86 Tetiere (/)

Crupper, 106, 107 . . . Croiipiere [/)

Crupper-dock .... ^Culeron (w)

Curb-bit Mors(;;^)agourmette (_/')

Curb-chain Gourmette {/)

To cut the tires .... Chartrer les roues ( /)

D De (;//)

Draught-eye (for drag

harness), A, 99 . . . Tirage (w) a chape (/)
Draught-eye (for coach

harness), C, 99 . . . Tirage a anneau (;//)

Draught-rein Guide (/) exterieure

Driving cushion, ^j . . Coussin (/;/) de guide

Dutch collar, 81 . . . Bricole (/)

Elbow bit, C, 88 ... Mors(;;2)abaionnette(/)

Face-drop (face-piece), 84 Plaque (/) de front (m)
False belly-band, Plate

XXV Faussesous-ventriere(/')

Foot-board Coquille (/)

French loop trace, B, 102 Trait (/;/) a crosse

Front, 84 Frontail [m)

Gag-runner, A, 93 . . . Panurge (/)

Girth Sangle (/)

Halter Licol (771)

Web halter Licol de sangle

Hames, 100 Atelles (/)

Hame-strap, 100 . . . Curroie (/") d'attelle

Hame-terret, 100 . . . Clef {/) d'attelle

CH. XXVII LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 563

Harness Harnais (;;/)

Head-stall, 84 ... . Tetiere (/)

Hip-strap Surdos {in)

Hole (in a strap) . . . Point (w)

Horse clothing .... Couverture {/) de cheval

[m)

Kidney-link, 97 . . . . Coulant (m) d'attelle (/)

Kidney-link ring, 100 . . Anneaii (/;/) de chainette

(/)
Lamp Lanterne {/)

To lap the traces, C, 126 Entrelasser les traits (;;/)

Lead-bars, 30 ... . Palonniers (/;/) de volee

(/)

Lead-horse Cheval (in) de volee

Lead-rein Guide {/) de volee

Lead-trace, 104 . . . . Trait {m) de volee

To let out near coupling- Allonger I'italienne de

rein orai^iche

To take up near coupling- Raccourcir I'italienne de

rein gauche

Off coupling-rein . . . Italienne de droite
Link (of the pole-chain,

of the curb-chain) . , Maille {/)

Liverpool bit. A, 88 . . Mors {111) a ballon sans

barette {/)

Loin-cloth Caparagon (in) de drap

Loop Passant (in)

Loop, fixed or sliding . . Passant fixe, ou coulant

Loop-trace, A, 102 . . . Trait (;//) a de (in)

Main-bar, 30 Sommier (in)

564

LIST OF FRENCH NAMES

CH. XXVII

Martingale, 100 .
Mountings (of harness)
Wire mountings, 105 .
Mouth-piece, 90 .
Monogram ....
Near horse ....
Newmarket tug-bearer,

B, 105
Nose-band, 84 .
Off horse ....
Pad, 105 .
Pad-terret, 105, 112
Patent leather .

Pipe

Point-strap, A, 105 .

Pole

Pole-chain, 114, 115

Pole-head, 29

Pole-hook, 116.
Pole-strap (pole-piece
Polishing pad, 121.

Port (of a bit), 90 .
To put-to ....
Reins, 108 ...
Set of reins .
Rein-billet, 89 . .

Martingale (/)

Garniture [/)

Jonc [)?i) anglais

Embouchure {/)

Chiffre (w)

Cheval (w) de gauche

Courroie [/) de man-

celle (f) mobile
Muserolle (/)
Cheval {in) de droite
Mantelet {m)
Clef [/) de mantelet [in)
Cuir (w) vernis
Fourreau [ui]
Contre-sanglon (w) de

fausse sangle {/)
Timon (w)
Chainette {/) [d'acier

Trompe {/) de timon

{m)
Crochet (w) de timon
Chainette de cuir
Gourmette {/) sur buf-

fle, Cotte de maille
Liberte {/) de langue
Atteler
Guides ( /)

Jeu (;;/) des guides [/)
Porte-mors {m)

CH. XXVII

LIST OF FRENCH NAMES

565

Ring- snaffle, 92

Filet (;;?) a quatre an-
neaux [m)

Paumelle [/)

Cocarde {/)

Cuir {ni) jaune

Volee (/)

Palonnier {in)

Filet (ni)

Ressort {m)

jNIousqueton (;//) a res-
sort [in]

Roller-bolt, 125 .

Rosette

Russet leather .

Splinter-bar, 8 .

Single bar, 30 .

Snaffle-bit, 91

Spring, 27 . .

Spring-hook (for pole-
chain), 117

Splice (in a rein, or in a

whip-thong), 163. . . Anture (/)

Swivel Pivot {in)

Stable-shutter .... Volet {m), Store {m),

Jalousie {/), Persienne

(/)
To take out the horses . Deteler

Terret, 112 Clef {/)

Throat-latch, 84 . . . . Sous-gorge (/)

Tongue (of a buckle) . . Ardillon {in)

Trace, 102, 103, 104 . . Trait {m)

Trace-bearer Porte-trait (;;/)

Tug, 1 01 Grand boucleteau (;;/) de

trait {in)
Tug-buckle, loi, 118 . . Boucle a crampons (w),

or, a mancelles {/)
Eye of tug-buckle, 118 . Crampon {m), Mancelle

(/)

Wheel Roue (/)

566 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES CH. XXVII

Wheel horse Cheval (?;?) de timon (;;/)

Wheel-trace, 102, 103 . . Trait [m) de timon (;;/)

Whip, 159 Fouet [m)

Handle of whip, 159 . . Poignet (;;?)
Ferrule, or collar, of whip,

159 Virole (/)

Butt-cap of whip, 159 . . Cuvette [/)

Thong of whip, 162 . . Monture {/)

Point (of thong) . . . Meche

Winker, 84 CEillere

NDEX

Abbott Downing Co. . . ii6

Aberdeen coach. . . . 466

Accessories 80

Accidents 502

ackerman 28

Adam 104

Adams ' . i

Adams & Co. Express. . 469

Agar 230

Alken 33S, 413

Aluminium bronze. . . 239

America. Coaching in 432,

474
American coach. . . 37, 116

' ' method of

driving. . .333

Angell 432

Angle of lock. . . .28, 337

" trace. . . .189
Apparatus. Driving . . 345

Apprentice 412

Aprons 98

Ardsley coach. . . 434, 456
Arm. Position of . . .301

Ascot 516

Attachment of horse. . . 187
Austrian method of

driving 476

Awnings.
Axle.

Breaking an
Collinge
Dip of arm of
friction.
Gather of .
Length of .
Mail . .
Parallel
Taper .

Back-strap. .
Backing.
Baggage net.
Ball-bearings. .
Balling. .

" pads. .
Balls. The crushing

steel
Bar. Splinter-
Barclay. 298, 463, 466, 473
Barker. 125, Plates

XX., XXI.
Barouche landau. . . .112
Bars. Lead- .... 55

Bartlett 3

Basket 93

567

30
506

157
47
37
31
34
34

222

337

159

502

503

160
22

568

INDEX

Battersby 365

Baucher. . . 368, 375, 378
Bearing-rein. . . 206, 256
Beaufort. 31, no, 198, 280,

290, 432
Bedford experiments. . 163
Beginner. The . . -293

Belmont 486

Bending lessons. . . . 369

Bennett 467

Bensington Driving Club. 431

Berlin 4

BiANCONi 112

Billets. Rein- . . .225
Birthday parade. . . -103

Bits 201, 360

Bitting 360

532

379
481

61
378
454
453
536
10, 64, 71
421
423
434

305

6, 117

Blake. .
Bleight.
Blunderbuss
Body. .

BOKER. .

Booking.

" office.
Books. List of
Boots of coach
" men.
Box coat.
" Hill coach
" seat.
" Position on the
Boxes. Lunch-
Braces. Thorough
Brake.

Foot

23.

229

Brake. Lemoine .
Break. Dealer's .

' ' Wagonette
Breast-collar.
Breeches.
Breeching. .
Brewster & Co. Plates
XVIL, XVIIL

Bridle

Brighton coach. 435,
466
' ' road.

Britszka.
Bronson. .
Brougham. .
Buckling reins.
Buggy. . . .

" wheels.
Bugle.
Buttons. Club

" Livery

Buxton bit. .

Cadwalader. .
Calls on the horn.
Cantering leader.
Cape cart. .

" Driving- .
Card. Time- .
Care of coach.

" " harness.
Carriage-part. .
Catching uj) whip.
C-spring.
Centre of gravity.

84
107
no
187
421
223

194

465,

431

486

, 270

532
426

419

. 365

379
531
428

113

424
456
126
241

403

9
^33

INDEX

569

Centrifugal force. . . -137
Cernay-la-Ville coach. . 434
Chain-end trace. . 218, 251

" trace 240

Chains. Pole- 54, 55, 233
Chandos-Pole. . . .432

Change 459

Chaplin 262

Charabancs no

Chart. Time- . . . 444

Check-rein 207

Chopping 335

Circus horse 143

Clark 431

Clarke 262

Clipping 387

Club buttons 426

Clubbing reins. . . . 334
Clubs. Coaching. 431, 510

Coach I

" and Drag. Dis-
tinction between 1 6
" Care of . . .126
" Cost of . . .128
" Development of . i
' ' General charac-
ter of . . . 16
" Height of 49, 61, 120
" Name of . . 11, 12
" on a race-course. 516
" Weight of . .129
Coaching Club. New York 422,
510
" " Meets. . 512

" " trips. . . 486

Coaching Clubs. . 431,

510

Cost of . . .

388

" in America. 432

474

" in England. 425

481

" medals. .

533

Public . . .

427

" Revival of .

432

" trips.

484

Coachman's dress.

452

" duties.

449

Coat. Box ....

423

Cockade

419

Cock-eye

219

" horse

236

" " harness. .

236

Coefficient of axle - fric -

tion.

158

" of rolling-fric-

tion.

153

Collar

207

" Attachment of

trace to .

213

" Breast or Dutch

23.

187

" Form of . 208,

210

Kay . . . .

208

" lining.

209

Rim ....

208

Collinge axle

Colonial coaching. . 5,

477

Colours of coaches. .

Comparison of coaches. .

123

Competitions. Driving. .

527

Computation of resist-

ance

161

570

INDEX

Concord Coach. . 4, 37, 116

Coned wheels 41

Continental methods of

driving 331

Contractors. Mail- . . 482
CoRBETT. 137, 262, 271, 298,

322, 329, 414, 466, 469,

472, 481

CORDERY. . 9, 125, 387, 413

Cost of coach 128

" coaching. . . . 388

Coupling 263

" diagram. 270, 449
" reins. . 225, 263

Coventry 469

Crab 53

Cracknell 262

Crest 76, 196

" panel 76

Cross 8, 71, 72

Cross team 384

Crossing traces. . . -253
Croup to the wall. . . 376
Crown of street. . . .178
Crown-piece. . . 196, 199

Crupper 222

Crushing steel balls. . .160
Curb-bit. . . . 201, 361

" chain 204

" strap 205

Curricle 113

CURZON 274

Cushion. Driving- 67, 69,

304
Cycling track 144

455

Daiiinout.
Dealer. London
Dealer's break.
' Defiance.' .
Demi-Dauvwut.
Dennet spring.
Development of the coach
Devices on panels.
Devonport mail.
Diagram. Backing- .

" Bitting- .

" Coupling-

' ' Seat- .

" Speed-

" Turning-
Dickey

Diligence. Ghent
' ' Swiss

Dip of axle.
Dish of wheel. .
Docker. .
Docking.

Dog-legged whip.
Doors of boots.
Dorking coach.
Double-thong. .
Down-hill
Drag. .
Dragsman
Drag -staff,
Draught.

" Action of horse

in .

" Angle of

237, 283
366
107
466
284

50
I

76
466

340
270
270

Experiments on 162

444

340

105

40, 44

412

387
392

64
434
403
320
16, 102
102

89
147

180

INDEX

571

Draught-eyes 213

Dress of coachman. 419, 452

Drives.
Driving.

" guard.
" servants. .
length of

452
418
472
285
333
345
527

American
apparatus,
competitions,
cushion. 67, 69, 304
General obser-
vations on . 349
Methods of . 330
seat.

DUPUIT.

Dutch collar. .
Duties of servants

DWYER. .

• 67, 304
. . 148

• 23, 187

• • 415
189, 362

Edinburgh coach. 8, 463, 466

Elastic trace 185

Elbow bit 202

Eleven -and-four. . . .482

Elliot 9

Elliptic spring. . 9, 51, 107

Evener 27

Experiments on draught. 148,

162
Express messenger. . . 469

Falling. Horse . . .502

Fares 482

Farm wagon 2

Fearing 486

Fees . . 472

FiESCHi 367

Fifth wheel 21

FiLLis 369, 370

Fingering 306

Flexions. . . . 369, 370

Flower 263

Flowers 195

Fog 509

Fontainebleau coach. . . 435

Foot-board 68

" boxes 74

" brake 85

Force. Centrifugal . . 137
Four-and-eleven. . . .482
Four-in-hand Club. . -431
Four-in - hand Club of

Philadelphia. . . 511

French harness terms. . 560

" loop trace-ends. . 217

Friction. Axle- . . -157

" Rolling- . . 147

Fritsch 486

Fronts 194

Full hand 330

Futchell 3

" Hook under . 53

Gag-runner 206

Gaiters 420

Galloping. . . . 353, 441
Game. Road . . . .482
Gammon-board. ... 73
Gather of axle. ... 47

Gauge 37

German bit 365-

572

INDEX

Getting down 327

" up 285

'Glencairn.' .... 26
Gloves 419, 422

GODDEN 532

Grades 167, 186

Grison 367

Grooms 415

" getting down. 358,

416

Guard's dress 452

" duties. . . . 449
GuiET. 104, 468, Plates VII.,

XIX.
Guildford coach. 434, 454,
457, 465

Hackney 380

Haldeman 3

Half-penny. Coaching . 533

Hame-strap 213

Hames 211

Hammer-cloth. . . .104

Hand on the reins. . .296

" Position of . . -299

Handling horses. . 360, 366

Hang of axle 40

Harness 194

" Care of . . 241

" racks. . . . 245

" Spare parts of 240

Harnessing 247

Harris. 413, 446, 466, 473,

481, 482, 499
Hats. . . . 418, 420, 422

Haute ecole. . . 373, 377

Havemeyer 486

Haworth 432

Hayes 378

Haywood 180

Head. Placing the . . 369

" terrets. . . -199

Height of coaches. 61, 120,

125

Herdic 28

468
467
112

3^^^ 373

223

Hieckel.

HiGGINS.

High-flyer. .

" school riding.
Hip-straps. .
Hitting a leader. .

" a wheeler.

Hoare

Hogarth. .
Hold and hit. .
Holding four horses.
Holly for whips. .
Holyhead road.
Hook under futchells
Horn. . . . 93, 451
Horse. Action in draught
of ... .

" Attachment of .

" keepers. .

" shoe pads. 180, 502

" shows. Judging
at . .
Horses for coach. .

" to the mile.
Hounds.

408
408
432
72
410
292

390
169

53
531

181

187
447

520
380

436

INDEX

57,

HOWLETT.

468, 560

Howlett's opposition. . 316
Hungarian reins. . . -232

Ice-skid 88, 507

Imperial 95

Inclination of road. . .168
Inclining to right or left. 306
India-rubber tires. . 37, 151

Jack 98

Jaunting car 112

Jeantaud 28

Jerome Park 516

Jibber 508

JOUFFRET 333

Judging at Horse Shows. 520

Kane. ... 12, 433, 486

Kay collar 208

Kennedy 473

Kenyon 473

Ker 236

Key Bugle 532

Kicking over trace. . . 503

" strap 223

Kidney-link 211

King-bolt 2

Knife-board 75

KOHLER 532

Ladder 92

Lamps 89

" not carried in

daytime. . . 91

i^andau

^33

343

Lapping traces. .

253

La Rousse.

284

Latchford.

361

365

Lazy-back. .

Lead -bars. .

.s.s

Swiss .

" " Three horse .

" reins. .

226,

230

Ring on

507

Leaders.

3^3,

385

Leather.

238

Laurie & Marner.

Lawrence. .

432

Lemoine brake.

Length of drives. .

472

" trace. .

186,

191

Lennox. . .112,

425,

481

Lessons.

349

Lettering of coach.

License.

471

Light hand.

370,

377

" mouth. .

371

Linchpin. .

Linsley.

382

Liveries.

418

Liverpool bit. .

201,

365

Livery buttons.

419

Lock

" Angle of .

337

On the .

London. Coaching i

n .

431

" dealer .

366

Lowden.

469

Lovo

379

574

INDEX

LUQUE. .

Lunch-boxes.

468
94

170
1 70
163, 169

457

102
104

103

102
1015

499
435.

JSIacAdam. .
Macadam road.
Macneill. . .1:
Maidenhead coach
Mail axle. .

" coach.

' ' French

" Le

' ' Model of .

" phaeton. .

'' The old .
Mails. Parade of the

" Right of way of

the .
Maisons - Laffitte coach

437, 465
Malet. 7, 25, 58, 79, 112,

323. 481

Malle paste 104

Marey 185

Martingale 214

May & Jacobs. . . .432
Medals. Coaching . -533

Meets 512

Men. Duties and Dress of 415

Mexican bit 365

Michelin. . . . 152, 163

Mileage 482

Monogram 76, 196

MONTIGNY 331

Moping 509

Morgan horse 381

MoRiN. 104, 105, 148, 153,

159, 162, 169, 189, 466

Morning suits 420

Mountings 239

Mouthing 369

Moving off 293

Music 531

Name of coach. . . 11, 12
Net. Baggage ... 17
Newmarket tug-bearer. . 221
New York Coaching

Club. . . 422, 486, 510
Nickel plating. . . -239

'NiMROD.' 1, 25, 58, 102,

129, 199, 224, 230, 239,

271, 290, 298, 323, 463,
466, 473

Le Noble du Teil. . . 26
Nose-band 197

d'Ocagne 13

Oil 35, 159

Omnibus 113

Opening day 449

Opposition 315

Overturn. . . . 135, 506
Oxford coach. . . . 9, 125

Pace 386

" Judgement of . 352
Pad 219

" cloths 22 1

Pads for horses' feet. 180, 502
Painting of coach. . . 75

INDEX

575

Palmer mails 102

" medal. . . .533

Panels 75

Paris. Coaching in . . 438

Parnell 129

Patent leather 238

Pavement. Asphalt . . 179
" Stone 169, 175

'* Wood . . 179

Pedler 26

Pelham bit 364

" coach. 12, 77, 433,

434, 465

Perch 2, 19

" bolt 2

Peters 65

Peyton 431

Phaeton. High . . .112
•' Mail . no, 133

Philadelphia. Coaching
Club trip
to
" F o u r - i n -

Hand Club
Ridino-Club
115

Philipson. .
Pipe.

" clay. .

" collar.
Places of reins in hand
Placing the head
Platform springs.
Plumb spoke. .
Pneumatic tires.
Point. . . .

4S6

511
379
190

238
400
210
299

369
48
40

151
310^ 3^3

504

33, 249

233

251

471

244

Point. Howlett's . -316

" on whip. . 395, 402
Pole 51

" Breaking a .

" chains. . 55

" head. . .

" Length of .

" straps. .
Poling up. .
Police regulations.
Polishing steel.
Pontoise coach. 435, 458, 465,
467

Pony express 469

Position on the box. 302, 304

Postilions 278

Posting 278

" French . 107, 281
" harness. . . -279

Postmasters 280

Procession of mails. . -103
Proportions of horses. . 382
Public coaching. . 427, 470
Pulling horses. 241, 324, 509

324
470

up.

Punctuality in coaching
Putting a coach on the
road. .
" to

Quiet driving.
Quill of whip.

433
249

297
390

Rabbit-bitten whip. . -391
Race-course. . . 359, 516

5/6

INDEX

• 386

• 505

• 453
206, 256

225, 267
. 241
. 224

229, 270
228, 230
232, 476

226, 230

• 225
-• 255,

299
229
226

Rate of driving.
Raw-hide. .
Red coats. .
Rein. Bearing-
billets. .
Side- .
Reins.

' * Buckling
" Coupling-
* ' Hungarian

Lead- .
" Length of
" on tug-buckle.

416
" Places of, in hand
" Short wheel- .
" Wheel- ....

Resilience 151

Resistance to traction. . 147
Reunion Road Club. 79, 411,

512
Review at Meets. . . .514
Revival. Coaching . -432
Reynardson. 271, 413, 466,

481
Ribbons. . . . 194, 195

Riding bits 360

Club. Philadel-
phia .... 379

Rim collar 208

Ring on lead-reins. . . 507

Rives 486

Road-coach 16

" coaching. . 427, 465
" game 482

Road making 170

" On the .... 305
" Rule of the . . . 490

" surface 173

" ticket 534

Rock 28

Roller-bolt 22

Rolling-friction. . . -147

Roof-seats 72

Rosettes 194

Roup 298

rowlandson. . . . 72, 237

Rubber tires 151

Rugs 448

Rule of the Road. . . 490

Rumble 69

Running away. . . -355
Russet leather. . . -238

St. Maur 383

St. Moritz diligence. . -331

Sailor-fashion 322

Salute with the whip. . . 414

Scarf. 418

'Schoolmaster.' The . 366

Seat-diagram. . . 455, 488

" on the box. . 302, 304

Selby's drive. . . 467, 468

Sergeant 378

Servants. Dress of . .418

" Duties of . . 415

Shanks. . . Plate XXIL

Shaver 198

Shelburne Farms. . . -487
Shoe. (See Skid.) . . 85

INDEX

577

Shooter

Shooting wheelers.

Short tommy

" wheel -rein. .
Shortening reins. . 320,

Shoulder-in

" of horse.

Shrewsbury

" 'Wonder.'

469
Shutters. Stable- .
Side-rein.

Signals in the street
Six inside

205

" horses. . .277, 336
Skeat. .
Skid. .

Ice-
Sleigh. .
Snaffle. .

Ring- .
Soap in horse's foot.
South American bit.
Spare parts of harness
Speed. . . . 444,

' ' diagrams
Spike team.
Splicing thong.
Splinter-bar.
Springs. .

" Effect of, on

draught 164,
Spur. Use of .
Stable-shutters.

" tools

446,

481
320
412
229
322
376
188
466
62,

255
241

496

474

115
360

205
503
365
240

465
444
277
401

166
372

255
447

435

413

289

Stage

" waggon. .
Stages. Length of .
Stamping the foot -board

Starting

" off from a race-
course. 359, 519
Steadying a team. . . -319
Steel. Polishing . 127, 244
Stop on lead-rein. . .230

Stopping 324

Stratton i> 35

Straw in boot 71

Stretched. Horse stand-
ing 388

Strokes 44

Sturgess. . . . 413, 499

Subscribers 471

Sue 284

Swan with two necks. . 534

Sway-bar 3> 21

Swing chain 278

" of axle 40

" pair 277

" pole 278

Swinging of coach. . .167

Swingle -tree. .
Swiss coaching.

• 3» 23
I05' 331

Tables, of coach. ... 96
" Time- .... 445

Tailer 467

Tails 387

Taking up reins. . . . 286
Tallow for balling. . -503

5/8

INDEX

Tally-ho.
Tandem.
Tantivy.

Taper axle-arm.
Tattersall's.
Telegraph coaches.
" springs.

Telford roads. .
Terret. . 199, 220,

" Ward's .
Thomson. .
Thong. Double- .
Thorough-braces. .
Thorough-bred.
Three abreast. .

" leaders. .
Throat-latch. .

" latching.
Thrupp.
Thurston. .
Tiffany. 65, 270,
Time-bill. .

" card. .

" chart. . .

" lost in changes.

" table. . .
Tipping angle. .
Tire

" Pneumatic .
Rubber . .
Width of 45,
Tired horses.

Tokens

Tommy. Short .
Tools for stable. .

4, 6

226

12
274

i> 34

230

7, 9
48
170
, 230
232
152
403

, 117
380

275
276
197

509

I, 4

, 466

445
456
444
446

445
135
44
151
151
154
509

533

412

447

Tools in coach.
Tops. Boot .
Trace.

" Angle of

" Chain- . .

" Chain-end .

" Elastic

" Kicking over

" Lead-. . .

" Length of

Wheel- . .
Traces. Crossing .

" Lapping .
Tractrix curve.

Transom

Travelling-carriage. .
Trips. Coaching Club

" Private
Trouville drive.

Tug 189, 216

Turning. 312, 319, 335, 337

TUSTIN 298

Tuxedo coach. 435, 454, 465

98
421
217
189
240
218
185

503
219

186, 191
217

253

343

2, 19

107
486
484
467

Unicorn team. .
Uniform. Club
Up-hill. . . .
Upsetting. .
Use of the whip.

277
426
320
506
408

Versailles coach. . . . 435
Vetturino. 58, 276, 331, 440

ViDLER 103

Virginia Water coach. . 434

INDEX

579

Wagon

Wagonette break. .
Walker.

Ward

Warde.
Ward's terret.
Washing a coach. .
Watch. . .
Waterhouse.
Water-proofs.
Waude.
Way-bill. .

Webb. .

Weight. Distribution

" of coach.

" of horses.

" of vehicles.
West. Coaching in the
Wetmore. .

Wheel

Buggy .

' ' Coned .

' ' Cylindrical
Dish of .

' ' Patent .

" rein. .

" Short

" Size of 39, 47, 120
Wheelers. . . 383, 385, 386
Whip 390

"■ American . .402

" Balance of . -397

" case 399

2
I ip

333
103

7
232
126

453
533

lOI

458

4S7
130
129
382

133
474
486

39
40, 44

48
226
229

397

Whip. Catching .
Club. . .

" Crop of .

' ' Dog-legged

" Handle of
holder. .

" Jointed

" quill. . .

" point. .

" Salute with

" Selecting a

" Splicing thong of

" spring.

Stick of .

" Stiffness of

' ' thong.

" Use of . .
White Mountain Coach

ing

Whitley

Width of tire. . 45, 149
Williamson & De Negri
Windsor coach.

Wings

Winkers

403
425
390
392
392
398
> 399
390
395
414

398
401

390

395

394, 400

408

474
469

154
219

434
2

195

'Wonder.' Shrewsbury 62,

469

Work per day for a horse. 440

Wright 103

Wrist 301

Yonkers coach.

434

FINIS

fits.:.

Hoo

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